




































 
 

Socio-Economic Variables and Gambling Addiction among 
Juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria 

 
Emeka. Josephat O., Omotosho, T. J., Agba, A. O. Ogaboh, Ojong, Felix E., &Asongo Tersoo 

Department of Sociology, University of Calabar, P.M.B. 1115, Calabar, Cross River State, 
Nigeria 

Corresponding Author  
Emeka, Josephat Owan 
ogabohagbagroup@yahoo.com 
 
 
Abstract  
This study examined the relationship between socio-economic variables andgambling addiction 
among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. specifically, the study examined the 
relationship between parental care, financial strain, parental influence, peer pressure and 
gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. The study adopted 
cross sectional survey research design. The study adopted simple random and purposive 
sampling technique. Structured Questionnaires were administered to three hundred and eighty-
four (384) juveniles selected for the study. Data was analysed using simple linear regression. All 
the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.  The findings of the study revealed that 
there is significance relationship parental care, financial strain, parental influence, peer 
pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Based 
on the findings, the study recommends that parents should encourage their children to 
participate in school-based extra-curricular activities such as sport, creative arts, or youth 
groupswhereby they can have the opportunity to broaden their social networks. This help keep 
them away from gambling. 
Keywords: Socio-economic Variables, Gambling, Addiction, Juveniles 

Introduction 

Grambling also known as betting is the wagering of money or something of value which 
refers to as the stakes on an event with an uncertain outcome, with the primary intent of wining 
money or materials goods. According to Nelson, Robert (1998) gambling thus requires three 
elements to be present include consideration (an amount wagered),risk (chance),and a prize. 

Gambling activates are many and diverse ranging from simple activities such as dice 
rolling, machine gambling, rolling wheel, sample betting and card playing to more complex 
activities such as blackjack playing, casino games, online betting among many others. While 
casino and card playing remain the most popular, more people access gambling opportunities 
through handheld devices as mobile phones, iphones and laptops computers. 

In Nigeria, the most common form of gambling is sports betting and machine gambling 
machine gambling like lotto gambling known as “Baba Ijebu” is spreading fast in both urban and 
rural areas where individuals buy cheap gambling machines from China and open small booths 
and shops where people meet to play.The prevalence of gambling and its problems among 
juveniles in both economically developed and developing countries has attracted the attention of 
governmental and non-governmental organizations.  In United States and Canada, Korn,Murray, 
Marrison, Reynlds and Skinner (2006) observed that 60-90% of youth aged 13-19 years old 
report participating in some form of gambling activity, regardless of age restrictions. 

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mailto:ogabohagbagroup@yahoo.com


 
 

In Nigeria, a survey reported by NOIPolls (2017) revealed a significant proportion of 
Nigerians polled (77%) attested to the high prevalence of betting and gambling in their locality; 
particularly amongst respondents in the South-West (92%)and South-South (91%) geo-political 
zones which recorded the highest prevalence. Also, the top four betting platforms identified by 
Nigerians are: Bet9ja (64%), Nairabet (34 %), Pool (22 %) and Lotto (20%). Similarly, betting 
has become a growing trend amongst juvenileNigerians aged between 13 – 17 years, who 
accounted for the highest proportion of Nigerians who engage in the practice (Bankole,2017). 
One among the reasons for the prevalence gambling among juveniles in Nigeria is the quest for 
money, timely payment, greedy, poverty, passion for sports and peer influence. 

Gambling in any form increases the likelihood of participation, perhaps this may escalate 
into serious problem. The devastating effect of the gambling is on the perpetrator, the family and 
the society at large. According to Gupta and Derevensky (2008)the problematic gambling among 
juveniles is associated with increased behavioural problems such as delinquency and crime, 
disruption of relationships, impaired academic performance and work activities as well as poor 
psychological outcomes, including low self-esteem, depression, and suicidal ideations and 
attempts. Gambling also makes an individual wager his/her money or other valuable items on 
uncertain events. According to Blinn-Pike, Worthy and Jonkman (2007) financial behaviour 
were associated with sensation seeking and risk-taking activities like gambling. Juveniles often 
use resources such as credit cards, debits cards, or borrowed money to gamble. Gambling also 
destroys ones relationship with family, friends, and peers. Due to obsession with the game, a 
person is isolated from family members which causes serious family crisis. 

