concept et application de la de verbalisation a la pratique de la traduction kemi nojim yekinni michael otedola college of primary education, noforija-epe, lagos state, nigeria e-mail: yekkejim@yahoo.com, gsm: 08052038398 et mary effiong nyong (ph.d) department of language education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria e-mail: mary4nyong@gmail.com , gsm: 07064732513 résume la traduction consiste à transposer un texte écrit d’une langue à une autre, en transmettant le plus fidèlement possible le message. cependant, cet activité devient de plus en plus un casse-tête a cause de la mondialisation et l'évolution des nouvelles technologies. il y a de nombreux procédés techniques de la traduction mais le sujet de ce travail est la déverbalisation.la déverbalisation constitue le noyau de la théorie du sens et reflète les rapports entre la langue et la pensée / l’esprit, or elle n'a jamais été justifiée ni falsifié de manière adéquate depuis sa proposition par danica seleskovitch, représentante de l'école de paris. la déverbalisation du sens s’explique par le fait que le sens est un souvenir mental, non-verbal. cet article essaie d’étudierce technique autant que son application de dans l’activité traduisante. mots clés: traduction, déverbalisation, traduction interpretative introduction la langue humaine est un système des sons phoniques dotéde sens qui constitue un véhicule de communication parmi les êtres humains. elle est naturelle et est étudiéeà la naissance par l’individu. aujourd’hui. la communication s’est effectué par deux méthodes : la méthode orale (directement entre des interlocuteurs) ou à travers un médiateur (l’interprète) et la méthodeécrite (directement par l’auteur au lecteur à travers le traducteur). la traduction consiste à transposer un texte écrit d’une langue à une autre, en transmettant le plus fidèlement possible le message. cependant, cetactivité devient de plus en plus un cassetêteà cause de la mondialisation et l'évolution des nouvelles technologies. la traduction il y a plusieurs definition de ce concept. neanmoin, pour marianne lederer (1994:11), la traduction consiste à comprendre le texte original, à déverbaliser sa forme linguistique et à exprimer d’une autre langue les idées comprises et les sentiments ressentis. le traducteur traduit généralement d’une 2e ou d’une 3e langue vers sa langue maternelle. il est de nature curieuse, a une vaste culture, une grande souplesse d’esprit, une très bonne connaissance de ses langues de travail et des aptitudes à rédiger. la discipline se distingue de l’interprétation, qui consiste à reformuler oralement d’une langue à une autre un message lors ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:yekkejim@yahoo.com mailto:mary4nyong@gmail.com de discours, de réunions, de conférences et de débats, ou encore devant des cours de justice ou des tribunaux administratifs. la traduction interpretative basée sur la théorie interprétative de la traduction de danica seleskovitch et de mariane lederer, la traduction interpretative s’intéresse seulement au message de la langue source sans tenir compte ni des mots ni de la structure de cette dernière.exemple : beaucoup de gens pensent qu’il suffit de parler deux langues pour être traducteur. cette phrase peut être exprimée en anglais de plusieurs manières : ability to speak two languages is not enough to be a translator. contrary to what many people think, translating requires more than knowing two languages. the knowledge of two languages is not enough to be a translator. ici le message est plutôt interprété et non traduit dans la langue cible comme dans le cas de l’exemple suivant. où est dieu quand rien ne marche plus ? where is god when it hurts? la traduction présente aujourd’hui nombre de défis résolument actuels, façonnés par la mondialisation et l'évolution des nouvelles technologies. la déverbalisation la déverbalisation, selon ren, zhang et guo (2018), est un étapeintermédiaire entre l’étape de l’interprétation du message de la langue source et l’étape de la réexpression en langue cible. pour ezuoke, c. o. (2018), elle réfère à la technique de décomposition d’une phrase pour arriver au sens de la phrase. elle constitue le noyau de la théorie du sens et reflète les rapports entre la langue et la pensée / l’esprit, or elle n'a jamais été justifiée ni falsifié de manière adéquate depuis sa proposition par danica seleskovitch, représentante de l'école de paris. elle est donc l’un des procédés employés dans le processus de la traduction. le processus de la traduction est , divisé en quatre étapes principales :  la lecture du texte à traduire  la fusion des éléments linguistiques avec des connaissances extralinguistiques pour obtenir le sens  la déverbalisation du sens obtenu et  la réexpression/réformulation linguistique de ce sens ; les procédés que voici s’avèrent ceux de l’approche interprétative de la traduction. après la lecture et la compréhension du texte, le traducteur passe alors à l’étape de la déverbalisation qui consiste à percevoir les idées les plus importantes du texte et à permettre à la forme verbale de la langue source de disparaitre dans son esprit pour ne laisser que le sens qu’il doit maintenant réexprimer librement en tenant compte seulement des éléments linguistiques de la langue cible. le traducteur doit s’efforcer d’acquérir trois qualités essentielles. 1. avoir une connaissance pratique et fortement nuancée des deux langues de travail et avoir tous les éléments de ses langues constamment présents à l’esprit et dans sa mémoire. il doit maitriser ses langues de travail presque autant que sa langue maternelle. 2. une bonne connaissance culturelle et technique qui l’aidera à se familiariser rapidement avec les différents sujets qui lui seront proposés, les terminologies ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 spéciales, les circonstances et les modalités dans lesquelles ces sujets seront traités, bref, le traducteur doit être en quelque sorte un généraliste. 3. le traducteur doit être capable d’apprécier de façon assez claire la différence nette entre le signifiant et le signifié, et par conséquent, comprendre le sens de la valeur interne de la langue, de l’implicite et de l’explicite du jeu de ses variations et de ses propriétés allusives naturelles. la déverbalisation du sens s’explique par le fait que le sens est un souvenir mental, non-verbal comme nous avons vu plus haut. a l’oral, en raison de l’évanescence réelle des mots, la déverbalisation se produit habituellement au moment de la réception du discours. ce processus se produit aussi à l’écrit, mais il est alors peut-être plus difficile à cerner en raison de la fixation des signifiants. la théorie du sens et la traduction des facteurs culturels dissociant effectuées entre la forme linguistique et ce sens, dont l’importance est fondamentale dans la théorie de la traduction, elle explique que le sens résulte du processus interprétatif opéré par l’individu et que le passage d’un message d’une langue à l’autre langue s’effectue par ce sens non-verbal et non par des mots. la déverbalisation permet ensuite l’expression de ce contenu inédit dans une autre langue d’une manière spontanée et naturelle. l’objet de son activité de traduction est le sens. or, le sens est un vouloir dire extérieur à la langue (antérieur à l’expression chez le sujet parlant, postérieur à la réception discours chez le sujet percevant), que l’émission de ce sens nécessite l’association d’une idée non verbale à l’indication sémiotique (parole ou geste, peu importe en soi le support qui se manifeste de façon perceptible) et que la réception du sens exige une action délibérée du sujet percevant. dans cette perspective, on est amené a ne plus voir dans l’agencement des mots que des indices, puis par le locuteur dans le savoir partager qu’est la langue, reconnus de ce fait par l’auditeur, mais ne servant au premier que de jalons pour sa pensée, et au second que de tremplin pour la construction du sens de ce qu’il entend.pour réussir à bien traduire en utilisant le procédé de la déverbalisation, il faut bien faire la lecture du texte. appliquer la deverbalisation a la pratique de la traduction la lecture du texte à traduire le traducteur lit le texte à traduire de façon approfondie et minutieuse dans le but de comprendre le message et de dégager tous les éléments linguistiques qui facilitent la compréhension. la traduction est une opération qui modifie, mutile et aussi bien ajoute, greffe, et artère par nature le tissu vivant du texte. bref, un traducteur peut être comparé à un chirurgien dont la qualité maîtresse est de prendre une décision rapide à chaque instant. décider, le traducteur ne fait que cela ; le choix des mots, l’ordre des mots, l’agencement de la phrase, le rythme, l’accent porté sur telle conjonction, tel adjectif, etc. aucun détail du texte à traduire ne doit échapper à l’attention du traducteur. ce dernier explore chaque mot d’abord, comme un mot isolé, puis comme une réflexion d’un grand contexte culturel et historique. la lecture de texte à traduire permet au traducteur de le transformer et de le << transplanter>>, pour ainsi dire, dans l’environnement d’une nouvelle langue. la lecture mène à la transformation du texte sans laquelle il n’y a pas de traduction. la traduction commence par définir les contours du sens de chaque mot en se faisant une image de chaque mot qui se développe à ses yeux comme une œuvre d’art dont ces contours se définissent à l’infini parce qu’un mot peut prendre la couleur du mot qui suit, il y a des mots qui ont une connotation beaucoup plus grande dans la langue cible. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 il y a aussi des mots, qui se fusionnent pour exprimer la même notion dans la langue cible. les verbes <<connaitre>> et <<savoir>> par exemple deviennent un seul verbe ‘’to know’’ en anglais. la nuance entre ces deux verbes n’est pas facile à expliquer à un anglophone qui apprend la langue française. il n’est pas rare d’entendre les apprenants de la langue française d’origine anglophone dire par exemple : <<je sais paris>> ou <<je ne connais pas s’il est présent>> en anglais. ‘’i know paris’’ et « i don’t know if he is there » sont toutes deux des phrases grammaticalement correctes en anglais. le traducteur doit donc explorer la différence entre les mots de la langue source et ceux de la langue cible quelque soient leurs ressemblances apparentes. c’est cette exploration qui constitue la contribution essentielle du traducteur en tant que médiateur entre l’apparence superficielle d’un mot et son poids sémantique, étymologique et culturel. les éléments culturels constituent un autre aspect très important que le traducteur ne peut pas se permettre d’ignorer pour ne pas choquer ses lecteurs. par exemple, l’expression ‘’god bless’’ généralement utilisée pour conclure un discours en anglais n’existe pas dans le discours en français qui est souvent conclu par l’expression <<merci pour votre attention>> et non <<que dieu vous bénisse>> pour le simple fait que l’expression que << dieu vous bénisse>> n’entre pas dans la culture française pour conclure un discours. un autre exemple qu’on pourrait citer est l’expression anglaise « « the hounourable minister’’ qui au lieu d’être traduit comme << l’honorable ministre>> est souvent traduit comme << monsieur le ministre>>. les eléments linguistiques et extralinguistiques la compréhension du message est le résultat de la fusion des éléments linguistiques du texte avec les éléments de la connaissance extralinguistique du traducteur autrement connu comme bagage cognitive. lederer (1994) définit le bagage cognitif comme << des souvenirs, des faits d’expériences, d’évènements qui ont marqués un individu, d’émotions, des connaissances linguistiques et extralinguistiques emmagasinées à plus ou moins long terme dans la mémoire, y compris les connaissances théoriques, des imaginations, le résultat de réflexions, le fruit de lectures, la culture générale et le savoir spécialisé>>. de par cette définition, le bagage cognitif est en bref tout ce qui est dans le cerveau humain sous une forme déverbalisée d’où le traducteur puise pour comprendre un texte. le bagage cognitif du traducteur l’aide à facilement comprendre le message ou le vouloir-dire de l’auteur. muni d’une bonne compréhension du texte et des éléments linguistiques et extralinguistiques appropriés et en langue source et en langue cible, le traducteur et apte à passer à la l’étape de réexpression ou de reformulation. ce qui est l’étape finale de la traduction à proprement dire. la réexpression la réexpression ou la reformulation est la dernière étape du processus de la traduction. elle consiste à reproduire librement sans aucune contrainte la forme déverbalisée du message du texte original dans la langue cible en tenant compte seulement de la structure grammatical, lexical et syntaxique de cette dernière. dans la phrase de la réexpression, le traducteur doit s’assurer que les choix effectués rendent bien compte des idées continues dans le texte original en vue d’une mise en forme définitive. nous arrivons maintenant à la dernière phase du processus de la traduction. la réexpression linguistique libre du sens, fruit de la compréhension et de la déverbalisation se trouvant en dernière position, la réexpression n’est pas la moindre importante. en effet, quel que soit le type de texte abordé, qu’il soit littéraire ou pas, la phase de réexpression est une étape cruciale du processus traductif non seulement parce qu’elle en constitue l’aboutissement mais aussi parce qu’elle est le signe concret de l’engagement du traducteur. et c’est elle qui bien souvent détermine le sort du texte traduit. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 dans cette phase d’expression, le traducteur doit remplacer l’auteur pour exprimer son vouloir dire, c’est–à-dire qu’il doit se faire comprendre. et pour se faire comprendre, il faut trouver l’expression juste. dans les lignes qui suivent, nous allons essayer de répondre à la question : comment énoncer clairement ce que l’on a bien compris à la lecture ? ainsi, lors de la réexpression, le traducteur doit toujours garder à l’esprit que le point de départ de la réexpression n’est pas la langue du texte original mais le sens non-verbal qui est devenu le vouloir-dire. d’autre part, puisque la traduction n’est qu’un cas particulier de la communication, dans la phase de réexpression, le traducteur doit se comporter comme un locuteur qui a quelque chose à dire. d’autre part, il est important de souligner que l’acte de réexpression comme celui de compréhension mobilise l’ensemble de l’appareil cognitive de l’individu, c’est–à-dire que, pour s’exprimer, le sujet a besoin d’un savoir linguistique (connaissance de la langue en question) mais aussi de l’association d’un savoir-faire linguistique. de même, il est généralement difficile en traduction, de toujours conserver tous les mots ou l’ordre des mots de la langue source dans le respect des règles grammaticales et syntaxiques de la langue cible. donc, il faut segmenter les phrases en unités de sens et non des mots isolés. conclusion chaque traducteur fait face aux défis lexiques, sémantiques, linguistiques et métalinguistiques au cours de son activité traduisante. ces défis restent les mêmes sans tenir compte s’il s’agit d’un texte littéraire, administratif ou scientifique et sans tenir compte de nationalité du traducteur. le traducteur est libre de choisir n’importe quel approche ou procédé technique de la traduction pourvu que le texte d’arrive est le représentantfidèle du texte de départ. cependant, suivant la discussion du concept dit déverbalisation, on peut conclure que la déverbalisation est le procédé central de toute activité de la traduction. references ezuoke, c. o. (2018). deverbalising the biblical text for translation and interpreting. afrrev laligens: an international journal of language, literature and gender studies. 7(2). lederer, m. (1994). la traduction aujourd’hui, le modèle interprétatif, paris. hachette . israel, f. (1999). principes pour une pédagogie raisonnée de la traduction : le modèle interprétatif, folia translatologica, 6, ‘issues of translation pedagogy’. plassard, f. (2007). lire pour traduire, paris : psn. ren, r., zhang, l., guo, z., & zeng, j. (2018). the application of deverbalisation in interpreting notes. sino – us english teaching. 15 (4), 209-212 doi: 10.17265/15398072/2018.04.006. roux-faucard, g. (2008). poétique du récit traduit, caen : minard lettres modernes. seleskovitch, d. et lederer, m. (1984). interpréter pour traduire, paris : didier erudition. seleskovitch, d. (1975). langage, langues et mémoire, introduction de jean monnet, paris : minard lettres modernes. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 effectiveness of the use of indigenous knowledge in livestock production in oriire local government area of oyo state ayoade, a. r., adewole, w. a.,adetunbi, s. i., and dairo, p. o. department of agricultural extension and rural development, ladokeakintola university of technology, p. m. b 4000, ogbomoso, oyo-state, nigeria abstract this study, focused effectiveness of the use of indigenous knowledge in livestock production in oriire local government area ofoyo state.a multistage sampling technique was employed for the study. data were collected with the aid of well-structured interview schedule while frequency, percentage, mean and weighted mean score were used to present results. chi square test was used in testing the hypothesis of the study. the results of the findings revealed that majority (71.1%) of the respondents were married, with the mean age of 41.66years. observing good hygiene practices was ranked first with the wms of 2.61 while the use of herbs was ranked second with the wms of 2.34 as the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 1 indigenous method utilized by the respondent’s indigenous knowledge products are cheap and in most cases cost free in monetary terms was the highest benefits of all (100%) the respondents. the results of chi square test revealed a significant between age(r = 0.437**, p = 0.000), years spent in school (r =0.273**, p= 0.009) and the level of use of indigenous knowledge system. the study concludes that the most effective indigenous knowledge method was observation good hygienic practices. therefore, it wasrecommended that relevant agencies of government like nafdac should encouraged provision of good hygienic environment among participants of indigenous knowledge. keywords-indigenous, diagnosis, feeds and livestock. i introduction the agricultural sector plays an important role in nigeria’s economy, contributing 37 percent of the gross domestic product (gdp) and employing 65% of the adult labour force. over 90% of nigeria’s agricultural output is by small-scale (less than 5 ha) resource-poor farmers who have, for centuries, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 2 sustained the national food supply through a considerable wealth of ik about how to harness both natural and socio-economic factors of production (chimaraokeet al., 2003). despite the introduction of agro-chemicals, many farmers continued to rely on indigenous farm practices, either on their own or in combination with modern technologies. small-scale, resource-poor farmers have good reasons for sticking to their local knowledge and farming practices attendant thereto, and that modern technologies can only be successful and sustainable if the interplay of local knowledge of cultural, social and ecological systems are taken into consideration. in so stating, it is suggested that, given the pervasive scenario of rapid population growth (2-3% per annum) and the attendant domestic food demand deficits, there is the emergent need to balance the sustaining ik of the production system with modern technology, through a systematic hybridization strategy. livestock contribute enormously to food security and livelihoods at the global, national and community levels. globally, livestock provide a source of livelihood for 800 million poor people and account for 30% of agricultural gdp ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 3 in developing countries (gupta, 1990). in nigeria, the livestock sector which is dominated by small ruminants contributes about 7% of agricultural gross domestic product (gdp) and serves a major source of income and employment for the growing populations, especially rural people. nearly 95% of livestock keepers in nigeria are rural small-scale farmers who provide the bulk of the national output (federal ministry of agriculture (goswamiet al., 2006). the indigenous knowledge method commonly used to control diseases includes constant and low costs but at most times are curative. the emphasis throughout the world is prevention as found in modern medical care such as the use of vaccines, although where these are available, they are supplied irregularly, sometimes in insufficient quantities and very expensive. therefore it becomes difficult for the peasant farmer to get it. the objectives are to;  examine the socio-economic characteristics of livestock farmers in the study area. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 4  ascertainthe effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents in the study area.  evaluate factors influencing theeffectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents in thestudy area. hypothesis of the study: h01: there is no significant relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and the effectiveness of the use of indigenous knowledge in livestock production. ii. methodology the study was conducted in oriire local government area of oyo state. it is located around latitude 8030’n of the equator and longitude 3054’s of the greenwich meridian. it as population of about 150, 628 (npc, 2006). the headquarters are in the town of ikoyi. the land area is 2,116 km2.the mean temperature is 26.20c,lowest temperature of 24.300c while highest temperature is 28.700c. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 5 oriire local government area is in derived savanna climatic zone where agricultural products such as yam, melon, cashew, mango, shea-butter, cocoa, kola nut, palm-oil etc can be found. most of the inhabitants engaged in farming as their major occupation while some are hunters, traders, fish farmers, etc. (jeliliet al., 2015). it is inhabited by over 100 communities such as tewure, iluju, apiko, saamo, igbori, odun-ifa and olokoto among many others. the local government area has 10 wards. the population of the study consists of all livestock farmers at oriire local government of oyo state of nigeria.a multistage sampling technique was employed for the study. the first stage involved the purposive selection of ogbomoso agricultural zone out of the four agricultural zonesin oyo state and those zones are; ibadan/ibarapa, ogbomoso, oyo, and saki.the second stage involved selection of oriire local government area. the third stage involved purposive selection of two blocks from the lga rural areas. the fourth stage involved snow ballsampling of livestock farmers: and a total of 90 livestock farmers were sampled. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 6 the tools and procedure that were employed elucidated the objectives of the study: this includes the following. descriptive statistics: they are the mean, percentages and frequency distribution. these were used as tools to describe the socioeconomic characteristics of respondents and effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents. chi square test: chi square test was used to evaluate the factors influencing the effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents in the study area and the test of hypothesis. iii. results and discussion ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 7 the distribution of the respondents by age revealed that 21.1% of the respondents were less than equal to 30 years of age, 22.2% were between 31 and 40years of age,33.33% were between 41 and 50years of age, 17.77% were between 51 and 60 years of age while 5.6% of the respondents were above 60years of age. the mean age of the respondents was 41.66years this means that the respondents are of average age, still strong and agile for agricultural production and will be expected to know and have access to various indigenous knowledge system the distribution of the respondents by sex revealed that 60% of the respondents were male while 40% were female. the result shows that there were more male among the respondents than female. the distribution of the respondents by religion revealed that 54.4% of the respondents were christians while 45% of the respondents were muslims. the result indicates that both islamic and christian religion were being ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 8 practiced by the respondents though the christians were a little more than the muslims. the distribution of the respondents by marital status revealed that 71.1% of the respondents were married while 28.9% of the respondents were single. this results shows that most of the respondents were married. being married shows that there will be availability of family labour supply to the respondents for their farming activities. the distribution of the respondents by level of education revealed that 20% of the respondents had non-formal education,10% completed primary school,17.7% did not complete primary school,22.2% completed secondary school,12.2%did not complete primary school while 20% of the respondents had tertiary education. the distribution of the respondents by household size revealed that 10% of the respondents had household size of between 1 and 3 members,40% had between 4 and 6 members, 40% had between 7 and 9 members while ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 9 10% of the respondents had household above 10. the mean household size was 6 members. this shows a relatively large family size which will be a source of family labour to the respondents. table 1: socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents variable frequency percentage mean age <=30 19 21.10 31-40 20 22.22 41-50 30 33.33 41.66 51-60 16 17.77 above 60 5 5.6 sex male 54 60 female 36 40 religion christian 49 54.4 muslim 41 45.6 marital status married 64 71.1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 10 single 26 28.9 level of education no formal education 18 20.00 primary education completed 9 10.00 primary education uncompleted 16 17.70 secondary education completed 20 22.20 secondary education uncompleted 11 12.20 tertiary education 18 20 years spent in school 0 18 20.00 1-5 9 10.00 6-10 15 16.6 9.67 11-15 38 42.2 16-20 10 11.2 household size 9 10 1-3 9 10 6.00 4-6 36 40 7-9 36 40 above 10 9 10 source: field survey, 2018 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 11 effectiveness of various indigenous knowledge methods of controlling livestock diseases the distribution of the respondents by the effectiveness of indigenous knowledge system of controlling livestock diseases that was measured on 3 point scale of very effective, effective and not effective, while weighted mean score (wms)was used in ranking of the items. observing good hygiene practices was ranked first with the wms of 2.61, the use of herbs was ranked second with the wms of 2.34, movement away from the infested area ranked third with the wms of 2.25, self diagnosis, boundering and hand removal of tick, lices and worms had a joint ranking of fourth with wms of 1.98. furthermore, burning of infested pasture and herd sharing had a joint ranking of seventh with the wms of 1.71, the use of holy books and left over egg mixed with feeds ranked 9th with the wms of 1.53. the use of cow urine to wash affected part ranked thirteen with wms of 1.26 while the use of honey mixed with monkey droppings had the least ranking of fourteen with wms of 1.24. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 12 table 2: effectiveness of various indigenous knowledge methods of controlling livestock diseases indigenous knowledge method very effective effective not effective wms rank observing good hygienic practices 81(90) 9(10) 2.61 1st the use of herbs 54(60) 36(40) 2.34 2nd movement away from the infested area 63(70) 18(20) 9(10) 2.25 3rd self-diagnosis 45(50) 18(20) 27(30) 1.98 4th bush burning of infested pasture 81(90) 9(10) 1.71 7th herd sharing 27(30) 27(30) 36(40) 1.71 7th boundering 27(30) 54(60) 9(10) 1.98 4th hand removal of ticks, lice and worms 36(40) 36(40) 18(20) 1.98 4th incantation 40(44.4) 50(55.6) 1.3 11th isolating infected animals 9(10) 36(40) 45(50) 1.4 11th use of holy books 9(10) 45(50) 36(40) 1.53 9th ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 13 left over egg (unhatch egg), mix with feeds 18(20) 27(30) 45(50) 1.53 9th cow urine use to wash affected parts 36(40) 54(60) 1.26 13th honey mix with monkey droppings apply to parts 9(10) 18(20) 63(70) 1.24 14th source: field survey, 2018 factors influencing the effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents the results of chi square analysis showing the relationship between some selected socioeconomic characteristics and the level of use of indigenous knowledge methods revealed a significant relationship between sex (chi value = 42.00, p = 0.000), marital status (chi value = 56.27, p= 0.000), educational status (chi value = 75.20, p = 0.000) and membership of social organization (chi value = 86.97, p = 0.000). the results revealed that sex, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 14 marital status, educational status and membership of social organization significantly influenced the level of use of indigenous knowledge system. the null hypothesis there is no significant relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and the effectiveness of the use of indigenous knowledge in livestock production. since, sex, marital status, educational status and membership of social organization were significant at 1 percentage level, the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and the effectiveness of the use of indigenous knowledge in livestock production was rejected. table 3: factors influencing the effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge’s being employed by the respondents variable chi–value p – value remarks sex 42.00 0.000 significant religion 4.113 0.129 not significant ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 15 marital status 56.27 0.000 significant educational status 75.20 0.000 significant membership of social organization 86.97 0.000 significant source: field survey, 2018 iv. conclusions and recommendations the study concludes that the most effective indigenous knowledge method was observation good hygienic practices. also, educational status and membership of social organization significantly increased the level of use of indigenous knowledge system. therefore, it was recommended that relevant agencies of government like nafdac (national agency for food and drug administration and control)should ensure that provision of good hygienic environment should be practiced among participants of indigenous knowledge.educated individuals should be encouraged to participate in good indigenous knowledge methods. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 16 references chimaraoke, o.i., ugai, g.a., ukwayi, j.k., 2003. indigenous knowledge and communal conflict resolution: evidence from nigeria. indilinga, african journal of indigenous knowledge systems, 2 (2). goswami, b., mondal. s. and dana, s.s. (2006). indigenous technical knowledge in fishfarming. indian journal of traditional knowledge. vol. 5(1) 1-166. gupta, a.k. 1990. documenting indigenous farmer’s practices.ilieanews letter, 6 (2) (1990), 29-30. jelilim. o., saliu, i. and abiola, f. (2013): charcoal production in oriire local government area, oyo state, nigeria: environmental and socio-economic questions. civil andenvironmental research, 7(12): 21-28. national population commission, nigeria (2006).census report. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 17 verisimilitude in fiction: exploring the didactic theory of literature in light of heroism reflected in ngugi wa thiong’o’s a grain of wheat author: bazimaziki gabriel, university of rwandacollege of education, department of humanities and language education, p.o box 55 rwamagana, rwanda. abstract literary critics often time rhapsodize heroes over their performance to depict verisimilitude about human exploits, nature and nurture, life and death, strong love and sacrifice for others to survive; as some of the central elements that artfiction is concerned with. in this literary study, analysis is carried out in light of ngugi’s a grain of wheat. particular interest is directed to heroism as a recurrent theme in most of the colonial african literature. the study seeks to demonstrate the power of fiction to express verisimilitude. the author explores the didactic theory of literature which posits that a literary work is a source of knowledge, insights and wisdom and probably prophecy. when one accepts the call by himself or by other forces to die for others, to sacrifice for others’ survival, that is heroism and unequalled human value. key words: african literature, fiction, verisimilitude, didactic theory of literature, a grain of wheat, heroism, sacrifice, liberation, independence. introduction literature is a tool by which critics have stake in human life at socio-cultural, economic and political levels; and this is done through forms embodied in the three main literary branches without exception to fiction (bazimaziki, 2021). no matter how heroism is outlandish in a fictitious story, it is associated with concepts of triumph, courage, glory, victory, death and rebirth, sacrifice, selfless act, strong love for others and self-denial, success, fight for one‟s right and the right of the oppressed, acceptance to die for others to survive, thus an unequalled human quality where a call for adventure is inevitable. according to sawira et al. (2017) heroism is connected with admiration for achievements and noble qualities; and heroes as necessities in life. franco et al. (2011) view heroism as “a social but not personal attribution; and a historically determined choice. they add that it is a positive and pro-social act that is distinct from other pro-social activities. such view parallels with franco et al. (2016) putting that heroism is a personal, communal and societal responsibility in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 the face of an evil. related to the point made here, in haessly(2011) heroism is identified by selfless act and a hero is described as the one who demonstrated exceptional strength or courage, and is admired for his nobility, exploits or outstanding achievements. thus, the discussion on heroism is important for contemporary communities to ape or rhapsodize what is benefitting them and blame the oppression done by human being over his fellows. in that regard, a study on ngugi‟s a grain of wheat is deemed necessary to shed light on some historical events which can serve as a learning tool in a way or another because , as haessly( 2011) put it, heroic deeds can guide people and enable them to act beyond their own self-imposed limits. aim of the study the overarching aim of this study is to carry out a literary analysis of ngugi‟s novel a grain of wheat using the didactic theory of literature. further, the study aimed to: (i) demonstrate how fiction embodies verisimilitude; (ii) apply the didactic theory of literature in a literary study; (iii) demonstrate that heroism is a recurrent theme in african colonial literature; (iv) identify some lessons that could be drawn from heroic deeds study questions (i) to what extent does fiction reflect reality? (ii) how does the didactic theory of literature apply in the study of ngugi‟s a grain of wheat? (iii) how is heroism a recurrent theme in african colonial literature? (iv) how far are ngugi‟s protagonists of independence a relevant tool to society? ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 theory and method the methodology that guided this study is mainly qualitative literary analysis by applying the didactic theory of literature to the primary source selected purposively among ngugi‟s fictional works. the choice fell on a grain of wheat because it displays the theme of heroism affecting the protagonists of independence which is the leading theme of that novel. related literature was used to supplement the interpretation of quoted passages from the corpora. both primary and secondary sources used in this study were acknowledged in line with the american psychological association (apa) referencing style. discussion the main function of literature is to share knowledge with the reader about what happened in their world or their neighbouring places (bazimaziki, 2021) so that they can draw some lessons to help them cope with related challenges or ape the quality deeds as performed by story characters. this is the reason for which a number of questions are posed at the center of this discussion such as what is verisimilitude? what can be learnt from a heroic story? reflecting on these questions will take much consideration into the situation in the corpus under study grounded on a theory of literature. the didactic theory of literature posits that a work of art is a source of knowledge and insights. a grain of wheat fits this situation. the novel is featured with verisimilitude. though it is fiction, it displays the quality of truth and reality since based on historical events. according to harrow (1985), the novel draws the past of kenyans paved with violent experiences of long sufferings reflected in the novel characters who held together towards independence. similarly, fadhel (2015) contends that most of these characters are victims of colonial oppression where they were tortured a great deal and, inherently, the novel ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 reveals that violent resistance can be applied when peaceful resistance fails during liberation war. heroism is an end of devised means for a solution to an identified problem. it is a de facto result of an already accomplished deed, a difficult task, whether self assigned or tasked by others besides one‟s feeling of ability to overcome a challenge, to save the oppressed, to fight for a cause, to cope with injustice done by human beings over their fellows; thus the will to readily bring change. in most of literary works, particularly in colonial period, the theme of heroism is connected with the protagonist who prevails upon his antagonist(s), with or without the help of the mentor, for the good of society. in ngugi‟s a grain of wheat, the situation is not far different from what is stated above. the book title reveals sacrifice as one of the characteristics of heroism. a grain must die for wheat to be harvested. blood must shed to water the freedom tree. this reflects a long period of suffering of kenyans deprived of their rights to enjoy the fruits of their sweat, rights to live freely. we are told that some time back, one of the protagonists of freedom, waiyaki, had already been buried alive as a result of his long term plan together with other warriors, to free his brothers and sisters. he is a victim of oppression. however, his “blood contained within it a seed, a grain which gave birth to a political party whose main strength thereafter sprang from a bond with the soil” ( ngugi, 1967: 15). to illustrate, mugo‟s cooking porridge in a sufuriya (sauce pan)(ngugi1967: 4) when the roof was leaking is symbolically one of the effects of the colonialism that could not let him forget how he was fed a „half cooked porridge‟ in the detention during emergency. zeno et al. (2011) contend that heroes act in a pro-social manner despite personal risk. kihika fits this situation. when he mobilized maumau fighters to stand and resist the colonialists, he knew that some would die but many would survive. driven by courage and strong love to brothers he wished would be ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 liberated, he showed military genius and tactics. ngugi(1967:19) put it that capturing mahee, a big police garrison in the rift valley and a transit prison for men and women to be taken to concentration camps , ranks among kihika‟s greatest deeds because he and his men led the prisoners out into the night and set it on fire. although caught alive and hanged in public at rung‟ei market a year after a price had been put over his head, he had already done a lot. he had already translated his sacrifice words into deeds. that is heroism. despite his death, the party remained, liberation war went on, and independence took place. ngugi said that “his blood rained on and watered the tree of freedom.” it is truth about a grain of wheat revealed in the bible, in john, 12:24 that “… unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it produces much grain”. sacrifice is reflected in the above words in the sense of death for survival which is unequalled human value. when ngugi(1967:21) says; “the party , however remained alive and grew, as people put it, on the wounds of those kihika left behind”, the idea meant here is related to the common belief in some african settings that” a hero never dies but sleeps” meaning that heroic deeds always describe the departed one. it is a result of kihika‟s talk calling others for sacrifice when he said: “a day comes when brother shall give up brother, a mother her son, when you and i have heard the call of a nation in turmoil”, p.19. from the above words, kihika is seen as a prophet since he augurs what would happen in the coming days when “he and his men went to the forest followed by hundreds of young men from thabai and rung‟ei”; committed to free their people as witnessed by koinandu saying: “a sacrifice1 a sacrifice! … oh, we did sacrifice […] we also sang: „we shall never rest, without land, without freedom true ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 kenya is a country of black people‟ actually, those freedom fighters were committed to fight restlessly until they get independence. they were led by god‟s word where particularly in some verses like those gikonyo read to wambui as found in psalm 72: “he shall judge the poor of the people, he shall save the children of the needy, and shall break in pieces the oppressor, for he shall deliver the needy when he cometh; the poor also and he that hath no helper”, p.27 conversely, in some cases, a heroic journey is affected in one way or another, by betrayal. in ngugi( 1967: 19), talking about sacrifice, kihika had warned his audience against any betrayal using a swahili proverb : kikulacho kiko nguoni mwako” ( ones betrayers are among themselves). mugo is concerned with this betrayal. despite that he led a hungerstrike in rira detention camp which is another event on the journey to liberation, and the role he played in many escapes from the detention, he later betrayed his brother. at the occasion of independence celebration, on “uhuru day”, the one who sold kihika‟s life is now known and confessed: “„you asked for judas‟, he started. „you asked for the man who let kihika to this tree, here. that man stands before you now. kihika came to me by night. he put his life into my hands, and i sold it to the white man. and this thing has eaten into my life all these years” (ngugi, 1967: 252) it follows that the public, including githua the war casualty, denounced mugo as an impostor, a traitor, a „sheep into wolf‟s clothing‟. this was a surprise to the public, a situational irony, since they believed mugo as a hero who had played an invaluable role in the journey to liberation. for a long, people suspected karanja to have betrayed kihika, based on the assumption that he was the white collaborator but everything becomes clear. mugo is now a proof that “our betrayers are among ourselves”, a ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 defective behavior that could be denounced among community members. back to the research question about the insight and wisdom that would be learnt from a grain of wheat, it is hard if not impossible to exhaust the list of lessons. however, one cannot fail to mention that the novel is a source of history past, present to augur the future. it is all about historical events; a long journey towards independence. more so, it is important to learn from it that “union is power”, that success springs from a painful and hard work, holding together, with self-determination and commitment for each, with the will and readiness to die for others to survive. the novel is a tool to learn that not the protagonists of liberation are they that enjoy the fruits of their long journey of suffering, torture, oppression, right deprivation or the like. however, their names could be still remembered as well pointed out in gikonyo‟s words : “on the independence day, we shall remember those from our village and ridges near, who lost their lives in the fight for freedom. we cannot let kihika‟s name die. he will live in our memory, and history will carry his name to our children in years to come”.(ngugi, 1967: 27). the above words, as spoken by gikonyo during the discussion about the independence celebration, imply that “heroes never die but sleep”. their deeds are kept in people‟s memory, be they those who survived the wars or the next generations. although published more than half a century ago, the novel still draws a picture of africa of the colonial period, by describing the protagonists who prevailed over their antagonists since they were led by the will and strong love of their mother land. thus, the novel is inclusive in terms of narrated time. hinged on heroism and sacrifice, and selfless acts, it draws the past for the present without leaving out the future. this implies that heroism is a theme of all the time since heroes existed in past, exist today and the future generation are no exception. by and large, a ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 grain of wheat is an invaluable tool from a generation to another to learn how to fight the ills done by human beings on their fellows no matter how they can risk their lives. it teaches that union is power and that victory is for all natives as well explained in fadhel(2015) that the story ends with celebration by participants in liberation war – both children, young, old , men and women, singing the victory, the independence of kenya; after a long period of humiliation, land grabble, culture and freedom deprivation(lèfara, 2017). conclusion the discussion in this study based on literature as an art which reflects reality. the study framed on the didactic theory of literature which views it as a source of knowledge, insights, wisdom and prophecy. fiction is one of the means to this ends. using a grain of wheat, discussion revealed that fictitious characters reflect historical figures involved in liberation of their people. authors interested in colonial period depicted the african wish and will to save the oppressed, the fight for independence characterized by a lot of sacrifices. it is a heroic spirit that could prosper among brothers. it is the context of a “grain of wheat”, survival after sacrifices; a seed sowed into the soil, died to give many corns later. that is heroism associated with one‟s suffering for the sake of others‟ survival. the protagonist kihika has been a grain of wheat among others. his “blood rained and watered the liberation tree”. accepting to die for „truth and justice‟, that is heroism. references bazimaziki, g. (2021). exploring the function of literature in the light of mandela‟s long walk to freedom, international journal of english, literature and social sciences, 6(1),185 -189. fadhel qahtan, f. aldhahyani. (2015). modes of protest in ngugi‟s a grain of wheat. new voices, multilingual international refereed journal of multidisciplinary studies, 3(1), 11-17. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 franco, z. e., scott, t. a, kinsella, e.l., kohen, a., langdon, m. & zimbardo p. g. (2016). heroism research: a review of theories, methods, challenges and trends. faculty publications: political science.87. retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/poliscifacpub/87 franco, z., e.., blau,k. & zimbardo, p.,g.(2011). heroism: a conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism. review of general psycholog, 15(2), 99-113. haessly, j. (2011). a hero for the twenty-first century. peace, literature and art, vol.1, 216-240. harrow, k. (1985). “ngugi wa thiong‟o‟s „a grain of wheat’: season of irony” . research in african literatures, 16(2), 243–263. retrieved from www.jstor/org/stable/3819414. lèfara s. (2017). “reading acculturation in ngugi wa thiong‟o‟s a grain of wheat.”, international journal of development research, 7(8), 1436914375. sawira, suhadi, j. & manugeren, m.(2017). heroism in lin carter‟s novel „the quest of kadji‟. language literacy: journal of linguistics, literature and language teaching, 1(10, 119-140. the gideons international. (2008.) the holy bible. the gideons international. wa thiong‟o, ngugi (1967). a grain of wheat. london: heinemann. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 http://www.jstor/org/stable/3819414 drug abuse among secondary school students in ikere local government area of ekiti state, nigeria a. a. ogunjemilua (ph.d) department of social studies, school of arts and social sciences, college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria phone no: +2348038185740 abstract the study was carried out to investigate drug abuse among secondary school students in ikere local government area of ekiti state, nigeria. in course of this study, sixty students were selected each in five secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state. there consisted the study sample of three hundred students which were randomly selected. the data collected were analyzed using percentage to test the stated research questions. based on the results, recommendations were made that government should intensity her campaign against drug abuse by nigerians. parents-teacher association (p.t.a) should also be active in curbing their children and warn them to deviate from drug abuse films which misinform or miseducate youth on the use of drug should not be shown on television screen secondary school should develop intensive in-service programmes with the assistance from specialist with experience and background in developing drug educational programme. keywords: drug, abuse, drug abuse, secondary school, secondary school students. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 introduction drug abuse has been defined as ''persistent" or sporadic excessive and improper use of drug without the regard of accepted medical practice (odejide, 1932). drug abuse occurs in all social and economic classes, it is not limited to the slum areas of major cities or countries, it can crap up anywhere without reference to economic level ethnic origin intellectual or educational attainment religious identity or social status. the commonly abused drugs produce different effects and those drugs include: (1) narcotic used to treat pain relief. (2) sedatives and hypnotics used to treat insomnia (3) tranguilizers used to relieve mild depression and keen patients awake. drug abuser is so widespread that everyone is exposed to, youth and adults alike, drugs are used for various purposes such as social purposes, therapeutic to escape from psychic state or to gain an experience and of curiosity. in recent time, drug abuse among the secondary school students has become a popular, sensitive and mystifying problem. the world health organization (who) technical report series no. 516 (1973) defined drug as "any substance which when taken into living organism may modify one or more of its functions on the other hand, drug abuse could be defined as the use of drugs for reason, beside medication in an attempt to influence -the body and mind to alter emotions and senses to escape from reality or the actual experience of a normal life. to corroborate the assertion raised above, ray (1973) viewed drug abuse as the continuous or occasional use of drug by the individual of his or her own choice to achieve his or her own objective which is not therapeutic or within legitimate use for purpose social or out of curiosity or to obtain an experience, regardless of whether dangerous effect are caused or accompanied its usage on the individual or not. the following are also tantamount to drug abuse but people usually fail to take cognizance of it: (a) alcoholism (excessive consumption of alcohol) turns consumer to be an addict. (b) smoking or snuffing hemp (common among students). (c) hard drug pushing, drug peddling could be equal to drug abuse. however, anybody who has gone neck deep in the attitude of drug use has become a victim of societal ills and should be really helped in order to save the society. attempts at solving; social phenomena in human societies generally have always been approached from different perspective. but to meaningfully tackle social problem such as drug abuse among secondary school students the most usual thing to do is to look at its underlying causes with an objective of devising strategies to solving it, hence, the need for this study. literature review odejide (1982) maintained that drug is said to be abused when it is used not medically necessary against legal prohibition and excessively used as in the case with socially acceptable drug. a study by kramer & corner (1975) suggests that young people who use marijuana might learn it from friends or peers. kendal and associates (1973) note that the highest rate of marijuana usage was found among adolescents whose parents and friends were drug abusers. gustain (1970) identified some common sign of drug abuse among post primary and secondary schools as follows: ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 (i) sudden and drastic change in attendance the last including changes in legibility and neatness. (ii) unusual flare-up or outburst temper changes in physical appearance. (iii) sun glasses worn at inappropriate time and place. (iv) borrow to finance drug purchase. earp (1987) maintained that the following symptoms are suggestive of drug addict: 1. loose interest in life. 2. show less interest in personal interest 3. achieve less at school. 4. be absent from schoolwork. 5. tell lies, be evasive. 6. enjoy long period of time alone. 7. drop old friends and keep company with new bad ones. drug abusers as seen by qviagu (1972) were under the age of 20years which he put at 68.8%, more than 50% of abusers were seen by lambo (1990) in support of oviagu’s submission most of these youths have died of unidentified ailments, which were believed to be as a result of drug abuse the use of sedatives and analgesics produced temporary reduction of body activity. in line with the findings of this work, fawole (1982) has identified analgesics as being the most commonly abused drugs by nigerian youths. this unguarded use of drugs according to him can cause certain kinds of kidney disease, which have an adverse effect on blood clotting fume and why lead to gastro-intestine bleeding purpose of the study the study is to identify the cause and effect of drug abuse among secondary school students m ikere local government area of ekiti state and proffer possible solution to the problems. research questions this research was guided by the following research questions: (i) what are the modes of living of the students? (ii) what are the drug being abused by the students? (iii) what are the reasons for taking drugs? (iv) what is the behaviour of students under the influence of drug? (v) what strategies can be used for eradicating the incidence of drug abuse? methodology this study is a descriptive research in which the survey method was used to collect data on drug abuse among secondary schools students in ikere local government area of ekiti state. selection sample five (5) secondary schools out of the eight secondary schools in the area of study were randomly selected. stratified random sampling technique was employed in selecting the subject from each school used for the study in all, three hundred students were randomly selected for this study. research instrument questionnaire was used for this study and it contained 36 statements to be responded to by the students the questionnaire was divided into two main parts, the first past was designed to elicit demographic information from respondents, the other part is for the questionnaire ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 proper covering five areas (i) self-medication (ii) drug abuse (iii) causes (iv) effect of drug abuse (v) solutions to drug abuse. validation and reliability of instrument the instrument was presented to experts in test and measurement who ascertained the content and face validity. to ensure the reliability of the instrument test-retest method was used the questionnaire was given to (50) fifty students. the questionnaire were collected and scored. the same set of questionnaire was administered to the same set of respondents a week later and they were also retrieved and scored. responses on the two occasions were correlated using the pearson predict movement correlation method, the correlation co-efficient was 0.74, this was considered high enough for reliability. procedure the research personally administered the questionnaire. all questionnaires administered, were duly completed and returned to research. analysis of findings research question 1: what are the modes of living of the students? table 1: mode of living of students s/n items frequency percentage(%) 1. living with parents 26 8.7 2. living in hostels 37 12.3 3. living with relatives 50 16.7 4. living alone 60 20.0 5. living with peer groups 127 42.3 in table 1, item 1 above revealed only 8.7 of the subjects lived with their parents. item 2, revealed that12.3% of the respondents who were involved in drug abuse lived in hostels. item 3 revealed that 16.7% living with their relative while item 4 revealed that 20.0 & of the students who were drug abuses lived alone, in item 5, a large number of subjects to the tune of 42.3% were found guilty of drug abuse as a result of living with their peer groups. research question 2: what are the drugs being abused by the students? ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 table 2: categories of drugs abused s/n category items frequency percentage (%) 6. stimulants kolanuts 26 8.7 7. hemp 22 7.3 8. alcohol 34 11.3 9 sedative cigarettes 26 8.7 10 valium 36 12.0 11 analgesic librum 25 10.5 12 panadol 17 8.3 13 paracetamol 16 5.3 14 codein 48 16.0 15 mestrogen 50 16.7 in table 2, item 6 was being abused by 8.7 % of the respondents. in item 7, 7.3% of the subjects were found involved in abusing smoking hemp. item 8, 11.3% of the students were found involved in drinking alcohol it was observed in item 9 that 8.7% smoked cigarettes. in item 10, 12.0% abused the use of valium and item 15, 16.7% of subjects abused mestrogen drug. research question 3: what are reasons for taking drugs'? table 3: respondent’s reason for taking drug s/n item frequency percent ages (%) 16 to make we feel high 66 22.0 17 to forget worries due to excessive academic 56 18.7 i8 as a matter of habit 17 5.7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 19 it keeps me awake 32 10.7 20. for social satisfaction 20 6.7 21 to induce sleep 27 9.0 22. for emotional disturbances 53 17.7 23. for studying purpose 29 9.7 in the table above, item 16, 22.0% of the students abused drugs to make them feel high. in item 17, 18.7% students were involved in drug abuse to make them relax from excessive academic load. in item 18, 5.7% of the respondents take drug in abusing manner as a habit. in item 22, 17.7% of the respondents take drugs for emotional disturbances. in item 23, it was observed that 9.7% of the subjects abused drugs for the purpose of studying research question 4 : what are the behaviours of the students under the influence of drugs? table 4. behaviours of students under the influence of drugs. s/n items frequency percentages (%) 24. fighting 107 35. 7% 25 having fun 44 14.7% 26. listening to music 125 41.7% 27. cracking jokes 50 16.7% 28, always serving punishment 89 29.7% 29. associate with sex scandal 110 36.7% 30. sleeps in class or at breaks 140 46.7% 31. becoming a bully to junior 121 40.3% 32. encounter with security 96 32%. on table 4, item 24, 35. 7% of the sample results to fighting under the influence of drugs. in item 26, a total number 125 (4 1 .7%) of the subjects enjoy listening to music, while in item 29, 36.7% the subjects were associated with sex scandals. in item 30, 46.7% of the sample sleep in the class during school lessons or break times. in item 31, 40. 3% of the subjects become bully to the junior students. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 research question 5. what strategies can be used for eradicating the incidence of drug abuse? table 5: respondents solutions for eradicating drug abuse s/n item frequency percentage (%) 33 abstaining from taking drags 156 52. % 34 avoid mixing with people who take drugs 267 89.0% 35 treatment from doctors to overcome the habit 112 37.3% 36 a void self –medication 87 37.3% table 5 indicate that in item 33,52% of the subjects as need that abstaining from taking drugs will help to eradicate drug abused .in item 34, 89% agreed that avoiding mixing with people who take drugs will help in the indication of drugs abuse. in item 35, 37.3% indicated that willingness to get treatment from doctors to get over the habit.., discussion of findings (1) students that moved away from the close-eye monitoring of their parents were prone to drug abuse. it was revealed that the highest number of subjects 167(55.7%)who lived with their peer groups were involved in drugs abuse (2) velium alcohol, cigarettes, kolanuts and librium were the mostly abused drugs in a broad sense stimulants (i.e alcohol, cigarettes, kolanuts and sedatives like velium and librium were abused. (3) students abused drugs mostly to enable them to study, feel high and forget worries of excessive academic load. (4) the best way towards eradicator drug abuse is to avoid mixing with people who take drugs. (5) complete abstaining from taking drugs recommendations. to curb the prevalence of drug abuse among secondary school students, the following recommendation are hereby made: (1) the government should intensity her campaign against drug abuse by nigerians. (2) the ministries of education and information should embark on school-to-school campaign to let student to know the evils involved in taking drugs not recommended by the doctor or physicians. (3) the parent -teacher association (pta) should also be actives in curbing their children and warn them to deviate from drug abuse. (4) every home should rise to its responsibility in the growth and development of their offspring parents and guardians should not save their children in the hands of people who are less caring and who lack affection, guardians and parental attention which are paramount in the formation stage. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 (5) films which misinform or miseducate youth on the use of drug should not be shown on television screens. (6) the school should develop intensive in service programmes with the assistance from specialists with experience and background in developing drug educational programmes. references karp, (1987). handbook of the training course in drugs dependence, benin city nigeria. fawole, 1.o. (1962). awareness self-effects of analgesic abuse among nigeria youths. nigerian school health journal, 4(1), 88-95. custain (1970). abnormal psychology and modern life. llinos. scotch pressman and company. kendal, (1973). alternative to adultary or adolescent drug abuse. journal of american medical association, 14, 61. kramer and corner (1975). delinquent boys the culture of the gang. new york the free press pg. 148. lambo, l.a. (1965). social problems of drug addiction. west africa with special emphasis on psychiatrics aspects. bulletin nareotics, 17(1), 3. olajide, (1982). the drug abuse scene in nigeria. national institute on drug abuse research monograph series. ray, (1973). what you should know about drug abuse, green field mass, usa, 2nd edition. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 04 | april 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 excursion or field trip: an alternative approach to the teaching of social studies in secondary schools a. a. ogunjemilua (ph.d) department of social studies, school of arts and social sciences, college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria phone no: +2348038185740 abstract: this paper examined the excursion or field trip as an alternative approach to the teaching of social studies in secondary schools. the examined the concept of excursion, field trip and social studies in secondary schools. the paper also discusses the preparation for excursion or field trip. the paper also examined the importance of of excursion and field trip and the problem associated with excursion in the teaching of social studies and probable solutions to the problems. keywords: excursion, field trip, social studies, teaching. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 77 introduction the process of teaching and learning has assumed a new dimension in recent times with the introduction of new strategies and innovations. one of these strategies is the use of excursion or field as effective tool for teaching social studies in secondary schools. field trip is any learning activity that is carried out by students in group outside the classroom, under the guidance of the teacher (osokoya, 1996). he expressed further the field trip is a form of inquiry method of teaching. fadeiye (2004) defines excursion as an educational journey to places of interest. he emphasized that traveling is part of education and a means of increasing the learner’s level of understanding and knowledge of a subject. jayeola (2004) defined excursion of field trip is an important aspect of learning not only for social studies but all other subjects in the school or college curriculum. excursion has an educational visit or journey to places of interest goes a long way to promote the level of understanding of the students and other people taking part in the exercise. ogungbemi (2001) surmises that the excursions are organized not only to places of interest but also to places where relevant materials, information or knowledge are better teaching and learning of a particular subject scope. to employ this method for teaching, students can go on excursion to places that are within one’s immediate environment and even beyond. excursion to immediate environment could take one to places like the shrines, museum, king’s palace, school compound, archives, the blacksmith workshop, the local village stream mosque and old churches. distance trips could be made to kanji-dam, zoological garden, game reserves, natural spring water, and waterfalls and other places of historical importance for the purpose of first hand observation and study. preparation for excursion or field trip excursion or field trip is a good technique of teaching, when a capable of arousing the interest and curiosity of the students in learning of social studies. the quality of preparation will determine the level of its success. hence, any excursion needs to be well prepared for before it must be carried out. how then can we prepare for a successful excursion or field trip? in preparing for an excursion, it is important to note that three major categories of people need to be well involved and adequately informed. ogunjemilua (2004) opined that there is need to make preliminary arrangement with the school authority, parents and officials in the areas to be visited, schools authority need to be informed by the subject teacher or head of department that wants to organize such an excursion, while parents consent need to be sought for. this will go a long way to determine the student’s participation. there is need to seek the approval of the place of visit before any excursion could be embarked upon. this could be done by sending letters requesting for their consent of making an educational trip to the place. the organizer should want and see the reply of such letter before them so ahead in their visit to that place. in a situation where there is no approval from the place of visit and the organizer embarks on such excursion, it will make it end in futility. an excursion must have purpose before it is embarked upon, such a purpose or objective must be well stated in order to have a successful trip. the stated objective of an excursion will help the students to identify what to look for when they arrive at the place of visit. it will also help them know the type of questions they would ask their host. the teacher and the student must discuss and select the relevant places of interest where relevant ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 78 information are available for better teaching these places must be relevant also to the stated objectives. the teacher should not force on students the places of visit. there is need for adequate provision for the welfare and logistic of the students and other people that are going with them in such an excursion. in a long distance trip that will last more than a day sleeping and feeding arrangement must be made. likewise, transportation to and fro must be made available students must be well informed to take with them clothing materials, eating utensils and enough money they should also take along with them writing materials. it is not a gainsaying that “nothing good can come out of the camp of an indiscipline people”. the teacher should therefore instill discipline in the minds of the students when planning for an excursion. this will enable them to behave like a well discipline group of students in the place of visit. this will enable them not in misbehave. more equally, it will encourage them to utilize their sense to achieve their desired goals of such an excursion. the teacher should set up guidelines for the students to ensure smooth and successful trip. on the day of excursion, all the students should gather at the school premises, while the teacher takes the attendance of the students in order to ensure the number of students that turnout for the excursion. apart from this, the teacher should check the materials and dressing of the students whether they meet the condition of where they are going for excursion. other things that are necessary to check before the take off are the condition of the vehicle, the condition of the drive, that is going to drive and the particular of the vehicle (ogungbemi, 2001). at the place of the visit, the following things must be taking note by the teacher. (1). teacher who leads the students should keep the time schedule to avoid delay. (2). teacher should note that a delay in one place of visit may result to disappointment in another place of visit. (3). teacher should encourage students to jot down points at each place they visit. (4). teacher should equally encourage students to ask questions. (5). photographs could be taken in a place visited for reference purpose. at times, the permission of the host should be sought before photographs are taken. for instance, in care of sacred spots or locations, for fear of committing sacrilege. (6). at the place of visit the teacher should endeavour to take the roll call of the students to ensure that their number is still intact. there are lots of things to do by both the teachers and students after the excursion had been successfully carried out. the teacher should report the feedback of the excursion to the school authority while a copy of the report should be kept for record purpose. it is the duty the teacher that organized and led the excursion to write letters of appreciation and send it to the places visited. the teacher should also ask students to write their reports of the excursion and he should enable the students to make use of the knowledge gained during the excursion in any history lesson. the importance of excursion or field trip excursion method is good for the teaching of social studies in any level of education. it provides experiences that cannot be brought into the classroom. it affords the learner the opportunities for direct observation of physical and human phenomenal (ogunjemilua, 2004). ogungbemi (2001) surmises that travelling is educative and it teachers observation. motivation to observe investigation and learn new ideas about the world around are gained and developed through excursion. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 79 excursion help to broaden students’ horizon and imagination learners are encouraged to be objectives and see varied dimension and respects of ideas where knowledge and information is not given to them in the classroom environment. the learner’s outlook will be broadened and their experience indented because they will have direct observation of what they have been taught and heard in social studies. the teacher too will definitely be fellow learner and discover with his students. the teacher acts as guide and friend he leads to delve more deeply, observe more closely, unmerited more fully and learn thoroughly (ogungbemi, 1992). excursion method helps to sustain the student’s interest in social studies and makes learning permanent. what students see practically will remain long in their memory that what they were taught theoretically or what they have read about. through excursion students would be able to see physically, touch, feel, and smell what they have been taught in the classroom. for instance, through historical excursion, students have the privilege of seeing the staff of oranmiyan, the museum of antiquity, the pot-shed movement at itayemoo, the excavation as wumonije compound, the ornmiyan groove, the museun of natural history at the obafemi awolowo university, the ooni palace. oduduwas’ blacksmith workshop at ileife, olumo rock at abeokuta and kiriji war theatre at igbajo. through historical excursion, both the students and the teacher will be able to correct erroneous impression, avoid prejudice and narrow mindedness which might have previously heard or entertained. opportunities to ask thought-provoking questions from the expert that they visit will be opened through excursion. questions that the teacher may not be able to answer satisfactory by the experts visited. excursion method is one of the best ways to apply the psychological principle of teacher to the teaching-learning of social studies students understand better when teaching progresses from known to unknown, concrete to abstract and from simple to complex, besides, excursions in social studies will avoid students the opportunity to use their senses of seeing, learning, feeling, smelling, touching and tasting in the course of the trips. excursion method of teaching increase learner’s level of understanding and knowledge in social studies. through personal contact with the places of historical interest, student will be stimulated to learn. more also, personal contact to some historical places could also make teaching of social studies topics more easy. problems associated with excursion or field trip in teaching social studies ogunjemilua (2004) opines that field trips to places of interest entail the following problems or difficulties. (i) it requires adequate and long term planning. (ii) it requires a lot of fund since it is usually very costly. (iii) lack of money frustrate planning. (iv) there is the possibility of parent rejecting or disapproving such visits. (v) pupils and teachers are exposed to some dangers such as accident. (vi) it is time consuming and may disrupt other school programmes. he also stressed difficulties associated with organizing visits to places of interest in the school community as follows: (a) time table adjustment, some teachers may feel offended by adjust their table if not told in advance. (b) school heads might think that such a visit may be as a result of readiness to teach or painlessness in the part of the teacher. (c) it might distract attentions of other learners in other classes, this can be demonstrated through peeping through the window to see members involved in the field trip. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 80 probable solutions with the numerous problems confronting the use of excursion as a mean of teaching, one could not be able to conclude that this technique is not relevant to the teaching of social studies. merely looking it at the angle that traveling is part of education. one could be convinced beyond reasonable doubt that excursion method makes social studies more teachable. but for this to be attainable, some of the problem confronting it must be dealt with. the following suggestive measures could be used to tackle some of these problems. (1) parents of the student should be adequately informed and their consent must be sought before embarking on an excursion. (2) the school authority and the teacher in-charge should guarantee maximum security of the students and others that are involved in such an excursion. (3) the school authority should give approval to such an excursion and assist in the preparation. (4) the teacher in-charge and the school authority should not charge the students much they should not turn an excursion to a commercial enterprise. (5) the teacher in-charge should let the students know that objective of such an organized excursion this will make them not to see such an excursion as mere travelling. (6) the teacher should equally evaluate the students after the end of an excursion, this will enable him to know much students have gained and how far the objective of such an excursion had been achieved. (7) the teacher should make sure that they get approval from the place of visit before they embark on such an excursion. they should not be in a hurry but ensure proper planning. (8) the teacher or the school authority should write letter of appreciation at the end of an excursion to the place visited. this will make any subsequent future excursion organized enjoy the same privilege as people use to say “one good turn deserves another”. (9) students should be well informed and oriented about the code of conduct in the place of visit. (10) in any long distant, excursion that will last two or more days students should be advised to hold much money for their feeding and other needs. (11) adequate health care provision must be made to cater for emergency cases. first aid box should always accompany such trips. (12) in such a long distance excursions accommodation must be well arranged so that students and other people involved should not be exposed to danger. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 81 references adeleye, a. (1982). teaching social studies in nigerian college. ile-ife. university of ife press. dubey, d. i. onyabe, v. o. & prokepek, (1988). social studies methods for nigerian teachers, ibadan university press ltd. fabusuyi, e. b. (1981). methodology for teaching social studies in schools and colleges. fadeiye, t. (2004). easy topic in histography and method of teaching history for nce and undergraduates. ikudayisi, t. o. (1990). educational excursion. “a solid way of improving the standard of teaching processes in yoruba language in ondo state secondary school” in olu aderounmu w. o. duyilemi b. o. and ojo.a. o. (eds) history of educational development in ondo state, a multidisciplinary pervised, lagos. kola okanlawon publisher ltd. iyewurum, s. a. (1989). “excursion in social studies teaching and learning”, ilorin. department of curriculum studies and educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin. jayeola, m. s. (2004). methodology of teaching and learning history in tertiary institution, ile-ife, wole printing press. ogunjemilua, a. a. (2004). social studies instructional materials, ado-ekiti deen-lat publishers. ogungbemi, e. o. (2001). “excursion: a mean for effective teaching of history in schools” ikere journal of education, 5(1). osokoya, i. o. (1996). writing and teaching history, ibadan, laurel education publishers. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 | issue 06 | june 2020 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 82 educating the parent on styles that build resilience in children as a panacea for cultism in nigeria daramola, clement oladayo (ph.d) department of social studies, college of education, ikere ekiti, nigeria. email: dayoasoju@gmail.com abstract this paper is proposing a paradigm shift from the usual approach of campaign against cultism to educating parents on parenting styles that build resilience in children. in the cause of literature review the writers discovered that, though there are several parenting styles but the most suitable for building confident adults and have better social skills, higher grades, low rates of substance abuse and less depression than children from either permissive or authoritarian household. the paper concludes that a major difference between the youth who easily confused to join antisocial groups like cults, and the recommends counseling and training sessions on parenting styles in dealing with their children at worship centers and some special social gatherings. keywords: educating, parent, styles, resilience in children, cultism introduction it has become clear that “picking up the pieces” is not the right approach to solving the social ills facing the society now. rather, the solution has to be in raising children prepared to thrive and equipped to make wise decision in life. recognizing this, the focus of this study is a paradigm shift from the common approach of campaigns against cultism, highlighting its destructive tendencies using seminars, workshop, symposia, handbills, posters, billboards, jingles on radio and television and public lectures, to help parents become supporting parents that can shield their children from societal ills by building resilience in them. ginsburg (2006) translates research and practice into practical approaches that parents, professionals and communities can use to build resilience in children. he talked about two core principles guiding his approach: first, it is the healthy connection that promotes the unwavering strong relationship between parent and child which is the essential element that prepares a young person to thrive. second, most behaviors we fear in adolescents (like cultism) are misguided attempt to cope with stress. therefore, if we are to reduce the risks in our children’s lives, we need to equip them, starting in early childhood, to address life’s challenges in healthy ways. the oxford concise dictionary of sociology (1996) gives the sociology definition of cult as a small group or religions activities whose beliefs are typically secret, esoteric and individualistic. lexicon website’s dictionary defines secret cult as a group of people who share common cause and whose mode of meeting and agenda are unknown to the public and where initiation into rank and file is usually done in secret. oxford advance learners’ dictionary defines cultism as a system of religious worship especially one that is expressed in rituals. in summary, cultism can be define as a ritual practice by group of people whose membership, admission, policy and initiation formalities as well as their mode of operations ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 1 mailto:dayoasoju@gmail.com are kept secret with their activities having negative effect on both members and non-members alike. the concept of resilience was developed to “describe relative resistance to psychosocial risk experiences”. richardson (2002) define resilience as the process of coping with adversity that contributes to the development and enrichment of positive factors. traditionally, resilience has been conceptualized as an individual trait that helps a child achieve desirable emotional and social functioning despite exposure to negative life events. according to wikipedia (2013) a parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing. there are many differing theories and opinions on the best ways to rear children, as well as differing levels of time effort that parents are willing to invest. parental investment started before birth. many parents create their own style from combination of factors, and these may evolve over time as the children develops their own personalities and move through life stages. parenting style is affected by both the parents and the children’s temperaments, and is largely based on the influence of one’s own parents and culture. most parents learn parenting practices from their own parents-some they accept, some they discard. why students join cults people join cults for various reasons some of these reasons, according to muhammed (2010) are: i. some young students in cults have experienced very unstable or non-existent family relationship, but they do not constitute the norm. ii. many students have experienced varying degrees of communication problems with their parents. iii. a number of students have known the pains and deprivation of a single parents home and perhaps for this reason, some have strongly identified with older students who provide a parental image but mislead them into participating in anti-social vices like cultism. iv. some young who have problematic backgrounds and have experienced varying degrees of failure for example, those people that come from broken homes or have a history of emotional problems and unresolved personal conflicts. v. more than anything else, the young people pursing cults today involved in search for identity and a quest for spiritual reality that provides clear-cut answers to questions parents might have failed to answer. vi. the chief target of the cults are the children of affluence, these ones may be suffering from identity confusion or identity crisis and they want to be identified with renowned group and so, they easily carried away by the activities of the cults. all these hinge on home upbringing, therefore the need for parents to be enlightened on their role in what becomes of their children’s decisions n life. other reasons why students join cult groups according to oyewole (2012) includes: i. responsibility-to fight perceived injustice on their campuses against their members ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 2 ii. satisfaction of aspirations and needs-cult groups that ensure the success of their members in academic examinations or getting girl iii. security-many students of tertiary institutions, especially the female students, join cult groups in order to protects themselves (from students and lecturers), while some male students join to protect their girlfriends, and iv. social identitythere are student that join cult groups for popularity. they want to be regarded as powerful people, a way of achieving prestige and greatness with this they believe they can influence decisions on campus and dictates what happen during union and students representatives election(p.1) some students join campus cults to gain respect and acquire protection against sanction from members of the community. students also join cult groups for reasons based on passed negative experience at the family level. there are others who join because they want to create avenues to exhibit and diffuse frustration from the family, school and society. there are student who join cults group for financial assistance, while others join to hide their weakness (inferiority complex)-academic or social. some are forced to join, while others feel that the objectives of the cult are laudable and worthwhile. for some their parents are members of secrete cults and see nothing wrong with their children’s involvement in cult activities. some students see cult activities as a way of getting back at the society that has caused them so much pain and emotional distress. some students are lured into cultism by friends (peer pressure) who are members. others join because they want favour from lecture and administrative staff that are members. building resilience in children building resilience is important because it enable children to master current and future challenges. increasing number of children are exposed to serious threats to their physical and emotional wellbeing that are inherent in many contemporary societies. parents play a fundamental role in building the capacity for resilience, by providing supportive family environment. according to the american psychological association (apa) (2013) we all can develop resilience, and we can help our children develop it as well. it involves behaviors, thoughts and action that can be learned over time. one of the tips to building resilience according to apa is to teach your child how to make friends, including the skill of empathy, or feeling anther’s pain. a child with these characteristic cannot willingly hurt others as cultist do. encourage your child to be a friend in order o get friends. build a strong family network to support your child through his or her inevitable disappointment and hurts so that hurting others is not seen as a means of paying back for what they perceive as undeserved hurts. early ideas about building resilience through proper parenting are evident in the authoritative education style concept. there is a large body of literature on the relationships between parenting and child well being. the researchers found that parents of mature preschoolers differed from other by using a set of authoritative child-rearing practices. they were controlling and demanding, had high expectations for mature behavior, and firmly ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 3 reinforced them by using commands and punishment. at the same time, they were warm and encouraging, listened patiently and sensitively to their youngsters’ points of view, and encouraged children’s input in family decision making. baumrind (1996) has emphasized that the rational and reasonable use of firm control makes authoritative child rearing effective in producing positive consequences for children’s development have a tendency to internalize such fair parental control strategies. nurturing, non-permissive parents who are secure in the standards that they hold for their youngsters provide children with models of caring and concern for others, adolescents with a role model (family or teacher) were more likely to engage in positive healthy behaviors, in comprising with those without a role model (yancey, grant, kurosky, kravitzwirthz, & mistry 2011). warm family relationships and positive home environments were associated with both emotional and behaviors resilience (bowes, maughan, caspi, moffit, & arseneault 2010). zakeri, bahram, & maryam (2010) also investigated the relationship between the parenting styles and resilience. the result of their study showed that there was a positive and significant association between acceptance-involvement parenting style and resilience. more specifically, warmth, supporting, and child-centre parenting style were associative with the development of resilience. better parenting practices and better maternal mental health are significant predictors of children’s resilience (howell, graham-bermann, czcz & lilly 2010). graham-bermann, gurber, howell, and differentiate children with poor adjustment from those with resilience. they found that effective parenting behaviors such as using appropriate discipline and setting limits may protect children by providing positive role models. children who do not share problems with parents and who have feelings of being overly controlled by parents had higher levels of delinquency (mukhopadhyay, 2010). parenting styles the family is known to play an important role in building children’s resilience and in the prevention of risky behavior (veselska, geckova, orosova, gajdosova, van dijk, rijneveld, 2008). according to muhammad (2010) family influence plays an undeniable role in shaping the characters of youths. the quality of their family is reflected in their behaviors, children living in violent homes are themselves more likely to become gent of violence as they grow up an naturally see violence as an instrument of inter-group relation. family plays a very significant role in the child’s life during the development stages, family dynamics include leadership, decision making, communication, flexibility, cohesion and support system. this means that family is the best resource available for children whenever there is a problem or a need to make a vital decision. this according to howell, graham-bermann, czyz & lilly (2010) is the reason why one of the most well studied protective factors for children exposed to stress and trauma is effective parenting. in building resilience in children and teens, there are three general types of parenting when it comes to discipline techniques which are authoritarian, permissive or disengaged, and authoritative (ginsburg, 2006). while the permissive and disengaged parent rarely set limits. those limits are set and enforced much differently between the authoritarian and the authoritative parent. one particular style as shown in multiple studies to raise kids who less ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 4 often “engage in worrisome behavior and are more likely to be resilient,” and that is the authoritative parenting style, reports ginsburg. types of parenting styles i. authoritarian parenting: in this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. if asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, ”because i said so”. these parents have high demands, ut are not responsive to their children. according to baumrind (1991 these parents are obedience-and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation. authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem. ii. authoritarian parenting: like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. however, this parenting style is much more democratic. authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. when children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing an forgiving rather than punishing. baumrind (1991) suggests that these parents monitor and impact clear standards for their children’s conduct. they are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. they want their children to be assertive as well as cooperative. authoritative parenting style tends to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (maccoby, 1992). iii. permissive parenting: permissive parents sometimes referred to as indulgent parents have very few demands to make of their children. these parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. according to baumrind (1991) permissive parents are more responsive than they are demanding. they are more nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation. permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent. permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. these children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend perform poorly in school. iv. uninvolved parenting: an uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness and little communication. while these parents fulfill the child’s basic needs, they are generally detached from their child’s life. in extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their children. uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. these children tend to lack selfcontrol, have low self-esteem and are less competent than their peers. reasons why authoritative parenting provides such advantages over other styles are: first, when children perceive their parent’s requests as fair and reasonable, they are more likely to comply with the request. second the children are more likely ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 5 to internalize (or accept as their own) the reasons for behaving in a certain way and thus to achieve greater self control. of course, the parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each and every family. for example, the mother may display an authoritative style while the father favors a more permissive approach. in order to create a cohesive approach to parenting, it is essential that parent learns to cooperate as they combine various elements of their unique parenting styles. conclusion this paper focuses on the role of parents in inculcating characters that will enable children resist participation in social vices like cultism and agrees with the views of levine (2008) in her book titled “teach your children well”. madeline levine is a psychologist who brings together cutting-edge research and 30 years of clinical experience to explode once and for all the myth that good grades, high test scores, and college acceptances should not determine the parenting endgame. until we are more clear about our core values and the parenting choices that are most likely to lead to authentic, and not superficial, success, we will continue to raise exhausted, externally driven, and emotionally impaired children who believe they are only as good as their last performance and who can easily be influenced by peers and lured into anti-social behaviors. of course, most parents do not fall neatly i once category, but fall somewhere in the middle, showing characteristics of more than one style. there is no universally “best” style of parenting. the bottom line being that parenting styles are associated with different child outcomes and authoritative style is generally linked to positive behaviors such as strong selfesteem and self-competence. however, other important factors including culture, children’s perception or parental treatment, and social influences also play an important role in children’s behavior. recommendations i. parenting should themselves not belong to secrete cult so that they can have the moral justification to educate their children on the ills of cultism. ii. parents should be more available at home so they can monitor the movement of their children. iii. parents should make it a point of duty to know the associations their children make iv. counseling and training sessions on parenting styles in worship centre and all conductive gatherings should be encouraged in our society. reference american psychological association (2013). 10 tips or building resilience in children and teens washington dc baumrind, d. (1991). the influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. journal of early adolescence, 11 (1), 56-95 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 6 bowes, l., maugham, b. , casspi, a. , moffitt, t. e. , & arseneault, l (2010). family promote emotional and behavioral resilience to bullying: evidence of an environmental effect. journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 51(7), 809-817. gingsberg, k. (2006).building resilience in children and teens: giving kids roots and wings. http://www.tahoedailytribune.com/northshore/nnews.8025954-113/successarenting-resilience-truckee. grahambermann, s.a. , gruber, g., howell, k.h. , & girzb, l.(2009). factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence. child abuse & neglect, 33, 648-680. howell, k. h. , graham-bermann, s.a. , czyz, e., lilly, m.(2010). assessing resilience in preschool children exposed to intimate partner violence. violence and victims, 25(2),150-164. kiewer, w. , murelle,l. mejia, r. , torres de g. y. ,& angold. a.(2001). exposed to violence against a family member and internalizing symptoms in columbian adolescents: the protective effect of family supports. journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 69(6), 971-982. masten, a.s (2001). ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. american psychologist, 56, 277-238. muhammed, a.y.(2010). youth violence in nigeria’s 4th republic: implications for human development in the 21st century. www.unilorin,edu,ng/publications/youth%20violence.htm mukhopadhyay, l.(2010). development of resilience among school children against violence. procedia social and behavioral sciences 5, 455-458. oyewole, a.(2012). cultism, why, effect, and how to curb the menace in our tertiary institution. naijapals.com (june 22nd 2012). salami, s. o. (2010). moderating effects of resilience, self-esteem and social support on adolescents’ reactions to violence. asian social science, 6(12), 101-110. the oxford concise dictionary of sociology. u.s.a: oxford university press ungar, m. & brown, m. (2008). distinguishing differences in pathways to resilience among canadian youth. canadian journal of community mental health, 27(1), 1-13. veselska, z. , geckova, a. m. , orosova, o. , gajdosova, b. , van dijk, j.p , reijnevelld, s.a. (2008). self esteem and resilience: the connection with risky behavior among adolescents. wikipedia(2013). parenting styles. http://wikiprdia.org/wiki/paentingstyle#p-search yancey, a.k. , grant, d. , kurosky, s. , kravitz-wirtsz, n. , & mistry, r. (2011). role modeling, risk, and resilience in california adolescents. journal of adolescents health, 48, 36-43. zakeri, h., jowkar, b. , razmjoee, m. (2010). parenting style and resilience. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 5.1067-1070. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 9 | september 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 7 http://www.tahoedailytribune.com/northshore/nnews.8025954-113/success-arenting-resilience-truckee http://www.tahoedailytribune.com/northshore/nnews.8025954-113/success-arenting-resilience-truckee http://www.unilorin,edu,ng/publications/youth violence.htm http://wikiprdia.org/wiki/paentingstyle the level of romanian companies to the project management maturity model (p3m) belatreche mansour phd candidate faculty of economics abdelhamid ibn badis university, mostaganem. algeria phone: +213 550 144 017 email : mansour.belatreche@univ-mosta.dz benharrat hayet professor faculty of economics abdelhamid ibn badis university, mostaganem, algeria phone : +213 667291114 email: hayat.benharrat@univ-mosta.dz razvan nistor, professor babeş-bolyai university, cluj nappoca, phone :40 264 418 652 email: razvan.nistor@econ.ubbcluj.ro abstract. nothing accommodates to the human life to accomplish and plan. since the dawn of history, project has represented all the fascinated building, industries and infrastructures in the world. for this, in recent years, project management has shown great vitality in the field of management over the world due to its flexibility and feasibility. the current development of project management takes place in various professional and academic contexts and diversified through the multitude of interventions of professionals and researchers. the degree or extent of capability or competency regarding project management is referred to as "maturity. due to the importance of the project management nowadays, this paper is meant to reveal these initiatives in this field, the different models, methods, techniques and tools used for this, and what is the romanian organization's capability or competency in managing projects? keywords:project management, models, techniques, tools and methods, project management maturity model. 1. introduction the race towards the development of the concept project management was clear and blatant. depending on the years of the evolution of this concept, there has been an ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 1 mailto:mansour.belatreche@univ-mosta.dz mailto:hayat.benharrat@univ-mosta.dz mailto:razvan.nistor@econ.ubbcluj.ro intervention by several categories of people: professionals, academic researchers, computer scientists, sociologists, leaders and mathematicians who have contributed to this paradigm richness and diversity on different plans: knowledge, practice and perspectives. over the past 20 years there has been an improvement in the quality and rigour of project management research. in the 1970s research in project management was dominated by practitioners, who set the research agenda and style. then in the 1980s, it was dominated by the professional associations, all of whom wanted to develop their bodies of knowledge as the basis of their certification programs. the result of this study (turner et al., 2011) was that research in project management was very practitioner oriented. however, over the past 20 years, there has been a substantial improvement in the quality and rigour of research in project management, particularly: a) it is based on recent theory development; b) it contributes to a wider range of other disciplines; and c) it is appreciated outside the field; d) it contains a wider range of available methods for the successful delivery of projects. 2. literature review 2.1. project management paradigm so if the project management's field is to progress, explicit understanding of the theoretical basis of project management is necessary, as it provides the opportunity to understand the assumptions, which underpin practice, to question their appropriateness, and then consciously choose an alternative, when it is appropriate to do so. in an article(pollack, 2007), the author highlights the relationship between the notion of paradigm and pm, which he concluded that the range of theoretical frameworks being applied in pm research and practice appears to be expanding, and the field shows a significant level of plurality. increasing diversity of theoretical frameworks in the field of information systems has been heralded as a healthy sign for research progress and a sign of maturation of a discipline. an increase in theoretical diversity can be taken as a health sign for the field of pm as well. specially, a strong emphasis on the hard paradigm can also be seen in how the tools and techniques commonly associated with pm have developed. in fact(kerzner, 2009), the pm approach is relatively modern. it is characterized by methods of restructuring management and adapting special management techniques, with the purpose of obtaining better control and use of existing resources. 2.2. project management model several project management models have developed over the years. the majority of these epistemological postures are positivism since guidelines, tools, techniques and sometimes skills are established at a general level to be applied in specific projects. the discipline of project management has its concepts, but their implementations vary from one model to another. if in theory there is a diversity of models and visions in the discipline of project management, it must be recognized that in practice all these conceptual differences overlap. pmbok(smyth and morris, no date) guide is the formal model of project management for a very great many people and enterprises. it is the most simplistic, with a primary focus upon task execution and fails to refer to the management of frontend issues, exogenous factors, strategy or human factors. pmbok is epistemologically closely associated with positivism, seeking general explanations and solutions for practice, tending to disregard context. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 2 the ipma competency baseline and apm body of knowledge reflect the functionalist framework. the japanese bok is more eclectic, not quite reflecting any of these paradigms. for iso 21500(stellingwerf and zandhuis, 2013), it is referred to as an informative standard; a guideline that can be defined as a basic conceptual structure to allow homogeneous handling of different business processes grouped together and increases management discipline. being a basic reference iso 21500 is a guideline rather than a method or methodology. 2.3. project management tools and techniques a strong emphasis(pollack, 2007) on the hard paradigm can also be seen in how the tools and techniques commonly associated with pm have developed. pm tools and techniques are predominantly quantitative. for instance, söderlund identifies ‘‘... that ‘traditional’ project management research is classifiable either as one of ‘optimization’ or as ‘critical success factor’ research ...’’ where the former primarily involves reductionist breakdown techniques, and the latter favors quantitative analysis of large surveys. moreover, as the project(lock, 2016) means doing something new, possibly even something risky or adventurous, which in the business world this usually means creating something that someone else wants and is prepared to pay for. most projects have targets, which means they have to be built right, within a cost budget, and finished by a certain date. in this case, project management is simply making sure that all these targets are met, with appropriate tools and quantitative techniques. project management tools and techniques have been practiced since early civilization. however, it was not until the 1950s that organizations started to apply project management tools and techniques to complex engineering projects systematically. great many research has been provided on project management tools and techniques, however, the vast majority of which focuses on particular project management tools or specific project management practice. one of these studies(besner and hobbs, 2008) tended to identify general use and usefulness of project management practices. the paper was based on a large-scale survey of 750 experienced project management practitioners. a part of the questionnaire was composed of a series of questions designed to investigate the 70 tools and techniques drawn from the pmbok (2004) guide and completed with definitions by the authors. but between 2004 and 2012, many improvements have been made. for pmbok (2012)(project management institute, 2013), other tools were added and others improved or modified, which made the pmi enriched this fifth edition through the criticisms of researchers and the experience of professionals. 2.4. project management maturity model the project management methodology(nicholas and steyn, 2008) provides a framework and set of structured tasks, tools, and techniques to conceive, define, plan, schedule, budget, track, control, and close out projects. it is the means by which all projects in an organization are managed and performed in a standardized, disciplined, and systematic manner, using recognized best practices. the degree or extent of capability or competency regarding project management is referred to as “maturity”. the oxford advanced learner’s dictionary(pretorius, steyn and jordaan, 2012) defines ‘maturity’ as “the state of being fully grown or developed”. when this concept is applied to a project, it could imply a situation where an organisation has ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 3 standards and procedures in place that would assist it in reaching its objectives. an organisation is mature when it is in a position to deal perfectly with its projects. the concept(cooke-davies and arzymanow, 2003) of process maturity was born in the totalquality management movement, where the applicationof statistical process control techniques showed that improving the maturity of any technical process leads to two things: a reduction in the variability inherent inthe process, and an improvement in the mean performance of the process. project management maturity(nicholas and steyn, 2008) refers to an organization’s capability or competency in managing projects, and includes the extent to which it employs a methodology and formalized methods for project planning and control, multi-project integration, and continuous improvement. maturity can be formally measured and assessed using maturity models; a high rating on these models indicates that an organization has achieved a high level of standardization in its project management practices and processes. because of many different maturitymodels, one research(simangunsong and da silva, 2013) is focused onfour models for general industry andcommonly used: a)capability maturity model (cmm) developed by carnegie mellon university and the software engineering institute in 1993; b)pm solutions project management maturity model (pmmm) adapted from the cmm and the nine knowledge areas of pmi; c)project management process maturity (pm) model developed by kwak and ibbs in 2002; d)project management maturity model (prommm) proposed by pmprofesional solutions limited. and also the organizational project management maturity model (opm3)(institute, 2013) developed in 1998 and proposed by the project management institute (pmi).having achieved a high rating according to a standard maturity model, a company can potentially use that rating to its advantage. any model selected(crawford, 2014) to measure project management maturity must point out a logical path for progressive development. in effect, a good model for the measurement of project management maturity creates a strategic plan for moving project management forward in an organization. in this case, the results of the qualitative content analysis(albrecht and spang, 2016) made the differences between some project management maturity models based on multiple criteria. 3. empirical research in the context of the development of romania and the diversity of projects undertaken in different sectors, awareness of the concept of project management is essential for maintaining this progress trajectory effectively and efficiently because it is the only tool for organizing projects in a rapidly expanding country. today, romania is in full structural development and economic effervescence in view of the regional operational program por funded by the european funding-based projects, which encompasses several projects in different economic and social sectors. given its importance for this country, this paper try to highlight the concept of project management maturity during this decade 2007-2017. completion is crucial and essential for the growth of organizations and their future reputation. the purpose of por(nistor and zăgan-zelter, 2012) is to support a balanced growth of all country areas through ensuring that all areas have a minimum level of business, social and human capital infrastructure, which would allow for economic growth. the evolution of projects within the framework of the por program is schematized along different axes and regions. this chronology of the different stages of projects, submitted, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 4 approved or rejected, contracted to finalized, was established according to information reported by romanian institutions. por implementation development projects are shown in graph 1. they reflect the cumulative years of rop implementation steps (for example, the number of projects approved in 2016 phase includes the number of projects approved during of previous years). during this implementation, the graph reflects the passage of projects from the submission stage to the rejection stage or the contract commitment. it is noted that the cumulative number of projects contracted increases from 1090 to 4560 projects. graph 2 illustrates the evolution of the success rate in the commitment of the submitted projects, which reach projects. what is important is that, between 2013 and 2015, the success rate was greater than the rejection rate. for more details, graph 3 reflects this analysis in a given period (31.03.2016) accordin the regions. there is a difference between the cumulative number of projects submitted, rejected and contracted in each region where the highest cumulative projects are south of 762. for success and rejection rates, graph 4 illustrates the success ra same southern region. it is clear that implementation capacities were strengthened and the monitoring skills were developed at all levels due to the fact that the actors involved had to carefully follow the implementation of projects / programs. thus, the multi-annual programming programme facilitated an efficient planning and correlation of the activities regarding the launching, contracting and project implementation, as well as an efficient planning of resources, being a useful exercise for the management of graph 1: source : 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 2352 2884 7557 approved or rejected, contracted to finalized, was established according to information reported by romanian institutions. por implementation development projects are shown in graph 1. they reflect the rop implementation steps (for example, the number of projects approved in 2016 phase includes the number of projects approved during of previous years). during this implementation, the graph reflects the passage of projects from the submission e rejection stage or the contract commitment. it is noted that the cumulative number of projects contracted increases from 1090 to 4560 projects. graph 2 illustrates the evolution of the success rate in the commitment of the submitted projects, which reached 45.65%, and the rate of rejection of the submitted projects. what is important is that, between 2013 and 2015, the success rate was greater for more details, graph 3 reflects this analysis in a given period (31.03.2016) accordin the regions. there is a difference between the cumulative number of projects submitted, rejected and contracted in each region where the highest cumulative projects are south of for success and rejection rates, graph 4 illustrates the success rate, which is 53.7% in the it is clear that implementation capacities were strengthened and the monitoring skills were developed at all levels due to the fact that the actors involved had to carefully follow the cts / programs. annual programming(‘rop final version.pdf’, no date) phare esc 2004 programme facilitated an efficient planning and correlation of the activities regarding the launching, contracting and project implementation, as well as an efficient planning of resources, being a useful exercise for the management of the structural funds. graph 1: por implementation stage per date : www.inforegio.ro(adminholisun, no date) 2884 3183 3669 4470 4612 7979 8187 8474 9990 9990 contracted rejected approved or rejected, contracted to finalized, was established according to information por implementation development projects are shown in graph 1. they reflect the rop implementation steps (for example, the number of projects approved in 2016 phase includes the number of projects approved during of previous years). during this implementation, the graph reflects the passage of projects from the submission it is noted that the cumulative number of projects contracted increases from 1090 to 4560 projects. graph 2 illustrates the evolution of the success rate in the commitment of the ed 45.65%, and the rate of rejection of the submitted projects. what is important is that, between 2013 and 2015, the success rate was greater for more details, graph 3 reflects this analysis in a given period (31.03.2016) according to the regions. there is a difference between the cumulative number of projects submitted, rejected and contracted in each region where the highest cumulative projects are south of te, which is 53.7% in the it is clear that implementation capacities were strengthened and the monitoring skills were developed at all levels due to the fact that the actors involved had to carefully follow the phare esc 2004-2006 programme facilitated an efficient planning and correlation of the activities regarding the launching, contracting and project implementation, as well as an efficient planning of the structural funds. rejected submitted ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 5 http://www.inforegio.ro/ graph 2: source: authors the beneficiaries learned to identify non projects, being aware of the availability of important amounts, contributing thus to the overall social and economic development. for graph 5, it represents the cumulative p program by adding the most important phase, which is the finalization of projects until 31.05.2015. the cumulative finalized projects indicate an increase in the realization of the contracted projects. there are projects finalized in the business climate, which is a very essential factor to ensure a security for the commitment of the organizations in the realization of this por development project. it is noteworthy that the 76 projects submitted were contrac them were finalized, which is a high rate of 70%. for more details, graph 6 shows the evolution of the rate of finalization of the projects contracted from the different priority axes from 2012 to 2015. it is noted that the r finalization of the projects of the business climate axis rose from 31.39 to 80.86%. for the at axis, projects contracted in 2012 were finalized at a rate of 94.54% in 2013 only, which means that the methods of selecting stakeholders are effective; the appropriate tools and techniques for the management of these projects. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 graph 2: evolution of success and rejection rate authors bywww.inforegio.ro(adminholisun, no date) beneficiaries learned to identify non-reimbursable financing sources and to design projects, being aware of the availability of important amounts, contributing thus to the overall social and economic development. for graph 5, it represents the cumulative projects of the six priority axes of the por program by adding the most important phase, which is the finalization of projects until ive finalized an increase in the realization of the contracted projects. there are projects finalized in the business climate, which is a very essential factor to ensure a security for the commitment of the organizations in the realization of this por development project. it is noteworthy that the 76 projects submitted were contracted from the at axis and 53 of them were finalized, which is a high rate of 70%. for more details, graph 6 shows the evolution of the rate of finalization of the projects contracted from the different priority axes from 2012 to 2015. it is noted that the r finalization of the projects of the business climate axis rose from 31.39 to 80.86%. for the at axis, projects contracted in 2012 were finalized at a rate of 94.54% in 2013 only, which means that the methods of selecting stakeholders are effective; and the stakeholders have the appropriate tools and techniques for the management of these projects. 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 success rate rejection rate (adminholisun, no date) reimbursable financing sources and to design projects, being aware of the availability of important amounts, contributing thus to the rojects of the six priority axes of the por program by adding the most important phase, which is the finalization of projects until an increase in the realization of the contracted projects. there are 1812 projects finalized in the business climate, which is a very essential factor to ensure a security for the commitment of the organizations in the realization of this por development project. ted from the at axis and 53 of for more details, graph 6 shows the evolution of the rate of finalization of the projects contracted from the different priority axes from 2012 to 2015. it is noted that the rate of finalization of the projects of the business climate axis rose from 31.39 to 80.86%. for the at axis, projects contracted in 2012 were finalized at a rate of 94.54% in 2013 only, which and the stakeholders have the appropriate tools and techniques for the management of these projects. 2 0 1 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 6 http://www.inforegio.ro/ graph 3: graph 4: comparison between success and rejection rate in different regions 0 500 1000 1500 2000 northeast south east south 722 528 1643 1157 graph 3:por implementation stage per region source: www.inforegio.ro comparison between success and rejection rate in different regions south south west west north west center bucuresti -ilfov 479 466 353 819 730 1157 1419 1049 846 1590 1337 contracted rejected submitted comparison between success and rejection rate in different regions bucuresti ilfov 515 1337 949 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 7 http://www.inforegio.ro/ graph 5:por implementation stage per priority axis graph 6: evolution of finalization rate of projects contracted from different priority axes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 urban transport 675 162 880 source: authorswww.inforegio.ro por implementation stage per priority axis source: www.inforegio.ro evolution of finalization rate of projects contracted from different priority axes success rate rejection rate transport social mediul de afaceri turism at 162 891 2241 658 76 329 1676 5693 1412 finalized contracted approved evolution of finalization rate of projects contracted from different priority axes 76 submitted ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 8 http://www.inforegio.ro/ http://www.inforegio.ro/ source: authors: www.inforegio.ro it is also possible to highlight the increase in the cumulative number of projects finalized from 2012 to 2015. graph 7 clearly reflects this evolution along the different axes. certainly in the case of the business climate, it is the most dominant axis in creating a favorable and adequate environment for investments. for the progress of the social axis, it is noted that it is the highest cumulative of the finalized projects, 363 projects. it is a very essential factor for the development and the gain of trust of the society. it is clear that the implementation of the por projects in the framework of submission, approval, contractual commitment or finalization takes into consideration several techniques: ⁻ the introduction of the evaluation of the technical projects into the evaluation and selection stage, performed by independent specialized evaluators; ⁻ the support to beneficiaries in the implementation on projects through pre-financing mechanism; ⁻ the amendment of the national legislation in constructions – civil engineering; ⁻ the organization of active training sessions for beneficiaries in order to develop mature and viable projects. graph 7: evolution of finalization rate along the different priority axes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 6 . 0 3 . 2 0 1 2 1 5 . 0 5 . 2 0 1 3 2 3 . 1 0 . 2 0 1 4 3 1 . 0 5 . 2 0 1 5 urban transport social mediul de afaceri turism at ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 9 http://www.inforegio.ro/ source: authorswww.inforegio.ro from all these details, one notices that the notion of project management good practices exists, whether it is in public organizations when approving projects or in the implementing organizations. for the latter, completion of a project is only a sign of maturity at least at the first level, since the selected model contains certain indicators drawn from the implementation of the 2004-2006 program (according to the 2007 final study report). this is the evolution of the projects of the rop program 2007-2013. in addition, this is only a proof of the experience accumulated in the maturity of project management practice whether for public, private or international organizations. 4. conclusion according to these results, there is a very good indicator of maturity that must be studied closely in the organizations that have assumed responsibility for carrying out the projects in the framework of the development of romania. this study is only preliminary to further studies because it is noted that much research has been concerned with the financial analysis of projects and the absorption rate of the european aid fund forgotten the management maturity side of the project. certainly, according to a study carried out in the construction sector(‘raport-sar2016_capitolul-3.pdf’, no date), a number of top 55 organizations have had the opportunity to acquire investments subsidized by the european union, but a considerable number of romanian organizations have had this privilege and participated in this development that must be studied closely. finally, this study aims to encourage other researchers to focus on this aspect in order to highlight the level of maturity of these romanian organizations and to participate in their evolution, which has a crucial impact on the future regional operational program por 2014202 and the full integration of romania into the european union. at the end, it is important to realize that all these aspects initiated or described in this paper should be taken into consideration in order to go efficiently and effectively towards evolution, development and integration in contemporary society. references 1812 258 93 363 281 53 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 1 6 . 0 3 . 2 0 1 2 1 5 . 0 5 . 2 0 1 3 2 3 . 1 0 . 2 0 1 4 3 1 . 0 5 . 2 0 1 5 mediul de afaceri urban transport social turism at ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 10 1. adminholisun (no date) stadiul contractării. available at: http://www.inforegio.ro/ro/domenii-de-finantare/stadiul-contractarii.html (accessed: 15 may 2017). 2. albrecht, j. c. and spang, k. (2016) ‘disassembling and reassembling project management maturity’, project management journal, 47(5), pp. 18–35. 3. besner, c. and hobbs, b. (2008) ‘project management practice, generic or contextual: a reality check’, project management journal, 39(1), pp. 16–33. 4. cooke-davies, t. j. and arzymanow, a. (2003) ‘the maturity of project management in different industries: an investigation into variations between project management models’, international journal of project management. held in renesse, seeland, the netherlands, 28-31 may 2002.), 21(6), pp. 471–478. 5. crawford, j. k. (2014) project management maturity model, third edition. crc press. 6. institute, p. m. (2013) organizational project management maturity model (opm3®) knowledge foundation. project management institute. 7. kerzner, h. r. (2009) project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. wiley. 8. lock, d. (2016) project management in construction. crc press. 9. nicholas, j. m. and steyn, h. (2008) project management for business, engineering, and technology : principles and practice. 3rd ed. elsevier butterworth heinemann. 10. nistor, r. and zăgan-zelter, d. (2012) ‘risk management of european projects. case study: p.o.r.’, managerial challenges of the contemporary society, (4), pp. 67–72. 11. pollack, j. (2007) ‘the changing paradigms of project management’, international journal of project management, 25(3), pp. 266–274. 12. pretorius, s., steyn, h. and jordaan, j. c. (2012) ‘project management maturity and project management success in the engineering and construction industries in southern africa’, south african journal of industrial engineering, 23(3), pp. 1–12. 13. project management institute (ed.) (2013) a guide to the project management body of knowledge: (pmbok® guide) ; an american national standard ansi-pmi 99-001-2013. 5. ed. newtown square, pa: pmi (global standard). 14. ‘raport-sar-2016_capitolul-3.pdf’ (no date). available at: http://sar.org.ro/wpcontent/uploads/2016/02/raport-sar-2016_capitolul-3.pdf (accessed: 15 may 2017). 15. ‘rop final version.pdf’ (no date). available at: http://www.mdrl.ro/_documente/por/rop%20final%20version.pdf (accessed: 15 may 2017). 16. simangunsong, e. and da silva, e. n. (2013) ‘analyzing project management maturity level in indonesia’, the south east asian journal of management. 17. smyth, h. j. and morris, p. w. g. (no date) ‘an epistemological evaluation of research into projects and their management: methodological issues’, international journal of project management, 25, pp. 423–436. 18. stellingwerf, r. and zandhuis, a. (2013) iso 21500 guidance on project management a pocket guide. van haren. 19. turner, r., pinto, j. and bredillet, c. (2011) ‘the evolution of project management research: the evidence from the journals’, the oxford handbook of project management. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 03 | march 2020 www.ijojournals.com 11 abstract. nothing accommodates to the human life to accomplish and plan. since the dawn of history, project has represented all the fascinated building, industries and infrastructures in the world. word bookmarks _goback the relationship between israel, countries of the arab east and world powers in the context of solving the palestinian issue at the turn of the xxxxi centuries sergiu nazaria, prof., aap, moldova, sergnazar@mail.ru julia sirota, carmel college, israel, jsirota1976@gmail.com sayed sayed, phd student of aap, moldova, sayedsay@hinuchm.k12.il abstract: the paper talks about dissertation paper dealing with the issues of solving the palestinian-israeli conflict of the xx-xxi centuries. it talks about main methods, literatures sources, and contributions. keywords: israel, palestine, jerusalem, occupation, seizure, annexation, jewish settlements, refugees, "two states", diplomatic pressure, conflict, agreement, palestinian-israeli relations, territorial dispute, peaceful settlement, security, negotiations, aggression, terror introduction the relevance of the research topic and the degree of knowledge of the problem. global geostrategic shifts at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries led to a change in the international status of the middle east. modern international relations, even after the formal end of the era of bloc confrontation, are still characterized by a high level of conflict. the processes of globalization have led to the expansion of the range of participants in international disputes, in which not only neighboring countries are involved, but also the world powers that are geographically far from them. the relevance of this work is determined by the fact that the relations of the region's states among themselves and, first, israel with arab countries, as well as between them and the main world actors in the 90s-2000s, have experienced a significant evolution. so, in the 90s. there was a sharp weakening of russia's influence in the arab east and the strengthening of the us ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:sergnazar@mail.ru mailto:jsirota1976@gmail.com mailto:sayedsay@hinuchm.k12.il position as a leader in the middle east settlement process, so that by the middle of the second decade of the 21st century the situation would change again towards the growth of authority of the russian federation in the middle and near east; the process of israel’s relations with the palestinians and arab countries in the context of the resolution of the palestinian issue, from optimism in the early 1990s to a new deadlock at the beginning of the 21st century, was also ambiguous. at the present stage, a wide range of problems and contradictions characterizes relations in middle eastern countries. the middle east conflict is the longest of all the unresolved conflicts in the world, and the process of its peaceful settlement has remained the most relevant for the entire world community for more than a decade. in order to ease the tense situation in the region, the most influential states, as well as major international organizations, are trying with all their might to resolve the conflict by peaceful means. however, despite all these efforts, attempts at peacemaking did not lead to strong and long-lasting results, and in the degree of conflict potential of the region, the conflict has a pronounced tendency to increase. the relevance of the topic of the dissertation research is also due to the need for a deeper understanding of the development of modern international relations in the middle east region, which is one of the key areas of foreign policy of leading world and regional powers, including israel. the study of this topic allows a more fully understanding of the content of the modern policy of the state of israel, as well as reveal the internal springs and mechanisms for the formation of the foreign policy of the jewish state. in this respect, international relations in the middle east and israel’s relations with its arab neighbors, as well as with world and regional powers, including palestinian issues, have always been the focus of scholars. over the past 3 decades, a great deal of work has been done in covering middle eastern themes. in many countries of the world during this time, thousands of works have been published. naturally, in the first place, international relations in the arab east and, in particular, the israeli-palestinian confrontation constantly remain at the epicenter of the interests of israeli politicians1, diplomats2and international scholars3. ;peres s. battling for peace: a memoir. new york, 1995 ;דיין, מ. מפה חדשה יחסים אחרים. ספריית מעריב, שקמונה, חיפה, 1 peres s., littell r., gil a. for the future of israel. baltimore, 1998; меирг. мояжизнь. чимкент, 1997; sharon a., chanoff d. warrior: an autobiography. new york, 2001; netanyahu b. a durable peace: israel and its place among nations. newyork, 2000, other. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 theworksofarabauthors4 and specialists from non-arab countries of the region5are also of major importance. among the works of authors from countries outside the middle east, first has to be noted the world-famous work of zbigniew brzezinski “the great chess board”6. the book is a reflection on america’s geopolitical power and on the strategies by which this power can be achieved in the 21st century. brzezinski focuses most of his attention on the us geopolitical strategy regarding eurasia. he believed that the primacy on the eurasian continent is in fact the primacy in the world, and considered one of the most important us strategic goals of their dominance in the middle east. the dissertation also used other works by this analyst7. another well-known american internationalist and middle eastern specialist, henry kissinger, also paid special attention to studying the situation in the middle eastin a number of his works8 2голендер д. россия и израиль. стратегические партнеры, поющие одни и те же народные песни // межд. жизнь, №12, 2010; мустафа фаед. мирный процесс на ближнем востоке и его перспективы // межд. жизнь, 2011, №8. 3гейзель зеэв. политические структуры государства израиль. м., 2001; штереншис м. история государства израиль. 1896-2002. герцлия, 2005; .בר־טל ד. לחיות עם הסכסוך – ניתוח פסיכולוגי־חברתי של החברה היהודית בישראל. כרמל .чернин в. ближневосточный фронтир. израильское поселенчество: история и современность ; 2007..ירושלים иерусалим, 2010; .2011 ,ויסגלס, ד. 2011 .אריק שרון ראש ממשלה – מבט אישי. הוצאת משכל; сакер г.м. история израиля. иерусалим, 2011; rabinovichi. thelingeringconflict. israel, thearabs, andthemiddleeast 1948-2011 // asabancenteratthebrookingsinstitutionbook, washingtondc, 2011; לביא, א. (עורך). יחסי צבא־חברה בישראל: השלכות על шнеер а. заметки ;קבלת החלטות בנושאי ביטחון ושלום. מרכז תמי שטינמץ למחקרי שלום, אוניברסיטת תל אביב, 2011. пессимиста // relaţii internaţionale plus. revistăştiinţifico-practică. 2013, nr.2. р. 181-190; haritos g. cyprus, turkey and israel: changing realities and dilemmas. tel aviv university. dayan center. tel aviv notes, vol. 7, no. 7, april 10, 2013; эпштейн а.д. ближайшиесоюзники? подлинная история американо-израильских отношений. т. 2. эпоха дипломатии: сорок лет «борьбы за мир», 1974-2014. м., 2014 и др. .اسرائیل ...حمدان،جمال،فلسطیناوال ;2007 مركزالزیتونھللدراساتواالبحاث، :بیروت .التویجري،عبدالعزیز،العالماالسالمیوالغربالتحدیاتوالمستقبل4 .barrarih. themiddleeastpeacebypiece: thequestforasolutiontothearab-israeliconflict ;2000 مكتبھمدبولي، :القاھره amman, 2009; ganim a. palestinian politics after arafat: a failed national movement // indiana series in middle east studies. bloomington and indianapolis, 2010; 2011-2001 لوادیھ،احمد،السیاسھالخارجیھاالمریكیھتجاھالقضیھالفلسطینیھ. // tuastad d. hamas – plo relations before and after the arab spring ;2013 مركزالزیتونھللدراساتواالستشارات، :بیروت middle east policy. 2013. v. 20. nr.3; قاومھالفلسطینیھلالحتالالالسرائیلیفیبیتالمقدسابوعرفھ،خالد،الم :بیروت .1987-2015 .2017 مركزالزیتونھللدراساتواالستشارات، :بیروت .كیفنقاضیاسرائیل .لدھشان،سعید ;2017مركزالزیتونةللدراساتواالستشارات، 5барзегар кайхан. поворот в ближневосточной геополитике // россия в глобальной политике, 2012, №2; ганджи акбар. кто такой али хаменеи? // россия в глобальной политике, 2013, №5; барзегар кайхан. стратегическая необходимость // россия в глобальной политике, 2014, №1; sulaimanrafik. labirintsoffederalism: thewayofkurdistan // moldoscopie(problemedeanaliză politică), 2018, nr.4 (lxxxiii). 6 brzezinski zb. the grand chessboard: american primacy and its geostrategic imperatives. washington, 1997. 7 brzezinski z. power and limits: memoirs of national security advisor 1977-1981. n.y., 1983; brzezinski zbigniew. from hope to audacity // foreign affairs, january-february 2010; бжезинскийзб. от надежды к дерзанию // россия в глобальной политике, 2010, №1. 8kissingerh. whitehouseyears. boston, 1979; kissinger h. years of upheaval. boston, toronto, 1982; kissinger h. diplomacy. new york, 1994; kissinger h. does america need a foreign policy?: toward a diplomacy for the 21st century. newyork, 2002; киссинджер г. понять путина. политика здравого смысла. м., 2014. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 among russian researchers, first, it should be noted the work of a well-known specialist in middle eastern issues, academician yevgeny primakov9, director of the institute of the middle east yevgeny satanovsky10, george mirsky11and others. in moldova, such researchers are engaged in the middle east theme assuchevyanu natalia, grosuruslana, victor zhuk, victor moraru, diana benkech and some young researchers from israel and neighboring countries, who defended their dissertations or are continuing their phd studies in moldova12. this topic has not remained outside the attention of romanian specialists13as well. 9примаков е.м. конфиденциально: ближний восток на сцене и за кулисами (вторая половина xx – начало xxi века) // http://www.globalaffairs.ru/book/n_7767; примаков е. ближний восток: принуждение к миру // россия в глобальной политике, 2002, №1; примаков е.м. «исламское государство» – реальная опасность // азия и африка сегодня, 2015, №7. 10сатановский е.я. россия и израиль в xxi веке // международная жизнь. 1998, №3; сатановский е. новый ближний восток // россия в глобальной политике, 2005, №2; сатановский е. пять лет войны за нефть и демократию // межд. жизнь, 2008, №5; сатановский е. революция и демократия в исламском мире // россия в глобальной политике, 2011, №1; сатановский е. между кризисом и катастрофой // россия в глобальной политике, 2015, №6. 11мирский г.и. большой ближний восток – самый конфликтный регион мира // безопасность евразии. 2007, №2; мирский г. израильско-палестинский узел большого ближнего востока // вестн. аналитики. 2010, №1; мирский г. арабский мир: надоело, не верим, не боимся // международные процессы, 2011. т. 9, №1; мирский г.и. на ближнем востоке атмосфера накаляется // север – юг – россия, 2010. ежегодник. м., 2011; мирский г.и. палестинский тупик // север – юг – россия, 2012. ежегодник. м., 2013; мирский г. «арабская весна» – туман и тревога // россия в глобальной политике, 2013, №2; мирский г.и. израильскопалестинский тупик // север – юг – россия, 2013. ежегодник. м., 2014; мирский г. драма арабского востока // мэимо, 2014, №11. 12suceveanunatalia. diferendularabo-israelian ca situaţie de conflict îndreptul international. teza de doctor îndrept. chișinău, 2003;grosu r. ineficiența mecanismelor politico-militare în asigurarea securității în orientul mijlociu și perspectiva creării unui sistem regional complex bazat pe conceptul securității collective // studia securitatis. revistă de studii de securitate. 2013, nr.2; grosu r. transformările structural-sistemice din arealulislamic: studiuistoriografic // revista de filosofie, sociologieșiștiințepolitice. 2014, nr.2; juc v. grosu r. subsistemeleregionale din orientulmijlociuînabordărileteoretico-metodologice din federațiarusă // relațiiinternaționale, științepoliticeșistudii de securitate. mater. conf. șt. int. sibiu, universitatea „lucian blaga”, 2014; moraru victor, sulaimanrafik. labirints of federalism: the way of kurdistan // moldoscopie(probleme de analizăpolitică), 2018, nr.4 (lxxxiii). p. 80-90; abou salem essam faisal abdel karim. strategiiinternaţionalecontemporane de soluţionare a conflictelorregionale (cazulconflictuluipalestino-israelian). autoref. altezei de doctor înștiințepolitice. chișinău, 2006 // http://www.cnaa.md/thesis/20701/; абоусалемессам. перспективыурегулированияпалестино-израильскогоконфликта // moldoscopie(problemedeanalizăpolitică). partea 2 (xxxiii). chișinău, 2006. c. 145-157; абоусалемессам. современные конфликты и способы их урегулирования (на примере приднестровского и палестино-израильского конфликтов). автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени доктора исторических наук. кишинев, гу молдовы, 2006 // http://www.netess.ru/3istoriya/345176-1-sovremennie-konflikti-sposobi-uregulirovaniya-na-primerepridnestrovskogo-palestino-izrailskogo-konfliktov.php; naamnamohammad, benchecidiana. palestinian civil society in israel // științapoliticășisocietateaînschimbare. materialeleconferințeiștiințificeinternaționale dedicate celei de-a 20-aaniversări a facultăţiirelaţiiinternaţionale, ştiinţepoliticeşi administrative, chișinău, 2015. p. 126132; naamna mohammad. political-electoral transformations in israel in the contemporary period: historical and political approach // moldoscopie(probleme de analizăpolitică), 2018, nr.4 (lxxxiii). p. 91-99; naamna mohammad. the palestinian exodus – „nakba” // moldoscopie(probleme de analizăpolitică), 2016, nr.1 (lxxxiii). p. 166-172; . 13chican dumitru. primavara araba sau chipurile lui ianus. baia mare, 2011; rus raluca. între mit şi realitate: lupta pentru țara sfântă. iași, editura lumen, 2009; lucian sanda. conflictulisraeliano-palestinian. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 working hypothesis: the middle east conflict can only be resolved through political and diplomatic means, but every peace agreement is followed by a new confrontation. we set ourselves the appropriate goals and objectives based on the relevance and degree of knowledge of the problem. the purpose of this work is to identify the role and significance of relations between israel and the palestinians, with the countries of the arab east, with the world and regional non-arab powers at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries and their influence on the prospects for solving the palestinian issue. the set goal made it necessary to solve the following tasks: characterize the perception of israeli, arab, western, russian, moldavian and romanian researchers, diplomats and representatives of political elites on the emergence, state and prospects of resolving the palestinian issue, on the role of great world and middle eastern powers in this; reveal the theoretical and methodological basis of the question of the relationship of israel with the arab states, great powers and palestinians; study the genesis of the middle east confrontation, the arab-israeli wars of 1948-1982 and the subsequent evolution of relations between the state of israel and its neighbors at the end of the 20th and early 21st centuries based on the entire available complex of sources; consider the nature and effectiveness of the regional strategy for finding allies by israel; analyze the israeli-palestinian conflict, its causes, evolution and current state; investigate in this connection the question of the establishment of a palestinian state, the status of jerusalem, palestinian refugees and israeli settlements in the occupied (disputed) arab territories; study and analyze the strategic partnership of israel and the united states on the palestinian issue, the dynamics of its manifestations in 1991-2018 and the prospects for cooperation; reveal the israeli-palestinian vector of foreign policy of european and regional powers; study the approaches of the regional neighbors of the jewish state to the palestinian settlement process in 1991-2018, the mechanism and effectiveness of the so-called “new peripheral strategy” of israel; repereistoriceşidimensiuniinternaţionale. bucureşti, 2011; veliscuviorel. orientulmijlociu – zonă a conflictelorinterminabile?! // http://www.arduph.ro/domenii/conducerea-ostilitatilor/orientul-mijlociu-zona-aconflictelor-interminabile/; sandovici dănuţ-florin. dinamica arhitecturii de securitate a orientului mijlociu in contextul transformarilor regionale incepute in anul 2011. bucuresti, 2015. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 consider the prospects of the middle east settlementthrough the prism of documents and scientific literature of the end of the xx-th the beginning of the xxi-th centuries. methodological base and research methods.the work is based on the following principles: historicism, which allows to bring out the laws of development of the foreign policy of middle eastern countries at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries; objectivity, which requires a comprehensive consideration of factors affecting foreign policy and its generating conditions; the unity of the logical and historical, requiring a combination of studying the history of the object (foreign policy of middle eastern countries) with the theory (ie, structure, functions and relations), as well as with the development prospects. at the same time, this work also relies on scientific principles formulated in the framework of theories of political realism and neorealism14, allowing to understand the features of the functioning of interstate relations in general and the foreign policy of world powers, individual middle eastern states at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries, including israel, in particular, and the palestinian national autonomy. the study of the topic is carried out based on a comprehensive analysis of documentary materials on the foreign policy of the states of the region with the establishment of cause-effect relationships in the chronological sequence of events and their concrete historical interpretation. various research methods such as descriptive, analytical, content analysis, institutional, comparative analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, retrospective and interpretative, etc. were usedin disclosing this topic. scientific novelty of the work. for the first time in the republic of moldova, the present study comprehensively investigated the palestinian problem and the international militarydiplomatic struggle for its fair resolution at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries in all their versatility; the views of experts, diplomats and politicians from different countries on this issue are shown and analyzed; it reviewed the degree of knowledge of the problem and carried out an analysis of expert assessments of arab-israeli relations; foreign policy priorities of israel and other states in the context of the palestinian issue were further analyzed based on collections of documents and memoirs of participants of events published in different countries, of scientific 14 morgenthau hans. politics among nations. new york, 1948; aron r. paix et guerre entre les nations. paris, waltz k. omul, statul şi războiul. buc., ; herz john. international politics in the atomic age. new york, 1959; 2006 2001; guzzuni st. realism şi relaţii internaţionale. iaşi, 2000; буриан а. теория международных отношений. т. 140; -1. кишинев, 2003. р. 123הוצאת יחדיו.)מהדורה רביעית. (המאבק לשלטון ולשלום: פוליטיקה בין האומות. האנס. י, מורגנתאו , .1968 .