In spite of the negative effects of gambling among juveniles in Nigeria, thegambling 
industry is considered to have a beneficial impact on the economy through employment and 
taxation, unfortunately, gambling addiction is increasingly evolving into a public health concern 
in Nigeria, especially among juveniles (Rataemane&Ligthelm, 2003). There is no doubt that 
gambling industry has established itself as a prominent social and economic force in Nigeria with 
significant impact on job creation and revenue generation. It has also expanded avenues and 
opportunities for Nigerians in entertainment and socialization and opened opportunities for 
advertising for newspapers, radio and TV, but those seem to be too few benefits compared to the 
negative effects of gambling in Nigeria (Rataemane&Ligthelm, 2003).  

Unfortunately, there is a dearth of prevention programs or specific treatment facilities for 
juveniles who have developed gambling addiction in Nigeria (Kincaid, Daniels, Dellis, Hofmeyr, 
Rousseau, & Sharp, 2013). Therefore, a specific set of actions should be taken with collaborative 
efforts between governments, private, and civil society sectors as well as prevention specialists, 
legislators, researchers, and treatment providers will help contribute to the development of social 
policies and effective public health intervention options for treatment of juveniles with problem 
gambling within Nigeria.  

Gambling is a common activity among young people, and various studies conducted 
around the world have reported a high prevalence of gambling among juveniles (Blinn-Pike, 
Worthy, & Jonkman, 2010; Calado, Alexandre, & Griffiths, 2017; Dowling, Merkouris, 
Greenwood, Oldenhof, Toumbourou, Youssef, 2017). There is a paucity of research on socio-
economic determinants of gambling behaviour among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, 
Nigeria. In light with the above, this study examines the socio-economic determinants of 
gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. A study of this 
nature is important in terms of providing a comprehensive understanding and knowledge of the 

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variables under study and will assist in designing effective preventive and treatment programs 
for victims. 

Statement of the Problem 
Gambling among juveniles remains a silent problem that is less recognised as a social 

menace among education stakeholders and researchers. This is because it is a common 
phenomenon that is considered as recreational activity and even legalised by Nigeria government 
through which revenue are generated (tax collected from the owners of various gambling 
companies). However, Derevensky, Gupta, Dickson and Deguire (2004) noted that gambling 
causes more harm to the juveniles and the society than good. At the individual level, compulsive 
gambling problems affect a measurable proportion of young gamblers (Abdi, Ruiter, & Adal, 
2015;Edem, Agba, & Ojong, 2020; Emeka, Ayuk&Ezikeudu, 2013) and may manifest in both 
psychiatric (e.g., anxiety, depression, and sleep deprivation) (Abdi, Ruiter, & Adal, 2015; Sharp, 
Dellis, Hofmeyr, Kincaid, & Ross, 2015) as well as long-term physical conditions (e.g., 
cardiovascular disease, peptic ulcer disease, and hypertension). Surprisingly, very few gamblers 
would admit that gambling is an addictive habit (Ligthelm, 2001). Minors and young people who 
indulge in gambling are found to perform poorly in their studies, to lose their school/tuition fees 
in gambling-related activities, and to engage in risky behaviour, such as alcohol use and high-
risk sexual behaviour (Abdi, Ruiter, & Adal, 2015; Ahaibwe, Lakuma, Katunze, Mawejje, 
2016;Ayuk, Emeka, Chibuzo &Omono, 2013;Owan, Ayuk, Tiku, & Nwankwo, 2019). Financial 
hardship is another cross-cutting concern. For instance, in most states in Nigeria, gamblers 
recounted experiences of landing themselves in debt, family financial hardships, and high levels 
of poverty in their communities (Ahaibwe, Lakuma, Katunze, Mawejje, 2016; Ayuk, Owan, 
&Uyang, 2013; Owan, Achu, Tiku& Nwankwo, 2019). Other notable impacts of gambling 
include loss of productive school or work hours, truancy, and domestic and community violence 
as well as loss of family assets (Ahaibwe, Lakuma, Katunze, & Mawejje, 2016; Ligthelm, 2001; 
Emeka, Ayuk, Udiba&Uyang, 2016).  

Gambling problems adversely affect intimate partners and children in a number of ways 
(DicksonSwift, James, & Kippen, 2005; Hodgins, Shead, et al., 2007; Vitaro, Wanner, Brendgen, 
& Tremblay, 2008;Omang, Angioha, Ojong-Ejoh, & Abang, 2020). While emotional difficulties, 
physical complaints and behavioural difficulties are common, they can be experienced and 
expressed quite differently, the children of problem gambling parents are also at risk of 
developing gambling problems themselves. People with problem gambling fathers were 11 to 14 
times more likely to have gambling problems and people with problem gambling mothers were 7 
to 11 times more likely to have gambling problems. Against this backdrop, the following 
research questions were formulated to guide the study: 

(i) What is the relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among 
juveniles’ in Calabar? 

(ii) How does financial strain relates to gambling addiction among juveniles’ in Calabar? 
(iii) What is the relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among 

juveniles’ in Calabar? 
(iv) To what extent does peer pressure relates to gambling addiction among juveniles’ in 

Calabar? 
Research hypotheses 

Four research hypotheses were formulated for this study. They are:  
(i) There is no significant relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among 

juveniles’ in Calabar. 

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(ii) There is no significant relationship between financial strain and gambling addiction 
among juveniles’ in Calabar. 

(iii)There is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction 
among juveniles’ in Calabar. 

(iv) There is no significant relationship between peer pressure and gambling addiction among 
juveniles’ in Calabar. 

Study area 
The study area is Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Calabar, the capital of Cross River 

State is located in South-South, Nigeria. Calabar is divided into Calabar South and Calabar 
Municipality Local Government Areas and covers an area of about 1,480 Sq km. Calabar is 
located between longitudes 80 17’00 E and 80 20’00’’E latitudes 40 50’00’’N and 50 10’00’’N 
(Udoimuk, Osang, Ettah, Ushie, Egor, & Alozie, 2014;Angioha, Akintola, Ogunnubi, &Butum, 
2021; Angioha, Nwagboso, Ironbar, &Ishie, 2018). Calabar is sandwiched between the Great 
Kwa River to the East and the Calabar River to the West. Calabar falls within tropical equatorial 
climate with high temperature, high relative humidity and abundant annual rainfall. Two major 
air masses affect the climate of Calabar as well as other contiguous locations in the West African 
region. Calabar lies within a tropical region with well-marked rainy and dry seasons. The wet 
season starts from May and spans to October while the dry season starts from November to April 
(Ekiji, Nwosu & Agba, 2011;Ukwayi, Eja&Unwanede, 2012; Osonwa, Eja, & Emeka, 2015). 

The three dominant ethnic settlement in Calabar are the Efiks, Quas and Efuts (Effiong-
Fuller, 1996; Agba, Ojong, Akintola, Maruf, Udom, &Usung, 2021); but because of migration 
occasioned by socio-economic activities, Calabar is today a cosmopolitan society with mixed 
bag of people from different cultural backgrounds. Calabar owns a seaport, an airport, a market 
for agro-produce from the hinterlands and home of many industrial outlets. The city is a home to 
the prestigious University of Calabar established in 1975, a college of technology, a teacher-
training college, and numerous secondary schools. Historically, Calabar was a centre for trade 
between Europeans on the coast and Africans farther inland. Fish, cassava, bananas, palm oil, 
and palm kernels were traded at Calabar for European manufactured goods, and the town also 
served as a major slave-trading depot. 
Methodology 

The study adopts the cross-sectional survey research design. The design was chosen 
because it allows effective collection of data, about social events, as well as accurately and 
objectively describe existing relationship among variables or phenomena (Otu, Eja, Eko, & 
Josephat, 2011; Edem, Agba& Ojong, 2020; Akpabio, Angioha, Egwuonwu, Awusa, & Ndiyo, 
2020). It was also adopted because it is specifically designed to systematically elicit data from 
respondents through interviews, questionnaire, and mails, among others.The study adopts the 
simple random and purposive sampling technique. The simple random sampling technique was 
used to select thirty-two (32) betting centres across Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. The 
betting centres were selected using the balloting methods of the simple random sampling 
technique. This was achieved by writing down names of all the betting centres in each of all 
street where these betting centres are located in a piece of paper and put in a small basket where 
one centres was selected. The researcher purposively select twelve (12) from the thirty two (32) 
betting centres from different parts of Calabar. This suggest that twelve (12) respondents were 
purposively selected from bet centres in Amika Utuk, Uwanse, White House Street, Dan 
Archibong Street, Mayne Avenue, Inyang Nta Henshaw Avenue, Anansa Road, Palm Street, 
Target Road, New Airport Road, Goldie Street, Mount Zion Street, Ekpo Abasi, Egerton, 

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Calabar road, and Anantigha street. In the same vein, bet centres located in Diamond Hill, 
Barracks Road, Eta Agbor Road, Parliamentary street, Otu street, Okoro Agbor Street, Marian 
Road, NdidemUsang Iso Road, Spring Road, Odukpani Road, Akim, Ikot Ansa, Ikot Ishie, 
Kasuk, Duke Town, Henshaw Town were selected from Calabar Municipality. In all, the study 
respondents were selected from both Calabar South and Calabar Municipality. The total sample 
size is three hundred and eighty-four (384) juveniles found in bet centres, age 15-17. The sample 
size was determine using Cochran sample determinant. This sample determinant was adopted 
because the population of the study is unknown. To determine the sample size for juveniles who 
are victims of gambling addiction in Calabar, Cross River, Cochran’s formula (1963) was 
adopted. The formula for Cochran sample size determinant is presented as follows: 