מ"איחוד מוציאים לאור בע ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 literature published at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries; the state and evolution of the relations of the si with the countries of the west, russia, and middle eastern neighbors in the period 1991-2018 has been determined; the israeli-palestinian conflict, its genesis and current state, the strategic partnership of israel and the united states on the palestinian issue, the role of other world and regional powers in the middle east settlement are revealed and analyzed. special attention is paid to the analysis of the historiography of the last quarter of a century. it is important to analyze the data that have been little studied in the research literature of the republic of moldova and the state of israel and which are not well known to the general public, documents and scientific literature in english, russian, romanian, french, arabic and hebrew. they make it possible to more fully assess the motives of the israeli leadership’s domestic and foreign policy on the palestinian issue, as well as to identify the main alternatives of domestic and international behavior discussed by the ruling circles and the public of the israeli state in addressing this issue. the theoretical value of the thesis consists in the development of a scientific study of the domestic and foreign policy actions of the state of israel using the principles of interdisciplinarity and pluri-disciplinarity. understanding that political science is in constant development, the author realizes the need for further study of this subject.. the applied value of the studyconsists in the following: provides the university academic environment of the rm and si with relevant scientific materials on the role of israel in the international arena and the place of the palestinian perspective in its domestic and foreign policy; supplements the categorial apparatus of the political science of moldova with the following concepts and expressions: “the state resilience of israel”, “the foreign policy actions of israel”, “the foreign policy system of israel”; formulates some scientific and practical recommendations on the prospects for a middle east settlement; the results can be used as a basis for further research on foreign and domestic policy of the state of israel, including the development of university disciplines for the countries of the middle east. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 the practical significance of the work consists in analyzing one of the important segments of international relations in the post-cold war period, which significantly influenced the situation in the middle east region. the palestinian-israeli relations have been studied in detail and significant scientific and memoir literature has been analyzed on this topic. the conclusions of the author may have a certain value for politicians and workers of the foreign affairs agencies of israel, palestine and other countries interacting with them in the international arena. materials of the work can be used to write monographs, textbooks, lecture courses on conflicts, international relations and modern history, as well as serve as supporting material for political scientists, historians, diplomats and other specialists in international affairs. source base. this study is based on sources that are diverse in nature and content. the foundation of the source base form the published documents. the author studied and synthesized a large amount of information contained in official documents and analytical materials. these are, first, documents of various state structures and international organizations, revealing the internal and international position of israel and palestine, some foreign policy documents and statements of officials of different countries on the issue under study, publications of international experts. of particular value in this regard are the collections of documents published, which allow an unbiased study and analysis of the issue under study: both the internal situation in the state of israel and palestine, the mood of the arab and jewish populations, and the international situation around the israeli-palestinian confrontation. sources from various international organizations were used in the thesis15, first of all the un16. the significant role of israel in the work of the united nations has predetermined the need 15 amnesty international, „trial at midnight: secret, summary, unfair trials in gaza”. london, june 1995 // journal of palestine studies: a quarterly on palestine affairs and the arab-israeli conflict, autumn 1995. v. 25, nr.1; amnesty international: humanitarian plan of action 2003 for the occupied palestinian territory. united nations. new york and geneva, november 2002; middle east: israel and the occupied territories and the palestinian authority: without distinction – attacks on civilians by palestinian armed groups. amnestyinternationaldocument, july 10, 2002; «дорожная карта» продвижения к постоянному урегулированию палестино-израильского конфликта в соответствии с принципом сосуществования двух государств на основе оценки выполнения сторонами своих обязательств // https://archive.is/20120919101437/www.un.org/russian/documen/scletters/2003/03-529.htm, other. 16уставорганизацииобъединенныхнаций // http://www.un.org/ru/charter-united-nations/index.html 7; report to the general assembly by the united nations special committee on palestine. geneva 31 st august 1947. l., 1947; palestine plan of partition with economic union proposed by the ad hoc committee on the palestinian question. ungadocumenta/res/181(ii), annexa. 29.11.1947; палестинская проблема: документы оон, международных организаций и конференций. м., 1984; международная конвенция о борьбе с бомбовым терроризмом (принята резолюцией 52/164 генеральной ассамблеи от 16 декабря 1997 года. открыта для ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 to use these documents in connection with the arab-jewish confrontation in the middle east conflict and their impact on relations between the countries involved in the peace process. the next group of sources includes conceptual materials relating to foreign and domestic policies of various powers17. their data help identify key problems and foreign policy goals of the israeli and other states, the state of bilateral and multilateral relations. in addition, they make it possible to better understand the essence of the discussed issues, the options for foreign policy decisions and the arguments of the participants in the discussion. in this regard, these documents make more understandable the technique of foreign policy decisions, the positions of various representatives of the leadership of different countries on various middle eastern problems in the period under study, including the palestinian-israeli issue. the paper used documents and materials from the official websites of the israeli ministry of foreign affairs18and the prime minister of israel19. the website of the israeli foreign ministry is an information base, which contains the texts of speeches by the israeli prime minister, the подписания 12 января 1998 года) // супертерроризм: новый вызов нового века. м., 2002, с. 268-278;; международная конвенция о борьбе с финансированием терроризма (принята резолюцией 54/109 генеральной ассамблеи оон от 9 декабря 1999 года) // супертерроризм: новый вызов нового века. с. 287302; un general assembly resolution; un security council resolution; unga document; un security council document; security council official records, other. 17 declaration of establishment of state of israel. may 14, 1948 // israel ministry of foreign affairs // http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/declaration%20of%20establishment%20of%20state %20of%20israel.aspx; декларациянезависимостиизраиля // https://eleven.co.il/zionism/from-balfour-tostate/11392/; israel's national security strategy for 2030 // https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/node/35633; the national security strategy of the united states of america. december 2017 55 p. // http://www.worldinwar.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2017/12/national-security-usa-2017.pdf; national security strategy of the united states of america. 2010 // national security strategy archive // http://nssarchive.us/nssr/2010.pdf; the national security strategy of the united states of america. september 2002 // national security strategy archive // http://nssarchive.us/nssr/2002.pdf; the national security strategy of the united states of america. march 2006 // nationalsecuritystrategyarchive // http://nssarchive.us/nssr/2006.pdf; стратегия вовлеченности в международные дела и распространения демократии в мире (стратегия национальной безопасности сша) // сша: эпи. 1994, №11, с. 153-159; 1994, №12, с. 116-123; 1995, №1, с. 122-126; 1995, №2, с.112-126; стратегия национальной безопасности сша на 1996 год // нгсценарии. 1996, май, №2; концепция внешней политики российской федерации // межд. жизнь, №8, 2008 // https://interaffairs.ru/jauthor/material/1582; концепция внешней политики российской федерации (утверждена президентом российской федерации в.в. путиным 30 ноября 2016 г.) // http://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cknonkje02bw/content/id/2542248; концепция национальной безопасности российской федерации // внешняя политика и безопасность современной россии. том 2. с. 69-94; концепция национальной безопасности российской федерации // российская газета, 18.01.2000, other. 18 israel ministry of foreign affairs. official site: http://mfa.gov.il/mfaheb/pages/sitemap.aspx; israel ministry of foreign affairs. israel’s foreign policy. historical documents // http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/mfadocuments/pages/documents_foreign_policy_israel.aspx. 19 8 prime minister’s office. pm of israel. official site: http://www.pmo.gov.il/english/pages/default.aspx. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 leading political and military figures of israel, as well as all the treaties and documents that were necessary for the analysis of the issues studied. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 11| november | 2020 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 did the cold war ever really end? prof. dr. vladislav b. sotirovic ehu-european humanities university vilnius, lithuania vladislav.sotirovic@ehu.lt theofficial end of the cold war era in 1989 brought during the first coming years a kind of international optimism that the idea of the „end of history“ really can be realized as it was a belief in no reason for the geopolitical struggles between the most powerful states. the new world order, spoken out firstly by m. gorbachev in his address to the un on december 7th, 1988 was originally seen as the order of equal partnership in the world politics reflecting „radically different international circumstances after the cold war“.1 unfortunately, the cold war era finished without the „end of history“ as the us continues the same policy from the time of the cold war against moscow – now not against the ussr but against its successor russia. therefore, for the pentagon, the cold war era in fact never ended as the fundamental political task to eliminate russia from the world politics still is not accomplished. regardless the fact that in 1989 communism collapsed in the east europe, followed by the end of the ussr in 1991, that brought a real possibility for creation of a new international system and global security2, the eastward enlargement of the nato from march 1999 (the fourth enlargement) onward is a clear proof of the continuation of the us cold war time policy toward moscow which actually creates uncertainty about the future of the global security. after the end of the ussr and the cold war, there were many western public workers and academicians who questioned firstly why the nato has to exist at all and secondly why this officially defensive military alliance is enlarging its membership when the more comprehensive conference on security and cooperation in europe (the csce, today the osce) could provide the necessary framework for security cooperation in europe including and russia.3 however, the nato was not dissolved, but quite contrary adopted the same policy of the further (eastward) enlargement likewise the eu. the kosovo crisis in 1998 1999 became a formal excuse for the enlargement of both these us client organizations for the „better security of europe“. the eu commission president, romano prodi, in his speech before the eu parliament on october 13th, 1999 was quite clear on this matter.4 however, if we know that the kosovo crisis followed by the nato military intervention (aggression) against serbia and montenegro was fully fuelled exactly by the us administration, it is not far from the truth that the kosovo crisis was provoked and maintained by washington, among other purposes, for the sake to give a formal excuse for the further eastward enlargement of both the eu and the nato. however, can we speak at all about the end of the cold war in 1989/1990 taking into account probably the focal counterargument: the nato existence and even its further enlargement? as a matter of fact, the nato is the largest and longestsurviving military alliance in contemporary history (est. 1949, i.e., six years before the warsaw pact came into existence). no doubts today that the nato was established and still is operating as a fundamental instrument of the us policy of global imperialistic unilateralismthat is, however, primarily directed against russia. the deployment of the us missiles in west europe in the 1980s, regardless on achieved détente in the 1970s in the us-ussr relations, became a clear indicator of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 1 a real nature of pentagon’s geopolitical game with the east in which the nato is misused for the realization of the us foreign policy objectives under the pretext that the nato is allegedly the dominant international organization in the field of west european security. although the nato was formally founded specifically to „protect and defend“ west europe from the ussr there are many doubts after 1990 why this a cold war organization still exists as the alleged danger for the western civilization disappeared with the decomposition of both the ussr and the warsaw pact. basically, the proper answer to this question can be found in the origins of the cold war. according to the revisionist approach from the mid-1960s, the main responsibility for both the iron curtain and the cold war is on the american side as the usa: „...refused to accommodate the legitimate security requirements of the soviet union in eastern europe and also because it overturned the wartime allies’ agreement to treat postwar, occupied germany as a single economic entity. furthermore, the truman administration (1945 53) used the myth of soviet expansionism to mask the true nature of american foreign policy, which included the creation of a global system to advance the interests of american capitalism.“5 undoubtedly, a dismissal of the ussr by m. gorbachev in 1989 1991 produced a huge power vacuum in the central and east europe that was in the coming years filled by the nato and the eu. the eastward enlargement programme of both the nato and the eu emerged in due time as a prime instrument by washington to gradually acquire control over the ex-communist territories around russia. a standard western academic clishé when writing on the eastward enlargement of the eu is that those ex-communist east european states: „... wanted to join a club of secure, prosperous, democratic, and relatively wellgoverned countries. they saw themselves as naturally belonging to europe, but deprived of the opportunity to enjoy democracy and the free market by soviet hegemony and western european acquiescence to that state of affairs. with the fall of communism this historical injustice had to be remedied, and accession to the eu was to make their return to europe complete“.6 however, it is not clear why seven west european states currently out of the eu are not able to see all mentioned advantages of the eu membership. even one of the member states (the uk) decided in 2016 to leave the club (brexit) and one of the chief reasons for this decision was exactly the eastward enlargement as the critical idea of all east european states to join the eu is to live on the west eu member states’ financial support. nevertheless, from the geopolitical perspective, the new eu member states coming from east europe (from 2004 enlargement onward) are the us trojan horse in the club, who are openly supporting the american foreign policy of the imperial design, but with their prime duty as the members of both the eu and the nato to take an active participation in the coming western military crusade against russia in the form of the wwiii. however, these east european nations are going to be the first to experience direct consequences of the war as being a critical part of the western front-line combat zone against russia. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 2 surely, one of the most fundamental anti-russian actions in europe at the postsoviet era was the us decision to expend the nato eastward by offering full membership to three ex-warsaw pact members: poland, the czech republic, and hungary. therefore, reagan-gorbachev agreement from reykjavik in 1988 was unilaterally and brazenly violated by washington under the formal excuse of a combination of events v. zhirinovsky’s showing in the 1993 elections in russia, domestic pressure upon b. clinton from his republican opponents at the congress, and what the us administration saw as the abject failure of the eu to provide an answer to a european problem of the yugoslav civil war (1991 1999). washington quickly accused the europeans to be unable to deal with the yugoslav crisis that was a major test which the eu failed to pass, but honestly speaking, all the eu peacemaking efforts dealing with the yugoslav crisis really failed for the very reason as they were directly sabotaged by the us diplomacy. nevertheless, the first new action by the enlarged nato, only two weeks after its fourth enlargement, was a savaged bombing of serbia for the sake to put her kosovo province under the nato occupation. this action finally forced v. putin to compel the „western clown“ b. yeltsin to resign on december 31st, 1999. it has to be recognized that the cold war bipolarity after 1989 was, at least up to 2008, superseded by the us-led unipolarity – a hegemonic configuration of the us accumulated hyperpower in global politics that presented quite new challenges to the international relations. however, after the event of 9/11, the us administration started to act on the accelerating achievement after the cold war of supreme political and military power in the globe for the sake to complete a mission of a global hegemon. the us administration, however, purposely presented the 9/11 attack as the work of (only) a network of al qaeda, a islamic terrorist organization led by osama bin laden who was a saudi millionaire’s son but as well as „who learned his terrorist trade, with u.s. assistance, fighting soviet forces in afghanistan in the 1980s“.7 the us administration of president g. w. bush responded very quickly and by the end of 2001 a taliban regime in afghanistan, that was a radical islamic regime which was providing a base of operations for al qaeda, became demolished and the biggest part of the country occupied or controlled in a coalition with the us satellite states. that was the beginning of the announced „war on terrorism“ that actually had to serve as a good excuse to further strengthen the us position as the global policeman followed by the invasion of iraq in 2003. therefore, a policy of a global unipolarity – a condition of a global politics in which a system of international relations is dictated by a single dominant power-hegemon that is quite capable of dominating all other states, became an order of the day for both the pentagon and the white house. with the us military invasion of afghanistan in 2001 and iraq in 2003 the us stood alone (with the military support by the uk as the fundamental american client state after 1989) at the summit of the hierarchy of the international relations and global politics up to 2008 when russia finally decided to protect its own geopolitical and historical interests in some part of the world – in this particular case at the caucasus. the us, in the other words, became in the years 1989 2008 the sole state in the world with the military and political capability to be a decisive factor in the global politics at any corner of the world. in these years, the us military expenditures exceeded all other states combined – a clear sign of a hegemonic global policy of washington. it seemed to be that the us had an extraordinary historical ability to ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 3 dictate the future of the world according to its wishes and design as america became a single world hyperpower as the universal empire stronger than roman or british empires. by definition, the empire is a universal state having a preponderant power and being in a real ability to act independently without any restraint.8 therefore, the empire is working alone rather than in concert with other states, or at least with those whom we can call as the great powers9 – a fundamental mistake and sin which finally provokes an apocalyptic animosity and clash with the rest of the world. this animosity, from a historical perspective, after certain time, provokes a blowback by the others that exactly, in the case of the us empire, came from russia in 2008. central caucasus, east ukraine, and west middle east today became the regions of a direct clash of geopolitical interests on the global chessboard between declining us empire and the rising economic, political, financial and military power of russia. the us even from 1990 (the first gulf war) crossed the moral boundaries in abusing its hyperpower through defiant and brutal unilateralism, becoming, as all other universal states (empires), hated and feared rogue civilization („rogue gangster state“ according to stephen lendman). the universal state is acting as an international outlaw by its own rules, values, norms, and requirements like the us and its nato satellites in the case of the barbaric bombing of the federal republic of yugoslavia for 78 days in 1999. according to noam chomsky, in fall 2002 the most powerful state ever existed in history declared the basic principle of its imperial grand strategy as self-intention to keep its global hegemony by the threat to use or by use of its own superpowerfully equiped military arsenal that is the most critical us dimension of power in which washington reigns supreme in the world.10 it was clearly confirmed by the white house on september 17th, 2002 as a part of the us national security strategy that was going to be no longer bound by the un charter’s rules governing the use of force: „our forces will be strong enough to dissuade potential adversaries from pursuing a military build-up in hopes of surpassing, or equaling, the power of the united states“.11 the hawks of the us hegemonic world order after 1989 openly emphasize the necessity of america’s self-serving pre-eminent role in the world politics, as hillary clinton, for instance, put it at her confirmation hearing as the us secretary of state in 2009: „so let me say it clearly: the united states can, must, and will lead in this new century... the world looks to us because america has the reach and resolve to mobilize the shared effort needed to solve problems on a global scale – in defense of our own interests, but also as a force for progress. in this we have no rival“.12 however, those h. clinton’s words were ungrounded as the us empire already was in the process of declination. the gradual decline and probably ultimate demise of the us empire, as any other empire in history, can not be understood without previous knowledge of nature and driving forces of the imperial system. after 1991 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 4 the usa remained to function as a „military society“ as there were, for instance, the roman empire or the ottoman sultanate. that is to say more precisely, the driving force behind the us empire left to be an „external objective“ – the perceived needs to reconstruct the world according to its own values and norms. however, such very ambitious project requires a very systematic policy of overall mobilization of the whole society, economy, and politics. as such mobilization, all the time implies sacrificing a particular sector of the domestic economy for the sake to realize the expansionist aims, the system’s functioning is basically reinforced by the need to replenish resources used up at the previous stage13 – the need which the us simply could not accomplish successfully. the us, as a matter of fact, already found itself very costly to maintain its own military dominance in the world. the american soldiers are deployed in almost 80 countries from the balkans to the caucasus and from the gulf of arden to the korean peninsula and haiti. the us administration is today constantly trapped by the imperial overstretch effect – the gap between the resources and ambitions especially in the foreign (imperialistic) policy which is formally wrapped into the phrase of „domestic security“ needs or international „humanitarian mission“. undoubtedly, the us costly imperial pursuits and particularly military spending weakened the american economy in relation to its main rivals – china and russia. there are a number of scholars (n. chomsky, m. chossudovsky, etc.) and public workers (like p. k. roberts) who predict that after the pax americana a multipolar system of international relations will emerge. the fact is that multipolarity, as a global system with more than two dominant power centers, is clearly advocated by v. putin’s administration in kremlin instead of both a bipolarity or unipolarity. this concept of multipolarity in international relations has to include alongside the us and the brics countries, japan and the eu. as a multipolar system includes several comparatively equal great powers, it is by the nature complex system and hopefully more prosperous for maintaining the global security. the world is in fact from 2008 at the process of power transition that is surely the dangerous period as a hyperpower of the usa is directly challenged by the rise of its rivals – russia and china. subsequently, the current ukrainian and syrian crisis are the consequences (a global „collateral damage“) of such period of power transition which already marked the beginning of a new cold war that can be soon transformed into the hot peace era. nevertheless, the us administration is not anymore in position to run with the bush doctrine14 that is the unilateral grand strategy of the george w. bush’s administration in order to preserve a unipolar world under the us hegemony by keeping america’s military capacity beyond any challenge by any other state in the world as, certainly, the us hegemony is already challenged by both russia and china. those two countries are currently in the process of making their own alliance bloc advocating multilateralism as a cooperative approach to managing shared global problems and keeping a collective security by collective and coordinated actions (a groupthinking) by the great powers. the fundamental task of the us foreign policy after 1989 is to protect its own concept and practice of the unipolar geopolitical order in the world, while russia with the other brics countries is trying to create a multilateral global geopolitical order. the brics group of countries (brasil, russia, india, china and south africa) are clearly expressing the global phenomena of the „rise of the rest“ against the us ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 5 unipolar hegemony. the rise of the brics marks a decisive shift in the global counter-balance of power toward the final end of america’s hegemony. a significance of these four fast-growing economies and their global geopolitical power is already visible and recognized with the predictions that up to 2021 the brics countries can exceed the combined strength of the g-7 countries.15 therefore, here we are dealing with two diametrically opposite geopolitical concepts of the world order in the 21st century.16 the currentukrainian and syrian crises are a just practical expression of it. from the very general point of view, the us administration is not opposing the russian geopolitical projects because of the fear of the reconstruction of the ussr, but rather for the sake of realization of its own global geopolitical projects according to which russia has to be a political and economic colony of the west like all the former yugoslav republics are today but just formally existing as the „independent“ states. the most immediate us task in dealing with russia after 2000 is to prevent moscow to create a eurasian geopolitical and economic block by misusing the eu and nato policy of the eastward enlargement in east europe and the balkans. ukraine in this matter plays one of the fundamental roles as according to notorious us russophobe of the polish origin z. brzezinski, ukraine is a new and important space on the eurasian chessboard as a geopolitical pivot for the reason that its very existence as an independent country helps to halt russia to become a eurasian empire what means a center of world power. therefore, the us policy in east europe has to be concentrated on turning all regional countries against russia, but primarily ukraine which has to play the crucial role of stabbing the knife to russia’s backbone.17 the huntington’s thesis about the unavoidable clash of the antagonistic cultures at the post-soviet time basically served as academic verification of the continuation of america’s hegemonic global policy after 1989. the author himself „was part leading academic and part policy adviser to several us administrations and had occupied this influential space since the late 1950s“18 what means that huntington directly was participating in directing the us foreign policy during the cold war. however, as the ussr together with its communist satellites finally lost the war, but the us policy of the pax americana had to be continued and after the cold war, huntington actually by his article and later the book on the clash of antagonistic civilizations, as their value systems are profoundly different, paved the academic ground to the pentagon to invent, a new and useful enemies that would give the us a new role and provide a new justification for america’s continued hegemony in a post-soviet world. one of these enemies became a post-yeltsin’s russia as a country which decided to resist a global hegemony by anyone. a new russia’s foreign policy in the 21st century is especially oriented and directed toward refutation of predicting that the new century of the new millennium is going to be more „american“ than the previous one. it means that the us-russian relations after 2000 are going from the us-led „new world order“ to the multipolar „resetting relations“.19 the last military success of the pax americana’s geopolitical project was the second gulf war (the iraq war) in 2003 launched by the us neocon president george w. bush not only to kick out the „vietnam syndrome“, but more important to answer to all those experts who previously had been predicting an erosion of the us influence in the global politics. the architects of a post-yeltsin’s russia’s geopolitics, followed by all critics of the pax americana, are emphasizing a dangerous effect of an american soft power in the shape of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 6 popular culture, styles of dress, fast food, music, etc., as the products of a primitive sub-culture and a quasi-civilization. therefore, the global duty of the civilizations at the time of the clash of civilizations is to fight against a quasi-civilization which degenerates a human face around the world. that is one of the critical tasks of russia in world policy after 2000 as one of the escalating great powers. a rising power of the post-yeltsin’s russia as one of the leading countries which are challenging the us unipolar hegemony can be seen from the facts that only up to 2008 russia succeeded to double its gdp, to triple wages in real terms and to reduce the unemployment and poverty.20 endnotes: 1 jeffrey haynes, peter hough, shahin malik, lloyd pettiford, world politics, new york: routledge, taylor & francis group, 2013, 97. 2 john baylis, steve smith (eds.), the globalization of world politics: an introduction to international relations, second edition, new york: oxford university press, 2001, 111. 3 karin m. fierke, antje wiener, “constructing institutional interests: eu and nato enlargement” in frank schimmelfennig, ulrich sedelmeier (eds.), the politics of european union enlargement: theoretical approaches, london new york: routledge, taylor & francis group, 2005, 99. 4 european commission, “speech by mr romano prodi, president of the european commission, on enlargement”, european parliament brussels, october 13th, 1999, speech/99/130. 5 david gowland et al.,the european mosaic, third edition, harlow, england: pearson education, 2006, 277. 6jan zielonka, europe as empire: the nature of the enlarged european union, new york: oxford university press, 2006, 49. 7 steven l. spiegel, jennifer morrison taw, fred l. wehling, kristen p. williams, world politics in a new era, belmont, ca: wadsworth/thomson learning, 2004, 329. 8 on this issue, see more in [robert kaplan, warrior politics: why leadership demands a pagan ethos, new york: random house, 2002]. on the political ideology of a universal state, see [elen arveler, politička ideologija vizantijskog carstva, beograd: filip višnjić, 1988]. 9 a great power is a such state which is ranked among the most powerful states in the world according to hierarchical state-system. there are four fundamental criteria to identify a great power state: 1. it is in the first rank of military competence, having full capacity to protect its own national security and to influence other countries; 2. it is an economically powerful state; 3. it has global spheres of interest; and 4. it uses a “forward” foreign policy having actual, but not only potential, impact on international relations and world politics [andrew heywood, global politics, new york: palgrave macmillan, 2001, 7]. 10 noam chomsky, hegemony or survival: america’s quest for global dominance, london: penguin books, 2004, 11. 11 white house, the national security strategy of the united states of america, washington, september 17th, 2012. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 7 12 amitav acharya, the end of american world order, cambridge, uk: polity press, 2014, 51. 13 andrew c. janos, east central europe in the modern world: the politics of the borderlands from preto postcommunism, stanford: stanford university press, 2000, 330 331. 14 the bush doctrine dealing with the “war on terrorism” is formulated in two messages delivered to joint sessions of the us congress on september 20th, 2001 and january 29th, 2002 [paul r. viotti (ed.), american foreign policy and national security: a documentary record, upper saddle river, new jersey: pearson prentice hall, 2005, 244 248]. the bush doctrine is directly supported by the usa patriot act of october 24th, 2001. the idea of bush doctrine is in fact very similar to the idea of the reagan doctrine of 1985 formulated to fight the sandinista regime in nicaragua. 15 andrew heywood, global politics, new york: palgrave macmillan, 2001, 447. 16срђан перишић, нова геополитика русије, београд: медија центар „одбрана“, 2015, 221. 17 on this issue, see more in [zbigniew brzezinski, the grand chessboard: american primacy and its geostrategic imperatives, new york: basic books, 1997]. 18 john baylis, steve smith (eds.), the globalization of world politics: an introduction to international relations, second edition, new york: oxford university press, 2001, 115. 19 roger e. kanet, “from the ‘new world order’ to ‘resetting relations’: two decades of us russian relations” in roger e. kanet (ed.), russian foreign policy in the 21st century, london: palgrave macmillan, 2011, 204 227. 20 richard w. mansbach, kirsten l. taylor, introduction to global politics, second edition, london new york: routledge, taylor & francis group, 2012, 165. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 10| october| 2020 http://ijojournals.com/ 8 l’héritage du prophète william wade harris à débat : regards croisés sur sontestament rapporté par pierre benoit n’doufou yapi thierry docteur histoire, université félix houphouët boigny ndoufouyapi@gmail.com / ndoufouyapi@yahoo.fr lékpéa alexis déa, enseignant-chercheur, université jean lorougnon guédé daloa dea.alexis@yahoo.fr résumé débuté timidement en 1913 en côte-d’ivoire, le ministère de william wadé harris a connu un succès énorme en l’espace de quelques mois. mais après son départ, il s’est posé la question essentielle de la gestion de son héritage. voulant à tout prix hériter de cette œuvre salvatrice, le pasteur français pierre benoît, au nom de la mission protestante méthodiste effectua un voyage au libéria auprès du prophète harris. il revient avec un document connu sous le nom de « testament d’harris ». mais ce document provoqua la rupture entre l’église méthodiste et les « inconditionnels » du prophète harris. pour mieux comprendre cette crise, cet article se propose l’historiographie religieuse de la côte d’ivoire sur la question de l’authenticité et de l’applicabilité de ce testament rapporté par le pasteur bénoit. mots clés : église catholique romaine, église harriste, église méthodiste wesleyenne, pierre benoît, testament, william wadé harris. summary: started timidly in 1913 in ivory coast, the ministry of william wadé harris achieved enormous success in the space of a few months. but after his departure, he asked himself the essential question of the management of his inheritance. wanting at all costs to inherit this saving work, the french pastor pierre benoît, in the name of the methodist protestant mission, made a trip to liberia with the prophet harris. he returns with a document known as the "will of harris". but this document caused the rupture between the methodist church and the "unconditional" of the prophet harris. to better understand this crisis, this article proposes the religious historiography of côte d'ivoire on the question of the authenticity and applicability of this testament reported by pastor bénoit. keywords: roman catholic church, harris church, wesleyan methodist church, pierre benoît, testament, william wadé harris. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:ndoufouyapi@gmail.com mailto:ndoufouyapi@yahoo.fr mailto:dea.alexis@yahoo.fr introduction si le harrisme fait partie des religions les plus étudiées en côte d’ivoire aujourd’hui, il est clair que plusieurs aspects de son histoire restent encore à élucider, à approfondir. en effet, la naissance de l’eglise harriste n’a jamais été un phénomène linéaire inscrit logiquement dans la droite ligne et constituant de ce fait la continuité du mouvement harriste. au contraire, la "construction", voire la création d’une eglise harriste avec une identité purement africaine à l’image du prophète lui-même, a été un le résultat d’un combat de longue haleine. le point saillant de cette lutte était relatif à la gestion de l’héritage du prophète. cette question a mis aux prises les pionniers du protestantisme en côte d’ivoire, notamment les méthodistes et les inconditionnels disciples du prophète qui l’ont accompagné pendant sa mission en côte d’ivoire. pour trancher cette question primordiale, la compréhension et l’application du contenu d’un document était nécessaire : il s’agit du testament du prophète harris, un documenté colporté en 1924 depuis le libéria par le pasteur pierre benoit de l’eglise méthodiste pour justifier sa légitimation par le prophète sur la question de la gestion de son héritage. diversement interprété, ce document n’a jamais fait l’unanimité des différentes parties. audelà, il n’a jamais fait l’objet d’une analyse profonde pouvant permettre de déceler l’intention du prophète en l’écrivant et d’en définir exactement le vrai destinataire. certes, les écrits abondent sur la vie du prophète et de célèbres auteurs comme rené bureau ou christophe wondji ont accordé d’importants travaux à ce "homme-phénomène" que fut harris, mais la question d’une analyse profonde de son testament pouvant en dire plus sur la vision du prophète sur l’avenir de son œuvre reste encore une préoccupation importante. cet article a donc pour objectif de présenter les différentes supputations autour du testament d’harris et les conséquences de ce document différemment interprété sur l’avenir de la mission harriste. il a été réalisé à partir d’une documentation constituée essentiellement d’ouvrages sur l’histoire religieuse et particulièrement le harrisme en côte d’ivoire. pour mieux cerner le problème, le travail est organisé en trois parties. dans la première partie, il s’agit de présenter le testament en mettant en exergue le contexte de son écriture et son contenu.la deuxième partie présente le regard de divers auteurs sur le document. enfin, la troisième partie présente l’impact de ce message sur les adeptes du prophètes. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ila présentation du testament le départ précipité et non préparé du prophète harris allait soumettre ses adeptes à des difficultés de divers ordres : où aller ? qui suivre comme nouveau maitre ? mais aussi, ce départ a été une occasion pour les missionnaires catholiques et protestants opportunistes qui voulaient chacun, récupérer ces fidèles désormais sans maitre. 1. le contexte de la rédaction du testament en effet, après l’expulsion du prophète harris en avril 1915 dans son pays natal, le libéria, s’est posée la question essentielle de son héritage. qui va gérer cet héritage ? et vers quelle église ses ouailles peuvent s’orienter ? cette problématique a fait l’objet de plusieurs débats. ainsi, il s’en suivit un conflit ouvert. dix ans après le passage du prophète harris, en 1924, le pasteur platt en visite en côte-d’ivoire fut accueilli en grande pompe comme le premier de ces blancs annoncés par le prophète. l’église méthodiste se voyait ainsi établie par la population comme l’héritière de l’œuvre du prophète harris. une révolte éclata alors du côté des inconditionnels du prophète harris qui refusaient de reconnaître l’église méthodiste comme l’héritière du prophète. face à cette crise, le pasteur français pierre benoît se rendit en septembre 1926 au libéria pour rencontrer le prophète harris. selon haliburton: « lorsque benoît vint, harris trouva naturel de faire ce qu’il lui demandait. devenu fragile et peut être un peu sénile, son feu s’étant affaibli, il fut flatté qu’un missionnaire européen ait fait des centaines de kilomètres pour le retrouver et lui rendre honneur » (mackay g. haliburton, 1984 : 135). le pasteur revient de ce voyage avec un message et une invitation adressée à ses fidèles pour entrer dans l’église protestante et non l’église catholique romaine. le contenu voici le contenu du message contenu dans le document présenté par le pasteur bénoit comme le testament du prophète harris : « message du prophète william wadé harris aux églises que j’ai fondées en côte-d’ivoire : moi, william wadé harris, qui vous ai appelés à la vérité de l’évangile et au baptême, j’ai ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 donné ce message au pasteur p. benoît, afin qu’il puisse vous l’apporter et que vous y obéissez. tous les hommes, femmes et enfants qui ont été appelés et baptisés par moi, doivent entrer dans l’église méthodiste wesleyenne. je suis moi-même méthodiste. personne ne doit se joindre à l’église catholique romaine, s’il désire me rester fidèle. m. platt, le directeur de notre église méthodiste est désigné par moi comme mon successeur à la tête des églises que j’ai fondées. tous les fétiches doivent être détruits. brûlez-les tous au feu. que le malin assiège celui qui les gardera secrètement dans sa maison ! puisse le feu céleste les dévorer. tous doivent adorer le seul vrai dieu en jésus-christ et le servir lui seul ! lisez la bible, c’est la parole de dieu. je vous envoie une où j’ai marqué les versets que vous devez lire. cherchez la lumière dans la bible. apprenez à lire pour être capables de connaître la bible ; elle sera votre guide. soyez fidèles en toutes choses, vous attachant à pratiquer fermement les dix commandements et la parole de jésus-christ, notre seul sauveur. je vous envoie mes vœux et mes messages de joie. puisse le dieu de grâce vous bénir abondamment ! signé w. w. harris, cape palmas, le 25 septembre 1926. » (deaville walker, 1931 : pp. 174175), (rené bureau, 1971 : pp. 59-60). tel est le document présenté par le pasteur français pierre benoît après sa rencontre avec le prophète harris en 1926 au libéria. c’est ce document, qualifié de « testament d’harris » qui est objet de notre étude. ce document très controversé sonna ainsi le glas de la rupture entre l’église protestante et les inconditionnels du prophète harris. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 iile débat sur le testament le testament de harris convergences et divergences des idées 1l’unanimité sur l’authenticité du document la lecture attentive et l’étude critique du document rapporté du libéria par le pasteur benoit atteste que le testament ne souffre d’aucun doute. de nombreux éléments importants prouvant que harris a rédigé le document en toute lucidité et sans aucune pression ont été identifiés. le pasteur deaville walker qui présente ce document soutient qu’en plus de sa signature, le prophète harris apposa à cet important document, l’empreinte de ses deux pouces, puis neuf témoins y ajoutent leurs noms ou leurs empreintes digitales (walker deaville, 1931 : 174175). un tel argument ne peut que prouver la crédibilité et l’authenticité du document. si on s’en tient à la réaction de deaville, on peut affirmer sans ombrage qu’il n’y a point de doute sur le message d’harris que rapporte le pasteur pierre benoît. il n’y a donc pas de falsification, ni de démagogie et d’amalgame. pour sa part, rené bureau souligne qu’ « il n’y a pas de raison de mettre en doute son authenticité, car le pasteur benoît est digne de foi et le récit de sa visite à harris donne tous les signes de sa véracité ». (rené bureau, 1971 : 59-60). tout comme deaville walker, rené bureau soutient l’originalité du document et ses propos donnent plus de ténacité à ce message. dans un autre registre, amos djoro donne plus de précisions. il note que le pasteur pierre benoît aurait pris des photos avec le prophète harris : une, uniquement avec le prophète harris et l’autre avec le prophète et une partie de sa famille. ci-dessous, les différentes photos. en ce sens, il écrit : « la publication de ce document avec les photos du prophète harris et une partie de sa famille, permit à la mission méthodiste de côte-d’ivoire de profiter tardivement, mais d’une façon assez large, des fruits de l’œuvre réalisée par harris » (e. amos djoro, 1989 : 51). il poursuit : « notons que les partisans de john ahui ont toujours contesté l’authenticité de ce document que des parents du prophète dont sa fille grace neal que nous avons rencontré à cap-palmas en 1974, ont bien voulu confirmer en présence de témoins libériens et ivoiriens » (e. amos djoro, idem). il argumente ses propos : « le jugement de tous les membres de sa famille que nous avons interrogés à monrovia et cap-palmas, était à peu près le suivant : il était tout à fait normal que william wadé harris ait invité par « testament » les gens qu’il ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 avait évangélisés en côte-d’ivoire, à suivre la mission protestante méthodiste étant lui-même, ainsi que tous les membres de sa famille, méthodiste. ce qu’il n’avait pu faire en côted’ivoire, se sachant surveiller par les autorités coloniales qui l’avaient fait emprisonner et bastonner plus d’une fois à bingerville. rappelons-nous aussi, que le jeune william a été luimême baptisé et éduqué par des pasteurs méthodistes et qu’il a formé à son tour, en sa qualité d’instituteur de centaines d’élèves méthodistes » (e. amos djoro, ibidem). amos djoro parle sans faille comme si le prophète harris avait jugé important de laisser d’une empreinte indélébile sa rencontre avec le pasteur français pierre benoît. autrement dit, on peut noter qu’il s’agit d’une occasion pour le prophète harris de revoir ses adeptes. n’est-il pas ce que rené bureau traduit en ces termes : « il semble qu’harris ait tenté de nombreuses fois de revenir en côte-d’ivoire pour y poursuivre son œuvre. il avait entendu parler du pasteur platt et de l’implantation protestante : pierre benoît vient de sa part, harris voit là une chance de toucher à nouveau ses anciens fidèles » (rené bureau, 1971 : 59). pour david shank, harris a essayé huit fois de rentrer en côte-d’ivoire, mais il a toujours été empêché par les autorités coloniales (david shank a, 1994 : 174). a la question de savoir, quelle est l’importance de cette rencontre qui a abouti à l’établissement d’un tel document, david shank répond que le contact avec pierre benoît venait du fait que les méthodistes anglais avaient découvert les fruits de l’œuvre d’harris en 1924 en côte-d’ivoire. c’était un nouveau chapitre dans l’histoire missionnaire : reconnaître les faits, accepter la responsabilité de l’héritage des « protestants d’harris », récréer les structures pour les absorber, leur donner un enseignement et une discipline » (david shank a, 1994 : 174). en somme, tous ces propos convergent vers un seul point : celui de prouver la véracité du message d’harris rapporté par pierre benoît. mais contre toute attente, ce message est très controversé. 2des divergences sur l’intention du prophète et les destinataires réels du document si certains voient en ce document, l’héritage légué par william wadé harris aux méthodistes, d’autres voient en cela, une usurpation de titre. autrement dit, il s’agit d’une irruption de « nouveaux évangélisateurs » se prétendant être les «successeurs » du prophète harris (thierry yapi n’doufou, 2019 : 5). c’est en ce sens que hippolyte mel gbadja souligne que « ce document très controversé sonna en fait le glas de la rupture entre l’église protestante de ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 la côte-d’ivoire et les inconditionnels de william wadé harris » (hippolyte mel gbadja, 2003 : 18). on convient avec le père hippolyte mel gbadja, que sans douter de la bonne foi du pasteur pierre benoît, il faut noter que ce document s’inscrit dans un contexte de crise de leadership. même si rené bureau ne met pas en cause cette mission, il faut souligner qu’il est tout de même prudent : « mais il faut dire aussitôt qu’il est indéniable que certains termes de ce document ont été « soufflés » par un missionnaire trop zélé. harris n’a jamais manifesté d’hostilité aux catholiques… harris était vieux, déçu par l’interruption de son œuvre, il ne s’est pas rendu compte de ce qu’il signait » (rené bureau, 1971 : 60). david shank lui emboîte le pas : «en 1925, le prophète a eu une attaque d’apoplexie et il ne s’en est remis qu’en partie. cependant, il a continué son ministère de pèlerin vers l’intérieur. en 1926, lors d’une visite par le missionnaire pierre benoît, il revenait juste d’une mission où il avait baptisé plus de cinq cents personnes » (david shank a, 1994 : 174). rené bureau va plus loin : « alors que, devant pierre benoît, harris s’était révélé exalté, apocalyptique et intransigeant, avec les délégués ébrié, il est détaillé, précis, équilibré et ouvert. sans doute rattrape-t-il ainsi la caution qu’il avait imprudemment donnée aux méthodistes » (rené bureau, 1971 : 61). il ressort de ce qui précède que, même s’il n’y a point de doute sur la rencontre entre pierre benoît et le prophète harris, sur le document que pierre benoît rapporte, les avis sont partagés. yao bi écrit lui aussi : « quand on sait qu’avant son départ, harris a affirmé qu’il n’est pas venu pour fonder une église, mais faire seulement connaître et révéler aux africains la parole de dieu, pour laquelle l’ange gabriel l’a mandaté, en recommandant formellement à tous ses baptisés d’adhérer au christianisme, sans différenciation aucune, on peut douter de la véracité et de l’authenticité de ce document » (e. gnagoran yao bi, 2009 : 33). dea alexis renchérit : « deux années plus tard, les inconditionnels du prophète, qui refusent de reconnaître la légitimité de l’église protestante méthodiste, envoient une délégation conduite par john ahui et salomon dagri. de ce voyage révélateur d’une recherche de légitimité face aux missionnaires protestants forts de leur « testament » d’harris, la délégation revient elle aussi avec une photo du prophète avec john ahui, salomon dagri et djibo l’interprète… » (dea l. alexis, 2013 : 9). pour ahui paul, il n’y a aucun débat sur la rencontre entre pierre benoît et le prophète harris. cependant, le contenu de son message suscite autant d’interrogations. (paul ahui, 1988 : 33). il se justifie : sinon, comment comprendre qu’harris aurait mandaté john ahui de recommencer son action, en adressant une ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 correspondance à akadjananghui pour lui féliciter, que voici : « le prophète vous envoie ses salutations au nom d’un seul dieu, le dieu de moïse, d’isaac et de jacob. je me sens fier de vous, réalisant que vous avez un esprit fort en dieu au point de m’envoyer ici, au libéria, votre fils et votre frère. puisse dieu vous bénir pareillement, j’aurai toujours votre nom dans mes prières ainsi que tous les chrétiens de côte-d’ivoire. vous devez toujours avoir dieu pour guide, que ce soit lui qui vous précède à travers toutes les tentations, n’abandonnez pas ou ne quittez pas votre dieu pour sauvegarder votre vie. je suis vieux et maladif à présent et dieu me dit de demeurer chez moi pour être aux ordres de mon heure. ce peut être tôt ou tard. on ne paie pas notre religion ici, au libéria. on reçoit gratuitement le baptême et la confirmation. j’espère que vous observerez les jours saints du seigneur et principalement les dimanches. que dieu vous bénisse. je suis votre william wade harris en christ ». (paul ahui, 1988 : 33). cette correspondance datée du 13 décembre 1928, vient contredire le document rapporté par pierre benoît en 1926. dans ce message adressé à akadjananghui, le prophète harris ne mentionne nulle part, qu’il désire que ses adeptes rejoignent l’église méthodiste et non l’église catholique romaine. plus encore, il n’y a aucune recommandation faisant du pasteur platt son digne successeur comme le stipule le document rapporté par pierre benoît. on comprend aisément que le document rapporté par pierre benoît n’a pas fait l’unanimité de tous les observateurs. c’est pour cette raison que bohumilholas théophile estime qu’il a été jugé apocryphe par la majorité des observateurs (holas b. théophile, 1965 : 269). mais concrètement, quel impact un tel document pourrait avoir sur la population en général et en particulier, les ouailles du prophète ? iiil’impact du document sur l’avenir des adeptes : la dispersion entre les différentes tendances même si ce document diffusé sous la plume de « testament d’harris », a été fort controversé, il a eu un impact considérable. 1le rejet du contenu du testament et la recherche de la légitimité des inconditionnels du prophète la première conséquence du testament a été d’avoir suscité la révolte des adeptes du prophète harris. rené bureau remarque que: « le petit résidu des harristes inconditionnels est ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 en révolte contre les missionnaires protestants. ce qui aurait précipité la visite de salomon dagri et de john ahui en 1928 à garraway » (rené bureau, 1971 : 60). en effet, deux années après la présentation du testament, les inconditionnels du prophète, qui refusent de reconnaître la légitimité de l’église protestante méthodiste, envoient à leur tour une délégation conduite par john ahui et salomon dagri. de ce voyage, révélateur d’une recherche d’une légitimité face aux missionnaires protestants forts de leur testament d’harris, la délégation revient elle aussi avec une photo du prophète avec john ahui, salomon dagri, et djibo l’interprète. les véritables acquis de ce voyage sont la canne et la bible du prophète, remis à salomon dagri par harris lui-même. ces deux éléments deviennent le symbole de la légitimité et de l’orthodoxie de leur action. l’église harriste vient ainsi de naître. mais c’est en août 1955, avec son premier congrès, qu’elle devient une véritable institution, avec john ahui comme premier chef spirituel. à cette occasion, il hérite, en effet, de la canne et de la bible du prophète. l’église harriste se donne ensuite une devise (dieu, travail, amour, patrie), un catéchisme imprimé en 1956 et des statuts publiés dans le journal officiel de la côte d’ivoire le 4 mars 1961, sous la dénomination officielle d’église du christ mission harris. pour hippolyte melgbadja, ce document controversé a sonné le glas de la rupture entre l’église protestante de côte-d’ivoire et les inconditionnels de william wadé harris (hippolyte m. gbadja, 2003 : 18). 2des adhésions massives à l’eglise méthodiste en revanche, du côté de la mission protestante, on note des prouesses. car, elle a bénéficié des conversions de masse du prophète harris. comme le note rené bureau: « tout de suite 25 000 inscriptions à l’instruction religieuse, 32 000 fidèles en 1926, 42 000 en 1930, avec plus de 200 chapelles » (rené bureau, 1971 : 59). amos djoro évoque constate que : « de 600 membres que comptait l’église de grand-bassam, la communauté protestante dans l’ensemble du pays passera à plus de 50 000 personnes avec 414 églises, 109 catéchistes et 872 prédicateurs » (e. amos djoro, 1989 : 51). ce qui fait dire à kobi abo joseph, qu’il y a eu une grande percée pour les missions protestants (kobi a. joseph, 2015 : 3719). somme toute, les méthodistes se sont appropriés l’héritage spirituel d’harris. selon le rapport de h. lamblin : « les villages de la lagune sont toujours parcourus par des pasteurs de la wesleyenne church. actifs, remuants, beaux-parleurs, ils sont surveillés et pendant le cours ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 de l’année 1923, on n’a pas eu à les punir » (anci, h. lamblin, 1923). christophe wondji révèle que : de mémoire de missionnaire, on a jamais vu cela. en un an, les fidèles passent de vingt-cinq mille à trente-deux mille. en 1930, ils sont quarante-deux mille, répartis dans plus deux cents chapelles » (christophe wondji, 1983 : 71). toujours est-il que, le prétendu « testament » parvient à faire basculer certains indécis dans le camp protestant, tandis qu’une majorité de disciples du prophète restent viscéralement attachés à l’orthodoxie et choisissent de continuer en eglise autonome. (e. gnagoran yao bi, 2009 : 33). conclusion le document diffusé sous le nom de « testament d’harris », rapporté par le pasteur français pierre benoît le 25 septembre 1926, a occasionné la naissance de deux tendances. le premier groupe qui soutient ce document, confirme que l’église protestante est l’héritière de l’œuvre de william wadé harris. pour ce groupe, le pasteur français pierre benoît est digne de foi et de confiance. et le récit de sa rencontre avec le prophète donne tous les signes de sa crédibilité. le deuxième groupe quant à lui, donne un point de vue contradictoire. dans la mesure où, on sait qu’avant son départ dans son pays natal, le libéria, il aurait affirmé qu’il n’est pas venu pour fonder une église, mais faire seulement connaître la bonne nouvelle pour laquelle l’ange gabriel l’a mandatée, ainsi que le règne imminent de son maître jésus. mais contre toute attente, ce document a engendré la révolte des fidèles du prophète harris. ainsi certains convertis ont basculé dans le camp protestant créant alors une compétition entre les églises catholique et protestante. face à cette compétition, les « inconditionnels » du prophète voulant affirmer leur fidélité au prophète, ont fini par mettre en place, une église africaine, créée par les africains et pour les africains : l’église harriste. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 références bibliographiques ahui paul william (1988), le prophète william wadé harris, son message d’humilité et de progrès, abidjan, nea, 349 p. bianquis jean (1924), le prophète harris ou dix ans d’histoire religieuse de la côted’ivoire (1914-1924), paris, sme, 40 p. bureau rené (1971), "le prophète harris et l harrisme", annales de l’université d’abidjan, série f 3, abidjan, pp. 30-196. dea lékpéa alexis (2013), "le christianisme occidental à l’épreuve des messianismes indigènes en côte-d’ivoire coloniale : le harrisme et le déhima, religioscope, études et analyses, n° 30, pp. 1-31. deaville walker (1931), harris le prophète noir. instrument d’un puissant réveil en côted’ivoire, paris, privas, 198 p. djoro amos e. (1989), harris et la chrétienté en côte-d’ivoire, abidjan, nea, 60 p. gbadja mel hippolyte (2003), "le harrisme en france : messianisme, syncrétisme, religion, l’arbre à palabres, n° 13, pp. 22-27. haliburton gordon mackay (1984), le prophète harris, abidjan, nea, 144 p. holas bohumil théophile (1965), le séparatisme religieux en afrique noire : l’exemple de la côte-d’ivoire, paris, puf, 411 p. kobi a. joseph (2015), "le ministère du prophète william wadé harris et la naissance d’une église harriste en côte-d’ivoire : 1913-1928", journal africain de communication scientifique et théologique, série sciences sociales et humaines, n° 28, pp. 3711-3723. lamblin h. (1923), anci, rapport relatif à la propagande religieuse dans le cercle des lagunes. n’doufou yapi thierry (2019), les prédicateurs, ministres du culte harriste : 1928-1999, thèse de doctorat unique d’histoire, abidjan, ufhb, 403 p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 shank david a (1994), "wadé harris william d’environ 1860 jusqu’en 1929, église harriste libéria / ghana / côte-d’ivoire", bulletin international de recherches missionnaires, vol 10, parution 4, pp. 170-178. wondji christophe (1983), le prophète harris, abidjan-dakar-lomé, nea, 80 p. yao bi gnagoran ernest (2009), côte-d’ivoire : un siècle de catholicisme, abidjan, éditions du cerap, 175 p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 the place of meteorology and prophetism in sustainable development olatunji samuel akinwumi (ph.d) department of christian religious studies, school of arts and social sciences, college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria e-mail:tunji.samakin@gmail.com & foyeke omoboye ibimilua (ph.d) department of spatial and planning sciences, school of social and management sciences, college of science, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria e-mail:fibimilua63@gmail.com abstract meteorology and prophetism are universal phenomena which as a result of their significance and relevance had from time immemorial engaged the interest of scholars. discourses on meteorology and prophetism had however revealed and undeniable fact that they are stabilizing agents and effective tools for arresting the tide of misfortune and misery. they are also being used to enhance creativity and increase productivity for the common good. unfortunately, as important and interesting as discourses on meteorology and prophetism are, they are often been studied in isolation development which has consequently made it impossible to examine the benefits they have in common and how they have contributed to sustainable development. this paper therefore aims at doing comparative study of meteorology and prophetism with the purpose of exploring their common benefits to humanity by paying special attention to their points of convergence and divergence. being an historical study, historical method of analysis is employed. the study reveals that meteorology is a branch of science that is concerned with the process and phenomena of atmosphere especially as a means of forecasting the weather while prophetism is a spiritual method or act of foreseeing and foretelling events. while a meteorologist employs scientific principles to observe, explain and forecast weather, a prophet or prophetess relies on inspiration to predict events. meteorology and prophetism help people to plan what to wear, when to travel or which products to stock in supermarkets. an accurate forecast and prediction may mean the difference between life and death. hence, their role in sustainable development and how they can enhance national interaction with the dynamic of globalization cannot be overemphasized. the paper however recommends that persistent comparative studies of both science and religion should be done since this will entrench progressive human development. keywords: meteoriology, prophetism, scientific principles, prediction, forecasting. introduction meteorology and prophetism are technically synonymous with forecasting, foretelling, prediction and prognostication. all these terms have to do with having the knowledge of the past present and future. man’s life will be in complete shambles and total disarray without adequate knowledge of the workings of his environment. a predicted future ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 is well prepared for. it is in view of this that this paper examines the place of meteorology and prophetism in human development. meteorology is the study of atmosphere, atmospheric phenomena and atmospheric effects on our weather. (the atmosphere is the gaseous layer of the physical environment that surrounds a planet). this means that anything that happens with the weather: wind, rain, snow, sun, dew, frost, fog, e.t.c is opened for study in meteorology. meteorologists often focus on atmospheric research or operational weather forecasting. research shows that meteorology includes: climate modeling, remote sensing, air quality, atmospheric physics and climate change. it also covers the relationship between the atmosphere and earth’s climate, oceans and biological life. weather forecast provides critical information about the expected weather conditions for a certain period of time and at a particular location. forecasts may be prepared also for a particular area or route between two locations. there are many different techniques involved in weather forecasting from relatively simple observation of the sky to highly complex numerical models on powerful super computers such as the famous “cray computer”. most religions, if not all, have produced the phenomenon of prophecy either continuously or not at certain stage in their development. this observation according to ugwueye (2002) holds true not only for the so-called primitive religions but also for highly sophisticated ones. by prophecy, we understand not specifically or even principally the foretelling of the future but the mediation and interpretation of the divine mind and will. it was in this sense that the term prophet was used from about the 5th century b.c to designate those who interpreted the divine mind as made known in various ways to themselves or to others. fischott (1993) defined a prophet as an individual bearer of charisma who by virtue of this mission proclaims a religious doctrine or divine commandment. fonrer (1970) regard a prophet or prophetess as a person with charismatic gifts, conscious of having been singled out and called out, an individual who feels constrained to proclaim message and performs actions during a state of spiritual inspiration and possibly accompanied by mild or intense ecstasy. just as a meteorologist uses scientific apparatus to predict the weather of a particular location and at a particular time, a prophet is charged with the responsibility of announcing god’s will to the people in different situations. a prophet’s major concerns are prophecy and prediction. that is, he is charged with the task of speaking about his contemporary situation and to predict what will happen in the future. it is however very obvious that both meteorology and prophetism deal with prediction, forecasting and foretelling as earlier stated in this work. the work therefore aims at examining the inter-relatedness between the two concepts. to this extent, the study shall focus on the conceptual clarification, history of meteorology, the meaning of prophetism, origin and development of prophetism, common features between meteorology and prophetism, sustainable development and the place of meteorology and prophetism in sustainable development. conceptual clarification atmosphere ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 atmosphere is the gaseous layer of the physical environment that surrounds a planet. it is the layer of gases commonly known as air that surrounds the planet earth’s and it is retained by earth’s gravity. the atmosphere of earth protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention and reducing temperature between day and night(gerrat, 1992). the atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 x 108kg: three quarters of which is written about 11km of the earth surface. earth’s atmosphere can be divided into five main layers which include the exosphere, troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. the exosphere is the outermost layer of earth’s atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). it extends from the exobase which is located at about 70km above the sea level to about 10,000km feet where it merges into the solar wind. the exosphere is located too far above earth surface (deikman, 1982). the thermosphere is the second-highest layer of earth’s atmosphere. it extends from the meso-pause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80km.the height of the thermopause varies considerably due to change in solar activity. the mesosphere is the third highest layer of earth’s atmosphere occupying the region above the stratosphere and bellow the thermosphere. the stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. it lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. the stratosphere is so conditioned to the stratosphere to an extent that it lacks the weather producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. the troposphere is the lowest layer of earth atmosphere. it extend from earth’s surface to an average height of about 12km. nearly all atmosphere water vapour of moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of earth’s weather takes place. weather forecasting weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the condition of the atmosphere for a given location and time. human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since the 19th century. weather forecasts are made collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmosphere processes to project how the atmosphere will change. human input is required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon that which involves pattern recognition skills, telecommunications, knowledge of model performance and knowledge of model biases. the inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, the error involved in measuring the initial conditions and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes. hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. the use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome. there are varieties of end use to weather forecasts. weather warming are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture and therefore to traders within commodity markets. temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. on daily basis people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events and to plan ahead and survive them. it is in view of this that meteorology has been defined as the study of weather and its changes especially with the aim of predicting it accurately. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 meteorology the word “meteorology” is a derivative of a greek word ‘meteroros’ which means “lofty, high (in the sky). the word was coined from three greek word meta (above), aeiro (i lift up), and logia i.e. the study of things in the air” (holton, 2016). meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric science which includes atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. (holton:2016) the study of meteorology dates back to millennia though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until 18th century. the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. it wasn’t until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly the development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equation that model the weather in the later half of the 20th century that significant breakthrough in weather forecasting were achieved.(jacobson, 2005) meteorology phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. meteorology phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of earth’s atmosphere temperature at pressure, water vapour, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of those variables and how they change over time. meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics and atmospheric chemistry are subdiscipline of the atmospheric science. meteorology and hydrology comprise the inter disciplinary field of hydrometeorology. the interactions between earth’s atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmospheric system. meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy producing company, transport, agriculture and construction. history and origin of meteorology the beginning of meteorology can be traced back to ancient india (https://www.science daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm) where serious discussion about the seasoned cycles caused by the movement of earth around the sun emanated.(https://www.nationalgeographicorg/encyclopedia/meteorology)varahamitira’s classical work britatsamnita written about 500a.d provides clear evidence of theknowledge of atmospheric processes existed even at that time(https://www.at a deep kscience daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm). the development of meteorology is deeply connected to development in science, math and technology. the greek philosophers, aristotle who has been described as the first major scholar of the atmosphere studied around 340 bce. a growing belief in the scientific method profoundly changed the study of meteorology in the 17thand 18th centuries. evangelista torrically, an italian physist observed that changes in air pressure were connected to changes in weather.