� =
��(��)

��
 

Where: 
n = Required sample size 
Z = Confidence level (put at 95% or 1.96) 
p = Proportion of juvenile with gambling addiction in Calabar, Cross River state age 

15-17 years (given in this study as 50%). That is 0.5 
q = Compliment of p (put at 50%, i.e, 1 - 50%). That is 0.5 

e = Level of accuracy or margin error (put at 0.05). 
 Data for the study werecollected through questionnaire. Out of 384 copies of the 

questionnaire distributed to the respondents, only 372 were returned and found usable showing a 
response rate of 96.9%.  The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as 
simple percentages and tables, whereas inferential statistics such as simple linear regression was 
used to explored the relationship between socio-economic variables and gambling addiction 
among juveniles.  
Results 

This segment of the study focuses on the analysis of data about the research questions 
that were asked at the early stage of this investigation. 
Table 1: Responses on the Respondents’ onDemographic Data  
Variable  Category  N Percent (%) 
Sex  Male  146 39.00 

Female  226 61.00 
Total 372 100.00 

Age  Below 11 years 104 28.00 
12 – 14 years 211 57.00 
15 – 17 years 57 15.00 
Total 372 100.00 

Religion  Islam  61 16.00 
Christianity  285 77.00 
African Traditional Religion 26 7.00 

Educational  
qualification  

Total 372 100.00 
FSLC 171 46.00 
SSCE 201 54.00 
Total  372 100.00 

Time involved in 
gambling 

Less than 5 years 133 36.00 
6-10years 111 30.00 

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11-15years 70 19.00 
16years and above  58 16.00 
Total 372 100.00 

 
Descriptive statistics (percentages and graphs) were first used to analyze the demographic 

data (sex; age; educational qualification, religious affiliation and time involved in gambling) and 
the results are presented in table 1, while mean and standard deviation was used for other 
variables and presented in table 4. The independent variables in the study are; parental care, 
financial strain, parental influence, peer pressure, while the dependent variable is gambling 
addiction among juveniles.  

Results of analysis of demographic data of respondents as presented in table 4.1 revealed 
that; out of the 372 accessible respondents’, 146 respondents representing 39.00% are males, 
while 226 representing 61.00% are females. As for age distribution of respondents’, 104 (28.00) 
are below 11 years, 211 (57.00) are between 12 – 14 years, 57 (15.00) are between 15 – 17 years. 
As for religious affiliation; 61 (16.00) practice Islamic religion, 285 (77.00) practice Christian 
religion and 26 (7.00) practice African Traditional religion. For respondents’ educational 
qualification; 171 (46.00) have primary school education (FSLC), while 201 (54.00) have 
secondary school education (SSCE). As for how long they have been involved in gambling; 133 
representing (36.00%) have been involved for less than 5years, 111 (30.00) have been involved 
between 6 - 10years, 70 (19.00) have been involved between 11 – 15 years, while 58 
respondents’ representing 16% have been involved for 16years and above. 
Table 2: Responses of Respondents on the common Forms of Gambling among 
Juveniles in Calabar Metropolis 
 
Forms of Gambling N Parentages 

(%) 
Lotto (Baba Ijebu) 21 5.6 
Bet9ja 139 37.5 
Nairabet 
Poll 
Betking 
Sportybet 

118 
15 
51 
28 

31.7 
4.0 
13.7 
7.5 

Total 372 100 
 
This section examined the forms of gambling available in Calabar Metropolis. Respondents 
expressed their views on the forms of gambling on available to them. The result indicates that 
majority of the respondents 37.5% (139) purported that Bet9ja is the most form of gambling 
available in Calabar Metropolis, while a significant percentage 31.7% (118)of them 
acknowledged the form of gambling to them was Nariabet. While an insignificant number of 4% 
(15) of the juveniles saw poll as another form of gambling among them.This result may show the 
facts that gambling has become a growing trend amongst juveniles in Nigerians aged between 
13-17 years. Similarly, the findings coincided with the finding of Bankole (2019) that a 
significant proportion of Nigerians polled (77%) attested to the high prevalence of betting and 
gambling in their locality; particularly amongst respondents in the South-West (92%)and South-
South (91%) geo-political zones which recorded the highest prevalence. Also, the top four 

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betting platforms identified by Nigerians are: Bet9ja (64%), Nairabet (34 %), Pool (22 %) and 
Lotto (20%). 
Table 3: Factors Influencing Gambling among y Juveniles 

Statement  Stronglyagree Agree  Undecided  Disagree  Stronglydisagree 
I gamble 
because my 
family is poor 

72 (19.5%) 25 (6.7%) 41(11.0%) 134 
(36.0%) 

100 (26.8%) 

I gamble 
because my 
parents gamble 

111(29.8%) 70(18.8%) 27 (7.3%) 89 
(23.9%) 

75 (20.2%) 

I gamble 
because my 
parents have 
permissive 
attitude to 
gambling  

80 (21.5%) 160 
(43.0%) 

51 (13.7%) 68 
(18.3%) 

13 (3.5%) 

I gamble 
because I need 
pocket money 

97 (26.1%) 130 
(34.9%) 

18 (4.8%) 33 (8.9%) 94 (25.3%) 

I gamble only 
when I urgently 
need money 

60 (16.1%) 101 
(27.2%) 

25 (6.7%) 114 
(30.6%) 

72 (19.4%) 
 

I gamble 
because I want 
to get rich 

98 (26.3%) 94 (25.3%) 17 (4.6%) 111 
(29.8%) 

52 (14%) 

I gamble 
because my 
friends gamble  

92 (24.7%) 121 
(32.5%) 

52 (14%) 23 (6.2%) 84 (22.6%) 

Gambling gives 
me sense of 
belonging 

100(26.9%) 126 
(33.9%) 

25 (6.7%) 20 (5.4%) 101 (27.1%) 

I gamble 
because 
gambling is 
interesting and 
fun 

85 (22.8%) 123 
(33.1%) 

62 (16.7%) 30 (8.1%) 72 (19.4%) 

I cannot control 
my gambling 
attitude 

0 (0.0%) 65 (17.5%) 13 (3.5%) 111 
(29.8%) 

183 (49.2%) 

 
Various factors have been found to influence the incidence and prevalence of youth 

gambling. These factors are both intrapersonal factors such as personality, attitude, arousal etc. 
and interpersonal factors like relationships with parents and peers, parent and peer gambling, and 
on the role of social norms and the portrayal of gambling in the media.  

Table 3 presents information on some of the interpersonal factors that influence gambling 
among youths. Respondents were asked questions relating to their family background and 

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parental involvement in gambling activities. The results indicate that the majority of the 
respondents disagreed (36%) and strongly disagreed (26.8%) to the statement that they gamble 
because their families are poor economically. Only 6.7% of the respondents agreed to the 
statement. This shows that the economic status of the family is not necessarily a determinant of 
juveniles involvement in gambling. In other words, the children from economically rich homes 
also participate in gambling activities. Thus, gambling behavior of juvenile is not a function of 
the economic standing of their families, but as earlier found, self-inquisitiveness is a key 
determinant of gambling activities among juvenile.  

The study also examined the relationship between parental involvement in gambling 
activities and youth gambling. Respondents were asked if they gambled because their parents 
gamble. Results indicated that almost all of the respondents (29.8%) vehemently strongly with 
the statement that they gambled because their parents are involved in gambling activities.  
However, 11% of the respondents were indecisive about the statement. Similar result was 
obtained regarding the statement that respondents gamble because their parents have permissive 
attitude towards gambling. Majority of the respondents agreed (43%) and disagreed (3.5%) to the 
statement while only 21.5% of the respondents agreed to the statement. Meanwhile, 13.7% of the 
respondents were undecided about the statement. This implies that parents’ socialization plays a 
significant role in the gambling behaviour of juvenile. This finding collaborated with the findings 
of Ladouceur and Mireault’s (1988) on the study of Quebec City high school students found that 
90% of those surveyed who reported that they gambled said that their parents knew they did so, 
and 84% claimed that their parents did not object to their gambling; 61% stated that they actually 
put bets on in the company of their parents; and 25% had borrowed money from parents or 
relatives to bet or repay gambling debts.  

Beyond the familial context, the study also examined the role of peer groups as an 
important factor influencing the involvement of youths in gambling. The result in Table 3 reveals 
that 24.7% and 32.5% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the 
statement that they gamble because their friends gamble. However, 6.2% of the respondents 
disagreed with the statement while 14% of the respondents were undecided. This reveals that the 
majority of the respondents were influenced by their peer groups that equally participate in 
gambling. This is not unconnected with the result obtained concerning the statement that 
gambling gives gamblers some sense of belonging. The result shows that a preponderant 
percentage of the respondents (32.5%) agreed that they derived belongingness from participating 
in gambling with their friends. However, a significant percentage of the respondents (22.6%) 
disagreed with the statement.  