(jacobson, 2005) in 1643 torricalli invented the barometer to accurately measure the pressure of air. the barometer is still a key instrument in understanding and forecasting weather systems. in 1714, daniel fanrenheit a german physicist, developed the mercury thermometer. these instruments made it possible for meteorologist to accurately measure how important atmospheric variables are(gerrat:1992). there was no way to quickly transfer weather data until the invention of the telegraph by an american inventors, samuel morse in the mid-18000s. using this new technology, meteorological offices were able to share information and produce the first modern weather maps. these maps combined and displayed more complex sets of information such as isobers (lines of equal air pressure) and isotherms (lines of equal temperature). with these large – scale weather maps, meteorologist could examine a broader geographic picture of weather and make more accurate forecasts (https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 https://www.science/ https://www.nationalgeographic/ in the 1920s, a group of norwegean meteorologists developed the concepts of air masses and fronts that are the building blocks of modern weather forecasting. using basic laws of physics, these meteorologists discovered that huge cold and warm air masses that move and meet in patterns which are the root of many weather system (richard:2015). military operations during world war ii brought great advances to meteorology. the success of these operations was highly dependent on weather over vast regions of the globe. the military invested heavily in training, research and new technologies to improve their understanding of weather. the most important of these new technologies was radar, which was developed to detect the presence, direction and speed of aircraft and ships. since the end of world war ii radar has been used and improved to detect the presence, direction and speed of precipitation and wind patterns (https://www.nationalgeographicorg/encyclopedia/meteorology). the technological developments of the 1950s and 1960s made it easier and faster for meteorologists to observe and predict weather systems on a massive scale. during the 1950s, computers created the first models of atmospheric conditions by running hundreds of data points through complex equations. these models were able to predict large scale weather such as the series of high and low pressure systems that circle our planet (https://www.science daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm). tiros 1, the first meteorological satellite provided the first accurate weather forecast from space in1962. the success of tiros 1 prompted the creation of more sophisticated satellites. their ability to collect and transmit data with extreme accuracy and speed has made indispensable to meteorologists. advanced satellites and the computers that process their data are the primary tools used in meteorology today. modern meteorologists have a variety of tools that help them examine, describe, model, and predict weather systems. these technologies are being applied at different meteorological scales to improve forecast accuracy and efficiency. radar is an important remote sensing technology used in forecasting. a radar dish is an active sensor in that it sends out radio waves that bounce off particles in the atmosphere and return to the dish. a computer processes these pulses and determines the horizontal dimension of clouds and precipitation, the speed and direction in which these clouds are moving. a new technology known as dual-polarization radar transmits both horizontal and vertical radio wave pulses. with this additional pulse, dual-polarization radar is better able to estimate precipitation and differentiate types of precipitation, rain, snow, sleet or hail. dual polarization radar will greatly improve flash flood and winter weather forecasts. tornado research is another important component of meteorology. starting in 2009 the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa) and the national science foundation conducted the largest tornado research project in history, known as vortexz. the vortexz team consists of about 200people and more than 80 weather instruments, they travelled more than 16,000 kilometers (10,000 miles) across the great plains of the united state to collect data on how, when, and why tornadoes form. the team made history by collecting extremely detailed data before, during, and after a specific tornado(https://www.science daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm). this tornado is the most intensively examined in history and will provide key insights into tornado dynamics(https://www.science daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm). satellites are extremely important to our understanding of global scale weather phenomena. the national aeronautics and space administration (nasa) and noaa operate three geostationary operational environmental satellite (goes) that provide weather observations for more than 50 percent of the earth’s surface (https://www.science daily.com/terms/meteorology.htm). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 goes -15, launched in 2010 includes a solar x-ray, imager that monitors the sun’s xrays for the early detection of solar phenomena, such as solar flares. solar flares can affect military and commercial satellite communications around the globe, a highly accurate imager of the earth’s surface, detects the movement and transfer of heat, it improves our understanding of the global energy balance and processes such as global warming, convection and severe weather. prophetism the term ‘prophet’, ‘prophecy’ and ‘prophetism’ are often used by religious leaders in the 21st century to encourage believers to take action in order to make the world a better place (devillers, 2010). a popular opinion according to deviller (2010) is that prophecy foretells the future; however the meaning is rejected by the vast majority of biblical scholars. yet even scholars are not unanimous in their attempt at providing a single definition of ‘prophetism’. it is however necessary to look at the origins of the greek ‘[prophets’ the word which the septuagint (lxx) used for the translation of the hebrew “nabi”. in this sense, prophet is someone who acts as a “mouthpiece of god”, a prophet is a human medium who is capable of receiving and transmitting a message from a deity (nissinen, 2004). de jong (2007) as quoted by devillier (2010) posits that all prophecy has bearing on a particular socio-historical circumstances so that the divine-human communication is interpreted as an event in the present or something that happened in the past. prophecy is seen as the disclosure of a divine message which is important for the state of affairs in the present. rather than straightforward descriptions of future events, the element of prediction is something that develops out of a present situation in which the divine plan relating to matters in the future is disclosed. reading the signs in the present, the prophet is able to make calculated projections of what may not happen in the imminent future. to sum up therefore, a prophet can be described as someone who delivers a divine message while prophecy or prophetism pertains to the interpretation of this message. prophetism is in truth and reality an emanation sent forth by divine being through the medium of the active intellect in the first instance to man’s rational faculty and then to his “imaginative faculty”. prophecy is not limited to a particular culture; it is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world. earlier scholars according to de villier (2004) draw a distinction between divination and prophecy thereby aiming to distinguish between inductive and non-inductive measures that would separate the diviners from the prophets. diviners make use of inductive measure and technical operations to evolve the message of a deity, whiles prophet received it spontaneously albeit an audible word, a dream or a vision. there are however two types of divination; inductive and non-inductive divinations. inductive divination was common in the ancient near east but only vaguely attested to in the hebrew bible. this form of divination requires rather specialized knowledge and technical operations which range from astrology, good omens and bad omens to necromancy. abnormal appearances in the phases of the heavenly bodies, abnormalities in the birth of animals or humans or in the intestine of ritually slaughtered animals, all served as media by which the gods disclosed some important message to earthly beings. also the colour or motion of oil poured upon water could be a significant indication of events or otherwise the diviner could look out the direction of smoke from an incense burner. these forms of divination required special training skills and expert knowledge. non-inductive divination refers to the spontaneous revelation of divine messages to the recipients, s that is the prophet which is more similar to the kind of prophecy of the hebrew bible (de viller, 2004). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 common features between meteorology and prophetism meteorology and prophetism have unique and similar characteristics both should be studied together and not in isolation. while meteorology is seen as the branch of science that deals with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere especially a means of forecasting the weather, prophetism is considered as the disclosure of a divine message which is important for the state affairs of the present. while meteorologists predict weather condition, prophets predict events. meteorologists forecast but prophets foretells prophetism is in truth and reality an emanation sent forth by divine being through the medium of the active intellect. meteorology deals with a variety of tools that are used to examine and describe model and predict weather systems. the act of prophesying may at times be innate. meteorology absolutely involves learning processes so that after undergoing the process involved the person concerned becomes an expert. while prophetism is deeply spiritual, meteorology is purely scientific. while meteorologist uses scientific apparatus to forecast weather a prophet relies solely on inspiration. it is however necessary at this juncture to look at the points of convergence between meteorology and prophetism: both deals with prediction. while a meteorologist predicts weather a prophet predicts future events. a prophet needs to interpret his numerous events as divinely inspired before prophesying. a meteorologist also interprets the various data at his disposal before he can forecast. meteorologist through weather forecast help people to plan the kind of cloth to wear, when to travel and the kind of products to stock in supermarkets. prophets also are able to warn people where to travel, what to eat and the kind of trade transactions to be involved in. both need the knowledge of the present to forecast or foretell the future event sustainable development development must involve two basic processes. the first has to do with improving and refining that which is already in existence and adapting it to contemporary requirement (tunde, 2007). the second process involves finding solutions to new problems or new forms of solutions to old problems. both imply creative responses for social political and economic affairs. sustainable development suggests an enduring, remarkable, non-terminal improvement in the quality of life, standard of living and life chances of the people. such development must be capable of surviving generations over a prolonged period of time. it favours a progress curve in human development encompassing enhanced creativity, for increased productivity. sustainable development is development that meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. sustainable development is maintaining a delicate balance between the human needs to improve lifestyles and feeling of well-being on one hand, and preserving natural resources and ecosystems, on which we, and the future generations depends. sustainable development implies economic growth together with the protection of environmental quality, each reinforcing the other. the essence of this form of development is a stable relationship between human activities and the natural world which does not diminish the prospects for future generations to enjoy a quality of life at least as good as our own. the term refers to achieving economic and social development in ways that do not exhausts a country’s natural resources. it is a process of change in which the exploitation of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 resources, the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent with the future as well as present needs. sustainable development can therefore be defined as a deliberate and systematic policy of ensuring the survival of a state in such conditions that the social, economic and political necessities that are imperative for the enjoyment of the good life and ensuring the greatest good for the greatest numbers are available now without this constituting a denial of the capacity of being able to enjoy the same benefits to generations yet unborn in the foreseeable future. another way of understanding the concept of sustainable development is to say that the society should be managed in an effective and efficient manner such that it benefits all and sundry, with enough resources still available for the continuation of the human race in future. this is achievable through the judicious and careful use of global resources. a necessary adjunct to this concern therefore is the imperative of poverty eradication, control of diseases, improvement of the standards of living of the people, good governance and the forgiveness of debts. sustainable development refers to the definitive growth of the society in every sphere. the place of meteorology and prophetism in sustainable development as earlier pointed out in this work, sustainable development entails how the society should be managed effectively and efficiently such that it benefits all and sundry with enough resources still available for the continuation of human race in the future, meteorology and prophetism make this achievable. climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and its adverse impacts undermine the ability to achieve sustainable development. climate change makes the survival of many societies and of the biological support systems of the planet impossible. it may have negative impact on: food security; agriculture; rural development and water management. it may also cause global health threats; natural resources depletion; environmental degradation and so on. a proper prediction of the conditions of the atmosphere for a given location and time helps to sustain development in the following ways:  it ensures healthy lives and promotes wellbeing for all ages: with accurate predictions either from a meteorologist or prophet, adequate preparation is made to prevent any calamity that unfavourable weather might cause .since weather condition determines attitudes at a given time evils and disaster are avoided with accurate predictions. when disasters are avoided, peaceful coexistence which leads to development becomes possible.  it promotes, sustains, inclusive economic growth and productive employment. proper prediction enhances economic growth if right transactions are made and needed goods are sold .productive employment becomes necessary when profits are made. employment will no doubt reduce the level of poverty which will in turn lead to economic sustainability.  it builds resilient infrastructure, promotes inclusive and sustainable industrialization and fosters innovation. through timely predictions, the building of dependable infrastructure and promotion of inclusive and sustainable industrialization will become an easy task. persistent and reliable predictions also foster and contribute greatly to economic sustainability.  it makes cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. as no one is ready to settle in any region devoid of peace, proper prediction is necessary because settlement in any peaceful environment will enhance development. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13  it protects, restores and promotes sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halts and reverse land degradation and halts biodiversity loss(https://www.buinesshumanrights.org.).(biodiversity loss is the variety of life on earth in all its forms and interactions. it is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial marine and other aquatic ecosystems). biodiversity loss will no doubt affect the gross domestic product(gdp) of any nation which in turn hamper its economic growth and development.  it revitalizes the global partnership for sustainable development: accurate meteorological or prophetic predictions enhance economic partnership among different countries. apart from peaceful co-existence that global partnership brings, it contributes tremendously to economic development.  it promotes peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development. conclusion the role being played by meteorologists and prophets in the world cannot be overemphasized most especially when one considered the benefits of prophetism and meteorology to human development. it is however not an exaggeration to opine that lives will remain inhabitable and of course miserable without these phenomena. without weather forecast or prophetic prediction disasters of different degrees will be inevitable since sustainable development will remain unattainable grandiose and a mere illusion. in view of the above analysis, it is however recommended that persistent comparative studies of science and religion should be done since this will pave way for expected sustainable development. references deikman. a.j. (1982). the observing self: mysticism and psycholtherapy. bosten : beacon press. de villiers, (2010). “the origin of prophetism in ancient near east”www.hts.org.za/index.php/h13/article/view/795retrieved on15/6/2017. de villers, (2004). “prophetism: defilation and meaning” https://www.wordnik.com/words/prophetism. retrieved on (15/6/17). bichott, e. (1993). the sociology of religion. bosten: beacon press. fohrer, g. (1970). introduction to the old testament prophecy. lagos : sudan press. garratt, j.r. (1992).the atmospheric boundary layer. cambridge: cambridge university press. hotten, j. (2016). an introduction to dynamic meteorology. london: elsevier academic pressism. jacobson, m. z (2005). fundamentals of atmospheric modeling (2nd ed) new york: cambridge university press https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/atmospheric. “atmospheric” retrieved on 10/3/17. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast. “weather forecast” retrieved on 10/3/2017 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prophetism. retrieved 15/6/17 http://weather forecasting101.wordpress.com. retrieved on 5th of oct., 2017 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 https://www.buiness-humanrights.org. https://www.buiness-humanrights.org. https://www.wordnik.com/words/prophetism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/atmospheric https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prophetism. retrieved 15/6/17 http://weather/ ugwuoye,a.t. (2002). prophets and prophecy in old testament. nsukka: price publishers. rowley, h.h. (1986). prophecy and religion in ancient china and isreal. new york: harper and brothers. stacey, c. (2008). ecstatic prophecy. grand rapids: baker publishers. tunde,b.(2006).nigeria in the crises of governance and development: a retrospective and prospective analysis of issue and events. lagos: concept publications. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4| issue 06| june | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 the effects of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria owoade,n.l. and ogunlowo,d. t. department of economics, college of management sciences (colmas), michael okpara university of agriculture umudike. abstract this study examines the linkage among trade openness, exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria, using annual data from 1981 to 2017. in conducting the analysis, this study utilized vector error correction model and granger causality tests. trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate, balance of payment and stock market capitalization growth were captured in the model. the results show that trade openness, and balance of payment have positive and statistically significant impact on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria, while foreign direct investment and exchange rate have negative and statistically significant influence on stock market capitalization growth over the study period which validates the unfavorable side of demand and supply theory. granger causality results indicated that there is unidirectional causality running from trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate and balance of payment to stock market capitalization growth. this study recommends the following: a need for policymakers to ensure effective implementation of existing monetary policy instruments and device strong way of harmonizing monetary and fiscal policies in order to maintain stable exchange rate and avoid structural break that affect the whole system including the stock market capitalization growth. there is the need for government to intensify its efforts in diversifying the economy that will help to have more active economic sectors that can contribute positively in reducing the existing foreign direct investment, exchange rate, crises and even boost the investment in the stock market capitalization growth. 1. introduction efficient trade openness, exchange rate stability and stock market capitalization growth are the three economic objectives that every country needs to achieve, this is because the financial position of every economy be it developed or developing can be accessed from its ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 exchange rate stability (bala and hassan, 2018). trade openness in the developing countries became a household terminology in the 1990s, which in term of definition, is, external opening of the economy and increase role of markets domestically (that is the market economy) to developing world, modern way of running an economy (loto, 2010). the essence of trade openness mainly is as a basis for moving the economy towards external liberation, focusing on market oriented system of government. since the late 1980s, the pace of trade openness has rapidly quickened with the world trade rising nearly as fast as world gross domestic product. this has been characterized by the trade openness; exchange rate stability and stock market capitalization growth are accelerated by private capital flows (adam, 2003). the recent growth of stock exchange market, through increase in crossborder capital movement has been attributed to the removal of statutory restriction on the capital account transactions and economy liberalization. (international monetary fund, 2003) attributed another impact of growth of stock market globally on macro-economic stabilization policy reforms in the developing countries which is privatization, liberalization of trade and growth of stock. stock exchange is a medium to encourage savings, help channel savings into productive investments. the emphasis on the growth of stock market for domestic resource mobilization has also been strengthened by the need to attract foreign capital (idele, 1999). according to (hassan, abubakar, and dantama, 2017) a very strong exchange rate is a signal that shows strong and viable stock market capitalization growth. while on the other hand a very weak currency is a reflection of a very vulnerable and weak stock market capitalization growth. exchange rate instability has real stock market capitalization growth shocks because it negatively affects prices level, firms’ profits and even the entire activity in an economy. similarly, stock market plays crucial role in economic development of every nation, stock market serves as a transmission mechanism upon which savings are mobilized and adequately distributed across the economic sectors with the view to realize inclusive growth. exchange rate and stock market price are interconnected directly or indirectly, because today, world is turning into a global village due to trade liberalization and globalization. for instance, foreign investors are busy investing their capital in the world stock markets. in this process international investment is booming rapidly and capital is moving across the world (bala and hassan, 2018). the benefits of these investors are being determined by foreign exchange rate. moreover, instability in the exchange rate may bring ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 about uncertainty or otherwise in these investors. thus, exchange rate is the important determinant of stock market fluctuations (khan and ali, 2015). in nigeria, the value of naira experienced high degree of volatility recently, for example, statistical records have shown that from 2006 to 2008 the value of naira to us$ was 125, which further depreciated from 150.3 in 2010 to average of 153.90, 156.81, 305.25 and 306.45 per us$ dollar in 2011, 2013, 2017 and 2018 respectively. in the same vain the stock market moves so strong in the same direction with the currency exchange rate, statistically, stock market collapsed by about 70% between 2008-2009. in addition, the all share index (asi) as measure of stock market performance has persistently declined from 65,652.38 in 2008 to less than 30,000.00 points in 2012. it however, increases from 31,853.19 to 41,210.10 points between 2013 and 2014, after which in continuously declined to less than 31,853.19 points from 2015 to date (central bank of nigeria, 2018). a liquid stock market development offers the potential for investors to quickly and cheaply alter their portfolios thereby reducing the riskiness of their investment, thus, facilitating investments in projects that are more profitable (ezeabisili and alajekwe, 2012). without a liquid stock market, many profitable long-term investments would not be undertaken because savers would be reluctant to tie up their investments for long periods of time (okonkwo, ogwuru and ajudua, 2014). a well-functioning stock market fosters growth and profit incentives and also helps in risk management (beck and levine 2012). it has also been observed that more developed market may provide liquidity that lowers the cost of the foreign capital essential for development, especially in low income countries that cannot generate sufficient domestic savings. however, the concern about the stock market growth in nigeria is the impact of globalization on the market. it has not been clearly ascertained whether globalization especially through increased foreign direct investment (fdi) generate positive impact or otherwise on the stock exchange market. though the effect of globalization has not been undoubtedly looked at by many, trade openness has impacted on most factors identified in the literature to be determinants of stock exchange market growth (obstfied, 2002). specifically, the role of stock market in economic development cannot be overemphasized; the liquidity of stock (capital investment) has been noted. many profitable investments require a long-term commitment of capital but investors might not want to tie up their savings for such long periods. until recently, nigerian stock markets have not performed impressively when compared to those in other regions of the world. however, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 nigerian stock exchange has experienced significant gains in the entry of the new millennium: market capitalization and new listing no doubt have increased. these changes have taken place within the context of globalization and internationalization policies that reflect the effort of the government to use stock markets as a means of privatization and engine growth of the economy. against this background, this study is designed to understudy the effect of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. the objective of this study is to examine the effects of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. to achieve the objective, this study is structured into five sections including this introduction. section two and three contains review of related literature and methodology. while section four and five comprises findings of this study and conclusion and recommendations correspondingly. 2. review of related literature theoretical literature demandsupply theory it is also referred to as theory of exchange rate. the theory stresses that the rate exchange basically relates to the position of balance of payments of the country concerned. a favourable balance of payments leads to an appreciation in the external value of the currency of the country. unfavorable balance of payments causes a depreciation of the external value. the exchange rate holds that the price of foreign money in terms of domestic money is determined by the free forces of demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. it follows that the external value of a country’s currency will depend upon the demand for and supply of the currency. the theory states that the forces of demand and supply are determined by various items in the balance of payments of a country. according to the theory, a deficit in the balance of payments leads of a fall or depreciation in the rate of exchange, while a surplus in the balance of payments strengthens the exchange reserves, causing an appreciation in the price of home currency in terms of foreign currency. a deficit balance of payments of a country implies that demand for foreign exchange exceeds its supply. as a result, the price of foreign money in terms of domestic currency must rise, i.e., the exchange rate of domestic currency ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 must fall. on the other hand, a surplus in the balance of payments of a country implies a greater demand for home currency in a foreign country than the available supply. as a result, the price of home currency in terms of foreign money rises, i.e., the rate of exchange improves. in short, the balance of payments theory simply holds that the exchange rates are determined by the balance of payments, connoting demand and supply positions of foreign exchange in the country concerned. as such, this theory is also designated as “theory of exchange rate,” the theory asserts that the rate of exchange is the function of the supply of and demand for foreign money and not exclusively the function of prices obtaining between two countries as asserted by the purchasing power parity theory which does not take into account invisible items. according to the demand and supply theory, the demand for foreign exchange arises from the “debit” items in the balance of payments, whereas the supply of foreign exchange arises from the “credit” items. since the theory assumes that the demand for and supply of foreign currency are determined by the position of the balance of payments, it implies that supply and demand are determined mainly by factors that are independent of variations in the rate of exchange or the monetary policy.demand-supply theoryshould be adopted because it portrays the framework of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth which the model will adopt. empirical literature review many studies have covered globalization and stock market growth from different perspectives, and examined focused variables and their relationship differently. most relevant and useful studies for this study are included. torre and schmuker, (2007), found out that stock market development is positively related to globalization in nigeria through the use of single regression. this work shows that reform and globalization of capital market increases domestic market capitalization, trading and capital raising, increases in the chain of activity in international equity markets can contribute to the spread at least practices in corporate governance, accounting rules and legal traditions. internationalization is a reality and no country of the world is immune to its impacts. maduka, madichie, and eze, (2017) examine the impact of globalization on economic growth ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 in nigeria. the study uses the contemporary econometric techniques of co-integration and error correction mechanism within the framework of the pesaran, shin and smith. (2001) ardl model using annualized secondary time series data from 1970 to 2015, the study reveals that trade openness; financial integration and foreign direct investment have significant positive impact on economic growth in nigeria. thus, adequate mechanism should be put in place to ensure that globalization brings about the desired pace of economic growth. araoye, ajayi, and aruwaji, (2018) study examined the impact of the nigerian stock market development on the nation’s economic growth from 1985 to 2014. the economic growth was proxy by the gdp while the stock market variables considered included; market capitalization and market turnover ratio as proxy for stock market development in terms of size and liquidity. the study utilizes the johansson’s co integration long run relationship test does existing between establish stock market development and economic growth in nigeria. the empirical results suggest that the stock market is significant in determining economic growth in nigeria using the error correlation model and it was found that the stock market has impacted insignificantly on the economic growth. bala and hassan, (2018) study examines the linkage between exchange rates and stock market in nigeria using annual data from 1985 to 2015. in conducting the analysis, this study utilized autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) model and granger causality tests. exchange rate, economic growth, money supply and stock market (i.e., all share indexes) were captured in the model. the results show that exchange rate and economic growth have positive and statistically significant impact on stock market in nigeria, while money supply has negative and statistically significant influence on stock market over the study period. onwuka and eguavoen (2007), studied globalization and its implications for the growth process of the nigeria economy for the period 1985–2001. using descriptive method of analysis, the study revealed that nigeria has not benefited from globalization due to monocultural export, inability to attract increased foreign investment and huge indebtedness. omolade, morakinyo and ifeacho (2013), investigated the nexus between globalization and economic development of nigeria over the period 1980–2011. the study employed johansen co-integration and granger causality tests and revealed that trade openness relates negatively with economic development in nigeria. the study further revealed that a unidirectional causality flows from economic development to globalization without such in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 reversed order and that trade partners appear to be gaining more than the country especially the developed trade partners. sede and izilein (2013) examined the causal relationship between economic growth and globalization in nigeria. in carrying out the study, johansen co-integration, granger causality and variance decomposition tests were employed. the study found that globalization does not granger-cause economic growth in nigeria. nwakanma and ibe (2014) examined the causal relationship between globalization and economic growth in nigeria from 1981 to 2012. in carrying out the study, johansen cointegration and granger causality tests were employed. the results show that there is a positive and insignificant relationship between financial integration, human resource development and trade openness, while gross fixed capital formation was negative and insignificant. the results further revealed that a unidirectional causality runs from financial integration to gross fixed capital formation. okpokpo, ifelunini and osuyali (2014), through their study interrogated globalization as a potent driver of economic growth in nigeria using the non-oil (agricultural and manufacturing) export as reference point from 1970–2011. the study employed the adf unit root test and ols technique and found that globalization has no significant impact on non-oil export and that globalization has not been a potent driver of growth of the non-oil export in nigeria. shuaib, ekeria and ogedengbe (2015), examined the impact of globalization on the growth of the nigerian economy over the period 1960 –2010. the study employed the johansen cointegration and error correction model and found that growth of external debt ratio was inversely related to economic growth in nigeria. adesoye, ajike and maku (2015), examined the impact of economic globalization on output growth of the nigerian economy over the period 1970 –2013. the study employed englegranger co-integration and error correction model and found that a higher exchange rate and inflation rate, an increase in foreign direct investment, growth in trade and openness and a lesser interest rate enhance the growth rate of output in nigeria. 3. methodology to examine the relationship among the variables, this study applied augmented dickeyfuller (adf) statistics where used to test the stationarity or non-stationarity of the variables ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 and their order of integration. the johansen co-integration technique would be used to test for long run relationship between the variables. the vecm would be applied to estimate the speed of adjustment and causality test to examine the long run causal relationship between variables.this study also used annual data spanning from 1981 to 2017. this is the period for which all the data of the variables under assessment are available. the data is sourced from statistical bulletin a publication of central bank of nigeria, world development indicators, a publication of world bank, and nigerian bureau of statistics. the variables captured in the equation are stock market capitalization growth (smcg) as the explained variable, and trade openness (to), foreign direct investment (fdi), exchange rate (exr) and balance of payment (bop) as explanatory variables. model specification this study analyze the effects of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria, which would be based on the model coined from the publication of ajayi, araoye and aruwaji(2018),which have investigated the linkage between stock market and economic growth, but with slight modifications.to explain the relationship between stock market capitalization growth and other economic variables in nigeria economy, the model is specified below: stock market capitalization growth (smcg) = f (trade openness (to), foreign direct investment (fdi), exchange rate (exr), balance of payment (bop)………… (3:1) let derive equation (3:2) from equation (3:1) smcg = f (to, fdi, exr, bop)………………………………..………… (3:2) let converted equation (3:2) into econometric model for objective (1) smcg t = b0 + b1to t + b2fdi t + b3exr t + b3bopt + u1t………………………………… (3:3) where: stock market capitalization growth = smcgt trade openness (to) = tot foreign direct investment = fdi t exchange rate = exr t balance of payment = bopt b0 = intercept of the relationship b1, b2, b3 = measure of the slope u = error term. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 4. discussion of findings when dealing with time series data, it is important to test the series’ behavior so as to know the stationary levels. economic theory requires that variables be stationary before application of standard econometric techniques, this is to avoid misleading results. this has been carried out through the use of most frequently used testing techniques of augmented dickey fuller. variables adf statistics adf statistics level critical values 1st difference critical values smcg 0.569014 1% -3.626784 -5.859350 1% -3.632900 5% -2.945842 5% -2.948404 10% -2.611531 10% -2.612874 to -0.989652 1% -3.626784 -6.439743 1% -3.632900 5% -2.945842 5% -2.948404 10% -2.611531 10% -2.612874 fdi -1.368560 1% -3.626784 -8.325831 1% -3.632900 5% -2.945842 5% -2.948404 10% -2.611531 10% -2.612874 exr -0.411637 1% -3.626784 -3.769794 1% -3.632900 5% -2.945842 5% -2.948404 10% -2.611531 10% -2.612874 bop -5.087645 1% -3.626784 -9.612322 1% -3.632900 5% -2.945842 5% -2.948404 10% -2.611531 10% -2.612874 source: author`s compilation the adf results show that stock market capitalization growth, trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate are non-stationary in level, but stationary in difference. while balance of payment is stationary both in level and 1st difference indicating that the variables are of different order of integration. co-integration test result ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 having confirmed the stationary nature of the variables a necessary but not sufficient condition for co-integrating test is that each of the variables as different integrated order. the johansen co-integration test uses two statistics test namely; the trace test and the likelihood eigen-value test. the results obtained from the likelihood eigen-value testis summarized in table below. hypothesized no. of ce(s) eigen-value max-eigen statistic critical value 0.05 prob.** none * 0.691196 41.12672 33.87687 0.0057 at most 1 * 0.624325 34.26609 27.58434 0.0060 at most 2 0.226095 8.970734 21.13162 0.8348 at most 3 0.164041 6.271130 14.26460 0.5787 at most 4 * 0.127562 4.776216 3.841466 0.0288 source: author`s compilation max-eigenvalue test indicates 2 cointegratingeqn(s) at the 0.05 level denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level max-eigen statistics indicates the presence of two co-integrating equation at 5% significance level which implies that stock market capitalization growth, trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate, balance of payment are co-integrated. this shows that there is a long-run relationship among stock market capitalization growth, trade openness, foreigndirect investment, exchange rate, and balanceof payment in nigeria. vector error correction model (vecm) result since there is co-integration, the vector error correction model is estimated, toanswerh0�: there are no significant effects of trade openness, exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. variable α's ecm smcg(-1) 1.000000 0.254556 (0.09328) [ 2.72882] to(-1) 405285.2 (120887.) [ 3.35259] ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 fdi(-1) -0.016014 (0.00187) [-8.56286] exr(-1) -61956.62 (14095.7) [-4.39543] bop(-1) 10.92668 (2.30818) [ 4.73390] c 4459143. r-squared= 0.321034 note: the t-statistics [] are inparentheses source: author`s compilation interpretation of vecm results ectt-1=1.0000smcgt-1+405285.2tot-1-0.016014fdit-1 61956.62exrt-1 + 10.92668bopt-1 + 4459143 the coefficient of to is 405285.2 with a t-value of 3.35259. since the t-value is greater than 2 in absolute sense, we reject the null hypothesis at 5% level of significance using the 2-t rule of thumb. this means that trade opening is statistically significant and affects stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. specifically a unit increase in trade openness will on average increase stock market capitalization growth by 405285.2 ceteris paribus. the positive sign of trade opening is unrealistic in nigeria, in the sense that both foreign direct investment and exchange rate is negative, it will be actualize if only the government can control the domestic productive system, and be at advantage side of globalization. the coefficient of fdi is -0.016014 with a t-value of -8.56286. since the t-value is greater than 2 in absolute sense, we reject the hull hypothesis at 5% level of significance using the 2t rule of thumb. this means that foreign direct investment statistically significantly affects stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. specifically a unit increase in foreign direct investment will on average decrease stock market capitalization growth by -0.016014% ceteris paribus. the negative sign of foreign direct investment validates the unfavorable side of ‟demandsupply theory”, in the sense that multinational company import their advance technology and labour (semi-skilled) from their country and utilize the domestic materials, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 their profits are transferred back to their country which results to capital flight in the economy. the coefficient of exr is -61956.62 with a t-value of -4.39543. since the t-value is greater than 2 in absolute sense, we reject the hull hypothesis at 5% level of significance using the 2t rule of thumb. this means that exchange rate statistically significantly affects stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. specifically a unit increase in exchange rate will on average decrease stock market capitalization growth by -61956.62 ceteris paribus. the negative sign of exchange rate validates the unfavorable side of ‟demandsupply theory”, this effect can only be correct by checkmating all the variables that are affected domestically. the coefficient of bop is 10.92668 with a t-value of 4.73390. since the t-value is greater than 2 in absolute sense, we reject the hull hypothesis at 5% level of significance using the 2-t rule of thumb. this means that balance of payment statistically significantly affects stock market capitalization growth in nigeria. specifically a unit increase in exchange rate will on average increase stock market capitalization growth by 10.92668 ceteris paribus. the positive sign of the balance of payment is unrealistic in nigeria, in the sense that both foreign direct investment and exchange rate is negative, it will be actualize if only the government can diversify the production system, in a way that export will exceed import. r-squared measures the percentage of the total variation in the dependent variable that is explained by the explanatory variables. in the model, the total variation in smcg jointly explained by the variations in to, fdi, exr and bop is 32.11%. this means that the explanatory variables are able to explain close to optimum total variations in the dependent variable. adjusted r-squared penalizes the model for introducing unimportant variables. from the model above, the r2 adjusted penalizes the model by decreasing from 32.11% to 17.55%. interpretation of vector error correction term: scmgt= 0.254556ectt-1 0.307988 scmgt-1186483.0 to t-1 + 0.002058 fdi t-1 + 37955.04 exr t-1 3.256091 bop t-1 + 703392.8 the coefficient of the ectt-1 indicates that 57.1% of the disequilibrium in the model will be corrected annually. in other words, 26% of disequilibrium in the short run will be corrected in the long run. the speed of adjustment indicates that the model will converge completely to its equilibrium system in 2.73 years. the significance result of ecm indicates that speed of adjustment will be very fast. this result is shown in the appendix index. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 the optimum lag length of 11 was selected based on aic and sbc information criteria for all ecm estimate above. this means that the convergence between the variables is not instantaneous. granger causality test granger causality test shows that, there is unidirectional causality running from trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate and balance of payment to stock market capitalization growth as a result of the one way significant p-value of f-statistic (0.0786, 0.0005), (0.7237,0.0013),(0.3197, 0.0274) and (0.0020,0.6379). therefore, we accept alternative-hypothesis and conclude that trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate and balance of payment have significant effect on stock market capitalization growth. 5. summary, conclusion and recommendations nigeria has over the years experienced numerous challenges such as exchange rate fluctuations, collapse in the stock market price among others. it is on this basis that this study analyzed the effect of trade openness and exchange rate on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria from 1981 to 2017. following an extensive review of theoretical and empirical literatures, the study estimated a vector error correction model with stock market capitalization growth as the dependent variable and trade openness, foreign direct investment, exchange rate and balance of payment as the independent variables. also co-integration was used to examine the long-run effect and granger causality test to examine the exact causal relationship. the findings of the study capturing both the short-run and long-run are hereby stated for better policy guidance. trade openness was observed to be significant to stock market capitalization growth in nigeria, in developed countries, resources from trade openness such as export and import are used to develop sectors simultaneously but in less developed country like nigeria; the one case is different because the dependency on import rather than export will affect the growth of the other sectors and have negative effect on stock market capitalization growth. foreign direct investment was observed to be significant to growth. foreign direct investment has a negative impact on stock market capitalization growth in nigeria, this shows that there is a negative relationship between net flows of foreign direct investment and stock market capitalization growth. exchange rate was observed to have a negative impact on stock market capitalization growth and it is a statistically significant ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 variable affecting the growth rate of stock market capitalization growth meaning that a negative relationship exists between exchange rate and stock market capitalization growth. balance of payment has a positive impact on stock market capitalization growth and it is statistically significant, meaning that in nigeria, a positive relationship exists between balance of payment and stock market capitalization growth. the result above validates the unfavorable side of ‟demand-supply theory” which assert that, favorable balance of payments leads to an appreciation and unfavorable balance of payments causes depreciation in the external value of the currency of the country. also, the exchange rate holds that the price of foreign money in terms of domestic money is determined by the free forces of demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. it follows that the external value of a country’s currency will depend upon the demand for and supply of the currency. also the result shows that, both foreign direct investment and exchange rate are unfavorable in relation to stock market capitalization growth, which means, for nigeria to experience the actual positive effect or favorable as shows by both trade openness and balance of payment, government need to developed all the domestic economic sectors in a way that, their output export will exceed import and augment stock market capitalization growth in nigeria references adams r.c. (2003): globalization of the banking sector: cost, benefit and challenges for the nigerian financial system. nigeria: nes publication, p. 637. adesoye, a. a., ajike, e. o. &maku, o. e. (2015). economic globalization and economic growth in the developing economies: a case of nigerian economy. international journal of economics, commerce and management, 3(7), 340-355. araoye, f. e. ajayi, e. o. and aruwaji, a. m. (2018). the impact of stock market development on economic growth in nigeria: journal of business and african economy vol. 4 no.1 2018 issn 2545-5281. balasani ar, hassan a (2018) exchange rate and stock market interactions: evidence from nigeria. arabian j bus manag review 8: 334. beck, t. and levine, r. (2012). stock markets, banks and growth: panel evidence. journal of banking and finance, vol.28, no.1, pp.432-442.retrieved fromhttp://dept.ku.edu/~empirics/courses/econ915/papers/stock-mkt-bankgrowth_jbf04.pdf. central bank of nigeria (2018).statistical bulletin. ezeabasili, v. n. and alajekwe, u. b. (2012). stock market liquidity and economic growth, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 economic journal of a 2 z, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 11-17. hassan a, abubakar m, dantama yu (2017) determinants of exchange rate volatility: new estimates from nigeria. eastern journal of economic and finance 3: 1-12. https://en.m.wikipedia. idele s.i. (1999): “fundamentals of economic statistics” benin city: goldband publisher international ltd. international monetary fund (2003).world economic and financial surveys. washington d. c: imf multimedia services division. khan rea, ali r (2015) causality analysis of volatility in exchange rate and stock market prices: a case study of pakistan. asian economic and financial review 5: 805-815. loto m.a (2010) globalization and its impact on real sector export performance in the nigerian economy: 1980-2007. faculty journal, vol.4, 2010. maduka, a. c, madichie, c. v and eze, e. a (2017) “globalization and economic growth”: evidence from nigeria, issn: 2455-8834, volume: 02, issue: 08. nwakanma, p. c. andibe, r. c. (2014). globalization and economic growth: an econometric dimension drawing evidence from nigeria. international review of management and business research, 3(2), 771-778. obstfied, m. (2002): globalization and capital markets. national bureau of economic research (nber), working paper 56. okonkwo, o. n., ogwuru, h. o. and ajudua, e. i. (2014). stock market performance and economicgrowth in nigeria: an empirical appraisal, european journal of business and management,vol. 6, no. 24, pp. 33-63. okpokpo, g. u., ifelunini, i. a. &osuyali, f. (2014). is globalization a potent driver of economic growth? investigating the nigerian non-oil exports.asian economic andfinancial review, 4(6), 781-792. omolade, a., morakinyo, a. andifeacho, c. (2013).globalization and economic development in nigeria.journal of research in humanities and social science, 1(4), 06-14. onwuka, e. c. &eguavoen, a. (2007). globalization and economic development: the nigerian experience. journal of social science, 14(1), 45-51. pesaran, m. h. shin, y. and smith, r. j. (2001).bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships.journal of applied econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. sede, i. p. andizilein, e. i. (2013). economic growth and globalization in nigeria: a causality analysis. asian-african journal of economics and econometrics, 13(2), 145-159. shaw, e. (1973). financial deepening in economic development, new york: oxford university press. shuaib, m., ekeria, o. a. andogedengbe, a f. (2015). the impact of globalization on the growth of nigerian economy from 1960-2010: error correction model analysis. british journal of economics, management and trade, 7(1), 63-73. toree, a.p. and schmuker, s.l. (2007) stock market development under globalization the gains from reform, world ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 https://en.m.wikipedia/ the implementation of the principles of good making rules in making regional regulations efik yusdiansyah, asyhar hidayat, and fabian fadhly faculty of law universitas islam bandung efikyusdiansyah.unisba@gmail.com abstract the governmental affairs carried out by the regional government are regulated by regional regulations. this has resulted in regional regulations increasingly having a strategic position in the life of the nation and state, this has the consequence of carrying out government affairs that can be good if the formation of local regulations is done well and backfire if done improperly. to be good at making local regulations, it must pay attention to the principles of making local regulations. this paper try to explain what principles can be applied in making local regulations in indonesia? the formation of regional regulations to be able to apply properly must pay attention to the principles which are referred to by law 23/14 as the principle of law that grows and develops in society. keywords: local government, regulations, and principles. introduction the word application in the title above implies the imposition or subject of practice. whereas the principles of the legislation are interpreted as a basis or something that becomes the foundation of thought in making written decisions issued by the competent authority which contains rules of general binding behavior. the principles of making laws and regulations are ethical values that live and develop in the environment of legislators that serve as a guide for legislators to carry out their functions and as well as a touchstone for judges in conducting judicial review, and seen from the form there are written and some are not written still abstract in nature and can be explored in the practice of community life (moelyono, 1988). whereas the regional regulation as regulated in article 236 of law number 23 the year 2014 concerning regional government is formed by the dprd with the agreement of the regional head in the context of carrying out regional autonomy and co-administration tasks.thus the limits of the title stated are the imposition or subject of practicing something become the foundation of thinking both written and unwritten, including abstract ones and must be explored in the life of the community in making written decisions issued by the regional head and the regional people's representative council which contains rules of conduct in carrying out publicly binding household affairs. local government which is a sub-system of the national government administration system has the authority to regulate and manage its households. the authority to manage and manage this household contains 3 (three) main things, i.e.: 1. assigning tasks and authorities to settle something that has been delegated to the local government; 2. giving trust and authority to think, take initiative, and determine their ways of completing the task; 3. to think, take initiative, and make decisions, involving the community both directly and through the regional house of representatives (retnami, 2000). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 115 the three things that cause the term decentralization in the administration of government in indonesia are often interpreted as a means of implementing regional autonomy. hans kelsen argues that decentralization is one form of state organization, therefore decentralization is closely related to the understanding of the state. according to hans kelsen, the state is a legal order (kelsen, 1973). thus decentralization concerns the legal system in a country. decentralization as a basis for organizational structure can be found in the form of a unitary state or a federal state. the simultaneous formation of an autonomous region is the birth of an autonomous status based on the aspirations and objective conditions of the people residing in a particular region. this aspiration was realized with the implementation of decentralization. decentralization is also called autonomy, because autonomy is given to the community and not to the region or regional government (hoessein, 2001). decentralization is intended to improve services to the community and the implementation of development evenly throughout the territory of indonesia. the central government or the upper level regional government may no longer interfere in the administration of functions that have been submitted to the regions, except in the form of guidance, coordination and supervision. thus decentralization is transformed into an autonomous region, as a legal community unit that is authorized to regulate and manage government affairs according to their own initiatives based on community aspirations, while regional autonomy is the authority to regulate and manage local government affairs according to their own initiatives based on community aspirations, in accordance with regulations current regulation. the governmental affairs carried out by the regional government are regulated by regional regulations. this has resulted in regional regulations increasingly having a strategic position in the life of the nation and state or in other words the role of regional regulations in carrying out government affairs is very large. the strategic position of regional regulations in carrying out government affairs can be good if the formation of regional regulations is done well and backfires if done poorly. in order to be good in making regional regulations, it must pay attention to the principles of making local regulations, among others regulated in article 237 of law 23/14 which must be guided by the provisions of laws and regulations and legal principles that grow and develop in society. with this background, this paper tries to explain what principles can be applied in making local regulations in indonesia? discussion one who put forward the rule of law is paul scholten, by distinguishing the levels of elements of the rule of law. elements that are considered important are called principles, and their derivatives are called aspects. the main elements (principle) of the state of law understood scholten, are (a) there is a right of citizens to the state, which contains two aspects; first, individual rights are in principle outside the authority of the state; secondly, the limitation of the right is only with the provisions of the law, in the form of generally accepted regulations; (b) there is a separation of powers. scholten, by following montesquieu put forward three state powers that must be separated from each other, namely the power of lawmakers, the power of implementing laws, and the power of judging (scholten, 1949). scholten (1949) criticized the views of montesquieu, who regarded the judge as the sole implementer in the application of the law. according to him this view has been abandoned, by giving an example of the united states system, which determines that ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 116 the president is also the executor of the law. in addition, the supreme court, in addition to its duties to adjudicate, also has the authority to supervise the law. based on the description above, it can be concluded that the concept of the rule of law or the state is based on the law (rechtsstaat or the rule of law), which contains the principles of legality, the principle of separation (distribution) of power, and the principle of an independent judicial power; all of which aim to control the state or government from the possibility of arbitrary behavior, or abuse of power (azhari, 1992). the principle of the rule of law is always supported by the teachings of the people's sovereignty. this was stated by sjahran basah (1986) that the rule of law and people's sovereignty are a harmonious integral duet that gave birth to monodualism.in a sovereign state of people and based on law (democratic rule of law) (manan and magnar, 1993), implies that power is limited by law and at the same time states that law is supreme compared to all existing instruments of power (manan, 1994). in other words, the state places law as the basis of its power and administration such power in all its forms is exercised under the rule of law, in other words, the state which places the law as the basis of its power and the implementation of that power in all its forms is carried out under the rule of law (attamimi, 1992). this democratic rule of law in carrying out the functions that exist in the state uses the dispersal of power. both horizontal and vertical dispersal. vertical transmission of power breeds decentralization of power. the relationship between decentralization and democratic rule of law is stated by yamin (1992): “in a democratic state structure, it is necessary to divide the power of the central government itself (horizontal) and the division of power between the center and the regions. the principle of democracy and decentralization is contrary to the principle that wants to gather everything at the center of government”. the above opinion shows that regional autonomy and decentralization are part of a state that embraces democracy, because without autonomy and decentralization the state is no longer democracy but can become autocracy (guruh, 1999).decentralized system by giving autonomy rights to regions in carrying out government is more an impetus to form a democratic government in which all people are responsible (manan, 1974). in this connection, moh. hatta states: “according to the people's sovereignty, the right of the people to determine their fate lies not only in the head of state government, but also in every place, in cities, in villages and in regions…… in such cases, every part or the people have autonomy (make and carry out their own rules) and zelfbestuur (carry out regulations made by the higher councils).… .. such a situation is very important, because the needs of every place in one state are not the same, other” (mahmud, 1999). autonomy must be one of the joint structures of democratic governance, meaning that in democracies a government is demanded to have the right to autonomy. the existence of such regional government also perfects a characteristic of the rule of law (guruh, 1999). further stated: "because the sovereignty of the indonesian people is one and not fragmented, the sovereignty carried out by the regional people is essentially nothing but incarnation rather than the point. the actions of the regional people must not contradict the principles that have been established as the general guidelines of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 117 state. in other words, the actions of the people in the area which are contrary to the objectives of the state are null and void, not containing even a little legitimate power in them" (hatta, 1980). the existence of decentralization can also be seen as part of the realization of the rule of law, this is because the principle of decentralization also contains the intention of limiting power to the central government, while the existence of such restrictions is one of the characteristics of the rule of law. among the characteristics of the classical rule of law there are 3 (three) things relating to the limitation of power, namely the existence of the constitution as a written regulation governing the relationship between the government and its citizens; the existence of power distribution (machtenscheiding) which specifically guarantees an independent judicial power; and the existence of state/government power distribution (spreiding van de staatsmacht) (manan, 1994). these characteristics clearly require restrictions on government power, which are usually set forth in the constitution. the constitution or the basic law is a tool to limit the power in the country can be proven from the content of material which is always contained or regulated therein (soemantri, 1988).the separation of state / government power (spreiding van de staatsmacht) as an effort to limit government or state power is closely related to households. submission or letting or acknowledging as government affairs are regulated and managed as regional domestic affairs, implies that the center limits (limits) its power to not regulate and manage such government affairs again (manan, 1994). the legal form used to regulate and manage local affairs is a regional regulation. regional regulations as part of the legislation have the following elements: 1. written decisions, meaning to follow certain standard formats such as there is a title, opening, content, and closing; 2. issued by authorized institutions/officials, the authority of state institutions or officials to make laws and regulations is obtained through two ways, namely attribution and delegation. the authority of attribution occurs if the constitution or law creates new authority to a body with its own power and its own responsibility to form laws and regulations, whereas delegation is the transfer or handover of authority to form legislation from the original authority that gives the delegation to the one who receives the delegation by responsibility for exercising that authority upon those who receive the delegation. attribution dandelegation of laws and regulations, the contents of the material can be broad, can also be narrow. extensive material occurs if the attribution or delegation only designates the organ or body of the attribution or delegation by not determining the limits of the material it makes, so that the material to be arranged is submitted to the discretion of receiving the attribution or delegation. narrow material occurs when the attribution or delegation is determined at the same time between the organ that is authorized to make it with the material content that must be arranged; 3. it contains rules of conduct, these rules of conduct can take the form of orders, prohibitions, permits, and dispensations; 4. general binding, meaning not identifying certain individuals. if we follow bagir manan's opinion, what is meant by binding public does not mean binding all people or groups of people who are not certain, but it is sufficient not to identify certain individuals, meaning that even if the regulation is only binding for ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 118 certain groups, it means binding public. if this is related to the dprd standing orders then these rules can be classified as general binding (manan, 1992). for legislation to function in accordance with its objectives, in making laws and regulations must pay attention to the basis or a good basis of law and regulation. bagir manan states that there are four bases or foundations for legislation to apply properly, namely: 1. juridical foundation, 2. sociological foundation, 3. philosophical foundation, 4. foundation of design techniques. 5. political foundation. juridical foundation is the legal basis which is the basis for making a statutory regulation. the legal basis for making a statutory regulation, is not only seen from the basic aspects of the issuance law, but also needs to know the legal basis of the author's authority, the procedures for its formation, and the basis of its legal logic (lubis, 1995). juridical foundation is very important in making laws and regulations because it will show: 1. officials or institutions authorized to make or form these laws and regulations. with the knowledge of the official or institution authorized to make a statutory regulation, then if there is a statutory regulation made by an official or institution other than what has been determined, then the legislation is null and void (nietig van recthswege). considered to never exist, all the consequences are null and void. 2. the form or type of legislation with the material that must be regulated in it, especially if it has been determined by legislation that is of a higher level or equivalent. if there is a mismatch between the basic regulations and the laws and regulations that are to be formed, or there is a discrepancy between the types of laws and regulations, the resulting laws and regulations can be canceled (vernietigbaar). 3. certain procedures or procedures. if these procedures are not followed, then the laws and regulations may be null and void, or do not / do not yet have binding legal force. for example, each regional regulation must include the sentence "... with the approval of the dprd," so if there are regional regulations that do not include the sentence then null and void. another example is that each law must be promulgated in the official gazette as the only way to have binding power. as long as the legislation has not been carried out, the law is not binding. 4. there is a juridical consequence, that the laws and regulations that are intended to be made must not conflict with the basic regulations or higher levels. every statutory regulation may not contain rules that contradict the constitution, and so on (manan, 1994). in this connection hans kelsen states that every rule of law must be based on a higher level rule. according to zevenberger every rule of law must meet the conditions of its formation. while logemann states that the rule of law is binding if it shows a compulsory or coercive relationship between a condition and its consequences (soekanto, 1989). in some literatures, the legal basis for the formation of laws and regulations is divided into two kinds: 1. the formal juridical basis, namely the legal norms which form the basis of authority (bevoegheid) to issue legislation. this foundation refers to the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 119 institution or agency authorized to make it. for example article 5 paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution the first amendment is the legal basis for the dpr to make laws. 2. the legal juridical foundation, namely the legal norms that requires a matter whose material is regulated in a specific statutory regulation. this material juridical basis refers to material content which should be regulated in a statutory regulation. for example articles 24 and 25 of the 1945 constitution are the legal basis (material juridical basis) for the making of law no. 14 of 1985 concerning the principles of judicial power. while the sociological foundation is a foundation that reflects the reality that lives in society or cultural values that apply in society. reflecting the reality that lives in the community, it does not mean that the products of the laws and regulations produced are merely recording the instantaneous situation (hospitalization moment), but must also be able to accommodate trends and community expectations. legislation that only confirms the reality, is not only considered static and conservative, but can also paralyze the role of law itself, which should be expected to direct the development of society. with this sociological basis, the products of laws and regulations made are not a pile of enforced legal rules, but legal norms that are accepted by the community in a natural, spontaneous manner, and even become something that is awaited by their presence. not so much need institutional direction in its application (manan, 1994).philosophical foundation is the view, ideas or ideals of law (recthsidee), where a statutory regulation as far as possible is imbued with noble values in the form of ethical, aesthetic, and moral values that are adopted in community relations. these high values are certainly expected to continue to exist and be able to guide people's behavior.these values are left in the community, so that every formation of a law or regulation must be able to catch it every time it will form a law or legislation. but sometimes the value system has been systematically summarized in a summary both in the form of philosophical theories and in official philosophical doctrines, such as pancasila. in indonesia, pancasila are values that are systematically set out in an official philosophical doctrine. it contains the crystallization of the noble values of indonesian culture which has lasted for centuries. not surprisingly, pancasila is used as the nation's life view, the nation's foundation, and the source of all sources of indonesian law.as the nation's view of life, pancasila provides direction on the patterns of behavior, awareness, self-control, and even moral ideals that include the psyche and character that reflects the culture of the indonesian nation. as the basis of the state, pancasila has shown its role since the founding of this republic, where the pancasila has become a guideline for the founding fathers in realizing an independent indonesia. meanwhile, as a source of law, pancasila means that all applicable laws that will be enacted must be sourced from pancasila. the legal norms governed in indonesian laws and regulations reflect the values contained in pancasila, or at least do not conflict with the precepts in pancasila (lubis, 1995). whereas the basis of design technique is the foundation which has to do with procedures or procedures for making laws and regulations. bagir manan (1992) believes that good laws and regulations can also occur because the formulation is unclear so that the ambiguous meaning, purpose, and purpose are unclear, or the formulation can be interpreted in various interpretative meanings, or inconsistencies in using terminology, or the system is not good, the language is convoluted so difficult to understand. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 120 the problem of obscurity, allowing various interpretations, difficult to understand, the use of inconsistent terms, is not something that can be ignored in making laws and regulations. these things are related to the techniques of drafting legislation. in connection with the design aspects, bagir manan divides the two stages of drafting the laws and regulations, namely the stage of preparing the academic paper and the design stage.in the academic preparation stage discussed academic responsibility for a draft draft law. the main function of an academic paper is academic responsibility, so an academic text does not need to have been arranged in chapters, articles, verses, and so on. the most important thing is the academic analysis of various aspects of the laws and regulations that will be designed. it is at this stage that studies of philosophical, juridical and sociological foundation are needed in depth. if necessary before the preparation of the academic paper, it is preceded by scientific research and studies. while the design phase includes procedural aspects and design writing. procedural aspects in the form of management matters such as permission for initiatives, the formation of interdepartmental committees, and others. whereas the writing of a design is the pouring of ideas of academic texts or other materials into normative language and structure, or usually called the stage of normativisation. the political foundation is the political policy line that forms the basis for further policy and direction in the management of the state government. there are several principles that must be considered in the technical design by van der vlies divided into two principles, namely the formal principle and the material principle. for indonesia according to a. hamid s. attamimi is as follows: 1. formal principles, including: a. the principle of clear purpose; b. the principle of the need for regulation; c. the principle of the right organ or institution; d. the right content material principle; e. the principle can be implemented; f. the principle can be recognized. 