No doubt, peer groups have tremendous influence in the lives of the young ones, 
particularly in the decision pertaining to their involvement in risk activities. These findings 
underscore the fact that peer groups also have an important influence on young people’s risk-
taking behaviour (including not only gambling but also smoking, drinking, and under age sex) 
which represent an inherent part of the process of making the transition from childhood to 
adulthood. For example, Griffith’s (1995) work demonstrates the significance of young people’s 
social networks in relation to gambling. This has shown that young people who are in peer 
groups of problem gamblers put pressure on each other to continue gambling; whereas those who 
participate in gambling with non-problem gamblers actually used peer pressure to look after each 
other and to try and stop vulnerable individuals from gambling too heavily.  

Table 3 also provides information on intrapersonal factors that influence the involvement 
of youths in gambling. Specifically, intrapersonal factors such as gambling beliefs, cognitions 

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and attitude were given consideration. Respondents were asked to express their gambling beliefs 
which have influenced their involvement in gambling. The result reveals that majority of the 
respondents (21.6%) were involved in gambling activities because of their belief that it is a 
source of their pocket money, followed by 34.9% of the respondents that claimed otherwise. This 
shows that most young people engage in gambling on the basis that it provides them with money 
to run their everyday lives, such as to remain relevant in the peer groups they belong to. More 
than half of the respondents (25.3%) saw gambling as a quick way to meet urgent financial 
needs. Interestingly, the result also reveals that most of the respondents (26.3%) believed that 
they could get wealth through their consistent and diligent involvement in gambling activities. It 
is therefore apparent that youth gamblers engage in gambling because of its financial fascination 
and rewards.  

In a similar manner, majority of the respondents (33.1%) claimed that they gamble 
because gambling is interesting and fun. Only 8.1% of the respondents disagreed to the 
statement. This is so because when played among ones peer group, it gives a sense of 
competition and solidarity to the group especially when it is rewarding. These findings point to 
the fact that individuals gamble for a variety of reasons, including:  money, enjoyment, 
excitement, and social reasons. These are the salient motivating factors for gambling (Splevins, 
Mireskandari, Clayton, &Blaszczynski, 2010). In addition, Lloyd,Doll, Hawton, Duttom,  
Geddes,  Goodwin and Rogers(2010) found that adult Internet gamblers in Britain gamble to 
escape from routine and boredom, and to modify their mood, for money, and for enjoyment. 

Table 3 also presents information on gambling addiction. Respondents expressed their 
opinion on whether they have control over their gambling behavior or not. The result indicates 
that majority of the respondents (49.2%) claimed that they have control over their gambling 
behavior while a significant percentage of the respondents (17.5%) agreed that they could not 
control their gambling habit anymore. 

Testing of Hypotheses 
Hypothesis Ho1: There is no significant relationship between parental care and gambling 
addiction among juveniles’ in Calabar. 
Table 4: Summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of parental care to 
gambling addiction among juveniles’ 

Variables  Mean Std. 
Deviation 

Parental care  10.7903 4.85744 

Gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 

 Model Sum of 
Squares 

Df Mean 
Square 

F R R 
Square 

Adjusted 
R Square 

Sig 

 Regression 70.229 1 70.229 10.462 .214a .047 .046 .001a 

Residual 56214.578 370 151.931      

Total 56284.806 371       

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The independent variable in this hypothesis is Parental care, while the dependent variable 
is Gambling addiction among juveniles’. Both variables were measured continuously and 
inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 
level of significance and the result is presented in table 4. The result of analysis as presented in 
table 4 revealed R-value of 0.214a. Correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an 
observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of 
an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large 
effect. Also, the R2 –value of .047 imply that 47% of total variance is accounted for by predictor 
variable (parental care). Furthermore, the regression ANOVA revealed that the F (1, 370) = 
10.462; p < .05, is significant. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there is a 
significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (parental care) on gambling 
addiction among juveniles in the study area. The adjusted R2 (.046) shows some shrinkage of the 
unadjusted value (.047) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. Based 
on the result, it was concluded that parental care significantly contributes to gambling addiction 
among juveniles in the study area. 
Hypothesis Ho2: There is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling 
addiction among juveniles’ in Calabar 
Table 5: Summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of financial strain 
to gambling addiction among juveniles’ 

The independent variable in this hypothesis is financial strain, while the dependent 
variable is gambling addiction among juveniles’. Both variables were measured continuously and 
inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 
level of significance and the result is presented in table 4 5. The result of analysis as presented in 
table 5 revealed R-value of 0.230a. Correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an 
observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of 
an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large 
effect. Also, the R2 –value of .049 imply that 49% of total variance is accounted for by predictor 
variable (financial strain). Furthermore, the regression ANOVA revealed that the F (1, 370) = 
16.441; p < .05, is significant. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there is a 
significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (financial strain) on 

Variables  Mean Std. 
Deviation 

Financial strain  11.9301 3.14650 

Gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 

 Model Sum of 
Squares 

Df Mean 
Square 

F R R 
Square 

Adjusted 
R Square 

Sig 

 Regression 218.336 1 218.336 16.441 .230a .049 .048 .001a 

Residual 56066.470 370 151.531      

Total 56284.806 371       

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gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. The adjusted R2 (.048) shows some 
shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.049) indicating that the model could be generalized on the 
population. Based on the result, it was concluded that financial strain significantly contributes to 
gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. 
Hypothesis Ho3: There is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling 
addiction among juveniles’ in Calabar 
Table 6: Summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of parental 
influence to gambling addiction among juveniles’ 

 The independent variable in this hypothesis is Parental influence, while the dependent 
variable is Gambling addiction among juveniles. Both variables were measured continuously and 
inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 
level of significance and the result is presented in table 6.The result of analysis as presented in 
table 6 revealed R-value of 0.241a. Correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an 
observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of 
an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large 
effect. Also, the R2 –value of .053 imply that 53% of total variance is accounted for by predictor 
variable (parental influence). Furthermore, the regression ANOVA revealed that the F (1, 370) = 
17.045; p < .05, is significant. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there is a 
significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (parental influence) on 
gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area.The adjusted R2 (.051) shows some 
shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.053) indicating that the model could be generalized on the 
population. Based on the result, it was concluded that parental influence significantly contributes 
to gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area 
Hypothesis Ho4: There is no significant relationship between peer pressure and gambling 
addiction among juveniles in Calabar 
Table 7: Summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of peer pressure to 
gambling addiction among juveniles 

Variables  Mean Std. 
Deviation 

Parental influence  12.7903 3.71436 

Gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 

 Model Sum of 
Squares 

Df Mean 
Square 

F R R 
Square 

Adjusted 
R Square 

Sig 

 Regression 6.874 1 6.874 17.045 .241a .053 .051 .001a 

Residual 56277.933 370 151.103      

Total 56284.806 371       

Variables  Mean Std. 
Deviation 

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The independent variable in this hypothesis is peer pressure, while the dependent variable 
is Gambling addiction among juveniles. Both variables were measured continuously and 
inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 
level of significance and the result is presented in table 47. The result of analysis as presented in 
table 7 revealed R-value of 0.318a. Correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an 
observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of 
an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large 
effect. Also, the R2 –value of .068 imply that 68% of total variance is accounted for by predictor 
variable (peer pressure). Furthermore, the regression ANOVA revealed that the F (1, 370) = 
23.327; p < .05, is significant. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there is a 
significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (peer pressure) on gambling 
addiction among juveniles in the study area. The adjusted R2 (.066) shows some shrinkage of the 
unadjusted value (.068) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. Based 
on the result, it was concluded that peer pressure significantly contributes to gambling addiction 
among juveniles in the study area. 

Discussion of Findings 
The statistical analysis for hypothesis one shows a significant relationship between 

parental care and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in Calabar, River State, Nigeria. The 
findings of the study revealed that children rely on their parents for their basic needs, such as 
clothing, shelter and food, with their family providing their primary sense of physical security. 
This suggest that giving children a stable home routine also enables them to feel secure, as they 
know they will eat, drink, bathe, and sleep at certain times without being disturbed. Parental care 
is a recipe for children to develop their skills and talents, grow physically, and develop 
cognitively and emotionally. Similarly, parental care is also important in building trust between 
children and their parents. When children know that they can trust those around them, they feel 
more comfortable and secure. According to Mwangangi (2016) proper nurturing of children is 
the primary responsibility of parents, because the values given to children and the type of 
training they receive from their parents seem to largely determine their future life-style and 
whether they will develop gambling addiction or not. Parents help their children develop certain 
behavioural attitudes, and once established these attitudes are difficult to change or suppress. 
Parental care plays an important role in shaping a child by providing security and developing 
their values and skills. 