2. material principles, including: a. the principle is in accordance with the ideals of the law and fundamental norms of the country; b. the principle in accordance with the basic laws of the country; c. the principle is in accordance with the principles of the state based on law; and d. the principle in accordance with the principles of government based on the constitutional system. in addition to this, of course we must pay attention to the rules of interpretation. karl larenz argues that there are legal-ethical measures for establishing law and interpreting the law carried out by legislators and judges (atmadja, 1996). these are general principles consisting of proportionality, subsidiary principles, and proper principles.the principle of proportionality states that judges in interpreting a legal provision must hold a balance between individual and collective interests, between rights and obligations, and a balance between materialism and spirituality. the subsidiary principle contains the principle that the interpretation of the conditions is only if the regulation is not clear. whereas the principle should state that interpretation ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 121 is carried out by adhering to the principle of morality meaning that an interpretation must not conflict with religious norms, decency and other social norms. it must be realized that autonomy in autonomy does not mean that regions can make laws and regulations that are independent of the national legal system. this brings the consequence that regional regulations are subsystems of national legislation so that the principle of legislation must remain in force.the principle of lower laws and regulations must not conflict with the higher ones, but the central government must also understand that functions that have been delegated to the regions should not be withdrawn so that they are regulated in the types of national level regulations unless they are not implemented by the region. these signs must be understood by the central and regional governments, because spaning is not uncommon between the central and regional governments because of differences in understanding of these rules. the center for reasons of higher statutory regulations or public interest makes regulations whose material turns out to have been delegated and becomes a matter for regional households, regions based on delegation do not follow the rules set by the center. in addition, according to irawan soejito (1969), the characteristics of good legislation are: 1. made with short sentences, but solid and made carefully and clearly; 2. easily understood in depth by the people; 3. contains rules that are simple, easy to understand and appropriate; 4. not complicated and well accepted in society. the characteristics of good legislation according to irawan soejito above, seem to be more directed to the technique of making laws and regulations than the process of forming or making laws and regulations. if the characteristics of good legislation according to irawan soejito are related to those stated by bagir manan above, then the characteristics stated by irawan soejito are part of the technical elements of the design of the legislative regulations bagir manan. the technical elements of drafting legislation must be considered technical matters including: 1. the points of thought are poured into regulations which are regulatory (regeling), not predetermined (beschikking), and as far as possible regulate matters for future events, which are packaged using statement sentences; 2. the formulation must be clear the meaning, purpose, and purpose; style of language must be dense (conceise) and easy (simple), ambiguous or can be interpreted variously (interpretive), but also not obscured (obscurity), too broad (overbulkiness), long length (longwindedness), or excessive (redundancy) which can be confusing (entanglement), and not overlapping, and is not metaphoric and hypothetical; 3. the term must be consistent, as far as possible is absolute and not relative, and not be debatable (argumentaris); 4. the system is organized (orderliness) with proper use of punctuation. this applies in the making of regional regulations and even law 23/14 states that there are legal principles that grow and develop in society, with limitations as long as they do not conflict with the principles of the unitary republic of indonesia. thus at least every regional regulation formation must be in line with the principles of: a. clarity of purpose, b. the right institution or organ, c. match between type and material content, d. can be implemented, e. usefulness and usefulness, f. clarity of the formula, and g. openness. in addition, the content of local regulations contains the principles of protection, humanity, nationality, kinship, literacy, monastic monarchy, justice, equality ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 122 in law and government, order and legal certainty and / or balance, harmony and harmony. conclusion the formation of regional regulations in order to be able to apply properly must pay attention to the principles which are referred to by law 23/14 as the principle of law that grows and develops in society. in general, this principle can be divided into two principles, namely the principle of formation of regional regulations and the principle of the contents of regional regulations. besides that, in the formation of regional regulations, it should also pay attention to the principles of a unitary state which should not be violated by autonomy, namely: a. the principle of uniformity means that certain fields must be guaranteed to be carried out uniformly, for example in terms of law enforcement, b. the same service principles such as payroll for the same group are paid the same, and c. there is no autonomy without supervision. references atmadja,i dewa gede. 1996. penafsiran konstitusi dalam rangka sosialisasi hukum(sisi pelaksanaan uud 1945 secara murni dan konsekuen. pidato pengenalan jabatan guru besar di fakultas hukum udayana. bali. attamimi,a. hamid s. 1992. teori perundang-undangan indonesia (suatu sisi ilmu pengetahuan perundang-undangan indonesia yang menjelaskan dan menjernihkan pemahaman). pidato pengukuhan jabatan guru besar tetap fakultas hukum universitas indonesia. jakarta. azhari, muhammad tahir. 1992. negara hukum-suatu studii tentang prinsipprinsipnya dilihat dari hukum islam, implementasinya pada periode negara madinah dan masa kini. bulan bintang. jakarta. basah,sjahran. 1986. perlindungan hukum terhadap sikap tindak administrasi negara. alumni, bandung. guruh, syahda ls.1999. otonomi yang luas dan mandiri menuju indonesia baru. tarsito. bandung. hatta,moh. 1980.kedaulatan rakyat. usaha nasional. surabaya. hoessein, bhenyamin. 2001. pembagian kewenangan antara pusat dan daerah. makalah. pusat pengembangan otonomi daerah universitas brawijaya. malang. kelsen,hans.1973. general theory of law and state. russel & russel. new york. lubis,m. solly. 1995. landasan dan teknik perundang-undangan. mandar maju. bandung. manan, bagir. 1974. beberapa hal di sekitar otonomi daerah sebagai penyelenggaraan pemerintahan. majalah padjadjaran. bandung. manan, bagir. 1990. hubungan antara pusat dan daerah menurut asas desentralisasi berdasarkan uud 1945,disertasi, unpad, bandung. manan, bagir. 1992. dasar-dasar perundang-undangan indonesia. ind-hill.co. jakarta. manan, bagir., magnar, kuntana. 1993. beberapa masalah hukum tata negara indonesia. alumni. bandung. manan, bagir. 1994. pengujian yustisial peraturan perundang-undangan dan perbuatan administrasi negara di indonesia, makalah dalam kuliah umum faklultas hukum universitas atmanjaya. yogyakarta. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 123 manan, bagir. 2002. menyongsong pajar otonomi daerah. pusat studi hukum fakultas hukum uii. yogyakarta. moelyono, antonm.1988. kamusbesarbahasaindonesia. departemenpendidikandan kebudayaan republik indonesia. jakarta. retnami,setya. 2000. sistem pemerintahan daerah di indonesia. makalah. kantor menteri negara otonomi daerah republik indonesia. jakarta. scholten,paul.1949.verzamelde geschriften. zwoll,w.e.j. tjeenk willink. soejito, irawan. 1969. teknit membuat undang-undang (mengenai perundangundangan negara).pradnya paramita. jakarta. soekanto, soerjono. 1989. perihal kaidah hukum. citra aditya bakti. bandung. soemantri, sri. 1988. ketetapan mpr(s) sebagai salah satu sumber hukum tata negara. remaja karya. bandung. yamin,muh. 1982. naskah proklamasi dan konstitusi repubik indonesia. ghalia indonesia. jakarta. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 |issue 10 | october 2019 www.ijojournals.com 124 word bookmarks _goback strategic approach and measures to control population growth of india dr.s.vasuki assistant professor department of population studies annamalai university annamalai nagar 6088002 abstract population growth is increasing in india abundantly, it growth is calculated as one crore population in each and every year, this rate is spoken and discussed generally but reverse to it official data says that 2 crore population is added in every year. easily population counting and measuring procedure is very quite easy ,which authority of india may do and see when people’s food consumption rate is increased than usual consumption .still government of india has not been identified a suitable approach to contain population growth rate owing to it vote bank purpose ,winning in elections, capturing power, exploiting public money ,involving in corruptions and rich become so richer and poor people remaining as a more poor people is due to the improper policy and principles of all the government. keywords: polices, advertisement, self-control, government attentions and urbanization introduction in order to control and contain population exploration rate government of india have to bring out an awareness regarding to india’s economic and finance problems ,its difficulties and hardships to earn revenue and generate income for protect entire india’s people must be illustrated and explained through engaging good scholar in population issues and problems. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 1 following advanced measures are needed to be controlling and containing population growth: measure of population control social measure economic measure other measure social measure: population explosion is not an easy and remedial problems but it is a serious a social life oriented problems its growth and development will create a huge population traffic and congestion as they could not able to live in a spacious place and well sanitized places .problem of population explosion is putting hurdles in all the way and path of people’s freedom, liberty and social rights ,definitely which must be uprooted from social platform and people’s heart social problem and it is deeply rooted in the society. so efforts must be done to remove the social evils in the country. during present days and years population increasing not seeming as a quite new phenomena since it became as a usual matter of daily wager people and cooli, because they don’t have entertainment like eating good food, attire, cloth, travelling by car, visiting different places and living in a sophisticated places as other rice pole are enjoying these social rights .if the government make an even and quality social status to let them enjoy all their inherent social ,economic and political rights.. minimum age of marriage: marriage of girls in india determines child fertility rate ,most of women are marriage so early at so at the age 15,16,17,18,18, indirectly without doing register marriage and arranged marriage ,this early marriages are making them to produce so many children owing to their young age sign ,apart from this most people and respondent have said that they don’t have pleasure even in government schemes but we are enjoying family life alone after marriage .all the hardships ,stress, hardships ,family difficulties and financial problems are vanished at their conjugal relations as fertility depends on the age of marriage. so the minimum age of marriage should be ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 2 raised. in india minimum age for marriage is 21 years for men and 18 years for women have been fixed by law. this law should be firmly implemented and people should also be made aware of this through publicity. raising the status of women: since india’s most of village women are marrying at the age 16-19,they are focusing in child production much more than people who are marrying at right age .therefore, their health is likelihood to make feeble and became lazy and inability in the mid of their life and career .since they are producing and delivering much children at so young age their life is diminished and confined within the circle of husband and children ,from these stage and situations women are not able to possess fundamental rights of granted by constitution and government since india’s independence .so, government always thinking to encroach people’s rights indirectly in order to reduce its public expenditure and take reduced money to their pocket .child delivering rate from women side could be reduced if they are engaged at constant work, enjoyment, amusement, caricature and offering privileges by government ,these work of government would make them to pay attention on work and responsibility instead of paying attentions on conjugal life . advertisements there is still discrimination to the women. they are confined to four walls of house. they are still confined to rearing and bearing of children. so women should be given opportunities to develop socially and economically. free education should be given to them. spread of education: the spread of education changes the outlook of people. the educated men prefer to delay marriage and adopt small family norms. educated women are health conscious and avoid frequent pregnancies and thus help in lowering birth rate. advertisements: some parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. it is advisable that they should adopt orphan children. it will be beneficial to orphan children and children couples. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 3 change in social outlook: social outlook of the people should undergo a change. marriage should no longer be considered a social binding. issueless women should not be looked down upon. social security: more and more people should be covered under-social security schemes. so that they do not depend upon others in the event of old age, sickness, unemployment etc. with these facilities they will have no desire for more children. more employment opportunities: the first and foremost measure is to raise, the employment avenues in rural as well as urban areas. generally in rural areas there is disguised unemployment. so efforts should be made to migrate unemployed persons from rural side to urban side. this step can check the population growth. development of agriculture and industry: advertisements: if agriculture and industry are properly developed, large number of people will get employment. when their income is increased they would improve their standard of living and adopt small family norms. standard of living: improved standard of living acts as a deterrent to large family norm. in order to maintain their higher standard of living people prefer to have a small family. according to a.k. das gupta those who earn less than rs. 100 per month have on the average a reproduction rate of 3.4 children and those who earn more than rs. 300 per month have a reproduction rate of 2.8 children. urbanization it is on record that people in urban areas have low birth rate than those living in rural areas. urbanization should the major way for reduce population growth. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 4 the following are the other measures: late marriage: as far as possible, marriage should be solemnized at the age of 30 years. this will reduce the period of reproduction among the females bringing down the birth rate. the govt. has fixed the minimum marriage age at 21 yrs. for males and 18 yrs. for females. self control: according to some experts, self control is one of the powerful methods to control the population. it is an ideal and healthy approach and people should be provided to follow. it helps in reducing birth rate. family planning: this method implies family by choice and not by chance. by applying preventive measures, people can regulate birth rate. this method is being used extensively; success of this method depends on the availability of cheap contraceptive devices for birth control. according to chander shekher, “hurry for the first child, delay the second child and avoid the third.” recreational facilities: birth rate will likely to fall if there are different recreational facilities like cinema; theatre, sports and dance etc. are available to the people. publicity: the communication media like t.v., radio and newspaper are the good means to propagate the benefits of the planned family to the uneducated and illiterate persons especially in the rural and backward areas of country. incentives: the govt. can give various types of incentives to the people to adopt birth control measures. monetary incentives and other facilities like leave and promotion can be extended to the working class which adopts small family norms. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 5 employment to woman: another method to check the population is to provide employment to women. women should be given incentive to give services in different fields. women are taking active part in competitive examinations. as a result their number in teaching, medical and banking etc. is increasing rapidly. in brief by taking, all there measures we can control the growth of population. conclusion frustration,dissatisfaction,sadness,aversion,angry,worrys,misery and lack of basic needs makes poor people to pay attentions on involving child delivering activities .these worries of the poor people must be uprooted by the government necessary lifting polices in both state level and central level, making them commit on steady and steadfast work would be a best way for reduce their attention on family childe delivering happiness .multiple family’s happiness on childe delivering activities are making constant growth in india’s total population. unless commitment and work for men and women they shall do work in family to deliver children, if they are engaged frequently at any work they will pay less attention on delivering children. references 1.ackerman, e. a. (1959): geography and demography. in philip m. hauser et al. (eds.). the study of population, university press, c chicago, pp. 717-727. 2.azim shaukath (2005): literacy, growth, disparity in karnataka, economic and political weekly, vol.40, no.16, pp. 1947-1949. 3.bahekar n.k. and maskare y.s. (2012): population growth types in gondia district of maharashtra state: 2001-2011, the goa geographer, vol. ix no. 1 pp. 67-70. 4.banerjee m. (1977): the pattern of sex ratios in singhbhum district, bihar, geographical review of india, vol.39,no.1, pp. 30-38. 5.bansode n.k and nanaware a.h. (2016).: impact of literacy on sex ratio in kolhapur district: a geographical analysis, golden research thoughts ,vol.5 no.11 pp. 1-76. 6. barahbimal (2002): sex composition of population in assam: a geographical analysis, the deccan geographer, vol. 40, no. 1 pp. 43-52. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 6 7. beijer g. (1969): modern pattern of international migration movements, migration (ed.) j.k. jackson, sociology studies 2, cambridge, pp.11-59. 8.bhagat r.b. (1999) :population growth and food supply in india with special reference to madhya pradesh: the present trend and future prospects, indian journal of regional science, regional science association, india ,vol. xxxi, no. 1 pp. 107-112.9. 9. bhakare p.(2010): spatio-temporal changes in population structure of pune division of maharashtra, shivaji university, kolhapur, unpublished ph.d. thesis. 10. bhattacharyya sanghita (2002): work pattern of migrants in india, geographical review of india, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 40-50. 11.bhavsar dipti j (2011): some studies in population research, gujarat university, ahmadabad, unpublished ph.d. thesis 12. bhende asha a. and kanitkar tara (2010): principles of population studies, himalaya publishing house, mumbai, pp.130.140, 189,225-230, 363 13.bisen d. k and jena d.k (2010): a geographical analysis of population density pattern in bhandara district, the goa geographer, vol. vii, no. 1, pp130-132 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 03 |issue 06 | june 2020 www.ijojournals.com 7 population growth is increasing in india abundantly, it growth is calculated as one crore population in each and every year, this rate is spoken and discussed generally but reverse to it official data says that 2 crore population is added in every year. easily population counting and measuring procedure is very quite easy ,which authority of india may do and see when people’s food consumption rate is increased than usual consumption .still government of india has not been identified a suitable approach to contain population growth rate owing to it vote bank purpose ,winning in elections, capturing power, exploiting public money ,involving in corruptions and rich become so richer and poor people remaining as a more poor people is due to the improper policy and principles of all the government. keywords: polices, advertisement, self-control, government attentions and urbanization introduction in order to control and contain population exploration rate government of india have to bring out an awareness regarding to india’s economic and finance problems ,its difficulties and hardships to earn revenue and generate income for protect entire india’s people must be illustrated and explained through engaging good scholar in population issues and problems. following advanced measures are needed to be controlling and containing population growth: social measure: embargo on foreign rice importation and its implications on quality improvement of local rice in cross river state, nigeria ojong, felix e., emeka, josephat o., agba am ogaboh, williams, william o., &egwuonwu chiamaka venantus department of sociology, university of calabar, p.m.b. 1115, calabar, cross river state, nigeria *corresponding author email: williamokon4good@gmail.com abstract this study analyzed the embargo on foreign rice importation and its implications on quality improvement of local rice. i texamined the likelihood for local rice quality to improve following land border closure on imported rice, assessed the level of rice quality improvement, and examined dimensions of which local rice quality has improved in cross river state. the study was conducted in calabar, cross river state and the study population was rice producers from three rice associations and stratified random sampling was used to draw a sample size of the 365 producers. it utilized a survey research design that was guided by import substitution industrialization theory. questionnaire and in-depth interview (idi) were used in collecting data; qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis, while quantitative data were analyzed using frequency, simply percentages and incidence pattern analysis. embargo on foreign rice importation has helped to improve the quality of local rice, following government interventions in the area of skills development for producers, as well as deploying new rice production technologies. again, rice quality improvement level was moderate (75%), showing that recent local rice quality was not in ferior like same local rice in the past years before border closure policy. more so, the use of certified seeds and seedlings of improved rice varieties during cultivation, the use of modern processing techniques and equipment, have helped to improve the local rice quality in the area of good taste, stone, reduction, dirt particles and odour freeness. the government should further intervene by establishing rice processing outfits in some rice producing communities that lack processing equipment so as to further improve the quality of local rice. keywords: rice, importation, quality improvement, embargo, border closure. introduction rice is astaple foodmassively consumed by people across different socioeconomic statuses in nigeria. recent reports by pwc (2018), shows that nigeriais one of the major producers of rice but consumes about 6.4m tons annually, compared to its annual local rice production rate of 3.7 million metric tons per annum. this deficit coupled with consumers’high preference for foreign rice, has made the nation to constantly import foreign rice into the country. in fact, foreign rice importation has been ongoing in the nation for many decades; and is seen as a normal phenomenon.certainly, most of the foreign rice were imported into the nation directly from the producing countries such as thailand, india, indonesia,andchina. however, due to government’sregular restrictions measures, such as high import tariff, the importers resorted to importingforeign ricethroughland bordersof west african neighbouring countries suchas benin republic border, niger border, cameroun border, and chad borderthereby makingsmuggling to become the order of business. (okonkwo, 2021;otu, eja, eko, & josephat, 2011; osonwa, eja& josephat,2015).as a matter ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 of fact, most of foreign rice smuggling activities were organized through benin republic border in particular. usually, benin republicimports the highest metric tons of rice from thailand and equally sells directly to nigeria. forinstance, okonkwo, et al,(2021) reported that a total of 24,992 metric tons of rice were imported through land borders in 2006, while goods including rice worth $5bn are smuggled into nigeria yearly through benin republic alone. in the past,the government had initiated policies to curb the excessive import and smuggling from neigbouring borders. for instance, there wasa ban on the importation of agricultural produce especially rice from benin republic in 2004 and from all its neighbouring countries in 2006. (national bureau of statistics reports, 2018). these measures were meant to reduce dependence on imported rice, boost domestic rice production, and improve rice quality which wouldencourage consumption of local rice.nevertheless, foreign rice continually infiltrated the nation through the same neigbouring land borders, thus, making local rice production sub-sector moribundfollowing low consumers’ patronage.it was this situation that compelledthepresident buhari led federal government of nigeriato implement all ‘land border closure policy’ on august, 2019, which totally put embargo on foreign rice importation into nigeria. the strategy is to promote import substitution with a motive to expand and boost thelocal rice industry in order to achieve self-sufficiency especially in rice production. after the closure of border on imported rice, both federal and state government in collaboration with some donor agricultural agencies had transformed the sub-sector by adopting certain interventionist strategies to boost local rice production especially in the aspects of training of producers, provision of farming and processing technologies, as well as modern equipment,(cbn, 2021; osonwa, eja, & emeka, 2015;ojong, agba, eteng, maruf, akintola, & usung, 2021;iji, ojong, & angioha, 2018;ayuk, owan, ekok, & odinka, 2012). in fact, this revolution in rice production hascontinually transformed local rice production sub sector especially in the 18 statesof the federation, including cross river that are predominantly rice producers, thus creating certain improvements in local quality. however, the crucial issue of concern is thegeneral consumers’ doubt in quality of nigerian local rice compared to foreign rice. ideally, consumers prefer rice that possess superior quality with good taste, stone and debris free, clean and very easily to prepare. but after the closure of land border onimported rice, some consumers stillperceived locally produced rice to be of inferior quality due to presence of stones and dust, broken grains, which makes it very difficult to prepareand consume.with this attitude, some people arestill discouraged to patronize local rice while othersare agitatingto the government to open the borderso that they could have access to foreign rice. this present agitation is putting pressure on the government to reversethe border closure policy against rice importation. though many studies have analyzed the implications ofthe foreign rice’s embargo on local rice, they only focused onquantity and demand aspect of locally produced rice.(nwali, 2019).but attempts have scarcely been made to assess if the embargo has likely improved local rice quality. what then is the level of quality improvement, and,what are the dimensions of which rice quality improved? in view of the above, this study assessed embargo on importation of foreign rice and its implications on quality improvement of local rice in cross river state. it is specifically intended to examinethe likelihood for rice quality to improve after embargo on importation of local rice,assess thelevelof local rice quality improvement,investigate the dimensions for quality improvement and the aspects of which quality has improved in cross river state, nigeria. literature review and theoretical framework ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 closure ofland border on imported foreign rice has tremendouslyincreased the quantity of local rice production, making nigeria to be ranked the largest producer of rice in the black continent of africa (pwc report, 2018). despite the increased production, the improvement of the local rice qualityis uncertain. indeed, a survey by omobolaji, (2019) reveals that the quality of nigerian local rice is poor because some processors do not have adequate processing technologies and equipment.relatively, among the foreign rice often imported into nigeria, thailand rice, india riceis perceived tobe ofhighquality, because of its immaculate appearance and cleanliness, high swelling capacity, perfect taste, strong grain texture, stones and specks freeness (okonkwo, et al 2021;edem, agba, & ojong, 2020). on the other hand,our local rice is totally noted for its lower quality. in this regard, a study prior to the land border closure by oni and olayemi (1973), indicated that nigerian rice is of a lower quality when compared toforeign rice, because it usually containeddebris and stones, often gumming with soured taste. furthermore,oduntan (2019), asserts that the quality of local rice may either be determined or rated poor, average, or high based on rice taste, graintexture, dirt and stonecontent, colour and cleanness,swelling capacity and even ease of preparation. but some impediments against local rice quality improvement according to omobolaji(2020) are lack of adequate processing and milling technologies, equipment such as poor parboiling system, obsolete milling machines, as well asconstant preference for used of manual processing methods. on the contrary, oyewale, (2019), nwali, (2019) argued that there has been an undeniable improvement in quality of local rice since border closure. nwali, (2019)specifically accepted that prior to embargo, local rice quality was poor, but as of recent there has been lot of tremendous improvement the quality compared to the quality of the same local rice decades ago. in line with this, oyewale, (2019), affirms that the current quality of domestic rice can equally compete with the imported rice. since the embargo, both government and private business individuals have provided supports in rice production subsector. as reported by adamgbe, et al (2019),both federal and some state governments have been creating significant strategies that boost local rice production with a motiveto end imports, using incentives such as, subsidized loans for producers. for example, the ‘anchor borrowing programme’provides inputs in kind and cash to smallholder rice producers, tax rebate, free access to farm land, provision of certified seeds and improved seedlings, fertilizers, deployment of modern rice technologies at subsidized rate, as well as, provision of free land used for rice cultivation and processing. another strategy is imposing higher tariffon imports. for instance, there is a 70% import tariff on rice import as at 2019 (cbn, 2021). other strategies include private partnership and agricultural agency collaboration, (ifad, 2019; ), as well as provision of modern processing and milling equipment. based on these,‘import substitution industrializationtheory’ is relevant to the phenomenon under study. import substitution industrialization theory was propounded in the early 19th century. however, it was really popularized by alexander hamilton and friedrich list in the 20th century.this theory advocates development economic policies, and strongly calls the attention of importing nations to proactively protect their domestic industries by reducing or ending foreign imports especially on food products such as rice. by doing this, the theory encouragesimporting countries to implement policies that would protect, strengthen, and boost primary industries such as the agriculture sector by applying different strategies such as investment supports, tariffs, import quotas, subsidized government loans, etcetera(adamgbe, et al, 2020).rather than totally relying on imported rice, import substitution industrialization theory is projected to make nigeria andits local economies, self sufficient in food production such as localrice. methodology this study was carried out in calabar, cross river state. the state was purposively chosen because it warehouses six localgovernment area that are predominantly rice producers.a survey research design was adopted for the study. the designed allow the researcher to survey a subunit of the population in order to obtain certain information about a phenomenon that concern them (akpabio, angioha, egwuonwu, awusa, & ndiyo, 2020;ojong-ejoh, bassey& angioha, 2021;ukwayi, eja. & unwanede, 2012; achu, owan, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 uyang. & francis, 2013; nnam, owan, idike, ibiam, agboti, kanu, & okechukwu, 2020). the population of the study consisted of members of rice farmers association of nigeria (rifan), cross river state farmers’ cooperatives empowerment (crsface), and rice processors association and plantation owners forum of nigeria (pofon). sample size for the study was 365; this was obtained from the population using a‘z test’ formula at a confidence level of 95% (1.96) given room for 5% confidence error.respondents were selected randomly from all the three associations through stratified random sampling having divided the sample population into strata,while simple random sampling was finally used to draw respondentsfrom each stratum. data was collected through the use of questionnaire and in-depth interview (idi) method. the questions consisted of both open and close ended questions. the questionnaire was divided into three sections, and each section was targeted at each objective of the study. the questionnaire was administered to respondents duringtheirmeeting day at venue of the meeting, and was retrieved the same day. indepth interview was conducted with nine (9) senior officers ofthe associations who are well experienced on rice production activities. in-depth interview schedule was used as a guide during the interview, while hand-written reports were used in recording data with the help of two research assistants. thequalitative data were analyzed using content analysis, while the quantitative data were analyzed, using frequency, simply percentages and incidence pattern analysis. results a. demographic characteristics of the respondents table 1 shows the results of demographic characteristics oflocal rice producers. the first itemindicated that56%of the respondents weremales, while only 44% were females.amongst theseproducers, 29% were41 to 50 years old, 26% were 51 to 60 years, while 25% were 21 to 30 years.but a small portion of11% were youths between age 21to 30 years, while very few9%,from 61 years and above were older people. besides, a large 62% of producers were married, while 21% were unmarried, others such as widows or widowers were 11%, and divorcees were 6%.for educational qualification, 29% were mostly primary and secondary school certificate holders, followed by 27% who were higher diploma certificate orfirst-degree holders, as well as 25% who were national diploma or national certificate holders. more so, few 19% were either masters or doctorate degree holders. in terms of religious affiliation, majority 85% werechristians, while very few,11% represented muslims, and just 4% were indigenous worshipers. table 1: distribution of respondents based on demographic characteristic s/n variable frequency percentage (%) 1 sex male female 204 161 56 44 2 age 21-30 41 11.0 31-40 90 25.0 41-50 107 29.0 51-60 95 26.0 61 and above 32 9.00 3 marital status married 226 62.0 single 78 21.0 divorced 20 6.00 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 widow/widower 41 11.0 4 highest level of education fslc/ssc 108 29.0 ond/nce 90 25.0 hnd/b.sc. 99 27.0 msc/ph.d. 68 19.0 5 religion christianity 312 85.0 islam 39 11.0 traditional 14 4.00 field survey, 2021 b. embargo on importation of foreign riceand underling likelihood for rice quality improvement, and levels of quality improvement. table 2 shows the likelihood for local rice quality to improve as wellas the level of quality improvement in cross river state due to ban on foreign rice importation. item one revealed majority ofrespondents75% acquired better skills inrice production through trainings by government and other agricultural agencies.similarly, 71% affirmed that quality has improved since government had deployed modern technologies such as modern parboiling system in rice processing. this means that the border closure propelled government to support producers with new processing technologies.this buttresses idi response that affirmed that; ‘during this border closure period, ‘crossrice’ had deployed modern processing technologies like processing equipment, and government has trained many us toapply new techniques of rice cultivation, and modern parboiling system. this awareness is actually improving our rice quality in area taste, stone elimination, and grain strength’. idi/rifan/2021 as per level of quality improvement of local rice, most of the respondents 61% acknowledged that rice quality level had improved to some extent, sincethe qualitywas no longer poorer as it used to be. while only 39% acknowledged the quality level as being lower probably because they used manual processing methods. also, mostof respondents 59% recognized that the level of quality improvement of local rice was not high compared to foreign rice with flawless qualities, while few 41% accepted the quality level was high. this implies that local rice quality was improving.but few respondents 25% affirmed the quality of rice improvement was not moderate but majority 75% accepted that the rice quality level was moderate and may increase further. these findings corroborate with idi responses; the quality improvement level is moderate because some of us still use manual processing techniques, that is why some of this rice still containsparticles, and sometimes tiny stones. but big companies have good machines as such why their brand don’t have sand. if the govt still keep border closed, then in future our rice will continue to improve in quality like thailand rice. idi/rifan/2021 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 table 2: distribution of respondentsbased on foreign rice importation embargo and its underling likelihood for local rice quality improvement, and levels of quality improvement item statements sd d a sa rqiip % 1 i have acquired better skills in rice production through government and agric. agencies since foreign rice importation embargo commenced in 2019. 5.00 (20) 20.0 (71) 38.0 (140) 37.0 (134) 75.0 2 govt has deployedmodern technologies in rice production and processing. 9.00 (33) 20.0 (75) 35.0 (126) 36.0 (131) 71.0 3 quality improvement level is still low since some rice are processed manually 28.0 (103) 33.0 (120) 22.0 (80) 17.0 (62) 61.0 4 local rice quality improvement level is highas it’sprogressing towards foreign grade. 29.0 (104) 30.0 (109) 19.0 (70) 22.0 (82) 59.0 5 level of quality improvement is moderate, since particle contents arereduced. 14.0 (51) 11.0 (40) 36.0 (131) 39.0 (143) 75.0 note: n-365 respondents, rqiip%:rice qualityimprovement incidence pattern percentage, sd:strongly disagree, d: disagree, a: agree, sa: strong agree. c.analysis ofdimensions ofrice quality improvement and aspects of rice improvedquality. table 3 shows some dimensionsand certain aspects ofwhich localrice quality improved.on the first item, most of the respondents 69% acknowledged certified seeds and improved seedlings that yield better quality, more vitamins, and nutritious rice were introduced and used in rice cultivation after border closure.also, majority 71% believed the embargo had pushed some investors to establish newly improved rice mills and processing outfits which used modern milling technologies to process rice. furthermore, majority 86% confirmed the embargo on foreign rice importation had compelled private individuals to introduced improved processing techniques like parboiling machines that improve rice varieties such as long grain. moreover, only 32% accepted the rice contained stones while majority of the respondents 62% confirmed that the quality oflocal rice had improved sinceit is free from stones and dirt particles. though few farmers (33%) believed local rice was still gummy and wetly, but the others(67%)declared that with the current improved rice varieties and existing sophisticated processing techniques utilized, quality has improved. again, most respondents (66%)acknowledge their skills and competence on rice production have been developed because of various workshops and trainings they attended. more so, very few32% disagreed that local rice is no longer generating odour. in like manner, only 40% disagreedthat some local rice was very easy to cook which indicated that majority accepted the rice is very easy to cook.another aspect of which rice quality had improved is in the area of grain texture. few people 36% still believed local rice grain was weak. this is probably, because they are still using manual method of processing rice however, 64% who had constantly used local rice indicated that some rice grains were stronger now.again, majority 63% accepted that somelocally producedrice wasfortified with vitamins and mineral contents just like foreign rice. regarding the quality of the rice taste, only a few 25% accepted local rice was still tasteless, however, majority 75% confirmed that some brand of `local rice havegoodtaste just like foreign rice. the good taste is due to the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 used of modern technologies which eventually enhance quality. all these corroborate with idi’s affirmation that; during cultivation, we select certified seeds and improved seedings of rice varieties such as faros like sipi (faro 44), wita4 (faro 52), l-34 (faro 61), tox4004 (faro 60)) etc. the good thing is that, all these varieties have short maturity yielding period of between 30 days to 130days maximum. they possess good quality, contain more vitamins, idi/ crface/ 2021 this was further reported in another idi that, the way we now process paddy has really improved our rice quality. today we are using modern threshing machines and husker that remove husk softly without breaking the grains. we used destoning machines that select the stone. still, we used polishing and rice coloursorter, we use modern parboiling dryer to dry paddy we adopt modern boiling system, moisture content meter, etc. which help to improve quality. idi/pofon/2021 table 3: distribution of respondents based on dimensionsfor rice quality improvement s/n statements sd d a sa rqiip% and rrop 1 since embargo on foreign rice,certified seeds and seedlings of improved rice varieties are adopted for cultivation. 10.0 (36) 21.0 (78) 36.0 (131) 33.0 (120) b69.03rd 2 there has been an increase in new milling /processing outfits that apply modern milling equipment in the sector. 17.0 (64) 12.0 (42) 35.0 (129) 36.0 (130) a71.02nd 3 the sector is now using modern processing techniques to process rice 8.00 (30) 6.0 (21) 54.0 (198) 32.0 (116) a86.0st 4 local rice is still filled with stones and husk 29.0 (104) 33.0 (120) 23.0 (85) 15.0 (56) c38.06th 5 the rice is still sticky and wetly as usual 37.0 (134) 30.0 (110) 14.0 (51) 19.0 (70) c33.09th 6 because of training, and workshop attended, am well knowledgeable and skillful on rice production process 28.0 (101) 38.0 (137) 16.0 (60) 18.0 (67) b66.08th 7 local rice still generates strong offensive odour, soured while boiling 33.0 (121) 35.0 (128) 15.0 (54) 17.0 (62) c32.010th 8 the rice is now very easy to cook since it does not involve the rigors experience of sifting 22.0 (79) 18.0 (66) 33.0 (120) 27.0 (100) b60.05th 9 the grain texture is still weak and usually result to breakages 30.0 (110) 34.0 (123) 20.0 (75) 16.0 (57) c36.07th 10 local rice is fortified with vitamins and minerals just like foreign thailand rice 25.0 (91) 12.0 (45) 27.0 (99) 36.0 (130) b63.04th 11 local rice is still tasteless unlike foreign rice 41.0 (148) 34.0 (125) 14.0 (52) 11.0 (40) d25.011th note: n-365 respondents, rqiip% rice quality improvement incidence pattern percentage, rroprelative rank order positioning, sd -strongly disagree, ddisagree, a agree, sa strong agree ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 d. incidence pattern analysis indicating centraldimensions influencing rice quality improvement,and underling implications table 4 adopted incidence pattern analysis to identify the central factors that contributed to rice quality improvement in cross river state. category‘a’ ranging 70% – 100%indicatedthe used of modern technologies and equipment in rice productionas keydimensions for local rice quality improvement.this was followed by categoryb, indicating60%– 70% contributory influence for rice quality improvementoncapacity building of farmers and processors, and the introduced new seeds and seedlings of improved verities during cultivation. category c indicated the outcome of rice quality improvement with 3050% acceptance for local rice.another emerging outcome is indicated on category d, which revealed 2030%recognition for local rice nutritious content, vitamins and minerals endowments. table 4: showing incidence pattern percentage analysis ofthe centraldimensions of rice quality improvements and underlying implications in cross river state. rqiip % category rqiip% range rice quality improvement item frequency percentage composition rqiip%-underlying implications a 70 – 100 2 18.2 applications of modern and improved milling and processing equipmentand newtechnologies. b 60 – 70 4 36.4 capacity building/ training of producers and used certified seeds and improved seedlings of rice varieties during cultivation period. c 40 – 50 4 36.4 strong consumers’ positive preferences and usages d 20 – 30 1 9.00 nutritional enhancement for consumers total 100 % 11 100% field survey 2021 discussion of the findings certainly, cross river state has totally embraced the federal government ‘agricultural transformation agenda’ on rice production. most of the rice producersin the state are married, comprised, theyouths, middleage, andthe older people, who are predominantly into rice production occupation on full-time basis. as noticed fromstudy,the sub sector does not discriminate based on educational qualification, havingabsorbed manypeople that cut across all levels of educational certificates, particularly the primary and secondary school holders, and ordinary national diploma holders who are ignored by some corporations. in fact, closure of border against foreign rice importation has helped to improve the quality of local rice in cross river state.clearly, the central force that led to quality improvement was the government’s intervention in developing producers’ skills on rice production through constant training, and provision of modern rice technologies. it is actually the application of these new skills and modern technologies in rice cultivation, processing, and milling process ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 that eventually resulted to improved rice quality. for instance, the existing ‘rice seedling factory in the state’ has facilitated the used of new technologies of certified seeds, seedlings of improved rice varieties during cultivation, hashelped to yield improved rice grain, morevitamins and nutritious rice. also, the used of modern parboiling technologies e.g.parboiling dryer, moisture content detector, has helped to controlled paddy moisture thereby eliminating offensive odour, improved taste, and strong grain texture (okonkwo, et al, 2021). all these were possible due to the government’s efforts in collaboration with some agricultural agencies such as,food and agriculture organization (fao), and international fund for agricultural development (ifad). as matter of fact, ‘crossrice’ agricultural development project promoted by the state government, rice company management board and central bank of nigeria, has really trained farmers,processors, and millers who regularly appliedtheir skills and available technologies on rice production flow that in turn generated improve quality rice. as per rice quality level, findings revealed that the quality improvement level for local rice is moderate.oyewole, et al, (2019), in a survey has affirmed that the current embargo on foreign rice importation has improved rice quality, though such quality may not match with foreign rice premium quality. in truth, at ‘moderate level’, it means the quality of the present local rice in cross river state is better than the same local rice existed inprevious years. though the improvement is not at the level of foreign rice quality, local rice qualityis progressing as the sector is still undergoing transformation. interestingly, it is noticeable that some local rice brand partlycontained dirt, this is actually due to categories of the producers and their processing capacity. as indicated in a report by price waterhouse coopers – pwc (2018), 80% of rice production segment are made up of the small-scale producers, of which greater number of them were still usingmanual processing methods that tend to causepresence of stones, husk and extraneous materials. it is this kind of produce that propelled some consumers to still doubt local rice quality. notwithstanding, the report totally affirmed that the remaining 20% who are large scale producers already have modern equipment thatprocessed or milled clean rice with strong grains that arefree from dirt and stones. government intervention through provision of modern rice equipment, as well as establishing milling outfits has helped to improve local rice quality. as indicated by omobolaji, (2020), the application of adequate equipment in rice production, mostly processing,determinedthe state of local rice quality improvement.actually, the central driving force that led to rice quality improvement in cross river state was the application of necessary rice equipment and its technologies such as, modern parboiling system that moderately boiled paddy for the shell to open without excessively absorbing water. by doing this, moisture content meter is often used to measure moisture content of the grain to guide against rice breakages, souring, anddiscolouring. and also,the used of moderndrying electricity machines to dry the paddy has reduced moisture content. since milling of rice transforms the paddy into white rice that consumers eat, clearly the use of milling machines such as destoning machines has helped to pre-clean the rice and select stones or sand. this process improved rice quality by eliminating stonesand dirt. the husker removes shell and other particles that eventually generate brown rice,polishing machines removethe brown bran to get the white surface, colour sorting machines further improved rice colour, cleanliness and appearance.othermachines such as bag closing machines that packaged the bag to avoid easy penetration of dirt, and digital weighing scales that determined appropriatemeasurement (in kg) per bag are very beneficial. in fact, the establishment of ‘rice milling factory’ at ogoja by cross river state government has helped to improve rice quality since some paddy are either processed directly in the plant by ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 the small scale farmers or indirectly processed through crossrice paddy offtakers who earlier evacuated paddy from small scale farmers. positively, the siting of milling plants as well as, provision and used of equipment have essentially helped to improve local rice quality by enriching rice taste, eliminating stones, odour, gummy possibility, enriching rice with mineral and vitamins nutrients, increasing rice grain strength with preferable sizes, improving swelling capacity, appearance, and ease of preparation by consumers conclusion and recommendations embargo on importation of foreign rice through land border has led to improvement in the quality of the present nigerian local rice. this has been possible following government interventions that supported the rice production subsector through capacity building for producers, as well as providing new rice production technologies and modern processing equipment. in addition,private business individual’s investment through establishing modern rice processing outfits with modern technologies and equipment has helped to improve rice quality but the level of quality improvement is moderate, since it is not as high like that of the foreign rice quality. nevertheless, the local rice quality is better than the same local rice quality in the past years before border closure policy on august, 2019. clearly, the central dimensions that determined local rice quality improvement, are mostly government intervention strategies, and partly business individuals’ investment in rice production sub-sector with these interventions, nigerian local rice now maintains good colour with clean appearance, stones, sand and debris free, good taste, strong grain texture with long, medium or short size, enriched with vitamins and mineral nutrients, and free from offensive odour and gummy possibility. in fact, local riceis easily wash and cookwithout stress of sifting. the outcome of this improvement showed thatsome consumers in cross river have currently restored their preference for local rice, havingrecognizedlocal rice for possessing nutritional nutrients in term of vitamins and minerals. therefore, embargo on importation of foreign ricethrough land border should be sustained. furthermore, the government should intervene by establishing rice processing and milling plants in rice producing areas to enable small scale farmers process and mill their rice. references: achu, a., owan, j. e., uyang., & francis, a. 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(2012)peer pressure and tobacco smoking among undergraduate students of the university of calabar, cross river state. higher education studies, 2(3): 92-101.available at: https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v2n3p92 edem, o. e., agba, a. m. o. & ojong, f. e. (2020). centrifugal cause of household poverty in nigeria. fwu journal of social sciences,14 (4), 43-56 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v2n3p92 sustainability of the human family for the realization of world peace uche emoefe ekiugbo (ph.d) department of social studies education, college of arts and social science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. phone no: +2348137230258. & philip osarobu isanbor department of philosophy, st. albert institute, fayit, kagoma, kaduna state, nigeria (an affiliate of the university of jos, nigeria) email: osarobuisanbor@gmail.com, phone: +234(0)816-308-9299 abstract over the times, the thrust concerns of integral humanism have been driven within and along the values of the human family. for so many ecclesiological thinkers and theologians like john paul ii and benedict xvi, the sustainability of the universe depends on the values place on the human family. such social philosophy recognised that the human family is a common home for common and authentic development. it is a platform that places humanity as an end, not a means for the content of progress and advancement. after-all, humanity is conceived as the measure of all things. humanity determines what should be called development. with such social and developmental conviction, humanities are expected to take more seriously the respects, promotion and protection of their families as the cradle of civilization and as a community of peace. here, the paper philosophically revisits benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace, by assessing its ethics of living for the realization of integral human development. only through the valuation of the family can true peace, since the foundation of the human family is in god. the paper is also concerned about the trends of human civilization and development that should commonly adopted, along the dictates of natural law, in order to safeguard the human family from the effects of misguided and erotic world policies and programmes, that may even lead it into extinction in possible future, if human freedom and powers of legislations and innovations are not properly checkmated. keywords: integral human development, world day of peace, benedict xvi, human family, human rights introduction the courses to safeguard humankind from any agency of its extinction and the mission to redeem it from any social conditioning of self-enslavement are always in the mind of every meaningful societal organization, and the religious communities are an exception, especially, those which have the service for integral humanism in the evangelic agenda, necessarily towards the realization of social order and justice. according to benedict xvi (2008, no. 14): humanity today is unfortunately experiencing great division and sharp conflicts which cast dark shadow on its future. vast areas of the world are caught up in situations of increasing tension, while the danger of an increase in the number of countries possessing nuclear weapons causes well-founded apprehension in every responsible person. so especially, in the course of pontificate, in 1968, pope paul vi initiated the undying gesture for the appeal for global ethics, justice and peace in the name of messages for the world day of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 8 mailto:osarobuisanbor@gmail.com peace, which he delivered on the first day of the year. from the record, every succeeded pope has ecclesiologically taken up the quests for the realization of the culture of peace by delivering the message for peace development and formulation every year of the pontificate. according to benedict xvi, the messages for the world day of peace were “born of a providential intuition of paul vi and carried forward with great conviction by my beloved and venerable predecessor john paul ii, the celebration of this day of peace has made it possible for the church, over the course of the years, to present in these messages an instructive body of teaching regarding this fundamental human good” (benedict xvi, 2008, no. 15). and the initiative has been faithfully honoured and carried out, and better still, promoted by every successor of the pontificate. therefore, we aimed at revisiting benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace, with the title: the human family: a community of peace, posits that the attainment of integral humanism should be on the comprehensive valuation of human family, when fully admitted and respected, especially in social and political policies making, to be the solution to many world problems, if not all. the religious communities appear to be in troubled waters of globalised human world, where what happened in an obscured human settlement is known easily in the rest parts of the world, negatively or positively. in it, benedict xvi recognises that “humanity is one great family” and what alters such recognition of human authenticity, subjectivity and personality is practically inviting possible extinction of human race from the face of the earth, principally due to the courses of the alienation of peace and justice in the minds of many person and groups. statements of the problem the messages for the world day of peace readily substantiates the courses of integral humanism through the institutionalization of the culture of peace, just like all social encyclicals. the messages constantly directed that the thrusts for integral humanism must be aimed at not only compelling the state and other structures that seem oppressive to respond to the needs of the citizens. they also direct and admonish at clarifying the roles of peace and justice the citizens must play in struggling for the rights of the human persons (vasumu, iwu & ugwu, 2013). such understanding of the human persons as beings of experience is to situate the understanding of world through rational positioning of natural processes of events, and allow the human persons to have confidence in themselves, knowing that they are at the centre of world’s knowledge and development. secular humanism as a way of living advocates for the idea of human beings as persons of development and experience able to create their own future, specifically without reference to the influences and workings of god in human dealings and affairs. the humanistic thought of development simply values the human rationality over god’s rationality. and such conviction has been based on empirical evidence or ability of the powers of human innovation and creativities in modern and contemporary times. it has gone along to deny god’s authority in the rising power of human ingenuity. but, the strength of integral humanism is on the involvement and recognition of the indispensable presence of god in human dealings and affairs. integral humanism is godly and humane, owing to the fact that humans as persons do not create themselves, and at such, any act of development demands the involvement of god since the human persons are not merely materialistic. the issues of development have been long situated with the understanding of human persons. such issues of development depend heavily on the ability of human persons to understand their very selves, especially, most properly and adequately. it is all on human ability to change the world through the understanding and proper applications of the contents of lived experiences. this understanding is on the substantiation of the essentiality of human persons in the faces of societal factors that are limiting the directedness of their authenticity, and most probably, the subjectivity in the objectivity of persons in terms of their creative and innovative capacities and capabilities. the organic unit of the valuation of human family is logically positioned, and “it produces a systematic body of knowledge. in different cultural contexts and at different times, this process has yielded results which have produced genuine systems of thought” (john paul ii 1998, no. 4), owing to the understanding of ethics of living built on the interplay of faith and reason. both faith and reason recognise the values of human rights. within the contemporary societal agitations of rights ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 9 and the demands of privileges, john paul ii exacts that the indispensable nature of the human family for the sustainability of the whole universe cannot be pushed away from the paths of relevance. it post that the human society is best understood by the referential consideration of the human family in which creation is greatly and fully expressed such philosophy notes the part of the sustainability of creation depends on the sustainability of the human family. it recognizes that secular humanism with the trends of many agitations right and liberties and the oppositions, the components of the human family face the risk of extinction and alienation. the above social conviction of john paul ii was the seat of benedict xvi’s concern for the sustainability of the human family through charity in truth. benedict xvi understands that, so consciously, the current trend of human quest of innovative relevance and creative odour-ness has been pushing the dilemmatic recognitions of social and unethical challenges and policies against the dignity of the human family, such as: legalization of abortion and other forms of infanticides, promotion of euthanasia, diplomacy of cloning, culturing of artificial birth controls and reproductive methods, policies of wars and armament, rapidity of industrial and chemical environmental pollutions, culture of human experimentation and organ harvesting, etc. he projects that, if contemporarily not checkmated; will indispensably lead the world into, first, chaotic embrace of unfriendly history, thereafter, extinction. contemporary society has been conscious of the effects of moral relativism in the enthroned emotivist culture, the wrangling pavilion of homosexuality and other moral unseated sexual orientations, the band of social acclamation of misguided cosmetic surgeries, the rooted sanctuary of vainglory-ness in cybercrime and cyberritualism, and the likes. with these, it is obvious that there are questions humanities have to answer for themselves. hinge of benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace thereby, it is highly evaluated by many contemporary theological philosophers that the valuation of social concerns of the benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace heavily hinged on the respect of human family in our contemporary troublesome and confused human society. the questions here are: what is peace in relation to the sustainability of the human family? can there be the world without the human family? how can the human family be the community of peace in order to sustain the world? for benedict xvi (2013, no. 3): the attainment of peace depends above all on recognizing that we are, in god, one human family. this family is structured, as the encyclical pacem in terris taught, by interpersonal relations and institutions supported and animated by a communitarian “we”, which entails an internal and external moral order in which, in accordance with truth and justice, reciprocal rights and mutual duties are sincerely recognized. peace is an order enlivened and integrated by love, in such a way that we feel the needs of others as our own, share our goods with others and work throughout the world for greater communion in spiritual values. it is an order achieved in freedom, that is, in a way consistent with the dignity of persons who, by their very nature as rational beings, take responsibility for their own actions. evidently, benedict xvi’s messages for the world day of peace were developed along socio-philosophical tradition for the human person through the mission of theology and his efforts are based on social consciousness in safeguarding human family through the realization of integral humanism in charity of truth. there is a sense of clarity to be expressed in truth because there is a community of persons, always for the sake of social order, justice and peace. according to benedict xvi (2008, no. 3); the family is the foundation of society, for the reason too; because it enables its members in decisive ways to experience peace. it follows that the human community cannot do without the service provided by the family. where can young people gradually learn to savour the genuine “taste” of peace better than the original “nest” when nature prepares for them? the language of the family is a language of peace. in the inflation ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 10 http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_xxiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_j-xxiii_enc_11041963_pacem_en.html http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_xxiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_j-xxiii_enc_11041963_pacem_en.html of its speech, society cannot cease to refer to that “grammar” which all children learn from the looks and the actions of their mothers and fathers, even before they learn from their words. the quest for peace in our world of greed, selfishness and avarice remains a missionary task that is philosophically orchestrated to work towards the redemption of humankind. every human sense or model of development must be on the valuation of human family, based on the achievement of social order, peace, justice, godly freedom and the respect for human rights, considering the sustenance of human society (omoregbe, 2011). the understanding of the natural order of human affairs and actions is evaluated on the use of human reasoning in knowing what is good and then do it, and what is bad and then avoid it. within the quest for social peace and justice, the sustainability of the environment cannot be distant from the development of the human family. the advocacies of ecological continence, disarmament, vibrant environment impact assessment, environmental diplomacies and laws are for the sustainability of the human family. the absence of human family presupposes the absence of governments, education, economic diplomacies and social order. the sustainability of the human family presupposes the existence of lives on which every development depends. according to benedict xvi (2008); “the natural family as an intimate communion of life and love, based on marriage between a man and a woman, constitutes the primary place of humanization for the person and society” (no. 2). it needs a peaceful and safe environment for proper development, and ultimately, for salvific ending with the creator of the universe. with this definition and conception of the family, based on the dictates and understanding of natural law, benedict xvi did not considered other forms of family originated from the contemporary sexual cultures and orientations, this is very understandable and tolerable because his socio-ecclesiological institution only recognised the marital union of a man and a woman to form a family. that is family in the mind of god. “the family is therefore rightly defined as the first natural society, a divine institution that stands at the foundation of life of the human person as a prototype of every social order” (benedict xvi, 2008, no. 2). the family is naturally instituted as a home of peace and social order, and that should respect what happen in the society because the family is the foundation of the society. benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace on the values of the human family for the realization of world peace, is a philosophy of social reconstruction, centred on the holistic liberation of the humanity and the return of humanity to the god in wholeness. benedict xvi’s social philosophy recognises this purpose as presented in the messages for the world day of peace alongside with the tradition of the modern pontificates. the social’s concern for integral humanism in ‘charity of truth’ or ‘truth in charity’ is situated in the mission of theology in which benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace interferes in societal matters regarding peace-building, peace-making and peace-keeping. no peace is possible outside the valuation of the human family. for the sustainability of the human family brings social order and justice. benedict xvi, just on the foundation laid by john paul ii, reacts to social problems by the projection of the social teaching principles as solutions when honestly adapted, all to the obedience to the natural law principles. benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace recognises that only in conceptual contextualization can the human individual as a person, and as a member of the human family, will be easily understood in all forms of socialization for the realization of integral humanism. such socialization is situated within the placement of common good, justice and peace as product of human morality, and recognises that only when the human rights are holistically respected, promoted and protected, the society will be a home indeed. it ultimately recognises that if the whole humanity values its rights and dignity as ontologically and evidently vested on it by natural law, the possibility of integral humanism is vastly realistic. human family in contemporary conflict-driven landscaping understandably, to be conceptually situated in considering its pragmatic social relevance and placement, benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace is hinged of the societal values of some ecclesiologico-social encyclicals, such as paul vi’s populorum progressio and john paul ii’s sollicitudo rei socialis. it is also born from the encounter of the demands of the gospel ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 11 with the problems arising from the society. over the time, it has developed and still developing in functional changing circumstances of history and for social reconstructing and reengineering of the human society. the term “messages” is grounded on gospel hermeneutical tradition of constant teaching of the people, especially in the exercise of religious liberty and tolerance and in the services to humanity. it is about the liberation of the totality of the human person through the institutions of common good and solidarity (benedict xvi 2008, no. 7). it is about the holistic liberation of wholeness of human beingness. this is because; benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace is situated in human society and must make its present felt in it. the ethics of messages for the world day of peace is always reacting to the dehumanising situations which humanity is subjecting itself to, especially against the sense of morality and faith. such social reactions based on theological principles, is to socially integrate human persons in their society, irrespective of their colour, race and beliefs. more especially, benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace has been understood to have directed the attention of the world to the rescue of the falling human society through the morality of the human family. it is by sustaining the human family that the world as a whole is sustained. this is about moral theologisation of human social affairs in relation to their peace development through the theology of the human family. according to ebenezer oloidi, “the understanding of moral theology can be better appreciated in the line of a branch of philosophy called ethics or moral philosophy. it is argued that the basic content of the biblical ten commandments is found in natural ethics” (oloidi, 2018, 90). benedict xvi’s messages for the world day of peace with morals and faith, projects to classify human conditions in truth. such is the sense of social re-engineering that is on the quest for integral humanism, considering the indispensable calls for a social economic balance, based on the thoughts of paul vi’s populorum progressio, john paul ii’s centisimus annus, sollicitudo rei socialis, benedict xvi’s caritas in veritate, and francis’ laudato si. for instance, in centisimus annus, john paul ii (1991: no. 38) posits that: man receives from god his essential dignity with it the capacity to transcend every social order so as to move toward truth and goodness. but he is also conditioned by the social structure in which he lives, by the education he has received and by his environment. these elements can either help or hinder his living in accordance with the truth the decisions which create a human environment can give rise to specific structure of sin which impede the full realization of close who are in any way oppressed by them. to destroy such structures and replace them with more authentic forms of living in community is a task which demands courage and patience. according to benedict xvi’s mission of theology, the philosophy of integral humanism examines the ethical ontology of the trinity – the theological exegesis of imago trinitatis. it is about the understanding of the world through the unity of the human persons. this conception of integral humanism recognizes the social imports of the human family are best functional on the indispensable relationships of the persons of the trinity. with the presence of god in human dealings and affairs, the human family is to be sustained in all forces of contemporary social and political uncertainties. it is expected that humanities resolve to value the relationship which eternally exists amongst the divine and humans, in order to establish peace unendingly and undyingly. according to benedict xvi (2008, no. 6): the family community, in order to proper, needs the generous consent of all its members. this realization also needs to become a shared conviction on the part of all those called to form the common human family. we need to say our own “yes” to this vocation which god has inscribed on our very nature. we do not live alongside one another purely by chance, all of us are progressing along a common path as men and women, and thus as brothers and sisters. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 12 here, we try to awaken the contemporary social consciousness for the promotion, protection and respect of human family through its philosophical cum theological traditions, a possible course for integral humanism. we explicate the purposeful linkage of messages for the world day of peace in evaluating the challenges of the human family in contemporary humanity, and thereby, maintaining her terrestrial exactness of integral humanism. then, we look at the ethics of messages for the world day of peace as they explicate its notion and conception of the development of humanity by its adoption of integral humanistic paradigm, and emphasis on the morality of the human family. this is because, our contemporary trends of development have seen to lost touch for holistic valuation of human person, on their extreme materialistic vest of the human person, a onesided tradition for development to the detriment for the wholeness of the human family. no wonder, as oredipe (2013, 69) posits that: no doubt, a better understanding of humanity is necessary at the present time. we need the courage to risk a new visioning and thinking of what it means to be human who brings together in a fitting, unified society, what should be called meaningful with many dimensions of being human. it exemplifies that; to be human is to be authentic and integral, a vision for healthy human civilization. hence, it will be taking the real valuation of the human family to understand the real thrust for integral humanism, supposedly, to be visible in every nation’s policy of developmental quest. ethics for the social developmental concerns of the human family the ethics of the messages for the world day of peace is directed to protect and promote the values of the human family, by considering the ontological importance of human actions. the issue of peace, justice and development in human society demands the assessments of some human activities that hinder the realisation of it, even a little quantum of it (isanbor, 2013). we witness today a shift from solidarity to self-centredness, a frightening erosion of values that reduces the ability of the human family to respond to its vocation. human family faces many formidable challenges such as selfishness, materialism, infidelity, to mention but these (cbcn 2015, no. 5). so, the assessments of some factors or human activities seem to be very necessary in this circumstance. this is because; the society is made up of groups of individuals cooperating in the pursuits of several of their major interests, invariably including self-maintenance and selfperpetuation. the concept of society includes continuity, complex associational relationship, and a composition including representatives of fundamental human types, specifically men, women, and children. human society should be very well prepared to pay a great price to define the meaningfulness of the human personhood with considerable clarity of faith and precision of reason (oredipe 2013, 85). all these arrangements should not be hindered by human freedom but manage them for the sustainability of human race. more straightforwardly, the concerns for any developmental approach should be universally humanistic and not limited to the protection of human species alone. it is also transcendentally realistic, because the human family needs to be redeemed base on the composite nature – the body and the soul. this projection is to save humankind from self-destruction, selfabnegation and selfalienation. this latter classification of its relevance brings the complementarily of ecclesiological concerns in order to vest some realistic interests on human family by projecting integral humanism, especially within the domiciliary of peace, justice and common good (see, nadre 2014; vatican ii 1965, no. 26). this concern is hinged the contemporary trends on: bridging the gap between the poor and the rich; unethical biotechnology; consumerism; international debt; false migration; diplomatic oppression and abnegation; religious violence; armament; injustice for women and gender imbalance; racism; violation of human rights; the population explosion; refugees; environmental pollution; and the likes. this classification brings the ontological status of humanity to the fore, as some theistic existentialists will always interject these factors against the realization of integral humanism. the concern for integral humanism does not see that all human projects to be done in exercise of its freedom, but been determined by spiritual, metaphysical, theological, environmental and psychological factors that considers that human family is beyond mortality and physicality. the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 13 universality of human personhood exemplifies the indispensable nature of it as a nation. “a nation is itself a family of families, a community of persons who share common core values, and the family is the nucleus of the community of persons that a nation is” (cbcn, 2015, no. 3). the allroundedness of the human family in the created world shows the universality of the commonness of human beings, and this indicates the universality of the doctrine or principle of common good. the universal common good is a complex value. it includes a series of demands that ranged across cultures in order to impose itself on humankind because of what humanity is by nature and of what it ought to become by its calling. here, the ethics of the messages for the world day of peace claims that the religious and supernatural salvations of humankind demand that a certain sociological diversity be preserved among the nations of the world even at the natural level. that mankind must be a family containing its own diversity, not only because it is called to be a true human family, rather, it is true “divine family” through integral intersubjectivity of actions. also, the rapid growth of civilization is determined on how men wish to be governed and earn their living, together with the management of human problems arising from rapid scientific and technological developments which call for continuous re-examination by societal man in the natural law philosophy. as a matter of fact, the whole issue of development and its enduring principles are centred on the promotion and protection of the human family. the human family remains the cradle of civil society, and it is in great measure within the circle of family life that the destiny of states is fostered. this measure for the realisation of this destiny has been hampered by many forces against human life, for which human family is established by natural and divine orders. the value of life should be the determinant factor for every policy and principle. therefore, human family must be granted and accorded the needed respect and right in order to obtain integral humanism, and avoid aberrations of human life, rights and dignity. benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace within his mission of theology recognises many obstacles to the respect of families, and for example, today, the various forms of the erosion of marriage values, such as free unions and "trial marriage", and even pseudo-marriages between people of the same sex, are instead an expression of anarchic and pseudo freedom that are wrongly made to pass as true human liberation. though, there are many human sexual orientations towards the attainment of happiness, but, they must not be outside the dictates of the natural law. the proper ethics for human family brings the culture of holistic development of the individual where the wholeness of the individual is respected, promoted and protected. this is the thrust of the practices and advocacies for integral humanism which are hinged on the liberation, salvation and proper socialisation of the complete nature of the individual, that is, the redemption of the material and metaphysical components of the human personhood. a society built on human family scale is the best guarantee against drifting off course into individualism or collectivism, because within human family, the human person is always at the centre of attention as an end and never as a means (pcjp, csdc 2005, no. 215). hence, due attention must obviously be given to responsible procreation, which among other things has a positive contribution to make integral humanism realizable in our word so bedevilled with erroneous ideologies. the ethics of the messages for the world day of peace urge humanity to have full respect for its values in the exercise of its sexuality (benedict xvi 2009, no. 44). with this, human society works to eliminate the effects of individualism and materialism that do not promote cultural symbiosis needed. in the promotion of peace and justice, it is the duty of the state to protect the interest of the human family. it is an anteriority of development and remains an indispensable part to the state which is composed of human families, the state, therefore, enjoys a subsidiarity function in relation with human family. it exists to help the family and enable its members to develop themselves and fulfil their obligations under the laws of their nature and their god. more importantly, a humanistic value system calls for a breach of our present notion of development, and a re-prioritising of our developmental efforts. development has to be integral or ‘holistic’ (ehusani, 1991: 243). in the mind of the messages for the world day of peace, cultural morality calls for proper maintenance of natural order that will not rob human dignity of its meaning and purpose, hopefully and philosophically, through: aesthetic value of creation; ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 14 avoidance of industrial pollution and gratifying consumerism; elimination of wars and other types of conflicts; simplicity and moderation of individual freedom via spirit of sacrifice; respect for life and its rights; and education in and for ecological and social responsibilities; for the attainment of integral humanism. the advocacy of “new solidarity” and spirit of common good, and also, for the establishment of communitarian ethics call on strength of religious and cultural morality: that everything must be done to make everyone conscious of the right to culture and the duty it has of developing itself culturally and of helping others. though, the subjectivity of individual conception of the use of human freedom, even to its own detriment is controlled by the universal application or the objectivity of the sense of morality. but, according to john paul ii, when stating the relationship between human work and freedom, will state that “man fulfils himself by using his intelligence and freedom. in so doing he utilises the things of this world as objects and instruments and makes them his own” (1991, no. 43). man’s very conscience in the exercise of his own freedom becomes the truth that defines his authenticity and subjectivity. the truth about moral good, as that truth is declared in the law of reason is practically and recognised by the judgment of conscience (ede 2010: 85). such consciousness for integral humanism brings out this untiring zeal in safeguarding the human life and rights through religion and culture which it has established is an aberration. both religion and culture have to be very truthful and pragmatic toward this purpose of morality of rights. this is because, all human activity takes place within a certain culture and interacts with culture. for an adequate formation of a culture, the involvement of the whole man is required, whereby he exercises his creativity, intelligence, and knowledge of the world and of people. evaluative conclusion from the foregoing, we have seen the indispensable nature of the human family, and which has been the interest on the ethics of the messages for the world day of peace, it envisages that the whole issues of integral humanism and its enduring principles are centred on the promotion and protection of the human family. the human family remains the cradle of civil society, and it is in great measure within the circle of life that the destiny of states is fostered. this measure for the realisation of this destiny has been hampered by many forces against human life, for which human family is established by natural and divine orders. it sees morality as the pivot of protection of the human family (barga 2015: 20). morality is about value and security of life. moreover, the truth about the dignity of the human person, discerned in the interrelation of faith and reason, is crucially requisite for educational and economic initiatives in our technological society (oredipe 2013: 80). as a matter of fact, we recognised that science has becomes a culture or religion, and must be tamed by morality. the contemporary conditions demand that human family designs the culture to exercise its freedom in order to understanding its essence in existence as a rational entity. like when one say the religion and culture are not natural, but only their initiators are natural to the realities that surround them. in the face of this contemporary experience comes a social, moral and ethical responsibility to re-think the fundamental significance of the human person as a basis of a sound and authentic civilization, for the human person is the key to any society that is to be formed genuinely in the truth (oredipe 2013: 81). the personality of humanity is associated with moral norms which its nature put before it to regulate its actions and motives. the importance of morality in the activities of humanity cannot be quantified in determination of its level of development. according to benedict xvi (2008, no. 3): indeed, in the healthy family life we experience some of the fundamental elements of peace: justice and love between brothers and sisters, the role of authority expressed by parents, loving concern for the members who are weaker because of youth, sickness and old age, mutual help in the necessities of life, readiness to accept others and, if necessary, to forgive them. for this reason, the family is the first and indispensable teacher of peace. no one develops properly outside the human family, and at such, the human family becomes socially indispensable in the life of the individual as an agent of development. following the undertones of the previous messages for the world day of peace, benedict xvi advices humanities to embrace the courses of peace through the valuation of the human family, by saying: ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 15 i invite every man and woman to have a more lively sense of belonging to the one human family, and to strive to make human coexistence increasingly reflect this conviction, which is essential for the establishment of true and lasting peace (2008, no. 15). more conclusively, it has not been elusive to assert that human family is the hub of the society in any phase and era of development. for this, human family is to contend with the contemporary challenges as evident in the culture of moral relativism and nihilism, a wave that it is making humanity to lose some of its ontologico-existential values. it should be noted that this culture presents a wave for the mismanagement of human rights, against the cooperate existence of humanity. hence, this contemporary relativistic and nihilistic culture which human society is experiencing may be to strengthen metaphysics of the human person, more particularly, to be alive to its social and religious responsibilities, in helping to reform the conscience towards ihd. it should do this, by first, be itself, morally re-institutionalised and more evangelically zest, in upholding the ethical principles which placed values on the human family, which the sole continuity of human society. it suffices to always maintain such conception of human family, and it should be met to remain the central thrust of benedict xvi’s 2008 message for the world day of peace, a concern towards the contemporary realization of integral humanism, and it deserves to be constantly revisited in order to manage human freedom towards development and growth. references aigbodioh, j. a. (2016). is social order the creation of natural instinct, or of reason? reflection on godwin sogolo’s critique of sociobiology. in o. a. oyeshile and f. offor (eds). ethics, governance and social order in nigeria. (pp. 231-242). ibadan: zenith books. akubeze, a. o. (2015). you shall know the truth, and the truth shall set you free (jn 8: 32). 2015 lenten pastoral message. as published in veritas, vol. 1, no. 38. barga, t. (2015). family catechesis towards sustainability and development of the christian home. nigerian journal of religion and society, vol. 5, pp. 15-36. benedict xvi (2009). caritas in veritate. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. benedict xvi (2008). message for the world day of peace. the human family: a community of peace. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. benedict xvi (2013). message for the world day of peace. blessed are the peacemakers. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. catholic bishops’ conference of nigeria (cbcn) (2015). good families make good nations. being a communiqué of the first plenary meeting of cbcn at the daughters of divine love retreat and conference centre, abuja, february 20-26. de soras, a. (1963). international morality. new york: hawthorn books. ede, s-w. o. (2010). the pauline concept of truth: epistemological insights for the philosophy of st. paul. enwisdomization journal, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 71-89. ehusani, g. o. (1991). an afro-christian vision “ozovehe”: toward a more humanized world. new york: university press of america. ezehi, j. (2006). an introduction to catholic social teachings. uromi: catholic chess. izumwa, m. o. (2009). philosophical humanism: inspiration for authentic development in africa. west african journal of philosophical studies, vol. 12, pp. 13-31. john paul ii (1991). centesinus annus, vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. john paul ii (1994a). letter to families, vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. john paul ii (1994b). message for the world day of peace. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. john paul ii (1998). fides et ratio. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. kamai, p. h. (2015). sex, gender and marriage in context: a biblical and theological appraisal of the issues in contemporary debate. jos studies, 23, pp. 1-21. oloidi, e. o. (2018). philosophy and catholic priestly formation. in m. a. izibili, et al. (eds). studies in philosophy and society. (pp. 78-93). kagoma: albertine institute. omoregbe, j. i. (2011). ethics and aesthetics. in f. n. ndubuisi (ed). philosophy, logic and philosophy of science.. lagos: department of philosophy, university of lagos. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 16 oredipe, p. k. (2002). the interrelation of faith and reason in the search for truth: an appraisal of john paul ii’s fides et ratio. phd thesis, pontifical university of holy cross, rome. oredipe, p. k. (2013). “be not afraid”: faith as the authentic basis of integral humanism. west african journal of philosophical studies, vol. 15, pp. 61-91. paul, vi (1975). message for the world day of peace. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. pontifical council for justice and peace (2005). compendium of the social doctrine of the church. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. vanier, j. (2008). finding peace. mumbai: better yourself books. vasumu, a. i., iwu, c., & ugwu, m. e. (2013). mission and discipleship: a call for self-emptying. nacath journal of theology, vol. 22, pp. 60-73. vatican ii council (1965). gaudium et spes. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 17 proposal writing: a lived experience of a doctor of philosophy candidate claretah makuvire, makuvirec@gmail.com mufunani tungu khosa, tungukhosa@gmail.com claretah makuvire, faculty of education, zimbawbe open university, harare, zimbabwe mufunani tungu khosa, faculty of education, zimbabwe open university, harare, zimbabwe abstract the doctor of philosophy (phd) journey is a transition from a candidate to a full blown researcher. this journey begins with proposal writing. the process involves considerable learning and development. the purpose of this paper is to expose, through reflective selfstudy my process of learning during the first eight months of my long phd journey, this period was dedicated to proposal writing. in this qualitative self-study i used my diary in which i kept entries of all the meetings i had with my supervisor; the emails through which we communicated; the feedback which i received from him and the personal, academic and professional experiences which emanated from the communications. the findings reveal an academic transformation in my life; changing from an academic novice to a critical thinker and researcher. proposal writing hardened me for the subsequent phases of the journey. the encounters also show how my previous experiences influenced the learning that occurred during that period. keywords: doctor of philosophy (phd), learning experience, phd candidate, reflective thinking, research proposal, self-study ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 33 mailto:makuvirec@gmail.com mailto:tungukhosa@gmail.com about the authors in a reflective paper it is important for the reader to have an appreciation of the players i the reflection process. the first author is claretah, who holds a master’s degree with twenty one years’ experience in high school teaching. she is a a part time lecturer with zimbabwe open university and zimbabwe ezekiel guti university. besides teaching she also writes and edits high school textbooks.the second author is mufunani tungu khosa is the principal supervisor of the candidate. in this research his role was that of a technical adviser to the first author whose main role was reflecting on the writing of a phd research proposal. another role he played was dialoguing with claretah about the outputs of her reflection – taking care of course not to stifle her feelings and perceptions. introduction the doctoral journey which can last up to eight years is a period when candidates learn about research, critical thinking, submit a thesis with a comprehensive methodology, publish articles and contribute to the literature available in their field, (callary, werthner&trudel 2012). during my first year as a phd candidate, i began to identify with a new role of being a researcher in the making. i faced unexpected difficulties due to major changes inmy educational understanding what a phd and what is expected of a phd candidate? i experienced differences in academic demands, peer support and social interaction. some of the problematic areas and challenges ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 34 were(a) selfisolation, (b) time constraints, (c) the need to take individual responsibility for work,(d) the desire to feel intellectual and self-worth including necessity of building a firm professional relationship with my supervisor in terms of mutual sharing of expectations, (e)my rights and obligations as well as those of my supervisor. as someone who had embarked on part time studies for the first time my adjustment was slow and painful. for instance, i kept on asking the question, “after this phd what will i be doing in my professional life?” swetzer (2009) cited in everett (2015) putsphd candidates into two categories: the first group is for those who enter the program intending to become a professor and a publisher in high-ranking journals. these, just like me, they find academic relationships as the only way to success. the other group is of those who are more interested in individual development and learning. hence, candidates enter into phd journeys with varied expectations and they experience personal development through their social experiences whilst in the program. in this paper, i analyse and reflect on the first segment of my doctoral journey which stretches from the time i applied for a phd candidature up to the time my research proposal was approved by the faculty board.this segment lasted for 10 months. nature of reflection this reflective self-study covers my experiences as i journeyed in my first ten months of the phd journey. as i reflected, i could not leave out my advisor who is the second author. he encouraged me to reflect on the first part of my journey. from the day we first met he encouraged me to keep a detailed journal of our experiences and reflect on them as we ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 35 progressed. my advisor also provided guidance on how a reflective paper is written. he was at it again sending me lots and lots of reading material. i wondered if he had forgotten that i still had a lot of my core work to do. i had to rewrite the research proposal; master the american psychological association referencing style; read the volumes of documents he was sending me and to add on to that i was a part time student. i still had to do my full-time teaching job as well as part time lecturing. publications were the least of my concerns at that time. regardless of all my tasks, as advised in sacssw.edu.au (2019) i actually kept two types of reflective recordings; (1) a journal in which i wrote monthly progress entries throughout the ten months. these were based on my reflections on the proposal notes which i received from my advisor as well as my personal research; and (2) a learning diary which was similar to the journal, but it was the place where i kept notes on the discussions which we had with my advisor whenever we held review meetings. this article in the product of revisiting the journal entries of our meetings, email communications, reading comments my supervisor wrote in various versions of the draft proposal. the revisits helped me refresh my memory of what took place during the first year of my studies. the first author is the phd candidate and the findings (reflections) are written in first person to enable me to analyse and talk about my experiences, and more importantly, to assist the readers to better understand what i went through and what i learnt. the second author, who is the first ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 36 author’s supervisor, played the role of guiding the candidate in her journey, providing literature on reflective writing, and developing the reflective paper. schion (1988) as cited in william, woolliam& spiro (2012) suggests a three dimension model of reflection. the model concurs with jarvis (2009) that the past determines how we react to the present which in turn shapes the future. the model suggests that for reflection to be effective it must look at the past, present and the future. as one engages in the three dimensions of reflection, they should ask themselves the questions indicated in the table1. table 1: three-dimensional reflective model (based on schion1988) before during after what do you think might happen? what do you think might be the challenges? what should you do to be best prepared what is happening now as you write the journal? is it working out as expected? are you dealing with the challenges well? is there something you should do, say or think to make your experiences a success? what are you learning from this? what happened during the experience? how did you contribute to its success or failure? what lessons did you derive from the experience? ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 37 the questions provided in the model helped me shape my reflections and organise the findings. the theory also enabled me to realise the growth that i was undergoing during proposal writing. this paper combines experiential and reading reflection. these will be discussed briefly. experiential reflection farrah (2011) views experiential reflection as experiences, ideas and observations you have had, and how they relate to the course or topic or some programme. this type of reflection is popular in professional programmes, like business, nursing, and education. experiential reflection is an important part of making connections between theory and practice. my advisor encouraged me to engage in experiential reflection to explore the incidents i came across as a phd candidate. it enabled me to evaluate my experience rather than just describe it based on ideas from my encounters with him (o’connell&dyment 2006). it enabled me to assess what research is through my observations and practice. i found myself in a position where i would evaluate my own knowledge and skills within the research field. this gave me an opportunity to take time to think on my choices, my actions, my successes, and my failures within the specifications and demands of proposal writing. abstract concepts became concrete and real to me when i considered them within my own experiences, and reflecting on my experiences allowed me to make plans for improvement. reading reflection ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 38 the phd journey entails a lot of research and focused deep reading. to encourage thoughtful and balanced assessment of readings, the phd candidate needs the ability to assess the available literature and reflect upon it (farrah 2011).my supervisor indicated to me that he expected me to reflect on each paper he sent, the general purpose was to elicit my informed opinions about ideas presented in the text and to consider how they affected my approach to research. reading reflections offered me an opportunity to recognize – and break down my assumptions which were sometimes challenged by the texts which i studied. [mufu always encouraged me not to just read the literature but to examine it.] reading reflection enabled me to be a critical thinker as it is generally believed that the thinking process involves two aspects: reflective thinking and critical thinking. as summarised in figure 1, the two are not separate processes; rather, they are closely connected (brookfield 1987). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 39 figure 1: the thinking process (adapted from mezirow 1990, schon 1987, brookfield 1987; adopted from https://artdesign.unsw.edu.au/current-students/student-services/learning-careerhub) let me now turn to the outputs of my reflection about the proposal writing which is divided into two broad parts. in part i reflect on the different phases of proposal crafting, and in the second part i summarise key lessons emerging from the cumulative reflections. part 1: the phases of the phd proposal writing [or rather crafting] ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 40 from the first time i had a meeting with my supervisor he advised me to keep a record of what we discussed and keep it safe. i religiously followed his advice. now that i am at the data analysis stage of my phd research journey, i feel that l can share my reflections which are anchored on the journals i kept. i am convinced that those planning to embark on doctoral studies and those who are already on the journey, will find my reflections interesting and hopefully educative as well. reflections as i started my phd after some basic coaching from a colleague, i had come up with an eight paged proposal which i attached to my phd application. after four months of waiting, i got the favourable response the zimbabwe open university (zou) had accepted me as a phd candidate. i visited the higher degrees directorate, and i was told how to register. i was given a dphil handbook which i was to study and follow. after three weeks i was allocated a supervisor. my supervisor mufunani tungu khosa (prof mufu as he prefers to be called), is an associate professor of education. i now know that he is a seasoned educator with experience in teaching at secondary school level, teachers' colleges, as well as universities. he has 30 years consulting experience acquired in botswana, ghana, mozambique, tanzania, zambia and zimbabwe. mufu holds phd in education from monashuniversity, australia. the day i entered mufu’s modest office my journey began although i did not fully know who this man was. meeting my supervisor for the first time ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 41 soon after being directed to my supervisor’s office on the 30th of november 2018, i went there and introduced myself. he was expecting me. he asked me to give a brief biography which i did orally. he later requested for the proposal that had won me the study towards a d.phil. i had a hardcopy and he asked me to send a soft copy. my supervisor advised me that he would not entertain hard copies on his desk, he gesticulated at his neat desk which confirmed words; it had two computers; desktop and a laptop. he also emphasised that since i was a part time student, much of the work had to be done online. my mind was flooded with worries and concerns: my teaching has been based on piles of books; schemes of work, record of marks, registers. i am a paper person,i feel so confident when i do my work and students pass. never have i been conversant with computer use, let alone constant use of email. . . this means i need wi-fi connections and a computer tutor. i did my masters’ degree using hard copies; this phd is different. using email was not the only challenge emanating from the first meeting; there were the issues research skills. my advisor promised to send me material to read on what a phd is all about. it did not make sense at that time. i knew that this was the degree that i wanted to acquire at the end of the journey, and his emphasis on whether i knew what i really wanted to do somehow scared me. i was also caught off guard by the question on which referencing style i preferred to use. i just responded american psychological association (apa) referencing style, i knew very little about it. this marked the beginning of a series of battles with apa, up to now i have not yet won that war. he emphasised that phd is an in-depth study it is deep in content and methodology; he smiled at me and asked again, rather sarcastically, if i was ready for the journey. my daring character came to play here; i responded that i was ready for the journey. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 42 this two-hour meeting was both intimidating and scary, my supervisor took a lot of things forgranted. looking back i strongly feel that the first meeting could have been much better if we had started by discussing the roles of the supervisor and the supervisee and how we were going to operate. he could also have given me a chance to expose my knowledge so that he would judge my level of competence in research and academic writing. i left the office with a lot of questions, among them were: how was i going to cope with this technologically advanced man? had i made the right decision applying for a phd? was i intelligent enough for a phd study? my conclusion after the meeting was; if this man is one of the best (as had been said by the higher degrees directorate staff) then the journey was an uphill. but the daring cleretah will make it all the same. the second meeting was set a month away from the first. four days after i sent the soft copy of my research proposal it was returned with more comments than the original script. corrections where made on the working title, choice of words, sentence construction, punctuation, paragraphing among other writing skills. i was demoralised because remember i am a high school teacher, teaching english language and literature. more than that – i am a part-time lecturer and supervisor of masters and bachelors research projects. again, i felt belittled and inadequate. as a seasoned educator my supervisor should not have taken me like any other student forgetting that i was now 44years. however, the feedback was a glaring reminder of my shortcomings. the document was accompanied by nine other documents on proposal writing, methodology and the apa referencing style. i was expected to have read all these documents in preparation for our second meeting. the documents were distressing for a starting, part time ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 43 candidate with four part time jobs. the initiation was scary. i felt that it could have been much better to focus on one aspect of research at a time. my first draft proposal our second meeting was based on my initial proposal. i had lost confidence in it after it had been reviewed by my supervisor. the first statement from my supervisor was. ‘claretah, the goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. whenyou convince me, together we will convince the faculty board.’ i remember these words vividly. silently i asked myself if ever i had the capacity to convince him. i have heard of candidates changing supervisors but since the higher degrees directoratesecretariat had hinted to me that my professor was one of the best, it would mean that i would get someone more demanding and probably less helpful. i decided to continue with the belief that my understanding will improve with time. [i wished prof mufu could read my mind. i was worried.] besides emphasis on a convincing research proposal, we discussed a lot on methodology. i had not seriously thought about it since i believed that it would matter muchlater onthe research journey. i was advised that to settle for a methodology it was imperative to have an in-depth understanding of my research matter (the research issue) through wide and deep review of related literature. though long and bringing in a lot of new knowledge and concepts, the second ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 44 meeting was much better (friendlier) than the first one. it made me discard my prior understanding of research proposal as a ‘rough sketch’ of what i intended to do during my study. again, the meeting was two hours long. i was given the task to rewrite my proposal showing my expertise in curriculum development in which i wanted to conduct a research. i had to show my knowledge of the existing literature and how my research would add value to the current body of knowledge. i was also supposed to be clear on the methodology which i was going to use. when i arrived home, i had this monologue: this journey is going to be a tough one. i have to reorganise my life; time management as a priority. this study cannot be a secret at my workplace because it is so demanding. i must inform the head of school, ask him for access to wi-fi which was only meant for the administration. the school head must know because there will come times when i have to schedule midweek meetings with my supervisor. i must put my house in order. soon after the reflection i photocopied the letter of acceptance to study with the zimbabwe open university (zou) and took to my school head and asked for wi-fi connection. all went well and this was the beginning of my learning and transformation. we need not forget that prof mufu had promised to send yet another set of reading materials. later i realised that i had made a mistake of not identifying all the stakeholders in my life who would directly or indirectly influence my studies. these included friends, colleagues at work, family members, and church leadership. i had to notify them of my commitments much later when i failed to attend some social and church gatherings and activities. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 45 beginning to find my way i will take you back a little. on my second appointment i arrived twenty minutes earlier than the scheduled time and went straight to my supervisor’s office. he was busy attending to someone. he raised his head and reminded me of our agreed time with a smile – at least he smiled. this reminded me of my inadequacy, i was not courteous. this time i was late by twenty minutes for our third meeting and he called to ask if i was still coming. fortunately, when he called, i was in the stairs going to his office. i did not like this constant reminder of what i was not and probably will never be – respecting time for my good and for the good of others. i vowed to be on time every time we had an appointment. i would rather come early and wait in the lobby. if i could not be on time, then i learnt that i must call and apologise for either being behind time or unable to come. this is one of the social skills that i learnt. the month between my second and third meeting had been a busy one. i had written my second and third versions of the research proposal and received sixteen more documents to study [or examine as he would say]. my second version of the proposal was submitted with confidence. alas, my supervisor just read the first three sections (background to the study, statement of the problem, aims and objectives) and returned in two days with four documents of how to formulate a research problem. the general comment was that we could not go anywhere before we were clear on the research focus. he emphasised that once i was clear on what i really wanted to do then i would decide on how to do it. i had to rewrite the problem statement four times before it was approved. by the time it was approved, to tell the truth i was now clear on what i really wanted to do. i was also becoming computer literate as my supervisor emphasised advised me ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 46 that i could learn a lot through on asking appropriate questions on google scholar. appropriate questions = appropriate answers! google scholar was most helpful on the research methods and curriculum studies. as time went on, i also used google and even youtube to expand my knowledge of the computer and research methods. since we were now clear on the statement of the problem, research aims and objectives, the focus of the third meeting was on review of related literature. my supervisor emphasised on the need to sample the literature according to years of publication. i was also supposed to move from the wider world then narrow to zimbabwe revealing gaps in knowledge then focus on one which l had identified in the statement of the research problem or research issue. he advised me never to write with emotion; l was supposed to be an objective and composed academic. the task which l was given was to go and craft the preliminary review of related literature. the third meeting different from the first two. professor gave me a lot of time to express myself. he repeated that l was the expert in my area of choice and he was guiding me in research methods and the best ways of presenting myself. he promised to send more material for study.iexpressed shock and he confidentially told me that some of the students called him professor read as he always told candidates to read, since i was directly under his supervision i was supposed to read as much as i could. some of the material he sent was not directly related to curriculum studies and i wondered why i was reading all this, instead of focusing on my topic. as i am reflecting i now understand the reason disciplines in education are interrelated and in order to fully understand one discipline one needs to understand the other/s. as ileft his office i saw all my free time being consumed, varnishing in my face. time with my friends and family ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 47 was being gradually taken away by this research proposal. i wondered what would happen when i got into the actual research. i did not know then that a thorough research proposal is a good start which makes the phd journey easier to travel. a solid research proposal constitutes a solid foundation for a planned study. is it worth it? i attended the fourth meeting with a heavy heart. i was at the verge of quitting. this is what had happened -i had worked swiftly with my first supervisor, i was now used to moving backwards and forwards in my proposal until we agreed on each section of the proposal. the faculty then allocated me a second supervisor and my principal supervisor forwarded the sixth version of my research proposal to him. after two long weeks of waiting the response came in whichmy effort was torn apart the background to the study was too long; my research problem not clear; he suggested i change my objectives (this being the core of the research it almost meant starting afresh). his most disheartening comment was: much of what you have here would constitute your review of related literature later. you could therefore be brief. there was need to differentiate terms such as curriculum design, development and planning read ndawi in peresuh and nhundu(1999). the term participation could also have been cleared. why is it that i have a feeling you are copying someone else’s completed [submitted]thesis.if you are doing that stop it!hatidichitunha [i do not entertain the idea of resuscitating a thesis submitted by someone else]. this was the sixthversion of my research proposal. i had changed and refined my document six times and here i was being suspected [accused] of plagiarism. i wondered whether it was necessary to have two supervisors. if i was supposed to have two supervisors, why did the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 48 administration bring them into my journey at different stages? it was difficult to dance smoothly with the two professors with different perceptions of what i had done and what i was planning to do. i had not met the second supervisor and did know who he was, all i knew was his name. i was bound to miss a step and fall. after discussing with my principal supervisor, he advised me that whenever i did not agree with any of the supervisorsi was supposed to say it out professionally. the role of the two supervisors was later clarified when my chief supervisor invited me for a workshop on, ‘phd candidate dancing with two supervisors.’ the workshop enabled me to understand the role of the supervisors as well as speak out whenever there was a misunderstanding. this issue was solved amicably. then came the real bombshell. my chief supervisor has a friend at university of melbourne in australia and he sent my proposal to him for review. the proposal was back within a week. what i remember most was the general comment that the proposal was below standard and would never win as a phd proposal. i was hurt when i received this email and i told my supervisor that l was losing hope. he advised me that what i needed was time. for a week i did not do anything concerning my research proposal.i was tired and regretting ever starting this journey. after that week, my supervisor then called me for the fifth meeting. we discussed the best ways of improving the methodology section. emphasis was on sampling methods, research instruments and data analysis procedures. my supervisor had a way of convincing me to continue with my studies. at this stage he had ceased to be just a supervisor but my partner and advisor in this difficult journey. after the discussion and advice,i left the office revitalised and ready to continue. i was able to objectively look at the feedback by my cosupervisor as well as the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 49 australian reviewer. i managed to pick some helpful lessons especially on review of related literature. this is the time i started calling mufu my advisor not supervisor. version after version of proposals after my seventh version of the proposal my advisor called me, he just said we needed to discuss some issues. when i arrived for the sixth meeting our discussion was focused on perfecting the proposal and preparing a power point presentation in case the workshop would be held soon. he promised me that if time permitted, he would get me a panel of curriculum specialists to review my presentation as part of the preparations. i received this offer with reservations because by now i had realised that there is nothing like a ‘perfect proposal’ to all academics. i was afraid of being demoralised again. this was an abnormally short meeting; he had another meeting. we made an appointment for the 24thof the same month – june. i was relieved and happy that at least i was going to focus on something new. i worked on the slides and sent them to my advisor for review. necessary adjustments were made. i continuously wondered to myself if the presentation day was fast approaching. if so, was my proposal good enough to convince the audience consisting of academics from varied academic disciplines? i was prepared to present but i was not sure of the reaction of the board, by then i had no idea who would sit in that board meeting to decide my fate. energised to continue ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 50 as was now the norm, l was punctual for this meeting – the seventh meeting. the news which l received upon arrival were both stimulating and terrifying. my advisor calmly notified me that there was going to be a defence workshop on proposals and chapters, on the 28th june, he had just received the communication from the higher degrees directorate. we had four days to prepare; he asked me to go to the higher degrees directorate offices and register and inquire on the requirements. with excitement mixed with anxiety l went to the higher degrees directorate and submitted the required documents. the workshop was set to run over two days and i was slotted on the day one.when l went back to my advisor’s officei was taught three things about the workshop: 1) i was going to the workshop to share my proposal with the faculty board and not to defend it. the significance of the terminology became clearer on the day of the workshop; i was able to embrace constructive criticism from the participants. 2) be confident of what you are doing. i had done a lot of reading and this was the time to expose my knowledge and interest in my area of study. i was supposed to be composed and convincing. 3) time management -i was going to present my proposal in 15 minutes. i had to utilise every second wisely and focus on the most important points only. the four preparation days were the busiest days of my proposal writing journey. i had to master every aspect of my proposal. i also practised time management with a stopwatch. on the 27th l could not sleep i wanted to do the presentation once and get the proposal approved by the faculty board. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 51 time to make public my research intent the day was 28 june 2019, and the workshop was scheduled for 0900hrs. i was supposed to present at 1100hrs; the third presenter of the day. i arrived at the venue thirty minutes before time. the venue was deserted. however, in a few minutes preparations started; i was both anxious and expectant. we started an hour late. this was a blessing in disguise: i managed to meet other students and share our experiences. i also managed to meet my advisor for a word of assurance, something i needed most. more importantly, i had a chance to have a final glance at my work. looking around i noted that in my university phd seemed to be a male dominated area. amongst the board members there was only one female professor, and on our side of the five candidates who were going to present, i was the only female. at first l was uncomfortable but later l reassured myself that these men were professionals, and they would do justice to my work. at 1210hrs i started my presentation; it was smooth though i was nervous at first. my advisor was quietly listening; his presence alone was assuring enough. after the 15 minutes presentation i was relieved, a huge load had been lifted off my shoulders. i received constructive feedback – suggestions for improvement and praises with an open mind. dealing with the feedback was not an issue because i had been exposed to candid but constructive comments during the eight months i had prepared for this day. the first comment i received was, ‘what a relief we have had the first female voice today and the voice was vibrant and confident.’ the next positive comment was that i presented and not ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 52 read my proposal. areas that needed improvement were my statement of the problem which needed further trimming to narrow down my focus. i was also advised to perfect in-text referencing. i managed to meet my supervisor an hour later when we had a lunch break; i thanked him for the thorough preparation. he was also impressed by my confidence. he reminded me of the importance of a precise power point presentation; that aspect had won me the board’s favour, i was not reading but presenting my proposal guided by the power point presentation. i learnt that what the professors who sit in the board want from a ‘defending candidate’ is confidence, knowledge of what one wants to do and the passion to do it. as i travelled back home, i felt on top off the world. i was confident that i had made it! two weeks after the presentation i received my results my proposal had passed with minor alterations to be monitored by the advisor. i cried out of joy. my hard work had been rewarded. i owed everything to my advisor. he had managed to prepare me fully for the day and the journey as a whole. as indicated earlier on the proposal writing period was a period of transition. i learnt a lot of lessons which changed my attitude towards research, critical thinking and academic writing. let me now share with you the major lessons from the proposal writing phase of my phd journey. part 2: lessons from the proposal phase of the phd journey from the journal entries, it is apparent that the experiences that i went through during proposal writing were greatly influenced by my experience and exposure before entering the phd program. the challenges which i faced were also a result of the vast academic differences ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 53 between me and my supervisor. the experiences changed me from an ordinary high school teacher into a researcher and academic – yes i am now a researcher who qualifies to be called an academic. i believe if i were to start afresh these lessons would assist me immensely in coming up with an acceptable proposal without having to rewrite it seven times. these lessons are directed at aspiring phd candidates. however, phd supervisors can also gain from both the lessons and my story – the source of the lessons. lesson 1: ensure the working topic is narrow and focused looking at the different versions of my research topic, i learnt that a research topic must not be something very broad. at phd level one is required to treat every aspect of their research with depth so if it is too wide then they will not be able to answer all the questions. of all the aspects of curriculum development i chose to focus on one aspect: teacher participation. after the fifth version of my topic which was approved by my advisor i realised that the topic i had submitted during application was just a hazy idea of what i really wanted to do. writing the research proposal enabled me to be focused and clearly express my intentions in a short and eyecatching research topic. i was also guided by jacobs (2011) who emphasises that it might sound a bit obvious, but the working title of any d.phil. proposal has a subtle effect on its success. what one calls their project will reflect its d.phil. statement. ideally, every aspect of your d.phil. proposal will speak directly – and with authority – to your peers working inside your ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 54 respective field. it is therefore necessary to choose a title that will grab their attention and shape the research to fit – and to hold your board’s interest. lesson 2: make your research fit into existing knowledge it is important to provide a clear background to your intended research. this section can be included in one’s introduction or one can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of the proposal (faryadi, 2012). this is where one explains the context of their proposal and describe in detail why it is important. i was advised to approach this section without assuming that my readers will know as much about the research problem as i did.my initial background to the study was confined to zimbabwe; my idea being that the research problem was zimbabwean. my professor reminded me that this was the section where i was supposed to explain the context of my proposal and describe in detail why it was important. lesson 3: don’t give them a chance to ask, “what is the problem?” it is important in a proposal that the research problem stand outs —that the reader can easily recognizes it. sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated research problems are masked in an extended discussion. in such cases, the reader will have difficulty recognizing the problem. the research problem should shout! it must hit the eyeballs of the reader. this was one frustrating stage; i wrote this section more than ten times, until i no longer knew what i was really doing or ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 55 what was going on. let me admit, i was totally confused and frustrated. later, i realised my weakness. my statement of the problem was generally too long. crafting my research proposal gave me a chance to formulate a unique statement of the problem and objective which will not replicate an already exhausted area but fill the gap which i had clearly identified during review of related literature. lesson 4: how to tell them the importance of your research? when i started this program, i was motivated by the experience that i was going through as a teacher in a country where curriculum change was taking place and teachers not consulted. my aim was to send a message to head office and my professor told me that was not enough to convince the board when presenting my proposal. i had to be clear on the overall significance of my study. i had to ask myself the following questions:why bother to undertake this research? what contributionto scholarly understanding, to public policywill it make? in answering these questions, i managed to come up with my project’s significance which was clearer and worth the effort. this is supported by locke, spirduso, & silverman, 1987 cited in faryadi (2012) who state that the purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study. if the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader. lesson 5: if you do not read widely, you are doomed. review of literature needs to be wide and deep enough to pinpoint the gap which has to filled by the findings of the planned research. this section had to be written in connection to the background and significance of my study. it was devoted to a more deliberate review and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 56 synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. my advisor emphasised that my proposal should locate my dissertation in the broader scholarly literature; my discussion of available literature had to show how my research would extend what is already known. i had to think of key theories and concepts related to curriculum development. another emphasis was on recent literature; literature which was generally within five years of my research then only take milestone literature from as far twenty years. lesson 6: spell out the methodology clearly i had to be so meticulous in spelling out the research philosophy; paradigm and design. my professor wanted to see a clearly spelt out methodology. he sent plenty of reading material. thus, the objective here was to convince the board that my overall research design and methods of analysis would correctly address the problem and that the methods would provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. the design and methods had to be unmistakably tied to the objectives of the study. lesson 7: learn and master the preferred referencing style proposal writing gave me a chance to learn the demands of the american psychological association referencing style. this is one aspect which almost saw me quit my studies. my advisor was so particular about referencing. here i also learnt much on the relevance of acknowledging every text used. the emphasis was on avoiding plagiarism, the worst academic ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 57 crime.trial and error is dangerous in doctoral studies. it is very important to learn and master the referencing style stipulated by your faculty. lesson 8: set realistic schedules and deadlines my first schedule was very ambitious. as someone who desperately needed the qualification to improve my prospects in life, i wanted to graduate in the shortest possible time and with my university the shortest time was two and a half years. this stressed me every time i was asked to redo or expand on a certain aspect of my proposal. as someone who was undergoing some transformation, i realised the need to be realistic in projecting my timelines. this reduced pressure on the way i carried out my work and enabled me to do everything slowly and as many times as it took to achieve the required accuracy. lesson 9: managing myself as mentioned earlier in my biography, when i started my phd studies, i was a full time teacher, a curriculum developer, a part time lecturer and lastly a wife and mother. this means i had too many roles to play. my phd demanded a lot of reading. i had to create time. my professor once shared that his day started at four in the morning. i had to work as late asmidnight.this became my routine whenever i had work to do. every minute counted for all my duties to be done. this meant reducing my social life activities. every d.phil. candidate must find a routine that works for them. nobody ever told me to sleep late. having a routine of certain activities throughout the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 58 week: designated cleaning/laundry days and batch-cooking can greatly help you at getting into a routine that makes sure you get every that must be achieved done. lesson 10: learn how to dance with two supervisors as mentioned earlier, i had two supervisors. this is normal practice in most universities to ensure continuity just in case one of the supervisors not available or unable to continue working with the candidate. do not expect them to give you identical feedback. focus more on how the comments complement each other rather than on the differences. examine literature on the roles, obligations, and rights of supervisors. remember that as phd candidate you also have your rights, roles, and obligations in the supervisor-supervisee relationship. note that in the supervisor-candidate partnership you are the senior partner. why? as the candidate you are responsible for doing the research and the supervisors are there to provide guidance and support. learn to dance with your supervisors. if in doubt of what should be done take the initiative and ask. this is important especially if you feel that the supervisors are not providing adequate information to enable you to smoothly. lesson 11: be willing to learn from your supervisors the academic board will expect you to show that your research is worthwhile and will have beneficial effects that outweigh or extend the existing knowledge. working closely with your supervisors will enable you to draw from their vast knowledge, and in the process you will also grow as an academic and researcher. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 59 lesson 12: behaving with integrity build a firm professional relationship with your supervisor in terms of mutual sharing of roles, expectations, rights, and obligations. i have heard of students who ended up entangled with their supervisors and most of the time these entanglements affect their work negatively. i also respect my supervisor for creating and maintaining such a professional relationshiphe became my academic supervisor as well as counsellor when my studies were negatively affecting my social relationships. lesson 13: don’t give up it is the nature of the game called phd many times i thought of quitting. the pressure was too much on me. the difference between masters and phd became increasingly apparent. i felt as if i was moving in ever widening circles, writing and rewriting every section of the phd proposal. i thank my supervisor, husband and sons for encouraging me. after ten months i was proud of a clear roadmap to my research. even now as i am analysing data, i still go back to my proposal for ‘consultation’. lesson 14: understand the purpose of a phd proposal the purpose of the phd proposal is created to guide you research, complete and deliver your dissertation with great ease. the proposal helps you market our planned research to your primary ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 60 stakeholder – your supervisor. examine literature on a phd research proposal. go beyond the guidelines provided in the phd candidates handbook. guidelines are guidelines; they do not provide a full picture that you need. lesson 15: proofreading for awesome results as indicated in my reflections, one of the demotivators came every time i received feedback from my supervisor. the document was smeared with red ink of corrections. the big lessonis: a phd proposal calls for grammatical correctness. the best practices for proofreading a phd proposal are as follows: 1. readexamineandread the proposal over and over to yourself to identify unnatural wording. 2. proof, proof, and proof againtaking a break between writing and proofing sessions to allow the mind to look at the document with fresh eyes. 3. ask a few friends to read your proposal. 4. make sure proof reading is part of your plan. my final words it is my hope that the reflections given above help aspiring researchers to conceptualize their work and transform into full blown researchers. proposal writing is a must for student research work. there is need to adhere to its basic elements. there is also need to work closely with one’s ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 61 supervisor and reflect on the life lessons. the wider our experiences of academic life the more we learn, and the more we learn the more we become whole people and achieve what we aspire for as phd candidates. references amoah, a. & mensah, a. (2010).basic elements of research proposal at the tertiary education institution in ghana. journal academia, 1(10), 1-5. attard, n. (2018). writing an academic research proposal. early human development, 123(4), 39-41. callary, b., et al (2012). a lived experience of a doctoral student: the process of learning and becoming. the qualitative report, 17(86), 1-20. everett, m.c. (2013). reflective journal writing and the first year experience. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 25(2), 213-222. farrah, m.(2012).reflective journal writing as an effective technique in the writing process.a najah university journal of humanities, 26(4), 37-48. faryadi, q. (2012). how to write a phd proposal: a step-by-step guide. american international journal of contemporary research,2(4), 111-116. jacobs, r.l. (2014). developing a dissertation research problem: a guide for doctoral students in human resources and adult education. new horizons in adult education and human resources development.25(3), 3-17. jarvis, p. (2006). towards a comprehensive theory of human learning. live long learning and the learning theory. routledge. jarvis, p. (2009).learning to be a person in society. routledge. moon, j. (2006).learning journals: a hand book for reflective practice and professional development. routledge. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 62 orange, a. (2016). encouraging reflective practices in doctoral students through research journals.the qualitative research, 21(12) retrieved at https://nuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss12/2/ pajares, f. (2007).the retrieved atproposal.aelements of http//des.emory.edu/mfp/proposal.htm/ plymouth university learning development (2010) reflection online. available at: www.learningdvpt.plymouth.ac,uk/studyguides/pdf/11reflectionspdf/ sweitzer, v. (2009).towards doctoral student professional identity. a developmental networks approach, the journal of higher education, 80(1),1-33. viscko, m. & wright, l.l. (2010).negotiating identities in the transition from graduate student to teacher educator. australian journal of teacher education, 9(35), 14-26. williams, k, et al. (2012).reflective writing. macmillan. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 63 https://nuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss12/2/ http://www.learningdvpt.plymouth.ac,uk/studyguides/pdf/11reflectionspdf/ regard sur le vivre ensemble des religions en côte d’ivoire : la cohabitation des catholiques et des musulmans (1960-2011) thierry hugues adoubi département d’histoire, université alassane ouattara – bouaké (côte d’ivoire) résumé : cette contribution se propose de jeter un regard rétrospectif sur la question de la cohabitation des religions en côte d’ivoire, en général et sur les rapports entre chrétiens et musulmans en particulier. depuis l’indépendance jusqu’à ce jour, les relations entre ces deux groupes religieux ont évolué en dents de scie. ces relations commencées sous de meilleurs auspices au lendemain de l’indépendance, sont mises à mal par l’introduction du concept de l’ivoirité dans le paysage sociopolitique. cette fracture va s’accentuer à partir de 2002 à l’occasion de la crise militaro-politique. ces crises successives sont parvenues à créer un nord musulman opposé à un sud chrétien. cependant la résilience des deux communautés va favoriser une nouvelle ère de cohabitation. notre méthodologie combine recherche documentaire et observation directe suivant les centres d’intérêts de notre étude. nous sommes parvenu à déceler trois phases essentielles dans les rapports entre catholiques et musulmans en côte d’ivoire. il y’a d’abord une première phase qui est pacifique, une deuxième phase conflictuelle et une troisième phase tente un rapprochement. mots-clés : côte d’ivoire, cohabitation, chrétien, musulman, ivoirité, crises a look at the living together of cults in côte d’ivoire: christian-muslim cohabition (1960-2011) summary : this contribution aims to take a retrospective look at the question of the coexistence of religions in côte d'ivoire, in general, and at the relationship between christians and muslims in particular. since independence until today, the relations between these two cults have evolved unevenly. these relations, which began under better auspices in the aftermath of independence, were undermined by the introduction of the concept of ivorianity into the ivorian socio-political landscape. this fracture will be accentuated from 2002 on the occasion of the military-political crisis. these successive crises succeeded in creating a muslim north opposed to a christian south. however, the resilience of the two communities will promote a new era of cohabitation of the two cults. our methodology combines documentary research and direct observation according to the areas of interest of our study. we have managed to identify three essential phases in christian-muslim relations in côte d'ivoire, there is first a first peaceful phase of cohabitation, the second phase is conflictual and the third attempts a rapprochement. keywords: ivory coast, cohabitation, christian, muslim, ivoirity, crisis ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 mailto:adoubilegrand@yahoo.fr mailto:huguesadoubi@uao.edu.ci introduction au lendemain de l’indépendance, les autorités politiques d’alors, ambitionnant de construire un etat fort et pacifique, optent pour le pluralisme politique et religieux. par ce choix, l’etat ne doit pas être un frein ou un obstacle à l’implantation et à la libre pratique cultuelle. en même temps, il doit garantir la liberté politique et religieuse. ce choix va favoriser l’implantation de plusieurs groupes religieux au nombre desquels le catholicisme et l’islam. ces deux groupes sont les plus nombreux et influents dans le paysage religieux. il va alors se poser la question de la cohabitions de ces groupes cultuels. conscients du poids qu’ils représentent et soucieux de contribuer à la stabilité du nouvel etat, les différentes hiérarchies n’ont ménagé aucun effort pour créer un environnement sain et propice à une cohabitation réussie des deux communautés. cependant, tous les efforts vont être annihilés par les répercussions des crises socio-politiques qui scandent l’histoire de l’etat ivoirien. ces différentes crises vont mettre à mal la cohésion des cultes et dresser un mur de méfiance et de suspicion entre les communautés au point où un acte anodin peut aboutir à un affrontement inter-religieux. au vu de la fluctuation des circonstances et des rapports entre ces deux communautés, n’est-il pas légitime de se questionner sur la dynamique de l’évolution des relations entre catholiques et musulmans dans l’etat postcolonial ? autrement dit, quelles sont les principales phases de l’évolution des rapports entre catholiques et musulmans. la réponse à cette question nous commande de recourir à une méthode d’approche. par méthode d’approche nous entendons l’ensemble des procédés, quant à un objet à étudier, qui permettent d’atteindre à un résultat dont la clarté et la précision entraînent l’adhésion. c’est donc un cadre de réflexion, défini par rapport à l’objet à connaître, lequel, par sa nature, influe nécessairement sur les moyens mis en œuvre (j. tchéro, 2009, p. 30). la nôtre se résume en quatre étapes essentielles : la mobilisation de la documentation, le traitement de l’information par la double opération critique : externe et interne, l’extraction du fait historique et pour finir, l’organisation en un corps de science. notre collecte nous a amené dans un premier temps vers les ouvrages d’auteurs dont les plus significatifs sont ceux de laurent assouanga, (2019, pp. 17-60), de thomas bassett, (2003, pp. 13-27), de navigué félicien coulibaly, (2012, pp. 335-352), de marie miran-guyon, bony guibléhon, (2018, 21 p). l’examen minutieux de tous ces ouvrages a permis de recueillir des données éparpillées relatives à notre thématique. a ces données, nous avons joint les informations glanées dans des rapports et des coupures de presses. aussi, en tant qu’observateur extérieur du fait religieux nous avons été témoin, de visu et de auditu, des principaux événements du champ religieux en côte d’ivoire de ces dernières décennies. ces données obtenues ont été rapprochées les unes aux autres dans une dynamique d’écriture de cette histoire. la présente étude se présente en trois points. le premier point présente l’ère de l’enthousiasme dans les relations entre les catholiques et les musulmans, le deuxième point penche sur les tribulations de cette cohabitation, le troisième point met en exergue les différents aspects de la résilience des communautés. 