The result of the second hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship 
between financial strain and gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, 

Peer pressure  9.6505 4.17687 

Gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 

 Model Sum of 
Squares 

df Mean 
Square 

F R R 
Square 

Adjusted 
R Square 

Sig 

 Regression 201.218 1 201.218 23.327 .318a .068 .066 .000a 

Residual 56083.589 370 151.577      

Total 56284.806 371       

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Nigeria. This is to say that without pocket-money a modern child feels inferior to his playmates, 
he lacks independence, but more important still, he cannot learn the value of money or develop 
the ability to handle it: he either steal or gamble to make up for the deficiency. Previous studies 
have revealed that debt and financial problems have been found to be associated with 
delinquency (Blom, Weijters, & Van der Laan, 2011). There is also a strong need on the part of 
parents to keep check on their children in this way they will restrain them to develop delinquent 
personality Robert (2002) concluded that children exposed to risk factors such as behavioural 
problems and family dysfunction, follow a well described and documented path beginning with 
behavioural manifestations and reactions such as defiance of adults, lack of school readiness and 
aggression towards peers. This leads to negative short-term outcomes including truancy, peer and 
teacher rejection, low academic achievements, and early involvement in drugs and alcohol. 
These factors lead to causes school failure and eventual dropout, leading to negative and 
destructive attitudes such as delinquency, adult criminality and violence. 

The result of the statistical analysis relating to hypothesis three indicates that there is a 
significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles in 
Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. The findings of the study suggest that parents play an 
important role in inculcating norms and values within children (Mwenda, 2012). These include 
an understanding of right and wrong, respect, fairness, compassion and responsibility. Similarly, 
the study noted that children learn these values by observing and emulating their parents’ 
behaviour, and being taught by their parents. Thus, children learn both the importance of these 
values and the consequences of not observing them. According to a review of studies of family 
influence on youth gambling, there is a higher prevalence of gambling or problem gambling 
among youth who belong to families where the parents provide little social or emotional support, 
the parents approve of or are involved in the adolescent’s gambling, the parents gamble, or a 
family member uses substances. This study lends support to earlier work by Pitt, Thomas, 
Bestman, Daube, and Derevensky (2017), which indicates that there is a range of socialisation 
factors, particularly family and the media (predominantly via marketing), which may be 
positively shaping children’s gambling attitudes, behaviours and consumption intentions.  

The result of the last hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between 
peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. 
This is to say that peer pressure is a very real thing, and minors will often act out in front of their 
“friends” so that they feel accepted and are a part of a group and ids reasons for juvenile 
delinquency. Research has demonstrated that peer-based gambling may also lead children (and 
girls) to gamble more than they would if they were on their own (Hardoon&Derevensky, 2001).  

The finding of this study is in accordance with the works of Ajiboye (2015) who 
investigated the influence of parenting styles and peer pressure on delinquent behaviours among 
Senior Secondary School Students in Kaduna metropolis. Result revealed that there is a Peer 
Pressure was also found to strongly encourage Delinquent behaviour among students r = .683; p 
< .000.  

Conclusion 
The study concludes that there is a significant relationship between socio-economic 

variables and gambling addiction among juveniles in Calabar, Cross River state, Nigeria. 
Women are undoubtedly the foundation of the basic unit of human society. While gambling has 
been traditionally viewed as an adult activity, there is ample evidence suggesting its popularity 
amongst juveniles who continue to engage in both regulated (in spite of age restrictions) and 
unregulated forms of gambling. This is likely a result of gambling’s general social acceptability, 

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media advertisements, endorsement and sanctioning by governments, and the glitz and glamour 
associated with this form of social activity. The perceived ease of becoming wealthy without 
working has resulted in gambling taking on a new level of status amongst juveniles, with 
becoming a professional gambler (often poker player) being a new preferred vocation. The 
implication of this findings is that if nothing is done very fast to address the problem of gambling 
among juvenile, an increasing number of them with gambling addictions will experience a wide 
range of social, economic, personal, academic, mental health, familial, criminal, delinquent and 
legal problems. As well, these individuals will experience poor academic performance, increased 
rates of suicide ideation and attempts, and difficult peer relationships resulting from their 
excessive problematic gambling. All of these behaviours place the adolescent at high risk for 
multiple mental health issues. 

Recommendations 
In view of the various findings, summary and conclusions of the study, the following 

recommendations were made: 
(i) There is need for basic parenting research for the development, evaluation, and 

dissemination of parenting information in Nigeria. Government should provide funds for 
such research. The outcome of such research can lead to a greater understanding of the 
important role of responsible parenting in the development of children and the nation as a 
whole. 

(ii) Parents should create a safe space where children can discuss friendship issues with them 
and make demand of the necessary things they need both for their personal use and for 
their studies. 

(iii) Parents should help their children and their friends explore their interests and find things 
in common they enjoy doing together and help to foster their interest by supporting them 
and encouraging the extra activity.  

(iv) Parents should encourage their children to participate in school-based extra-curricular 
activities such as sport, creative arts or youth groups where they have the opportunity to 
broaden their social networks. This will help keep them away from gambling. 

  

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