1l’ere de l’enthousiasme dans la cohabitation catholiques et musulmans pour faciliter la cohabitation entre les religions, l’etat postcolonial, à travers sa loi fondamentale, à poser les balises et les règles devant réguler les actes des groupes cultuels. ces règles vont permettre une saine cohabitation des différentes communautés religieuses. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 1-1. un aperçu des fondements juridico-politiques du vivre ensemble des religions en côte d’ivoire les fondements de cette cohabitation des groupes religieux s’appuient sur trois principes essentiels : pluralité, laïcité et neutralité.  l’heureuse idée de maintenir et consolider le caractère pluriel de la côte d’ivoire. « la société ivoirienne est fondamentalement plurielle : pluralité d’ethnies, pluralité de cultures, pluralité de choix idéologiques et pluralité de religions. »1 en effet, en 1960, à la proclamation de son indépendance la côte d’ivoire est déjà confrontée au poids des obédiences et groupes cultuels qui se disputent la primauté du paysage religieux. l’islam, depuis le xve siècle est présent sur le sol ivoirien, le catholicisme avec cinq diocèses, en 1960, est aussi solidement implanté ; les protestants arrivés par vagues successives entre 1924 et 1958, vont se regrouper en plusieurs fédérations dont la fédération évangélique de côte d’ivoire (feci2) créée en 1960 (r. blé) enfin, on a les cultes dits syncrétiques3 qui rivalisent d’ardeur avec les autres pour plus de visibilité dans le champ religieux. en 1990, la direction des cultes dénombre 125 groupements religieux au nombre desquels le bouddhisme, l’eglise de l’unification de moon, la foi bahaï, l’association internationale de la conscience de krishna, etc. (k. marc, 1997, p. 168). le tableau ci-contre nous donne la réalité religieuse en côte d’ivoire, deux décennies après l’indépendance. tableau i : répartition de la population ivoirien par religion et en pourcentage en 1980 religions effectifs pourcentage catholiques 2.245.762 20,76 protestants 572.376 5 ,30 harristes 154.069 1,42 musulamans 4.182.410 38,67 animistes 3.292.429 30,44 autres 368.648 3,41 source : kouamé kouakou marc, etat et eglise catholique en côte d’ivoire de 1960 à 1990, p. 169 les autres estimations qui ont suivi n’ont fait que confirmer le dynamisme et le caractère pluriel du paysage religieux ivoirien : en 2008 les statistiques de la direction de cultes révèlent 32,9 % de chrétiens, 38,6 % de musulmans et 11, 9 % pour les religions traditionnelles et 12% pour les animistes. les chiffres du recensement général de la population et de l’habitat (rgph) de 2014 révèlent une autre configuration religieuse : l’islam 42,9 %, le catholicisme 17,2 %, les évangéliques 11,4 %, les autres religions chrétiennes 2,2 % et les méthodistes avec 1,7 %. le constat est sans équivoque, les statistiques et les chiffres montrent la dynamique de croissance des religions et le caractère pluriconfessionnel de l’espace religieux ivoirien. dès lors s’est trouvé posée la question des règles de conduite permettant aux différentes 1 allocution du directeur de cabinet adjoint du ministre de l’intérieur à l’ouverture de la conférence sur ‘’religion et droits humains’’. son intervention a porté sur le thème suivant : "la laïcité de l’état de côte d’ivoire" 2 c’est une alliance évangélique nationale, affiliée à l'alliance évangélique mondiale. elle regroupe 42 dénominations chrétiennes évangéliques, 21 dénominations chrétiennes évangéliques, 20 organismes et 15 missions. 3 il s’agit du culte harriste fondé en 1928, du culte papa nouveau fondé en 1937 et du culte déhima fondé en 1940. telle était la configuration religieuse ivoirienne au lendemain de l’indépendance. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 communautés confessionnelles ivoiriennes de vivre ensemble dans le respect mutuel4. contrairement à certains etats, qui à l’accession à l’indépendance, ont rendu les religions dominantes en religion d’etat, la situation de la côte d’ivoire est particulière et très différente. comme les chiffres le montrent, aucune religion n’a une ascendance sur l’autre (m. miranguyon, b. guibléhon, 2018). aucun politique ou religieux ne pouvait prendre le risque d’imposer une religion comme unique dans un pays pluriel. il fallait donc maintenir cette situation afin de garantir la cohésion sociale du nouvel etat. autrement dit, cette réalité de l’espace religieux ivoirien au lendemain de l’indépendance ne pouvait qu’imposer au nouvel etat l’acceptation de la diversité religieuse.  la proclamation de l’etat laïc comme acceptation du vivre ensemble la diversité confessionnelle de la société civile ivoirienne a conforté les autorités politiques d’alors dans leur choix pour un etat laïc. la préoccupation première de l’etat postcolonial était de parvenir à fédérer et de concilier toutes ces croyances pour créer « un tout indivisible » (h. pena-ruiz, 2003, p. 21) afin d’éviter des situations extrêmes ou des conflits interreligieux aux conséquences désastreuses. l’expérience a montré que le radicalisme religieux prospère souvent, là où les religions se sentent embrigadées parce qu’elles doivent obligatoirement s’acculturer aux valeurs et prescriptions de l’etat. pour cette raison, la laïcité n’était pas une alternative, mais une nécessité pour la nouvelle république qui cherchait à poser les jalons d’une saine cohabitation de toutes les sensibilités sociales présentes sur son sol. cette option de laïcité établit, entre les citoyens et toutes les couches socio-professionnelles, les règles essentielles du vivre ensemble fonder sur les principes d’égalité et de liberté. a ce titre, henri pena-ruiz (2003, p. 21) déclare : le laïc est l’homme du peuple, qu’aucune prérogative ne distingue ni n’élève audessus des autres : ni rôle reconnu de directeur de conscience, ni pouvoir de dire et d’imposer ce qu’il croit. ce peut être le simple fidèle d’une confession, mais aussi celui qui adopte une vision du monde athée, dont la conviction fondatrice est distincte de celle qui inspire la religion. ce choix d’un etat laïc a été clairement libellé dans les différentes constitutions qu’a eues la côte d’ivoire en ces termes : « la république de côte d’ivoire est une et indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale » pour s’en convaincre, il n’est que de se référer aux article 2 de la constitution de 1960, 30 de la constitution de 2000 et 49 de la constitution de 2016. hormis ces articles mentionnés dans les lois fondamentales, il n’existe en revanche, aucune loi organique encadrant le fonctionnement de la laïcité en côte d’ivoire, chose qui peut conduire à des dérives ou à des abus. c’est ce qui fait dire à marie miran-guyon (2014, p. 2) que « la laïcité ivoirienne est en voie de construction ». il est bien vrai que cette laïcité soit « un chantier inachevé » (m. miran-guyon, 2014, p. 2) cependant, il est honnête de reconnaître que ce régime est parvenu à garantir la liberté religieuse en côte d’ivoire et à poser les balises et les conditions de rapprochement des différents cultes. ce régime a aussi permis, jusqu’à présent une cohabitation quasi pacifique entre les groupes cultuels de régler les rapports entre l’etat et les religions. cette évidence est reconnue par alassane dramane ouattara, alors candidat du rassemblement des républicains (rdr), en ces termes : tous ceux qui me connaissent savent bien que je suis attaché au caractère laïc de la république et je l’ai démontré quand j’étais aux affaires. la côte d’ivoire doit demeurer comme telle. les peuples de divers pays, de diverses origines ont cohabité 4 allocution du directeur de cabinet adjoint du ministre de l’intérieur, doc. cit. " ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 paisiblement en côte d’ivoire, les religions aussi. la tolérance a toujours régné dans mon pays (le jour, n° 1428, 1999, p3).  l’équilibrisme comme mécanisme palliatif au déficit de neutralité de l’etat l’etat de côte d’ivoire depuis son indépendance proclame son caractère non confessionnel. ce principe l’oblige à ne professer aucune foi, à n’adhérer à aucune religion, à ne privilégier particulièrement un groupe au détriment des autres. cependant, « qu'on le veuille ou non, la religion a une fonction sociale parce que l'homme est un tout et qu'il ne peut faire arbitrairement abstraction de ses convictions religieuses dans son comportement citoyen » (y. ledure, 1978). cette sentence traduit la difficile application du principe de "neutralité" tel que proclamé et décrit par l’etat ivoirien. fut-il citoyen lambda, ministre, président, religieux, où tout autre personne, les décisions, les agissements et le comportement de l’individu en société sont influencés par ses convictions religieuses et spirituelles. quelques attitudes et agissements de certains chefs d’etat ivoirien pour étayer notre affirmation. félix houphouët boigny, premier président ivoirien, catholique depuis l’âge de 10 ans, voulut honorer sa confession religieuse en nommant dans son premier gouvernement, de nombreux cadres catholiques aux hautes fonctions de l'etat. ainsi, philippe yacé devient premier secrétaires général du parti pdci au pouvoir ; joseph pango, ancien scout devient chef de la fanfare de la gendarmerie nationale : c’est lui le traducteur de l’hymne national en chant ; amani goli et lambert amon tanoh, anciens élèves du petit séminaire de bingerville, occupent respectivement les postes d’inspecteur des impôts et de ministre de l’education nationale ; jean delafosse, ex-président du conseil paroissial de notre dame de treichville, devient ministre de la fonction publique, et paul m’bayablé kouadio, ancien scout, devient ministre de la défense (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 121-121). c’est aussi le cas de laurent gbagbo, président pentecôtiste, qui a hissé son mouvement religieux au rang d’acteur incontournable dans le champ politico-religieux sous sa présidence. les dix années passées au pouvoir sont considérées comme l’âge d’or de ce mouvement religieux. que dire aussi des accointances du président-musulman, alassane dramane ouattara, avec l’islam qui a fait son irruption dans le jeu politique. pour ne citer que ces cas. « cette absence de neutralité de l’état pose également la question de l’égalité de traitement de toutes les religions. non seulement, les autres religions sont délaissées par l’état, mais ce dernier ne semble pas suffisamment impartial de sorte à opérer un partage équitable entre les religions » qu’il choisit de privilégier, fait remarquer le philosophe sylvain zamblé. face à la difficulté pour l’etat d’appliquer, à la lettre et dans l’esprit, le principe de neutralité, depuis l’indépendance il est mis en place un système d’équilibrisme pour contenter autant que se peut les différents cultes présents en côte d’ivoire. les autorités politiques ont vite compris que dans un etat qui a adopté le régime de la laïcité, la clé de voûte pour une paix sociale solide et durable entre les différentes communautés religieuses est de ne pas privilégier, ostensiblement, un groupe au détriment de l’autre. tous les présidents qui se sont succédé ont essayé, tant bien que mal, de conformer leur rapport avec les cultes à cette règle essentielle de cohabitation religieuse. pour s’en convaincre il n’est que d’observer ces quelques exemples d’équilibrisme : houphouët bien que catholique a été l’initiateur d’une levée de fond pour la construction d’édifices religieux à abidjan et l’intérieur du pays. le montant généré par cette cotisation a été réparti comme suit : 1 milliards 350 millions de fcfa aux musulmans, 1 milliard 450 millions de fcfa aux catholiques et 650 millions de fcfa aux protestants (f. n. coulibaly, 2012, p. 348). henri konan bédié, aussi catholique, à l’image de son prédécesseur qui a offert au catholicisme la plus grande basilique du monde, est à l’origine de ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 la construction, en plein centre-ville, plateau, d’une des plus grandes mosquées de la côte d’ivoire. laurent gbagbo, président pentecôtiste, donne tout son sens à cette règle, en créant, en mars 2003, en pleine crise militaro-politique, un ministère entièrement dédié aux cultes. a ces actes qui portent l’empreinte personnelle de certains chefs d’etat, relevons les subventions et l’assistance accordées aux cultes chrétiens et musulmans pour l’organisation des pèlerinages, des temps d’antenne, à la radiodiffusion et télévision ivoirienne (rti), accordés aux groupes cultuels pour publiciser leurs activités et se rendre plus visible dans le champ religieux ivoirien : les dimanches pour les cultes du christianisme, les jeudis pour l’islam. cet équilibrisme au sommet de l’etat a permis de garantir la cohésion entre les cultes. 1.2les catholiques et les musulmans s’approprient le vivre ensemble l’etat ivoirien, au lendemain de son accession à l’indépendance établit les balises de cohabitation des différentes religions exerçant sur son territoire, en proclamant les caractères pluriel, laïc et neutre de la nouvelle république. les guides religieux vont s’approprier cette volonté étatique et feront autant que se peut pour impulser une nouvelle dynamique à ce vivre ensemble.  l’eglise catholique et la construction du vivre ensemble a la proclamation de l’indépendance, le paysage religieux était animé par plusieurs groupes cultuels. le catholicisme, malgré les avantages du pouvoir colonial et des faveurs exceptionnelles et du soutien indéfectible du président félix houphouët-boigny, n’est pas parvenu à s’imposer comme la religion d’etat. sa hiérarchie étant donc consciente de cet état de fait n’a ménagé aucun moyen pour faciliter ses relations et rapports avec les autres groupes religieux notamment avec l’islam. s’inscrivant dans la logique du vivre ensemble voulu par le nouvel etat ivoirien, l’eglise catholique va jouer sa partition en posant des actes allant dans le sens du rapprochement avec les musulmans. l’un des actes majeurs de sa volonté de cohabitation pacifique et avec les autres religion a été la reconnaissance du principe de la laïcité proclamé par la constitution de 1960. en effet, l’archevêque d’abidjan mgr bernard yago, alors porte-parole des évêques catholiques de côte d’ivoire déclare : loin de s’opposer à la laïcité de l’etat, comme on le croit trop souvent, l’eglise catholique la reconnait et l’approuve. nous revendiquons comme hautement chrétienne et évangélique cette conception du pouvoir politique, selon la parole du christ : "rendez à césar ce qui appartient à césar et à dieu ce qui est à dieu (b. yago, 1960). par cette déclaration sans équivoque, l’eglise catholique en côte d’ivoire accepte « l’ordre profane » (b. yago, 1960), affirme la « distinction entre le pouvoir politique et le pouvoir spirituel » (b. yago, 1960), et reconnait « le pluralisme religieux » (b. yago, 1960) en côte d’ivoire. par cette affirmation, l’eglise est donc consciente de la situation religieuse ivoirienne, un pays pluriconfessionnel dans lequel aucune religion ascendance sur l’autre. dans une telle situation, le bon sens commande de reléguer au second au plan les intérêts individuels et égoïstes pour faire triompher le collectivisme, le vivre-ensemble. désormais tous les actes posés, toutes les paroles prononcées doivent tendre vers cet idéal. quand on sait l’influence de l’eglise catholique dans la vie politique, sociale et religieuse, quand on considère aussi la personne de mgr bernard yago dont l’influence irradiait tout le pays, on mesure facilement la portée historique de cette déclaration dans la cohabitation des religions en côte d’ivoire. l’eglise catholique donne ici la preuve de sa volonté à faire de la ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 cohabitation pacifique des groupes cultuels le socle de la paix et la cohésion sociale du nouvel etat ivoirien. joignant l’acte à la parole et conformément à l’ouverture faite par le concile vatican ii (1962-1965) en direction des autres cultes, l’eglise catholique en côte d’ivoire crée en 1968, une commission en charge des relations avec les musulmans (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 144). cette initiative est la preuve tangible de la politique du vivre ensemble encouragée par la hiérarchie catholique ivoirienne. son principal rôle était de faciliter le dialogue entre les deux hiérarchies. cette collaboration par le sommet des hiérarchies donne l’exemple d’une saine collaboration entre les deux communautés par le bas. si cette collaboration par le haut a des répercussions très appréciables par le bas, c’est grâce à la grande influence que les différentes hiérarchies ont sur leurs fidèles. cette politique de rapprochement va s’accentuer avec la création, en 1970, du groupe "islamo-chrétien" (e. yao b, 2009, p. 144). cette organisation, contrairement à la première, présente deux caractéristiques fondamentales. l’idée de création n’émane pas de la hiérarchie, mais plutôt d’un religieux, le franciscain gwénolé jeusset (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 144) ; c’est la preuve de l’engagement de toutes les composantes de l’eglise à œuvrer pour une cohabitation pacifique avec les musulmans. aussi, cette nouvelle organisation à une base plus large et ouverte que la précédente : elle ne se limite pas qu’au culte islamique, mais elle associe d’autres groupe cultuels d’obédience chrétienne : il s’agit des protestants méthodistes et assemblées de dieu. cette structure est animée aussi bien par des chrétiens que des musulmans. on peut citer entre autres, côté chrétien, frère gwénolé jeusset, luc moreau, jean-françois dufour, suzanne périn, le père siméon atsain, célestin koffi ibrago ; côté musulman baba sakho, amadou hampâté bah, alpha cissé, tidjane bah (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 144). l’objectif n’est pas de faire un catalogue des structures et actes de rapprochement, mais, à travers ces quelques exemples, montrer l’excellence des rapports catholiques et musulmans au lendemain de l’indépendance de la côte d’ivoires. toutes ces structures, actes, paroles ont activement participé aux renforcements des liens entre ces deux communautés malgré la différence de leur dogme. a travers ces structures, catholiques et musulmans apprennent à s’apprivoiser en apprenant à vivre l’un à côté de l’autre, et à partager des valeurs qui sont communes aux deux, à savoir la fraternité, l’amour du prochain, l’espérance et la culture de la paix.  la communauté musulmane et le maintien de la cohésion avec le culte catholique contrairement à l’imaginaire populaire et aux stéréotypes qui voient l’islam comme une religion de violence, cette communauté religieuse a montré une image bien différente en côte d’ivoire dans sa cohabitation avec les autres religions. se voulant une religion de paix et de fraternité, l’islam, va s’engager résolument dans la quête de la cohésion et de la paix durable en côte d’ivoire. au lendemain des indépendances le continent était secoué par une série de crises et de conflits interreligieux. en afrique de l’ouest, le cas du nigeria faisait école par la recrudescence des crises religieuses. en guise d’exemple, on peut relever le conflit intra musulman dans l’etat de kano, en 1980 ; pour les confrontations entre chrétiens et musulmans, on a celles survenues, en 1987, dans l’etat de kaduna, en 1991 dans les etats de katsina et bauchi, etc. ces conflits ont fortement affecté et écorné la philosophie de paix de cette religion. conscient des effets corrosifs sur la stabilité politique de ces nouveaux etats, la communauté musulmane ivoirienne n’a ménagé aucun effort pour épargner la côte d’ivoire des effets néfastes des conflits inter-religieux. cet idéal passe indéniablement par l’acceptation de l’autre et du vivre ensemble. c’est ce qui ressort de l’affirmation de el hadj aboubacar fofana, porte-parole de la communauté musulmane en côte d’ivoire : « notre pays doit rester laïc, multiethnique, multiconfessionnel et multidimensionnel » (africa international, 2010, p. 20). lors de la rencontre internationale islamo-chrétienne à abidjan, en ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 1978, l’un des participants, séduit par l’intelligente cohabitation des communautés chrétienne et musulmane a déclaré : en côte d’ivoire, vous avez la chance que les communautés musulmane et chrétienne soient importantes : ainsi aucune des deux ne fait de complexe d’infériorité devant l’autre. aucune ne se perçoit comme une minorité opprimée. de plus le climat social et économique de votre pays ne vous tourne pas vers l’agressivité mais vers le dialogue. c’est ce qui explique que, chez vous, les échanges entre chrétiens et musulmans soient possibles et fructueux (n.e.a., 1978, p. 10). ce témoignage est éloquent et révélateur de l’excellence des relations entre les groupes cultuels en côte d’ivoire, particulièrement entre chrétiens et musulmans. les différentes structures de dialogue et de concertation mis en place ont permis de renforcer les liens entre les communautés et permis de prévenir d’éventuels conflits entre elles. c’est ensemble que chrétiens et musulmans ont pris leur responsabilité toutes les fois où la paix sociale a été mis à mal par les politiques. en témoigne les missions de bons offices menées par mgr yago, l’iman de la mosquée de la riviera et du président de l’eglise méthodiste (f. coulibaly, 2016, p. 155) au marge des événements du mardi noir, en 1992. cette démarche a permis la décrispation de l’atmosphère socio-politique délétère et la libération des prisonniers politiques en août 1992. la cohabitation entre ces deux communautés n’est pas de façade, elle est réelle et basée sur la confiance et le respect mutuel. cela a été démontré à « kouassi datékro (tanda) où chrétiens et musulmans ont procédé ensemble aux inaugurations respectives le 5 et 6 juin 1987 de la mosquée et de l’église catholique » (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 151). toutes ces actions communes sont un baromètre permettant de jauger l’excellence des rapports entre chrétiens et musulmans. c’est aussi l’expression de la volonté des deux communautés à cohabiter pacifiquement dans un espace laïc. a son accession à l’indépendance, les autorités politique voulant construire un etat solide, ont accepté et toléré la présence des religions. dans cette grisaille, le catholicisme et l’islam, les cultes les plus significatifs ont très tôt compris la nécessité d’une cohabitation pacifique entre les deux communautés. les différentes hiérarchies n’ont ménagé aucun effort pour parvenir à cet idéal. le témoignage de cet interlocuteur, interrogé en 2018 dans le cadre d’une enquête portant sur le dialogue interreligieux, décrit clairement ce qu’étaient les rapports entre chrétiens et musulmans sous la présidence de félix houphouët-boigny depuis l’école primaire, je n’ai jamais vu des conflits entre des personnes sur la base des religions. la côte d’ivoire est un pays laïc. il y a des mariages entre les musulmans et les chrétiens. on va à la messe, on attache la kola en même temps. pendant le ramadan, les gens partageaient et recevaient. il n’y a fondamentalement pas de problèmes. personnellement, je suis chrétien, mais je participe à la nuit du destin. j’ai des amis musulmans qui m’invitent à la fête de tabaski. on est tous monothéistes, malgré la différence des pratiques. quand il y a des veillées mortuaires, les sourates sont traduites et résumées. on se rend compte qu’il y a un fondement : abraham. ce fondement devrait empêcher des batailles pour autre chose. entre frères, même s’il y a des divergences, on ne se détruit pas. (institut afrique monde, 2018, p. 11) cependant, cette cohabitation pacifique va être mis à mal avec la notion d’ivoirité. loin de s’améliorer, les rapports vont plus s’estomper à l’occasion de la crise militaropolitique de 2002. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 2les crises socio-politiques et la deterioration des relations entre chretiens et musulmans cette parfaite entente entre ses deux communautés va s’effriter à l’accession de henri konan bédié au pouvoir et s’aggraver à l’occasion de la crise militaro-politique survenue en 2002. cependant, la capacité de résilience des cultes et leur volonté manifeste de saine cohabitation va leur permettre de surmonter cette épreuve en réapprenant à vivre ensemble. 2.1le concept de l’ivoirité et le dépérissement des relations chrétiens-musulmans l’épisode de l’ivoirité a été une des périodes tristes de l’histoire de la première république ivoirienne. elle a pollué l’atmosphère religieuse en côte d’ivoire et fragilisé l’attente entre chrétiens et musulmans. cette notion désigne l’ensemble des données socio-historiques, géographiques et linguistiques qui permettent de dire qu’un individu est citoyen de côte d’ivoire ou ivoirien. ce terme peut aussi désigner des habitudes de vie, c’est-à-dire la manière d’être et de se comporter des habitants de côte d’ivoire, et enfin, il peut aussi s’agir d’un étranger qui possède les manières ivoiriennes par cohabitation ou imitation. l’individu qui revendique son ivoirité est supposé avoir pour pays la côte d’ivoire, né de parents ivoiriens appartenant à l’une des ethnies autochtones de la côte d’ivoire (g. niangoran bouah, 1996, p. 46). a travers ce morceau choisi de l’ethno sociologue, niangoran bouah, cette notion a une connotation purement culturelle, elle vise à faire l’apologie de la particularité intrinsèque de l’ivoirien dans le vaste ensemble géographique africain. pris dans ce sens, ce concept est salutaire et fédérateur. en l’initiant, les concepteurs ambitionnaient rassembler toutes les forces vives ivoiriennes autour de la mère patrie afin de juguler les incertitudes de la période post-houphouët-boigny (l. assouanga, 2019, p. 46). malheureusement, cette notion a été utilisée à des fins de commerce politique par ses laudateurs et comme moyen de victimisation par ses pourfendeurs (l. assouanga, 2019, p. 46). en effet, c’est avec regret que certains hommes politiques ont profité des polémiques créées par ce concept pour instrumentaliser la fibre ethno-religieuse dans le but d’assouvir des desseins mesquins inavoués. les circonstances qui entourent la création de ce concept – la guerre de succession entre les héritiers d’houphouët, l’accroissement du nombre d’étranger en côte d’ivoire (30% de la population locale), les troubles liées au foncier entre les autochtones, allochtones et allogènes, etc. – ont contribué à donner une connotation nocive au concept : de "concept culturel" nous sommes rapidement parvenus à un "concept d’exclusion". d’un côté, on a ceux qui se sentent "plus ivoiriens" que les autres, se disant "vrais" ivoiriens ; de l’autre les envahisseurs, les étrangers. désormais, sont taxés d’étrangers tous ceux qui ont un nom à consonance nordique : coulibaly, koné, bakayoko, etc. malheureusement, comme la plupart des musulmans ont des noms à consonance nordique, l’assimilation a été vite faite. c’est cette fâcheuse assimilation qui a influencé cette déclaration de gbamnan djidan, homme politique proche de laurent gbagbo : « il faut empêcher les étrangers de prendre part au vote. nous les connaissons, nous connaissons leurs domiciles (…) si les musulmans et les dioula dont on demande la radiation obtiennent la carte nationale d’identité à la fin de l’opération (contentieux judicaire), on vous arrache nos terres » (nouveau réveil, 2012, p. 6). de cette intervention, on retient une assimilation flagrante d’étrangers à musulmans et musulmans à dioula. c’est dans ce contexte qu’un nord musulman et un sud chrétien sont créés dans l’imaginaire des gens, alors que la réalité en est tout autre. en 1998 le recensement général ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 de la population et l’habitat (rgph) montre que sur une population estimée à environ 16 millions, 39 % sont musulmans, 30 % sont chrétiens. le détail de ces chiffres révèle que 77 % des musulmans vivaient dans le sud et seulement 23% dans le nord. abidjan, capitale économique et plus grande ville du pays, comptait à elle seule 20 % de tous les musulmans du pays. ceci veut dire que, d’après les déclarations faites aux recenseurs, il y avait alors trois fois plus de musulmans dans le sud de la côte d’ivoire que dans le nord (t. bassett, 2003, p. 18) cette division imaginaire naît de l’interprétation de la guéguerre entre les principaux héritiers d’houphouët : d’un côté alassane ouattara musulman et ressortissant du nord, de l’autre côté, konan bédié, chrétien catholique appartenant au groupe akan dont la grande majorité est localisée dans le sud. cette conception erronée de la géographie religieuse ivoirienne est renforcée avec l’annonce faite par alassane ouattara : « on ne veut pas que je sois président parce que je suis musulman et nordiste ». cette politisation a mis à mal la cohésion des différentes communautés religieuses. cette déclaration d’el hadj aboubacar fofana, porteparole de la communauté musulman traduit l’ampleur de la fracture entre ces deux communautés : nous n’accepterons plus l’exclusion et l’humiliation. dans les années 1940, nos parents se sont mobilisés pour félix houphouët-boigny contre un des leurs, sékou sanogo, pourtant musulman. nous n’avons regardé ni l’ethnie, ni la religion, depuis les années 1940 jusqu’à sa mort nous sommes restés fidèles à félix houphouëtboigny. depuis 1993, nous subissons des sentiments de haine, dans les bus, dans les bureaux, il y avait des policiers qui déchiraient nos cartes d’identité sous nos yeux, jusqu’en décembre 1999. notre pays doit rester laïc, multiethnique, multiconfessionnel et multidimensionnel, car les musulmans sont présents dans tous les partis politiques (africa international, 2010, p. 20). la fracture est ainsi consommée, il existe deux groupes religieux qui se regardent en chien de faïence : d’un côté on a les musulmans assimilés aux envahisseurs, aux étrangers et soupçonnés d’être proches de l’opposition et qui sont connus sous le sobriquet de "dioula". de l’autre côté, les chrétiens, on disait qu’ils étaient partisans du régime du chrétien henri konan bédié. cette crise identitaire a effrité la cohabitation en bonne intelligence entre ces deux groupes religieux en côte d’ivoire. l’instrumentalisation et la politisation de l’ivoirité ont abouti à la fracture sociale entre les différentes couches du pays, notamment entre chrétiens et musulmans. même si, jusque-là on a réussi à éviter le pire, c’est-à-dire un conflit ouvert entre les religions, il faut reconnaître que des dissensions existent bel et bien entre les différents cultes. cette notion a eu une action corrosive sur la confiance qui était établit depuis des lustres 2.2le crise militaro-politique de 2002 et l’exacerbation des antagonismes jusqu’en 1999, la côte d’ivoire et le sénégal étaient les seuls pays de l’afrique de l’ouest à ne pas connaître de coup d’état, à connaître la stabilité politique. ainsi, le 24 décembre 1999, la côte d’ivoire rejoint le cercle des pays instables avec le général robert gueï qui évince henri konan bédié, successeur, depuis le 7 décembre 1993, de félix houphouët boigny. cette instabilité s’aggrave dans la nuit du 18 au 19 septembre 2002. cette nuit-là, une tentative de coup d’etat avortée se mue en rébellion armée, consacrant la partition du pays en deux zones : la moitié nord et ouest, sous le contrôle des rebelles et, le sud resté ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 aux mains des forces gouvernementales. cette attaque venue du nord du pays, est menée par des soldats ressortissants du nord sous le fallacieux prétexte de défendre l’intérêt des nordistes et des étrangers qui étaient victimes de maltraitance dans le sud du pays. or quand on sort d’une crise identitaire qui a assimilé maladroitement le musulman à l’étranger, l’imaginaire populaire ne pouvait que croit à une guerre entre le nord musulman, et le sud chrétien. la plupart des habitants du nord étant musulmans, une assimilation rapide est faite entre le nord et l’islam, c’est bien évident que les musulmans soient la cible des attaques et de tracasseries. la manipulation étant la chose la mieux partagée en de telles situations, des politiciens véreux aux intentions inavoués, vont requalifier des conflits politiques en conflits ethniques ou religieux. victimes de cette manipulation politique et de leur naïveté politique, de nombreuses personnes, notamment des jeunes, ont sombré dans la violence. c’est ainsi que des mosquées ont été brûlées et des églises attaquées. (institut afrique monde, 2018, p. 12). le révérend père, eric abékan norbert, qui a été victime de cette montée de tensions entre chrétiens et musulmans raconte : « les hommes politiques ont joué sur la fibre religieuse. des mosquées ont été brûlées. des églises ont été attaquées. a l’époque, j’étais curé, mon église a été brulée. c’était en 2002 » (institut afrique monde, 2018). même son de cloche avec l’imam el hadj youssouf konaté qui révèle l’incendie de plusieurs mosquées et l’assassinat de plusieurs imams à abidjan ou duékoué dans l’ouest (institut monde afrique, 2018, p. 15) cette crise militaro-politique a profondément affecter la cohésion des religions en côte d’ivoire. désormais entre elles, il s’est dressé une citadelle de méfiance, une suspicion réciproque entre les cultes. cette situation va faire développer l’intolérance entre ces deux communautés, une situation anodine peut conduire à un affrontement généralisé. pour s’en convaincre, il n’est que se référer à cette situation malencontreuse intervenue dans un village situé dans le diocèse d’abengourou. en effet, un musulman voulant épouser une catéchumène catholique l’empêche de venir à l’eglise et, de surcroit, cherche à la pousser à l’apostasie. les chrétiens informés insultent sans ménagement les musulmans qui prennent l’eglise d’assaut, saccageant et reversant tout sur leur passage ; ils font même retentir à plusieurs reprises la cloche. les chrétiens à leur tour s’en prennent aux musulmans et renversent tout ce qui s’y trouve (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 153) on le voit une situation anodine a viré en un conflit interreligieux. c’est la preuve irréfutable de l’intolérance qui prévaut entre les communautés. tout acte posé par un camp est considéré comme une provocation auquel il faut répondre. face à cette atmosphère délétère, les deux communautés ont convenu a amorcé une nouvelle ère dans leur cohabitation. c’est ce que nous appelons l’ère du "réapprendre à vivre ensemble". 3l’ere du "reapprendre a vivre ensemble" au sortir de la décennie de fortes turbulences, il importait de recoller les morceaux afin de rétablir la confiance rompue, c’est ce à quoi s’attèlent les guides des deux communautés. l’objectif principal est de rétablir le lien effrité par cette longue série de crises. il faut que les deux communautés réapprennent à vivre ensemble. cela se fait soit à travers des structures œcuméniques ou par des initiatives personnelles 3.1les structures de rapprochement ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47 la création en 1995, du forum national des confessions religieuses (fncr-ci) témoigne des dommages collatéraux de la politisation de la fibre ethno-religieuse sur la cohésion des cultes en côte d’ivoire. né de la volonté du groupe d’etudes et des recherches sur la démocratie et développement economique et social en côte d’ivoire (gerddes-ci), le fncr-ci est l’un des plus grands groupes œcuméniques existants. il est la réunion de 25 confessions religieuses dont le catholicisme, l’islam, le protestantisme, le bouddhisme, les églises syncrétiques telles que le harrisme, le déhima, etc. il est dirigé par le senior ediémou blin jacob, chef de l’eglise du christianisme céleste. ce groupe est un véritable instrument de rapprochement entre les groupes religieux en côte d’ivoire. plusieurs objectifs lui ont assignés à sa création : faciliter les échanges entre les cultes, briser la citadelle de de méfiance qui s’est bâtie entre les cultes pendant les différentes crises. a ces objectifs, l’imam el hadj cissé djiguiba, dans sa communication au colloque sur le dialogue interreligieux, en 2010, insiste sur un point particulier : « créer une émergence d’échanges perpétuels avec les associations d’étudiants catholiques et musulmans » (actes colloque, 2010, p. 13). le fncrci est aussi chargé entre autres de défendre la liberté religieuse, consolider la coexistence pacifique, perpétuer l’esprit de fraternité qui existe entre les différents cultes en côte d’ivoire. cette structure a joué un rôle important dans le rapprochement des cultes. elle sert aujourd’hui de plate-forme consensuelle de tous les responsables religieux désireux de faire une déclaration commune (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 154). a travers cette organisation, tous les cultes s’efforcent, au nom de la cohésion sociale, d’avoir de bons rapports entre eux. les messages délivrés par le forum sont répercutés par les différentes composantes dans leurs communautés à l’intention de leurs membres (institut afrique monde, 2018, p. 14). a travers les différentes actions et sensibilisation, ce groupe est parvenu, en amont, à éviter des conflits interreligieux. c’est ce qui ressort du témoignage de l’imam el hadj youssouf konaté : très tôt en effet, nous avons perçu les signes avant-coureurs de la grave crise qui a secoué le pays ces dix dernières années. pour cette raison, nous avons organisé avec persévérance des séminaires de formation et de sensibilisation des imams, des leaders des communautés et associations musulmanes du pays. concrètement, il s’agissait de prévenir les conflits et d’identifier les moyens de préserver la paix sociale, malgré la partition de fait du pays entre nord et sud, depuis septembre 2002. le message principal délivré comme un leitmotiv lors de ces réunions était que le conflit ivoirien était de nature politique et non religieuse. il s’agit d’une lutte pour le pouvoir qui n’a rien à voir avec les croyances des uns et des autres (institut monde afrique, 2018, p. 15). c’est dans cette dynamique d’instaurer un climat de paix et rapprocher les communautés que laurent mandjo, évêque de yopougon crée, en 2005, le collectif des religieux comprenant les représentants de toutes les formations religieuses de côte d’ivoire. son objectif principal est de participer activement au rapprochement des cultes et à la réconciliation en côte d’ivoire. 3.2des initiatives personnelles aux actions louables de toutes ces structures qui œuvrent pour le rapprochement des groupes religieux, il faut souligner les actes, individuels ou collectifs, de certains responsables qui participent à leur façon à la décrispation de la situation et la prévention de certains éventuels conflits. on peut évoquer, entre autres l’engagement du père eric abékan aux côtés de certains imams. il déclare à cet effet : j’ai pris contact avec l’imam guidjiba de radio albayan. nous sommes passés ensemble et en direct à la radio. nous nous sommes concertés et avons pensé qu’il ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 fallait vite éteindre le feu. nous n’avons pas eu peur de dire aux hommes politiques de ne pas instrumentaliser les religions. nous avons rencontré des jeunes et des femmes. les femmes ont créé une confédération des femmes. elles débattent des problèmes de la communauté. les jeunes organisent des débats et des rencontres sportives (football). nous intervenons à la radio (radio espoir et/ou radio albayan), et par la presse. chacun a son point de vue. nous ne parlons pas de dogmes mais des problèmes de la vie concrète. tout ce travail en amont a permis d’atténuer le feu. il permet de mieux connaître nos frères musulmans. nous évitons tout ce qui divise. des ambassades (israël, usa) nous invitent pour des débats (institut afrique monde, 2018, pp. 13-14). comme le souligne si bien l’historien ivoirien ernest yao bi, toute cette débauche d’énergie traduit « l’effort et la volonté des chefs religieux à promouvoir la paix, l’entente et la concorde entre les ivoiriens et ivoiriennes, quelles que soient leurs accointances religieuse et politique » (e. yao bi, 2009, p. 149).toutes ces actions sont parvenues à redonner confiance aux deux communautés qui ont compris la nécessité de maintenir un climat de paix et une cohésion parfaite entre les groupes religieux. cela a permis de revivre de belle expérience de fraternité, comme cela se faisait par le passé. c’est l’exemple du voyage, à bord du même appareil, du cardinal bernard agré et de l’imam el hadj cissé djiguiba pour représenter les croyants de côte d’ivoire à dakar, en 1997, à la faveur de la rencontre autour du thème « religion et sida » (e. yao bi, p. 148). sur invitation de l’iman el hadj cissé djiguiba, un prêtre catholique a prononcé une conférence dans une mosquée portant sur « religion et paix » ; lui, il en a fait pareil dans une église (actes colloque, 2010, p. 13). que dire des assistances mutuelles lors des événements malheureux, des participations aux moments de réjouissances. après les moments d’enthousiasme dans les relations entre chrétien et musulman, survient la phase conflictuelle engendrée par le concept de l’ivoirité et la crise militaropolitique de 2002. cependant la résilience des cultes leur a permis de se rapprocher à nouveau à travers plusieurs structures de dialogue. conclusion au terme de cette étude sur la cohabitation religieuse en côte d’ivoire, nous sommes parvenu à dégager trois phases dans l’évolution des relations. jusqu’au décès du premier président ivoirien, les observateurs et les spécialistes du fait religieux en côte d’ivoire s’accordaient sur l’excellence des relations entre les groupes religieux, particulièrement entre les chrétiens et les musulmans, c’était la période de l’enthousiasme. mais suite à l’avènement du président henri konan bédié à la magistrature suprême, cette donne change avec les effets corrosifs du concept de l’ivoirité. la situation va s’aggraver en 2002 à l’occasion de la crise militaro-politique survenue en côte d’ivoire, c’est la phase conflictuelle. ces deux événements vont mettre à mal la cohésion entre catholiques et musulmans. cependant, la volonté de vivre en parfaite harmonie va contribuer à décrisper l’atmosphère et ramener les deux communautés à la table de discussion, c’est l’ère du "réapprendre à vivre ensemble". references bibliographiques adoubi thierry hugues, 2020, « la réponse catholique à la percée du pentecôtisme en côte d’ivoire : l’exemple des mouvements charismatiques de 1980 à nos jours » in s/d vido arthur et alii, l’essor de l’humanité à travers la recherche scientifique apports de l’histoire, de l’archéologie, du cinéma et de la tradition orale à la restauration des identités africaine et européenne, edilivre, france ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 49 assouanga laurent, 2019, « l’ivoirité : regard croisé entre ses thuriféraires et ses pourfendeurs (1995-2002), in revue échanges, n°12, juin, pp17-60 bassett thomas, 2003, « nord musulman et sud chrétien: les moules médiatiques de la crise ivoirienne », in afrique contemporaine n° 206 vol. 2, 13-27. ble raoul germain, 2013, « la prolifération des sectes en côte d’ivoire : l’expression d’une réalité sociale », in revue des sciences religieuses, 87/1, pp. 77-92. coulibaly navigué félicien, 2012 « houphouët-boigny, le pouvoir politique et les religions en côte d’ivoire : 1960-1990 » in revue suisse d’histoire religieuse et culturelle (rshrc), suisse, n°106, pp. 335-352. coulibaly navigué félicien, 2016, « la hiérarchie catholique en côte d’ivoire face aux enjeux politiques nationaux : 1960-2011 », pp. 139-179, s/d lado ludovic, le catholicisme en afrique centrale et occidentale au xxe siècle, cerap/karthala, 314 p « enracinement et ouverture. plaidoyer pour le dialogue interreligieux ii » 2010, actes du colloque sur le dialogue interreligieux organisé par la fondation konrad adenauer, dakar, 14-15 décembre, 66 p. inades documentation, 1981, homélies, lettres, déclaration diverses de mgr yago sur la "situation politique et sociale en côte d’ivoire de 1960 à nos jours". institut afrique monde, (2018), contribution du dialogue interreligieux à la pacification en afrique de l’ouest. côte d’ivoire, sénégal, bénin, etude réalisée par le groupe de recherche institut afrique monde, 57 p. kouame kouakou marc, 1997, etat et eglise catholique en côte d’ivoire de 1960 à 1990, thèse de 3e cycle, département d’histoire, université de cocody, 323 p. ledure yves, 1979, conscience religieuse et pouvoir politique, paris centurion, 187 p. le jour, quotidien ivoirien, n° 1428, 8 novembre 1999, pp3-4 miran-guyon marie, 2014, « gloire et déboires de la laïcité en côte d'ivoire au prisme de l'imaginaire social musulman », g. holder & m. sow (éds.), l’afrique des laïcités. état, religion et pouvoir au sud du sahara, bamako, mali, ird et editions tombouctou, 13 p miran-guyon marie, guibléhon bony, 2018, « religion et politique en côte d’ivoire : un demi-siècle d’intimités ambivalentes », in observatoire international du religieux, note d’analyse n°9, 21 p. niangoran-bouah georges, 1996 « actes du forum curdiphe du 20 au 23 mars 1996 », publiés sous la direction de saliou touré, in ethics, revue de la curdiphe, pua, p.46 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 50 nouvelle de l’eglise d’abidjan (nea), 1978, bulletin d’information de l’archidiocèse d’abidjan, 24 p pena-ruiz henri, 2003, qu’est-ce que la laïcité ?, paris, gallimard tchero joachim, 2009, cultures et rapports de force entre les peuples. les africains d’hier à aujourd’hui, paris, l’harmattan, yao bi ernest, (2009), côte d’ivoire : un siècle de catholicisme, abidjan, ed. cerap, 175 p. zamblé bi zaouli sylvain, 2017, « laïcité et citoyenneté en côte d’ivoire » perspectives philosophiques n°013, pp. 84-10. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 51 topic: chambers were the place where men made important decisions to decide the fate of the nation. prof.asoc. dr. mois kamberi universiteti “aleksandermoisiu”, durrës moiskamberi@yahoo.com abstract it was not only due to the nice albanian tradition of hospitality, but also due to several other reasons that the presence of this special gathering in the albanian people’s culture, recognized in various regions as “statesmen’s chamber”, “the council of the wise men”, “the decent council”, became of indispensable need. it was in this council that the guests of miscellaneous levels and degrees were hosted and welcomed, the generations were educated, the conflicts and feuds among families or within the village were properly addressed and resolved. considering the functions of this council and the albanian aspiration to manifest a strong sense of family as crucial to their culture, the process of settling or projecting this council’s building demanded that it be situated in a safe and well-protected location within a dwelling-house; therefore there was a great attention shown with respect to its furnishing in line and perfect harmony with the common traditional tastes pertaining to the various albanian regions. key-words: wise men, guests’ room, council of conflict resolution, etc. introduction in the history of the albanians and especially of the highlands and autonomous provinces, as long as the governments were powerless and weak to protect, solve and develop the problems of these provinces, the highlanders had found as a solution their chambers, places of wise debates and conflict resolution. men's chambers, due to the special historical conditions in the albanian territories, lived long and still live today, enriched with new elements that adapt to changes and new civilizational ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 developments. the men's chamber was a right, part of an ancient code, that had to be respected and enforced for the decisions it made. men's chambers were the oldest forms of organization of albanians, operating on the basis of customary law and which was a necessary need of the local population to survive, to preserve their freedom, language and customs, a form of opposition and resistance to the state and foreign law and as an expression of autonomy and self-government. the men's chambers had an original, national character and with great influence on the local population. in the absence of the state and its coercive mechanisms, the assemblies in the men's chambers, had elaborated their forms of communication. these forms were collective, such as assemblies, judgments of elders, force of public or individual opinion, blood feuds, etc. in the men's chambers, conflicts, engagements, marriages, deaths and even national ones were resolved, such as uprisings and wars, when these provinces were endangered by foreign occupation. chambers were the place where men made important decisions to decide the fate of the nation. 1. organization and role of men's chambers in the reception of the friend. men's chambers in our highlands have a special significance. they have played an extraordinary role especially when any kind of information was lacking. the men's chambers were the meeting place of the "council of the wise", the "council of the elders", the "wise men", the "earthlings", the representatives of the men of the highlands, who together with the people made very important decisions for resolving disputes, to face the enemy and defend the homeland. chambers have also acted as social institutions. like every people in the world, albanians have their own customs. among the most prominent customs among albanians are hospitality and trust. the hospitality was related not only to the reception of the friend at home, but he was reserved for the best things that a family had (food, drinks, family equipment, etc.), regardless of his economic situation. exactly, the custom of hospitality had become a cult when someone from outside shouted: "o lord of the house", the door opened immediately and each member of the family showed the hospitality with the expression "welcome" or "order inside" (generous). and so the albanian's house, according to his worldview, had to be open day and night, both to the known friend and to the unknown ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 travelers. for this mentality in all albanian provinces every house had a special environment to receive friends. albanians have been fascinated in the construction and design of their homes not only for housing but also for protection. the distribution of dwellings and especially towers was related in accordance with the terrain and its strategic importance. they in many cases of historical events have turned into invincible castles. the towers and dwellings of the albanians were not just residential environments but also a symbol of the protection of freedom, thus taking on a social character. towers and dwellings preserved a great value not only in the field of building architecture, but also a great cultural wealth. in general, the albanian apartments had welldefined facilities. they were especially famous for the architecture of the construction of "men's rooms", "guest rooms", "good room", etc., which was the most important part of the apartment. the size of these rooms was large (about 30-40 m2) and their position in the apartment was quite convenient compared to other facilities. this was the most beautiful room that the apartment of every albanian family had. even her equipment was given much greater care than any other environment. the room was lined with mutaf and tapestries skillfully crafted by weaving women, on which sheepskin mugs were placed. the room had in the center a chimney with a plate decorated with carvings, where their main motive was the patriotic one, such as: pines, stars, tight hands that expressed faith, eagles, flags, etc. next to the chimney was placed the tray with cups (about 24 pieces), several types of coffee pots and kettles. in the middle of the room was placed the round table, where food was served. at the end of the chamber was the ledge where rifles and various musical instruments hung. the inside room was decorated with artistic wood carvings, especially the ceiling, doors, window shutters, cupboards and shelves placed on the wall, shelves, etc. in these chambers were gathered not only the men of the fist but according to the importance of the friend, also from the village and the province. there began the conversation about the troubles of the homeland and the province, about bravery, talked about the land, the motherland and its future and were listened to with great respect by young and old. the conversation in the men's chambers was slow. the men took turns leaving each other. he who spoke was listened to with attention and respect. thoughts were given by speaking briefly, in turn, and always honoring the elderly. interrupting the conversation, except for a brief reply, was disliked. the debate was strong and about important problem, but it did not become open. with their ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 allegorical character and wisdom, the meseletes were also an expression of self-control and spiritual despair in cases of conflict and difficult situations. in the chambers, the men stood cross-legged, unsupported, in a dignified manner. it was a sign of sitting culture and respect for all men's dance. a careless attitude would not be tolerated and became the object of ridicule. the most honored places in the "men's rooms", the rooms of the honored friends, the friends with coffee, tobacco and other drinks. in most of the rural provinces, the owner of the house ", the two corners were kept near the chimney. according to the rules set out in customary law, in the right corner stood the most distant friend, regardless of his age or social position. then stood the other friends, sorted by age and authority they enjoyed. to the left of the chimney sat the head of the family, who was always very attentive, taking care of it and was obliged to prepare coffee in the presence of friends. to entertain friends and other guests, in addition to various conversations, melodies of songs ("chamber songs") and the sounds of folk dances were often played in these chambers. especially in northern albania, the "men's rooms" (friends), were important hearths where the songs of the saints were sung. in these chambers was also taught the story of the first to be unable to teach it in schools. in the men's chamber, important issues of war, life, work, pride for the victory or resistance of albanians were discussed. 2. men's chambers, the place of the allegory of the highlanders. the men's room in our country has a special importance and has played an extraordinary role especially when any kind of information was lacking. they were medals of bravery for the warrior, they experienced the event, the hero or shamefully stigmatized the coward and the traitor. in the rooms events have always taken precedence. in these environments, the debate was heated, the events, the characters were discussed and very important vital decisions were made for the fate of the homeland. chambers are created to follow the story step by step. certainly some of them have lost their way and importance, such as those for skanderbeg, the albanian league of prizren, the anti-fascist war or the resolution of local issues, provincial forgiveness, bloodshed and the nationwide trust. these chambers in different historical periods have had as important themes the struggle of our people for freedom and independence, for the protection of honor and dignity, excellent patriotism, endurance and efforts to protect the lands, customs, language and national culture. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 very important decisions were made in the chambers by the council of elders, the council of sages, the sailors, etc., for the fate of albania. the conversations in the chamber were described by the idea: "that there is no freedom without blood", "that the enemy wants a bullet", "that the enemy does not become a friend", that "to win you need unity", that betrayal is the bad seed that sprouts increases slavery ”etc. the patriotic message has come through the legends that were discussed in these chambers. the chambers provided extensive historical information, which is why they were called the "living chronicle" of the albanian people's struggles for freedom and independence. the men in the chambers dealt with the events in detail, images and details of the war, the proportions of the warring forces, the strategies and tactics of the popular war, the emotional attitude, etc. "the enemy is invading our mountains, the enemy has broken through the door, but the towers are not given, the general struggle is not happiness, without a free homeland." irony and allegory have always been present in men’s rooms. along with the glory that the hero wore to the people, he satirized and unmasked the betrayal, sang the anthem of heroism, but also ridiculed the cowards, the intriguers, the people with two faces and many flags. they took off their white hats and put on their black hats.the bearers of allegories (wise men) went from room to room, from mexhelis to mexhelis, from assembly to assembly, to weddings and sorrows, anytime and anywhere, and led the conversation by activating old issues and improvising new ones. in the development and enrichment of matters a great role has been played by the "men's chambers", always open to the friend and the traveler. the issues educated the people especially the younger generation, with patriotic traditions and high moral virtues, with the love for the nation and the homeland, for freedom and democracy, prosperity, with the love for the national language and culture. they sharpened judgment and developed independent thinking, perfected the culture of brainstorming. the theme of these allegorical stories of wise men is very wide and varied, covering every sphere of life. in these stories in the "guest rooms" wide and rich social themes stood out, all kinds of relationships between different groups and strata are affected, down to family relations between husband and wife, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, father and son. the national question also had a special place in allegorical stories. rich and high-level, are also those stories that reflect economic relations. in many of them, the bearers of the allegory in the "rooms of friends", treated both aesthetic and moral problems, as well as the place that occupies ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 the right and the wrong in society, beautiful and ugly, tragedy and comics, etc. wise men with the allegorical character of conversations and their wisdom, were also expressions of selfcontrol, spiritual balance of the people in cases of conflict and difficult situations. in these environments the "councils of the elders", the "councils of the wise" and the "dhetars" did not allow banalities and vulgarities. there were no direct insults in any of the cases, although their significance could be very poignant. insulting a friend was not particularly allowed, which was seen as a serious violation of tradition and canonical norms. the issues could not continue even for a long time in the conversation. allegorical compositions were used in these cases. to get an idea, about this way of use, we are giving an allegorical composition, developed in a dibra ode. we are briefly telling the circumstances. it was about falling to the enemy. some were for an armed uprising, but there were also those who preached in the ode the spirit of submission, arguing that a war in those circumstances, would bring more serious consequences for the people. the allegorical composition of the wise men began with an attack against these men. the issue carries the message that all bridges of reconciliation with the enemy had been broken. i quote: "once a man takes god and makes a snake a friend. every day he would bring him a cup of tamil (milk) and take from him a gold napoleon. one day one of the men's sons passes by the snake. he hits them with a stone and cuts off their tails. the boy dies because the snake bites him in the finger. the father bury the son the vessel went to the serpent with the tamel cup. as soon as the snake comes out, the man throws a stone at her head. when the serpent was dead, she said to her husband: how, you are not maintaining friendship ?! the man says: "your tail is cut off, my son on earth, there is no friendship between us!" the allegory in the chamber is clear. they express the tragic fate that albania has had, conquered for centuries. he found it occupied and in the xx century. almost until the middle of the twentieth century, foreign invasions replaced each other and used their laws in our lands. poverty, lawlessness and injustice have run through these invasions. having in general no modern albanian state for a historically long time, lacking constitutions and civil and criminal codes, the people themselves have made these constitutions and codes, which they have called canons, such as the kanun of skanderbeg, the kanun of lekëdukagjini and other canons of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 north and south. the place of creation of the albanian customary law were the chambers, which in different albanian provinces receive different names such as: "ode of men", "ode of friends", "ode of good", "chamber of songs", etc. the tolerance and understanding of the albanians has deep roots in the history and internal organization of the highlands themselves, in the way of administering these territories, customs, hospitality and generosity, in the chambers. chambers are not merely facilities of hospitality, but facilities where wise men, assembled and gave solutions to problems of national importance, when the homeland was in danger, made trusts, reconciled bloodshed and resolved conflicts. the traditions and customs of the ancients, especially when it came to the protection of the homeland, the father left to the son as a will carved in marble on the chimney slab, in rhapsodic verses: "son, let me forgive you, do not stop the enemy's rifle… ” in the albanian provinces when the country was occupied by the turks, the canon operated in the unwritten legal form. but as opposition, later, some provinces regulated the relations between them in such a way that this was contrary to the savage laws of the invader and in some directions even the canon and these were called "kararet e dheut". "kararet e dheut" were unwritten legal decisions, to these decisions they were forced to submit without any conditions such as minority and pariah. n.q.s., on the basis of the principle of the kanun of lekëdukagjini, the exercise of legal right was held by the elders and hammers, who played the main role e.g. the province of lura, moreover, the right of the landowners, of the representatives of the land, who always play the main role, as the council of elders, but the decisive role, also acted. this can be seen in the fact that when they expressed disagreements even among the elders, in the men's chambers, the landowners were the ones who set the tone for the solution. the "earthquakes" have also been a political measure to unite the provinces between them in the fight against the common enemy. they were represented by 12 elders, 12 hammers and 6 landowners. the latter stamped every decision in the men's chambers together with the people of the provinces. disputes between the council of elders were resolved by the earth assembly, 6 members. the council of elders, which included elders, hammers, and landowners, met in the assembly to settle disputes and quarrels among the villagers. their decision was called "earthquake" and had to be rigorously implemented. for the people who broke the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 "earthquakes" the action was called "bidad" and taking this epithet there was no guarantee in front of the people as he was hated by all. chambers were places of permanent meeting, discussion and reflection between the representatives of the elders of different tribes, were the hotbeds of reconciliation, counseling and discussion, fraternity and judgment, of understanding, tolerance and patriotic education. the elders represented the judge who settled disputes and conflicts. when the quarrel and the conflict were very fierce, the assembly of the elders of the mountains met. it was a very difficult task to resolve a conflict by the assembly of elders because the armed forces of the two conflicting parties that were present in the assembly were waiting for the results of the assembly and this result could be satisfactory for both parties, reconciliation and conflict took place end. however, when the conflicting parties were not satisfied with the decisions of the assembly, rifles were fired and blood was shed. 3. chambers the place of conflict resolution. in the "chambers of men (friends)" reconciliations were made between brothers, between tribes, between provinces, fighting forces were organized to go to the aid of the provinces endangered by the invasion, the news of the distant world was heard, judgments were given on events conflicts, bloodshed was forgiven, the hearts of the albanian youth were cooked with patriotism, the resistance of the nation was cooked with gunpowder. the expression of these assemblies and very important decisions in the defense of the homeland in the men's chambers, is the decision of the unification of the albanian provinces, to fight against the fragmentation of the albanian lands during the period of the albanian league. in addition to these organizations, an indisputable role as organizations of understanding and tolerance have been the national assemblies organized during the time of the albanian league of prizren until the declaration of independence. this attitude is shown by the trip of two of the leaders of the albanian league of prizren, abdylfrashëri and iljaz pasha dibra, to the dibra chambers. we are quoting: "after a long journey to the men's chambers in the province of dibra, and the support they gave you, the two leaders of the albanian league, convened in july 1878, the assembly of the league in qernanica. debates in the assembly of qernanica erupted when iljaz saw dibra ask the participants to give up enmity and blood feuds. the reactions of the participants were immediate, but after much debate, the dibra highlanders accepted the request in principle, but asked for a ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 deadline. the highlanders in the assembly agreed to pledge for three months, agreed to repeat the pledge at the end of each quarter if the danger of war had not passed, but refused to enter into the pledge indefinitely because the kanun of the dibra mountains did not allow it. the new promise to stop the bloodshed, according to the custom, could not be concluded without the expiration of the previous trust. the new murders, the very fresh spiritual pain caused to the families of dibra by the blood feud, often made it difficult to repeat the faith in dibra . in these critical moments, in the face of the danger of the fragmentation of the homeland, the forgiveness of bloodshed was definitely required, therefore the intervention of the patriot abdylfrashëri in the debate was very important, decisive and convincing. according to customary law, despite the fact that non-dibran personalities were not allowed to participate in the assemblies of dibra, the weight of abdylfrashëri's speech persuaded the dibrans gathered in the assembly to renounce the force of custom and the laws of the kanun of the mountains and accept to bind the besa. this unanimous attitude of the people of dibra in the assembly is brought not only by the memories of the elders of dibra, various documents and sources, but especially the memories of abdylfrashëri in which he writes: "i was in debar, in front of a crowd of more than 10 thousand people, who were listening to me. i gave them a long speech on the miserable situation of albania, the dangers that threatened them and its future. i told them that this future depended on our union, on the union of our forces… but i shouted: how do you want to fight against the enemies of the homeland, when you are mortal enemies with each other? behold, you are gathered here to make a decision of great importance and you are armed to the teeth, but you do not keep the weapons to be used noblely for the defense of our beloved homeland, but to draw the bowels to the brothers your. o brothers! only by forgetting and throwing behind every feeling of revenge, only by becoming brothers, can you make safe the life of our common mother, albania ”…. "today it is necessary to forget the hostilities and to publicly forgive the insults. "today, when the enemy wants to drink our blood, today we must fight for freedom and not against each other." abdylfrashëri reminded the highlanders that “everyone has a homeland and a canon. the homeland, which was created by nature, or the canon, which was made by people. how do you say men? ”… having said these words, about 10 thousand men gathered in the assembly, as a single man, dropped their weapons to the ground so that the mountains shook and as it came out of a single mouth only a rumble was heard (single voice ): ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 "forgive the blood for this faith! blood forgive and besa-besa ". after this oath, all the participants shook hands with the blood and embraced the other brotherly. as we noted above, when the fate of the homeland was at stake, the highlanders rose above the laws, over customary rights, and obeyed the decisions made in the "chambers of assembly" in the "chambers of men." in conclusion we can say that: although paler due to new socio-economic conditions, the beautiful habit of hospitality continues to be maintained. hospitality rituals again continue to be performed in some provinces where the premises of the men's rooms are still preserved intact. in some albanian provinces again to this day, in the chambers of highland men are preserved the role played by the councils of elders, councils of sages, landowners, etc., for resolving conflicts and reconciling bloodshed by them when the law and canon fail to sort them out. despite the many changes that the albanian society has undergone, the talks are still preferred to take place only in the men's rooms. thus, these environments continue to maintain their importance, to remain, "state", "office" very important even in today's life of some areas of the albanian highlands for conflict resolution. conclusions men's chambers, have lived long and continue to live to resolve conflicts, social or political problems, as long as the authorities are powerless to resolve them. men's chambers were the places where the fates of a province or nationwide were gathered and decided when they were endangered by foreign occupation. blood feuds were settled in the men's wards, as a offspring of the gender order. in the men's chambers were engaged engagements, marriages, deaths for the benefit of the population of these provinces where they operated, preserving the rituals of their development. men's chambers preserve the language, customs, traditions even today, as a very important value for society bibliography history of state and law in albania, luarasi, tirana, 2001 kanun of lekëdukagjini, "albanian customary law", collected by shtjefën k. gjeçovi, tirana 1989. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 national conference of ethnographic studies, tirana, june 1977. national conference of ethnographic studies, tirana, june 1977. krasniqi mark, albanological research, "the function of the men's chamber in kosovo in the era of the league of prizren", pristina, 1979. the albanian nation, 1901.15 may, no.9. la nazione albanese, 1898, 31 august, no.16. m.h.d, archive, a.lorechio, “memorandum”, 1920. martini xhafer, “dibra and its ethnoculture” vol.ii, dibër 1995, p. 128. m.h.d., history of lura villages, kararet e dheut, d.1, notebook 3, p.4 martini xhafer, "allegorical stories from dibra", peshkopi, 1995. m.h.d., ndreuhaziz, “dibra and the dibrans”, peshkopi, 1981. m.h.d. “dibraethnocultural, vol.ii, dibër e madhe, 1995, m.h.d.-dibra and the people of dibra ”, peshkopi 1981. m.h.d, paper, bajramtotraku, "abdylfrashëri in dibër", peshkopi, 1978. onuziaferdita, reconciliation magazine, no. 2, fpd, tirana, june, 1997 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 4| issue 03| march | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 covid-19 measures and the exacerbation of intimate partner violence in calabar 1omang, thomas. a., 2angioha, pius u.,3ojong-ejoh, mary u. & abang, thelma 1,23&4department of sociology, university of calabar, cross river state, nigeria corresponding author omang, thomas achoda omangta@gmail.com abstract this study empirically examines the extent to which the covid 19 has exacerbationintimate partner violence in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. the descriptive survey research method was adopted for the study. the purposive and simple random sampling technique was used in selecting 417 participants from calabar metropolis. the instrument of data collection was the semi-structured self-developed questionnaire. data collected from the field was analyzed using descriptive and influential statistics at 0.05 level of significance out of the 417 instruments, only 393 was returned and used for analysis. the result from the descriptive analysis revealed that most participants (85%) reported abused during the lockdown. the most common form of abuse was emotional abuse (45.5%). findings also revealed the rate of abuse was far higher when compared with before the covid 19 lockdown. from the correlation analysis, result revealed a significant correlation between covid 19, lockdown and intimate partner violence. the study concludes that covid 19, the lockdown has significantly increased the incidence of intimate partner violence in calabar, cross river state. hence, there is need for the government to include covid 19 essential services that will focus on intimate partner and other domestic violence response, provide the necessary resource that will make them function properly and identify ways to make them assessable. keyword:covid-19, lockdown, intimate partner violence, domestic violence,calabar introduction violence against women is a human right violation that is prevalent globally and has a negative effect on the wellbeing of victims, their family as well as the community. intimate partner violence is the most prevalent form of violence against women (who,2013). according to united nation (2020), 243 million women aged between the ages of 15 and 49 has experienced one form of sexual or physical violence from a spouse or intimate partner in the last 12 months. more than a third of women who are killed intentionally are killed by a spouse or intimate partner violence (chernet & cherrie, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 83 mailto:angiohapius@gmail.com 2020; campbell,2020). data and evidence have shown that intimate partner violence and other forms of violence against women tend to increase during a pandemic, war and other forms of human emergencies (vora, malathesh, das & chatterjee, 2020; ukwayi., angioha & nwagboso, 2018). the novel coronavirus pandemic first reported in wuhan province, china, december 2019 caused by sar-cov-2 virus has become a defining global health issue and the greatest challenge the world has faced since the second world war. since its emergence in china, the virus has spread to almost all the part of the world. as at 23hrs central african time, 28 july 2020, there was 16,540,137 cases of the coronavirus and 655,300 confirm death as a result of complications from the virus (worldometers,2020). the pandemic has become much more than just a global health crisis. it has developed into and has created a devastating social, economic and political effect that has left a scar that will remain long after the pandemic (gulati & kelly,2020; roesch, amin, gupta, & garcia-moreno,2020). as the world continues to grapple with the pandemic, different government continue to announce measures on how to tackle the spread of the pandemic. the measures have continued to alter the day to day life people. these measures include quarantines, social distancing, isolation, travel restrictions and compulsory stay at home. although these measures have been effective in checking the spread of sars -cov-2 virus yet it has had a profound and devastating effect on financial, social and psychological life of people globally, bringing with it increased unemployment, economic strain, increased alcoholism, post-traumatic stress and continuous increase in domestic violence, especially intimate partners violence (boserup, mckenny &elkhuli,2020; brooks, webster, smith, woodland, wessely, greenberg & rubin,2020). while there is a dearth in data or reliable estimates on the extent of increase of intimate partner violence as a result of measures to curb the spread of covid -19. reports from countries most hit by the pandemic such as china, the united states of america, britain have shown a spike on the incidence of intimate partner violence (goddin, 2020). according to allen -ebrahimiam (2020), the number of intimate partner violence cases reported to the police in the chinese city of hubei triple in february compared to the period a year ago. information from digital (2020) reported that 87,000 incidences of intimate partner violence and other forms of domestic violence was reported in the first eight days of lockdown during corvid 19. statistics released by the national commission of women, india stated that there has been a 100 per cent increase in complaint as they relate to intimate partner violence since the lockdown was imposed in march 2020. the report by united nation women (2020) warned that women will disproportionately be affected by the covid-19 pandemic and the pandemic will increase pre-existing risk and vulnerability and will widen gender inequality. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 84 according to the united nations (2020), attention has been drawn to a surge in a shadow pandemic, domestic violence since the coronavirus pandemic started and the institution of measures such as lockdown, quarantine put in place to curb the spread of the pandemic in nigeria have helped to instigate this surge. another united nation (2020b) document point to a report from 24 states in nigeria that indicate 346 incidences of sexual violence perpetrated by an intimate partner in march alone and within two weeks of april, the figure had increased by 56 per cent. the lagos state domestic and social respond team (2020) reports a threefold increase in domestic violence in the state and these are attributed to lockdown in the state. these incidences have sometimes tragically lead to the death of some of the victims and leave a psychological and physical effect on the lives of survivors and their family members. these study analyses the prevalence and extent to which the novel coronavirus has increased the incidence of intimate partner violence. materials and method study setting calabar metropolis covers two local government areas in cross river state. the metropolis covers an area of 157 square kilometres. the city is sandwiched between two rivers: the great kwa river and the calabar river. the original inhabitants of the area are the efuts, quas and the efiks (agabo agba, ikoh, bassey & ushie, 2010; ukwayi, angioha & aniah 2019; omang, liu& eneji, 2013;ukwayi, angioha& ojong-ejoh, 2018). but because of mass migration as a result of metropolis being the state capital and the location of various industries in the metropolis, other ethnic groups are now found in the area. according to the national population commission (2006) census, the population of the metropolis 328,877 and has a density of 980 persons per square kilometre. as the capital of cross river, the area pulls a high population of civil servants, and business people, farming and farming remain a major occupation of the people of the area. study method the descriptive survey research method was adopted for the study. this method attempts to systematically and accurately describe a situation, population or a phenomenon. the design allows the use of selected units of a population to analyses a large population (ukwayi, okpa, adedoyin, angioha, & udom, 2017; bassey, abang & iji, 2017). applying the descriptive survey method, a pretrial semi-structured selfdeveloped questionnaire was used to elicit information from the selected participants in the study area. participants a sample of 417 was used for the study, the sample size was determined using the survey monkey sample determined technique at 95 per cent confidence level and 4.8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 85 per cent margin of error. the samples were randomly selected from a population of women above the age of 20 who were either married or in a serious relationship. the samples were selected using stratified, purposive and simple random sampling technique. calabar was stratified into two strata, based on the two local government area that makes up the metropolis, calabar south and calabar municipal council. the purposive sampling technique was used in selecting these wards from each of the three local government area. the wards are calabar south, ward 12, 11 and 9. calabar municipal, ward 2,6, and 8. from these wards 3 communities were selected using purposive sampling technique. the communities selected are highlighted in table 1. from the 3 communities selected, the researcher randomly selected 23 women above the age of 20 from 15 communities and 24 from 3 communities. the criteria for selections was each participant where females, most have been married or in a serious relationship and most have spent the quarantined lockdown period with an intimate partner. table 1 sample selection from calabar s/n local government area wards communities and sample size 1 calabar south 9 palm street (24) mayne avenue (23) atu street (23) 11 afokang (23) new airport (24) mbukpa (23) 12 ekpo abasi (23) uwanse (23) yellow duke (23) 2 calabar municipal council 2 edim otop (23) abang asang (23) otu ansa (23) 6 ishie town (23) akai effa (24) ikot eka-idem (23) 8 federal housing (23) ikot ansa (23) esuk utan (23) source: fieldwork, 2020 ethical consideration clearance was collected from the covid-19 response team in cross river state to allow the researchers and their team carryout the study without any interference from the security team. written consent was attached to the instrument distributed to the participants. each participant gave their consent to be used for the study. they were first told what the study was for and the anonymity of the information supplied was assured. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 86 method of data collection and analysis data collection was for two weeks, with the aid of five research assistant, who were trained on the process of data collection. data collected from the field was checked to make sure all the questions were attended to the data was then coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics; simple percentages, frequency distribution and graphical illustration and simple lineal regression during the period when the lockdown was eased in cross river state. out of the 417 returned. representing 94.2 per cent return rate. this number was used for analy findings presentation of result questions were develop based on the such as frequency distribution. percentages and graphical illustration were used to analyze the data collected from the field before the data was subjected to inferential statistics. result was presented in table 1. responses on covid s/n item 1 how did you spend the lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 graphic illustration of fiance husband &children alone method of data collection and analysis data collection was for two weeks, with the aid of five research assistant, who on the process of data collection. data collected from the field was checked to make sure all the questions were attended to the data was then coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics; simple percentages, frequency distribution and graphical ation and simple lineal regression during the period when the lockdown was eased in cross river state. out of the 417-instrument distributed, only 393 instruments were returned. representing 94.2 per cent return rate. this number was used for analy develop based on the objective of the study. descriptive such as frequency distribution. percentages and graphical illustration were used to analyze the data collected from the field before the data was subjected to inferential statistics. result was presented in table 1. table 2 covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence fiancé husband alone husband & children parents or other family how did you spend 43 (10.9) 94 (23.9) 227 (57.8) 16 (4.1) source: fieldwork, 2020 fig. 1. graphic illustration of responses on how participants spent the lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 fiance, 43 husband alone, 94 husband &children, parents & family members, 16 alone, 13 0 50 100 150 200 250 fiance husband &children alone how did you spendthe lockdown data collection was for two weeks, with the aid of five research assistant, who on the process of data collection. data collected from the field was checked to make sure all the questions were attended to the data was then coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics; simple percentages, frequency distribution and graphical ation and simple lineal regression during the period when the lockdown was eased instrument distributed, only 393 instruments were returned. representing 94.2 per cent return rate. this number was used for analysis. . descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution. percentages and graphical illustration were used to analyze the data collected from the field before the data was subjected to inferential and intimate partner violence parents or other family alone (4.1) 13 (3.3) how participants spent the lockdown husband &children, 227 250 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 87 responses on covid s/n item 2 how was the lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 graphic illustration of enjoyable relaxing frustrating stressful worst period of my life table 3 responses on covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence enjoyable relaxing frustrating stressful 49 (12.5) 78 (19.8) 92 (23.4) 102 (26.0) source: fieldwork, 2020 fig. 2. graphic illustration of responses on how the lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 enjoyable relaxing frustrating stressful worst period of my life 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 how was the lockdown enjoyable 49 relaxing 78 frustrating 92 stressful 102 worst period of my life 72 49 78 92 102 72 19, lockdown and intimate partner violence stressful the worst period of my life 72(18.3) was worst period of my life ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 88 responses on covid s/n item 3 i and my hubby had issues during the lockdown 4 i suffer one form of from my partner during this period source: fieldwork, 2020 graphic illustration of true completely true not true 0 50 100 150 200 250 a xi s ti tl e table 4 responses on covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence true completely true i and my hubby had issues the lockdown 196 (49.9) 161 (41.0) one form of abuse from my partner during this 191 (48.6) 142 (36.1) fieldwork, 2020 fig. 3. graphic illustration of responses on me and my hubby had issues& my partner source: fieldwork, 2020 i and my hubby had issues during the lockdown i suffer one form of abuse from my partner during this period 196 191 completely true 161 142 36 60 196 191161 142 36 60 0 50 100 150 200 250 axis title true completely true not true intimate partner violence not true 36 (9.1) 60 (15.3) &of abuse from i suffer one form of abuse from my partner during 60 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 89 table 5 responses on covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence s/n item emotional abuse physical abuse both emotional &physical abuse none 5 which of the abuse did your spouse put you through 179 (45.5) 71 (18.1) 94 (23.9) 59 (15.0) source: fieldwork, 2020 fig. 4. graphic illustration of responses on which of the abuse did your spouse put you through source: fieldwork, 2020 179 71 94 59 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 emotional abuse physical abuse both emotional &physical abuse none which of the abuse did your spouse put you through which of the abuse did your spouse put you through ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 90 table 6 responses on covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence s/n item once a week twice a week three times five times everyday rarely not abused 6 how often are you abused in a week 103 (26.2) 44 (11.2) 57 (14.5) 48 (12.2) 81 (20.6) 0 (0.0) 60 (15.3) 7 before the covid-19, how often were you abused 97(24.7) 29 (7.7) 12 (3.1) 23 (5.9) 24 (6.1) 96 (24.4) 112 (28.5) source: fieldwork, 2020 fig. 5. graphic illustration of responses on how often are you abused in a week source: fieldwork, 2020 table 7 once a week twice a week three times five times everyd ay rarely not abuse how often are you abused in a week 103 44 57 48 81 0 60 before the covid-19, how often were you abused 97 29 12 23 24 96 112 103 44 57 48 81 0 60 97 29 12 23 24 96 112 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 how often are you abused in a week before the covid-19, how often were you abused ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 91 responses on covid s/n item 8 i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 graphic illustration of results of the descriptive analysis as presented in table 2 to 7, with graphic illustration in figure sis as presented in table 2, with graphical illustration in figure shows participants responses as follows participants reported with fiancé, 94 (23.9%) (57.8%) participants reported with parents or other family members and 13 (3.3%) was the lockdown; 49 (12.5%) reported relaxing, 92 (23.4%) reported stressful and 72 (18.3%) asked i and my hubby had issues during the lockdown true, 161 (41.0%) participants reported not true. on i suffer one form of abuse from my participants reported true, 142 (36.1%) (15.3%) participants reported through; 179 (45.5%) participants reported reported physical abuse, 94 (23.9%) abuse and 59 (15.0%) participants reported week; 103 (26.2%) participants reported a xi s ti tl e i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the lockdown i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a responses on covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violenc true completely true i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the 145 (36.9) 163 (41.5) source: fieldwork, 2020 fig. 6. graphic illustration of responses on i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the lockdown source: fieldwork, 2020 the descriptive analysis as presented in table 2 to 7, with graphic sis as presented in table 2, with graphical illustration in figure shows participants responses as follows; on how did you spend the lockdown with fiancé, 94 (23.9%) participants reported husband alone, 227 participants reported with husband and children, 16 (4.1%) participants reported with parents or other family members and 13 (3.3%) participants reported 49 (12.5%) participants reported enjoyable, 78 (19.8%) relaxing, 92 (23.4%) participants reported frustrating, 102 (26.0%) stressful and 72 (18.3%) participants reported worst period of their life. i and my hubby had issues during the lockdown;196 (49.9%) participants reported participants reported completely true, 36 (9.1%) participants reported i suffer one form of abuse from my partner during this period true, 142 (36.1%) participants reported completely true, and 60 participants reported not true. on which of the abuse did your spouse put you participants reported emotional abuse, 71 (18.1%) physical abuse, 94 (23.9%) participants reported both physical and emotional participants reported none. on how often are you abused in a participants reported once a week, 44 (11.2%) participants reported 0 100 200 true not true 145 163 85 axis title true completely true not true i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the lockdown 145 163 85 i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the lockdown 19, lockdown and intimate partner violence not true 85 (21.6) i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties the descriptive analysis as presented in table 2 to 7, with graphic sis as presented in table 2, with graphical illustration in figure 1 to 6 how did you spend the lockdown; 43 (10.9%) husband alone, 227 participants reported participants reported alone. on how enjoyable, 78 (19.8%) participants frustrating, 102 (26.0%) participants worst period of their life. when participants reported participants reported partner during this period; 191 (48.6%) completely true, and 60 which of the abuse did your spouse put you emotional abuse, 71 (18.1%) participants both physical and emotional how often are you abused in a participants reported 200 not true ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 92 twice a week, 57 (14.5%) participants reported three times a week, 48 (12.2%) participants reported five times, 81 (20.6%) participants reported every day and 60 (15.3%) participants reported not abuse. onbefore the covid-19, how often were you abused; 97(24.7%)participants reported ones a week, 29 (7.7)participants reported twice a week, 12 (3.1)participants reported three times a week, 23 (5.9)participants reported five times a week, 24 (6.1) participants reported every day, 96 (24.4 that they were rarely abused and finally, 112 (28.5) participants reported that they were never abused, on i blame the abuse on the economic difficulties as a result of the lockdown; 145 (36.9%) answered true, 163 (41.5%) answered completely true and 83 (21.6%) answered not true. correlation analysis a correlation analysis was carried out to check the relationship between covid19, lockdown and intimate partner violence using pearson product moment correlation. the independent variable identified in the variables is covid-19, lockdown, which was measured continuously. the dependent variable identified in the variables is intimate partner violence and this also was measured continuously. the analysis was done as 0.05 confidence level. table 8 pearson product moment correlation between covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence variable n mean sd r-value sig. r2 covid-19, lockdown 393 12.21 2.02 0.649 .000* 0.42 intimate partner violence 393 18.08 2.09 *significant at 0.05 level; df = 391; critical r-value = 0.098 source: field survey, 2020 from the analysis, there was astatistically significant r(391) = 0.649; p <0.05. this is so because the calculated r-value of 0.649 is greater than the critical r-value of 0.098, at 0.5 alpha (α) level of significance. implying a positive correlation between covid-19, lockdown and intimate partner violence. the squared correlation (0.649)2 which is a measure of effect size indicates the proportion of explained variance on the dependent variable. therefore, 42.1 per cent of the variance in intimate partner violenceis as a result of covid-19, lockdown. the magnitude of the effect is large, this means that covid-19, lockdowncorrelates positively with intimate partner violence (this is because of the sign of the r-value). therefore, the result implies that covid-19 lockdown has significantly increased the incidence of intimate partner violence. discussion of findings ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 93 from the result of the data collected from participants and analyzed, it was discovered that most of the participants 264 (67.2%) were married, 119 (30.3%) were in single but in a serious relationship and 10 (2.5%) were divorced or separated. result also showed that most of the respondents 205 (52.2%) were aged 30-39, the was followed by 79 (20.1%) respondents who were aged 20 – 29. then followed by 40 (10.2%) who were aged 40 and above. data analyzed also revealed in terms of educational qualification that most of the respondents 171 (43.5%) had a first degree. 124 (31.6%) respondents finished secondary school or college, 37 (9.4%) respondents had post-graduate degrees and finally, 63 (16.0%) participants had little or no formal education. the result from the descriptive analysis revealed that most of the respondents 321 representing 81.7 per cent spend the lockdown with their immediate family (husband or husband and children). the result from the analysis also revealed that during the lockdown spent with their spouse, most respondents 357 representing 90.9 per cent and their husbands had problems issue. this is because the coronavirus pandemic and the socioeconomic shock that accompanied it made the institution of marriage and family life very vulnerable creating tension and anxiety in relationship. lehmiller, garcia, gesselman, and mark (2020) in a study found that both sexual relation and family life is affected by the covid-19 pandemic. findings also revealed that 334 respondents representing 85.0 per cent suffered from one form of abuse of the other. the most common form of abuse suffered by the participants is emotional abuse (45.5%), followed by physical abuse (23.9%) and only 15 per cent suffered both emotional abuse and physical abuse. most respondent, 26.2 per cent reported been abused at least ones a week., 21.4 per cent, participants reported that they were abused at least twice a week. 14.5 per cent at least three times a week, while 10.4 per cent reported that they were abuse every day. on the rate of abuse before the pandemic; most of the participants, 28.5 per cent were never abused, 24.4 per cent, participants reported rarely been abused, 24.7 per cent of the participants were abused at least ones a week.only 6.1 per cent -reported that they were abused every day the result of the correlation analysis revealed that there was a statistically significant r (391) = 0.649 at 0.05 level of significance. this is because the calculated rvalue of 0.649 is greater than the critical r-value of 0.098. the result implies that covid19, lockdown significantly correlates with intimate partner violence. also, 42.1 per cent of the variance in intimate partner violence is as a result of covid-19, lockdown. the magnitude of the effect is large, this means that covid-19, lockdown significantly increase the incidence of intimate partner violence. the findingsare supported by the various reports and finding such as allen -ebrahimiam (2020), digital (2020), united nation (2020b) and the lagos state domestic and social respond team (2020). the study and reports all reported a sharp increase in intimate partner violence in calabar and these are attributed to the covid-19 lockdown. conclusion and policy implication ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 94 with the quarantine and other measures put in place to curb the spread of covid19 and the continuous closure businesses and organisations likely to continue into the unforeseen future. family strain, unemployment, reduced income and stress will continue to be an outcome of these measures, resulting in strain in couple relationships. this will as the findings of this study has shown continue to result in an increase in intimate partner and other domestic violence. hence, there is need for the government to include covid-19 essential services that will focus on intimate partner and other domestic violence response, provide the necessary resource that will make them function properly and identify ways to make them assessable. the government need to address those barriers impeding access to service including healthcare by sufferers, survivors of intimate partner violence by considering and removing those constraints hindering women from seeking help. references allen-ebrahimian, b. (2020). “china’s domestic violence epidemic,” axios,https://www.axios.com/china-domestic-violencecoronavirus-quarantine7b00c3ba-35bc-4d16-afdd-b76ecfb28882.html bassey, a. o., abang, t. a., & iji, m. e. (2017). challenges and prospects of applying scientific methods in sociological and policy investigation. international journal of emerging trends in social sciences, 1(1), 9-15. boserup, b., mckenney, m., & elkbuli, a. (2020). alarming trends in us domestic violence during the covid-19 pandemic. the american journal of emergency medicine, s0735-6757(20)30307-7. advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.077 brooks, s. k., webster, r. k., smith, l. e., woodland, l., wessely, s., greenberg, n., & rubin, g. j. (2020). the psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. lancet (london, england), 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8 campbell a. m. (2020). an increasing risk of family violence during the covid-19 pandemic: strengthening community collaborations to save lives. forensic science international: reports, 2, 100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089 chernet, a. g., & cherie, k. t. (2020). prevalence of intimate partner violence against women and associated factors in ethiopia. bmc women's health, 20(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-0892-1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 95 https://www.axios.com/china-domestic-violencecoronavirus-quarantine-7b00c3ba-35bc-4d16-afdd-b76ecfb28882.html https://www.axios.com/china-domestic-violencecoronavirus-quarantine-7b00c3ba-35bc-4d16-afdd-b76ecfb28882.html https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.077 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-0892-1 godin, m. (2020). “as cities around the world go on lockdown, victims of domestic violence look for a way out,” time, https://time.com/5803887/coronavirusdomestic-violence-victims/ lehmiller, j.l., garcia, j.r., gesselman, a.n., & mark, k.p. (2020). less sex, but more sexual diversity: changes in sexual behavior during the covid-19 coronavirus pandemic. leisure sciences. omang, t. a., liu, y. & eneji, r. i. (2013). profitability of cocoa production in etung local government area of cross river state, nigeria. journal of agriculture, biotechnology and ecology 5 (3) pp.64-73. roesch, e., amin, a., gupta, j., & garcía-moreno, c. (2020). violence against women during covid-19 pandemic restrictions. bmj (clinical research ed.), 369, m1712. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1712 ukwayi j. k., angioha p. u. & nwagboso s. n. (2018). poverty and insecurity: a dangerous threat to business activities and development in calabar south lga, cross river state, nigeria. ssrg international journal of humanities and social science 5(2), 33-38. ukwayi, j. k., angioha, p. u. & aniah, e. a. (2019). associate factor of trafficking in women and children in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. european journal of political science studies 3 (1), 1-15. ukwayi, j. k., angioha, p. u. & ojong-ejoh, m. u. (2018). youth empowerment: a criminological approach for crime prevention and control in cross river state, nigeria. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), 22 (11), 73-81. ukwayi, j. k., okpa, j. t., adewoyin, s. a., angioha, p. u., &udom, h. t. (2017). security equipment and policing in central senatorial district of cross river state, nigeria iosr. journal of humanities and social sciences, 22(2), 6-13 united nation (2020). women: covid-19 and ending violence against women and girlshttps://www.unwomen.org//media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/issue-briefcovid-19-and-ending-violence-against-women-and-girls-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5006 united nation women (2020). gender-based violence in nigeria during the covid-19 crisis: the shadow pandemic (brief, 4 may 2020).this brief was prepared by un women with unfpa, unodc and unicef on behalf of the un system in nigeria.https://nigeria.un.org/en/45324-gender-based-violence-nigeria-duringcovid-19-crisis-shadow-pandemic-brief-4-may-2020 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 96 https://time.com/5803887/coronavirus-domestic-violence-victims/ https://time.com/5803887/coronavirus-domestic-violence-victims/ https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1712 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/issue-brief-covid-19-and-ending-violence-against-women-and-girls-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5006 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/issue-brief-covid-19-and-ending-violence-against-women-and-girls-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5006 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/issue-brief-covid-19-and-ending-violence-against-women-and-girls-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5006 https://nigeria.un.org/en/45324-gender-based-violence-nigeria-during-covid-19-crisis-shadow-pandemic-brief-4-may-2020 https://nigeria.un.org/en/45324-gender-based-violence-nigeria-during-covid-19-crisis-shadow-pandemic-brief-4-may-2020 vora, m., malathesh, b. c., das, s., & chatterjee, s. s. (2020). covid-19 and domestic violence against women. asian journal of psychiatry, 53, 102227. advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102227 worldometer (2020). covid-19 pandemic. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 97 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102227 https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ a critical appraisal of nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt) chukwu c. james department of history and international studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email: jimco4real@gmail.com, tel: 07069408307 abstract this work focused ona critical appraisal of nuclear non proliferation treaty (npt). nuclear weapons proliferation is of major concern to the international community. as such many observers believe that the issue of nuclear proliferation is likely to be one of the most important issues facing the world today and it is also likely that nuclear proliferation is likely going to be the one issue to face the world for many years to come. aside terrorism, nuclear proliferation is probably the single biggest political issue in the world today. this paper examined the workings of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt).the work also focus on the structural operations and the need for the strict adherence by all countries to its provisions and the articles of the treaty is also mentioned. the paper, thus, argues that the npt, notwithstanding its global acceptability and compliance has some loopholes which are exploited by some countries. also some countries are very reluctant in disarming or eliminating their stockpiles of nuclear weapons.it makes use of secondary sources due to the dearth of primarymaterials. keywords: critical, appraisal,nuclear, non-proliferation, treaty. introduction in the years immediately after 1945, the united states together with two of her wartime allies, the united kingdom and canada, began efforts at banning the use of nuclear bombs. they also had early ideas about curtailing the spread of such weapons. as such they tried to limit the use and spread of the technology used in making nuclear bombs by keeping it as a secret to themselves. also the growing hostilities and tensions between the united states andunion of soviet socialist republics (ussr) over territorial ambitions in europe as well as “sphere of influence” sort of convinced the us government to keep such bombs in case if the russians (the ussr) tried to push their luck too far. this was meant to be used as leverage for dealing with the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 13 mailto:jimco4real@gmail.com russians. in 1949, russia developed and tested its own nuclear bomb, thus bringing them at par with the us. this development came as a rude shock not just to the us but the world as a whole. thus the era of mutual hostilities and tensions between east and west came to be perpetuated and termed “cold war”. with russia having tested its own nuclear bomb, the era of nuclear proliferations was born. early efforts at a worldwide non-proliferation drive started in 1953 with the atom for peace programme. but it was not until in 1957, when, in order to forestall the proliferation of nuclear weapons technology by too many states, the united states. russia (the soviet union) and 22 other countries which possessed nuclear energy as well as the technology signed and ratified the statute which created the international atomic energy agency (iaea) on july 27th of that year. the agency was the direct result of us president dwight eisenhower’s dramatic proposals of december 8, 1953 when he made his famous “atoms for peace” speech that year. but its objectives, after 3 years of negotiation were somewhat more modestly phrased than the president’s original objective.1 with this agency created, it had as its primary objective, the prevention of nuclear weapons proliferation by safeguarding fissile radioactive material as well as inspecting nuclear installations. this it did in a bid to forestall proliferation by seeing to it that fissile material and isotopes were not diverted for weapons making. in order to do this effectively, it had to be backed legally, not just with the consent of member countries. thus came the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt) which provided legal backing for the iaea to carry out its activities. both the iaea and the npt were meant to start and carry out a regime of non-proliferation and both were primary the ideas of the us, which was seriously seeking a way to prevent other countries, especially third world developing countries form either acquiring the bomb or the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 14 technology to make one. it is difficult and debatable also, to understand precisely why the soviet union, after subsequent bilateral exchange of notes, the un general assembly discussion and the multi-state meetings and conferences, eventually decided to participate in the creation of the agency.2 the determination of the us to create the iaea with or without the soviet union and to proceed on parallel front with bilateral agreements, almost surely persuaded the soviet union that she could further her interest more effectively inside the organisation than outside.3 against this backdrop, el baradei sees four critical areas or aspect of non-proliferation regime that must be strengthened. these are: firstly, the development of a more effective approach for dealing with proliferation threats; secondly securing existing nuclear materials stockpiles and tighten controls over transfers and production of nuclear material; thirdly, strengthening the verification authority and capability of the iaea and fourthly, the need to find a way for disarmament to be given the prominence and priority it deserves.4 david b. walter in his article entitled ‘managing the nuclear dilemma sees nuclear technology as a dilemma which countries are faced with. to him, the pressing issue is how to further develop and promote peaceful application of nuclear technology while at the same time prevent the spread of weapons technology. this is the current nuclear dilemma. he sees the iaea as an organisation central to a global nuclear enterprise.5 tariq rauf in his article “the long road to a nukes-free world”, views the npt as the best option in preventing proliferation. although the iaea is not a party to the npt, it is entrusted with key roles and responsibilities under it.6 fischer in his article on “nuclear safeguards evaluation and the future”, provides an insightful overview of international nuclear safeguards. in it, fischer focuses on the steps to strengthen the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 15 global nuclear verification regime. to him, safeguards aim to verify that nuclear material and technology are only used for peaceful purposes.7 it is important to mention at this juncture that with the creation of the iaea, the first step at curtailing nuclear proliferation was taken. with the signing and ratification of the npt treaty, began the non-proliferation regime as seen in the world today. the paper is divided into seven parts. the first part is introduction. this is followed by the conceptual clarification of some words used in the work that may look ambiguous to the reader. the third section deals with the theoretical framework on which the work derives its analysis. this is followed by an analysis of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. the fifth part discusses pillars of the treaty. the sixth part highlights the major articles of the treaty. the penultimate section looks at the merits of the npt treaty. the last part is the conclusion. the argument tends to suggest that nuclear non-proliferation treaty has achieved a lot in the fight against nuclear proliferation. the npt is the most widely adhered to treaty in the world and this is significant because countries are bound by its provisions and thus are barred from manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons. however, the existence of the npt notwithstanding, the world has continued to witness the quest by some countries to acquire nuclear weapons despite its prohibition costs as well as the catastrophic consequences of its utilisation. conceptual clarification this work has some terms which, for some, are scientific in nature and definition. but they could be applied in politics. some of such terms have now come to take up political meaning and interpretations. some of such terms are: ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 16 nuclear proliferation – is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile material and weapons – applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognised as nuclear weapon states by the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt).8 radioactive isotope – these are atoms of an element which have the same proton (atomic number) but different nuclear (mass) number. in this case their nucleons or atoms are unstable.9 radioactivity – this is the phenomenon characterised by the spontaneous emission of radiation from a substance, in this case an element.10 nuclear energy – this is the energy released when a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay occurs. it is characterised by large amounts of energy and heat.11 nuclear fission – is the process in which a nuclear bombardment of a nucleus of a heavy nuclide by particles such as neutrons results in the splitting of the nucleus into two smaller nuclei with a release of huge amounts of energy.12 nuclear fusion – is the process in which light nuclides combine to give heavier nuclides. mass is lost in the process and large amounts of energy is released.13 highly enriched uranium – this is a form of the element called uranium. in this case an isotope of the uranium atom (uranium 235) has been enriched. highly enriched uranium is uranium in which one type of unstable uranium atom, an isotope known as uranium 235 has been artificially concentrated.14 nuclear safeguard – this is a set of instrument which the iaea uses in order to contain the spread of nuclear weapons proliferation and ensure that countries do not expose nuclear ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 17 installations to great risk. they are essentially arrangement to account for and control the use of nuclear material. theoretical framework the theoretical conception of this work is based on the system theory. system theory basically is a theory in which the world or international community is seen as a system.15 according to joshua goldstein, one of the proponents of this theory views the world as an international system based on a set of relationships among the world’s states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interactions. some of such rules are explicit, some implicit. they include who is a member of the system, what rights and responsibilities the members have and what kind of actions and responses normally occur between states.16 going by this view of the world as an international system, then theoretically, this system is divided into sub-system. each sub-system makes up the complete international system. these subsystems are represented by actors, in this case nation state actors while an international organization, in this case international atomic energy agency (iaea) represents the main system.17 in system theory, any problem or defect in the sub-system affects the rest of the system as a whole. the nation state actors are members of the iaea and have decided collectively to abide by its statute in order to protect global security. going by this analogy of the iaea being the system or the representatives of their own individual or regional systems, therefore, any problem or potential problem within the various sub-systems would inadvertently affect the general system. the iaea is an international organization made of states that are member of it. the iaea of the representative of the international system tries to forestall any problem or breakdown of global security by preventing states, both members and non-members states of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 18 iaea from proliferating nuclear weapon, then it becomes a problem which will affect the international security (in this case the iaea) as it would lead to political and military tensions which ultimately, would lead to a breakdown of global peace and security. the iaea thus tries to uphold the values of the international system through its functions. it also tries to uphold peace and security in the international system. the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt) the nuclear non-proliferation treaty or npt is an international treaty to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. the treaty was opened for signing on july 1st, 1968. there are currently 189 states that are party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons. the five nuclear weapons states are the united states, united kingdom, france, russia and china. only four countries are not yet signatories to the treaty and they are india, pakistan, israel and north korea. india and pakistan both possess and have openly tested nuclear bombs. israel has a policy of opacity regarding its own nuclear weapons while north korea ratified the treaty, violated it and later withdraw from the treaty. the impetus behind the npt was the growing concer4n for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. it was recognised that the cold war deterrent relationship between just the united states and the then soviet union was fragile. more nuclear players reduced security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accident or unauthorised use or through the escalation of a small nuclear conflict.18 the treaty was proposed by ireland and was opened for signature in 1968. finland was the first country to sign it. the treaty came into force in 1970. by 1992, all five then declared nuclear powers had signed the treaty. the treaty was renewed in 1995 followed by the (comprehensive ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 19 test ban treaty in 1996). several npt signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programmes.19 among such countries was south africa which undertook a nuclear weapons programme, allegedly with the assistance of israel signed the treaty in 1991, after completely destroyed its small nuclear arsenal. other states which have since renounced their nuclear programmes include libya, brazil, argentina, sweden and former soviet republics. pillars of the treaty although, the npt itself does not make any mention of pillars. however the treaty is divided into 3 parts which many scholars have referred to as its pillars. the first pillar of the treaty deals with non-proliferation. under the treaty, five states are recognised as nuclear weapons states or nws. these states are: france (signed in the treaty in 1992), china (signed in 1992), the soviet union (signed in 1968 but its obligations and rights are now assumed by russia), the united kingdom (signed in 1968) and the united states (signed in 1968). the us, uk and the soviet union were the only states openly possessing such weapons among the original rectifiers of the treaty, which entered into force in 1970. these 5 nations are also the 5 permanent members of the united nations security council. these 5 countries or nuclear weapons states agree not to transfer “nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not in any way assist, encourage or induce” a non-nuclear weapon states (nnws) to acquire nuclear weapons (article 1). 20 non-nuclear weapon states parties to the npt agree not to “receive, manufacture or acquire” nuclear weapons or to “seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons” (article ii).21 non-nuclear weapon states also agree to accept safeguards by the international ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 20 energy agency (iaea) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other explosive devices. the five nuclear weapons states (nws) parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear weapon state 9nnws) party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a nuclear weapon state. however, these undertakings have not been formally incorporated onto the treaty. the second pillar of the npt deals with disarmament. the npt’s preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthening international trust so as to create someday, the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons and in general, complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. the npt’s article vi elaborates on the preambles language, urging all state parties to the npt, both nuclear weapon states and non-nuclear weapons states, “to pursue negotiations in good faith on effectively measure relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament and in general, the complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.22 the third pillar of the treaty focuses on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. since very few of the nuclear weapons states and states using nuclear reactors for energy generation are willing to completely abandon possession of nuclear fuel, the third pillar of the npt under article iv provides other states with the possibility to do the same, but under conditions intended to make it difficult to develop nuclear weapons. the treaty, under this pillar, recognises the inalienable right of sovereign states to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but it restricts this right for npt ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 21 parties to be exercised “in conformity with article i and ii”, both of which deals with nonproliferation obligations.23 major articles of the treaty the nuclear non-proliferation treaty has 12 articles. but for the purpose of space, only the six most important articles are listed and briefly summarised. article i: each nuclear weapons state (nws) undertakes not to transfer to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state (nnws) to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices.24 article ii: each non-nuclear weapon state party undertakes not to receive from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. article iii: each non-nuclear weapons state party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the iaea for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear materials in all of the state’s peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. article iv: 1. nothing in this treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all parties to the treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and conformity with article i and ii of this treaty. 2. all the parties to the treaty undertake to facilitate and have the right to participate in the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. parties to the treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 22 contributing alone or together with other states or international organisations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear weapon states party to the treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. article vi: states undertakes to pursue “negotiations in good faith on effective measures to or relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament and towards a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control”. article x: establishes the right to withdraw from the treaty giving 3 months’ notice. it also establishes the duration of the treaty (which lasts for 25 years before it was extended indefinitely at the 1995 treaty extension initiative).25 these are the major articles which define and explain the treaty in derail. they are only summarised here. merits of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt) the nuclear non-proliferation treaty has achieved some success in its over 50 years history. for one, the treaty is the most widely accepted and widely adhered to treaty in the world with 189 countries being signatories to the treaty. this is in fact almost all the sovereign independent countries of the world. although 3 countries: india, pakistan and israel are only non-signatories, it nevertheless enjoys wide popular support and is a significant achievement. another of the treaty’s merits is that it encourages the countries that are signatory to it to work towards disarmament. this is equally focused on the 5 nuclear weapons states which are legally ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 23 recognised by the treaty as possessing nuclear weapons prior to 1965. the treaty aims at putting pressure on these 5 countries to reduce or totally destroy all their existing nuclear arsenals. it also aims at bringing countries to work towards a treaty for disarmament. although so far none of these 5 countries are willing to completely disarm, yet efforts have been made by them to reduce some of their existing nuclear arsenal. for example, the us and russia (then soviet union) signed several treaties between them limiting their strategic nuclear arsenals examples of such treaties include salt (strategic arms limitation talks), start (strategic arms reduction treaty) and the abm (anti-ballistic missile) treaty.with these treaties or agreements reached, the objective of disarmament as elicited by the npt has been achieved. the nuclear non-proliferation treaty goes a step further in combating nuclear proliferation by compelling countries that are signatories to submit their nuclear facilities to the iaea for inspections and safeguards. this is for the purpose of preventing nuclear proliferation and ensuring transparency in signatory parties to nuclear programmes and policies. finally, another merit of the treaty is that it makes provision for cooperation in the area of civilian nuclear technology. this is in a bid to promote the peaceful application of nuclear technology. developing countries have benefited variously from the peaceful application of nuclear technology in solving pressing humanitarian problems. conclusion the international atomic energy agency (iaea) has so far been able to curtail the spread of nuclear weapon proliferation.26 through its safeguards and verification programme, a lot of countries have instead opted to use nuclear power to generate electricity and carrying out ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 24 research on medical, agricultural and industrial uses. the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (npt) has achieved a lot in the fight against nuclear proliferation. the npt is the most widely adhered to treaty in the world and thus is significant because countries are bound by its provision and thus are barred from manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons. both the iaea and the npt through the cooperative effort of some countries notably the united states of america work hand in hand in order to achieve a proliferation free world. in conclusion, the iaea and its efforts at nuclear non-proliferation need to be better supported and equipped to face the arduous challenge of keeping the world safe from nuclear weapons. through mutual cooperation and dialogue, the iaea would be in a better position to encourage countries to resist the temptation of making nuclear weapons in order to ensure global peace and security. the loopholes in the npt should be closed or amended and only countries which are signatories of the npt’s additional protocol should be allowed to import equipment for civilian nuclear reactors. non-proliferation initiatives such as the proliferation security initiative (psi) should be improved upon and expanded to allow more countries to participate in it. research into the peaceful application of nuclear energy in the fields of medicine and agriculture should continue. also, less developed countries of the world should be allowed to benefit from this.the best way to defeat a man in a battle is to cripple his economy.27 the economy of the less developed countries can be boosted when allowed to participate in research into the peaceful application of nuclear energy in the fields of medicine and agriculture.28 finally, it is recommended that countries being investigated for alleged npt violations should be barred from holding positions of influence in the iaea. moreover, countries which ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 25 possessnuclear weapons like the usa, russia etc., should disarm stop, gun-boat stratagem and engage in disarmament negotiations to ensure cooperation, equity as well as security.29 endnotes 1amoldkramish, the peaceful atom in foreign policy, new york: dell publishing co., 1963, 232. 2kramish, the peaceful atom in foreign policy 232 3kramish, the peaceful atom in foreign policy 232 4 mohammed el baradei, “nuclear non-proliferation: the security context”, statements of the director-general, www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/2007/ebsp2007n016.html 5 david b. waller, “managing the nuclear dilemma”, iaea bulletin, 49(1), september 2007, 1 6tariq rauf, “npt: the long road to a nuclear-free world”, iaea bulletin, 49(1) september, 2007, 1 7 david fischer, “nuclear safeguards: the first steps”, iaea bulletin, 49(1), september 2007, 1 8 p. n. okeke, and m. w. anyakoha, senior secondary physics, revised edition, london: macmillan, 1989, 290. 9okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 290 10okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 291 11okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 291 12okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 292 13okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 292 14okeke, and anyakoha, senior secondary physics… 292 15 j. c. chukwu, “the dualism in the activities of the international atomic energy agency (iaea) towards nuclear non-proliferation”, scientific journal of arts, humanities and social sciences, 2(3) 2022, 55 16 joshua goldstein, international relations, fifth edition: new jersey: pearson educational publishing co., 2002 17 k. a. opuware, j. c. chukwu, “international atomic energy agency (iaea) and nuclear non-proliferation: an assessment”, the international scholar journal of arts, 1(1) 2018, 18rauf, “npt: the long road to a nuclear-free… 2 19rauf, “npt: the long road to a nuclear-free… 3. 20 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty”, pillars and articles of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty,www.iaea.org/publication/npt 21 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty” 22 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty” 23 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty” 24 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty” 25 “nuclear non-proliferation treaty” 26j. c. chukwu, “the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the arms race: the post war deterioration of relations between united states and soviet union 1949 – 1964”, international journal of research in education humanities and commerce, 3(2) 2022, 256. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 26 27j. c. chukwu, “boko haram insurgency and its implication on national security”, international scholars journal of arts and social science research, 1(2) 2019, 9, www.theinterscholar.org/tisja 28j. c. chukwu, “nuclear proliferation and terrorism: threat to global security ”, international journal multidisciplinary research and growth evaluation, 3(3) 2022, 586 29 j. c. chukwu, “challenges faced by the international atomic energy agency (iaea) towards nuclear non-proliferation”, gph international journal of social science and humanity research, 5(6) 2022, 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 27 effect of class size on academic achievement of chemistry students in ikere local government area of ekiti state, nigeria amoke m. kenni department of chemistry, college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state nigeria e-mail: kenni.amoke@coeikere.edu.ng phone no: +2348053158669 abstract this research investigated the effect of class size on academic achievement of chemistry students secondary schools in public in ikere local government area of ekiti state. the study was guided by four (4) objectives which were raised into three (3) research questions and formulated into four (4) hypotheses. the study adopted quasi – experimental research design. the sample size of eighty (80)respondents were used for the study using purposive sampling technique to select a school that practices co-educational school with at least 100 chemistry students in the ss2 classes. the class was grouped into two. group 1 named large class consisted of 50 students while the second group, group 2 was named small class with 30 chemistry students. the instrument for data collection in the study was a student chemistry achievement test (scat). the test retest method of reliability was used to ascertain the reliability index of the instrument using pearson’s product moment correlation (ppmc). a coefficient of 0.85 was obtained. frequency counts and percentage were used to analyse the demographic data of respondents while the hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics of t-test. based on the findings of the study, the researcher concluded that chemistry class size either small or large class size had no effects on students’ academic achievement but students’ achievement in either small or large class size could be affected by factors like teachers’ effectiveness, teaching method, instructional materials available for use etc. students’ treatment in either large or small class size had no effects on chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the post-test. class size did not affect chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the post-test. gender chemistry achievement is independent of large class in the post-test. therefore, based on the findings, appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: class size, academic achievement, chemistry student, school discipline. introduction globally, science has been embraced as driver of the new world and catalyst of civilization of any country. science has been described as a discipline that is unique with beautiful qualities that branded it with systematic approach through which knowledge is sought after and collected. for every nation to benefits immensely and effectively from the abundant opportunity of science, there is need for substantial level of scientific literacy among the citizen. pember & humbe (2009) defined science as a process of teaching or training especially, in school to improve one’s knowledge about environment and to develop one’s skill of systematic inquiry as well as natural attitudinal characteristics. science plays important roles in the society because it relates to our daily life and career. both the process and product of science are acquired through education and this is specialized type of education such as science education. no country can be globally ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 18 mailto:kenni.amoke@coeikere.edu.ng recognized without talking about its scientific advancements. the importance of science in our society made the federal government of nigeria, through the federal ministry of education to introduce science subjects in the nation’s secondary school curriculum. chemistry is one of such subjects introduced. chemistry occupies a unique position among various science subjects offered at the senior secondary school level. the study of chemistry involves pursuit of truth, a process that instills diligence, patience and objectivity in learners (opara & waswa, 2013). chemistry learning develops the scientific habits in students, which are transferable to other areas of life. such habits involve non-reliance on superstition, use of critical thinking and respect for other people’s opinion (yunus & ali, 2012). chemistry as a science is a fundamental requirement for most core science based courses (oloyede, 2010). improving students’ academic achievement in chemistry has been the concern and the reason for most educational research and programmes. in addition to the students’ qualities, other determinants such as home factors, school variables, and teacher qualities have been found to impact on students’ academic achievement, either positively or negatively. class size is one of the school variables that determine how effectively students learn. there is therefore the need to adopt efficient teaching and learning strategies that will enhance better achievement and retention of the subject matter by students. michael (2010) defined class size as the number of students for whom a teacher is primarily responsible for during a school year. the class size could be large or small. class size is akin to the administrative element of ‘span of control’, which is the number of subordinates a manager can effectively supervise. it is an administrative measure signifying the number of students for whom a teacher is responsible during the school year. adeyemi (2008) described class size as an educational tool that can be used to describe the average number of students per class in a school. the teacher who is the classroom manager should therefore, have the number of students he/she can effectively control, supervise and teach at any given period. it is often perceived that smaller classes have less number of disruptions thereby engendering better student/teacher engagement and better student learning than larger classes. adding more students to a class increases the number of disruptions and decreases the amount of time during which learning can take place because the teacher spends time dealing with these students that cause disruptions. meanwhile, hattie (2009) argued that not all interactions between student and teacher will result in improved learning; rather effective interaction is what is needed. however, sparks (2010) noted that class can be said to be large when the student number is more than 25. as the world population continues to increase, the class sizes are also affected. class size is often mentioned by experts in the educational literature as having effect on student‘s feelings and performance, quality of school budgets and on administration as well (owoeye & yara, 2011). it is considered as one of the important determinants of academic achievement over which teachers in schools have little or no control. mokobia & okoye (2011) explained that educators universally have identified class size as important and desirable attribute of effective educational system. according to doyle (2014), in modern day education, the focus is on the needs, interest and comfort of the students. thus, managing class size allows students to learn effectively without disturbing one another (garret, 2008). while a number of studies have found support for the importance of class size on student achievement, others strongly disprove this claim concluding that class size has little or no impact on objective student outcomes. the orthodox wisdom among parents, teachers, school administrators, and policy makers is that, smaller class size translates to improvements in student learning and outcomes. this orthodox wisdom, however, has not been universally supported by realistic ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 19 evidence (aturupane, glewwe & wisniewski, 2013). it has been argued that increasing the intake of senior secondary school students in a large class has numerous benefits for the schools and the country as a whole. it helps to reduce the cost of building additional classrooms of which few schools as well as the country have the resources to fund additional classrooms and teachers. determining the ideal class size continues to generate a lot of discussion, especially in this present period of school population explosion, financial hardship, shortage of teachers and students’ poor academic achievement. opinions differ among educationists and different people/ nations have varying perceptions of what constitutes a small, large or ideal class size. whether a class is perceived as large or small depends on factors such as teacher factors, school environment, educational theories and philosophies. several factors such as inadequate school building, population explosion, inadequate number of subject teachers, give rise to larger class sizes. in a normal classroom, the teacher is expected to cater for/ deal with diverse personalities with divergent backgrounds, ideas, interests, attitudes and abilities (eboatu & ehirim, 2018). academic achievement is the educational outcome that indicates the extent to which the specific goal of education has been accomplished in an instructional environment. this is normally shown in terms of students’ scores and grades in test examinations or assignments. maguson (2007) describes academic achievement as commonly measured by examination or continuous assessment but maintains that there is no general agreement on how academic achievement is best tested. though the relationship between class size and academic achievement has been a perplexing one, many educationists believe that small class sizes engender better student achievement and that it helps students get sufficient feedback. proponents of small class sizes posited that it enables students to get adequate attention from teachers which invariably lead to better academic achievement and eliminates frustration. bruhwiler & blatchford (2011) believes that students who were taught in smaller classes in their early elementary grades continue to have enhanced academic achievement even if they are in larger classes in upper elementary or middle school. in ekiti state, inadequate classrooms are coupled with insufficient numbers of chemistry teachers due to no immediate replacement of teachers, as many retire from the teaching profession each year. this leads to increases in teacher-students ratios in schools and lack of specialist teachers to handle some subjects. more often than not, two or more classes are combined to be taught chemistry because of these deficiencies. it brings about large class formation in schools which may hinder academic achievement of students in chemistry. it was observed by the researcher that in some secondary schools within ikere local government, the class size is large because of insufficient chemistry teachers. some of the problems that are associated with large chemistry classes are congestion, noisy classes, little or no interpersonal relationships between teacher and students, etc. in a chemistry class of 50:1 students-teacher ratio, some of the students will not be able to hear the teacher audibly while teaching and learning process are ongoing. therefore, this leading to poor dissemination of instructions from chemistry teachers to students and resulting into low impact of knowledge of the topic under discussion. hence, this study intends to investigate the effect of class size on academic achievement of chemistry students in ikere local government area of ekiti state. hypotheses the following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance in the study: 1. there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the pre-test. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 20 2. there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the post-test. 3. there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the post-test. 4. there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in large class in the post-test. literature review concept of school environment according to mick (2011), school environment means the extent to which school settings promote student safety and student health, which may include topics such as the physical plant, the academic environment, available physical and mental health supports and services, and the fairness and adequacy of disciplinary procedures, as supported by relevant research and an assessment of validity. environment is a place where the child functions. this includes home, the school, the peer group, the classroom, the totality of the child’s upbringing including his spiritual life, tissue needs, social needs, psychological needs it is defined not to mean only the place in which the child lives (physical) but also the people with which he comes in contact with (social) (akem, 2008). students’ academic success is greatly influenced by the type of school they attend. school factors include school structure, school composition and school climate. the school that one attends is the institutional environment that sets the parameters of a students’ learning experience. as schools are faced with more public accountability for student academic performance, school level characteristics are being studied to discover methods of improving achievement for all students. depending on the environment, schools can either open or close the doors that lead to academic performance (barry, 2005). crosnoe (2004) suggested that school sector (public or private) and class size are two important structural components of the school. private schools tend to have both better funding and smaller sizes than public schools. the additional funding for private schools leads to a better academic performance and more access to resources research shows that students who trust their teachers are more motivated and as a result perform better in school (eamon, 2005). school policies and programmes often dictate the school climate. furthermore, if a school is able to accomplish a feeling of safety, students can have success regardless of their family or neighbourhood backgrounds (crosnoe, 2004). according to muleyi (2008), teachers do influence students’ academic performance. school variables that affect students’ academic performance include the kind of treatment which teachers accord the students. teachers cannot be dissociated from the schools they teach and academic results of their schools. teacher’s experience is another indicator of student academic performance. school climate is closely linked to the interpersonal relations between students and teachers. according to crosnoe (2004), school climate is the general atmosphere of school. trust between students and teachers increases if the school encourages teamwork. quite a bit of research has been done to identify the influence of classroom and school characteristics on academic performance. student achievement variables aggregated to the school level have been used a great deal to describe school output but variables describing aggregation of properties of classrooms within schools have been studied somewhat less often in school analyses. concept of class size the concept of class size refers to the number of students undertaking a particular course/ subject or the number of students taught by a teacher in a classroom in a given period. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 21 it is the number of students a teacher attends to during a given period of instruction (eboatu & ehirim, 2018). class size is thus different from the student-teacher ratio, which is expressed as the relationship between the student population and the number of teachers available in the school. the schoolteacher-to-student ratio may be low but conceals the existence of a dearth of teachers in some subject areas that lack teachers, thereby giving rise to few teachers teaching large numbers of students in these subjects. class size may be defined as the number of students per teacher in a given class or the population of a class (ajayi, audu & ajayi, 2017). several factors such as inadequate school building, population explosion, inadequate number of subject teachers, give rise to larger class sizes. in a normal classroom, the teacher is expected to cater for/ deal with diverse personalities with divergent backgrounds, ideas, interests, attitudes and abilities. in large classes and overpopulated classes, the result is student disengagement (eboatu & ehirim, 2018). the teacher in such a situation may not be able to give individual students the attention they need and this may lead to poor academic achievement. frn (2013) therefore prescribes a student-teacher ratio of 1:25 for pre-primary classes; 1:35 for primary and 1:40 for secondary schools. some researchers have maintained that class size is a tool which can be adopted in measuring performance of educational system (kedney, 2013).class size is refers to as students to teacher ratio per class (ali, 2012). in the view of ikolo (2011), class size equally means group which is a set of persons among whom there exist a definable or observable set of relations. the word group then can refer not only to a set of persons but to a place where the interaction occurs. according to imoke (2006) optimum class size implies rational coordination of educational infrastructures, subject to available number of students in order to attain high level of productivity. the class size is becoming increasingly unmanageable, putting teachers in an impossible position of giving individual student required attention. in nigeria public schools, the teachers' eye contact with the students in class has become so reduced that some of the poorly motivated students can form number of committees at the back of the class while teaching is going on to engage in non-school discussion. regular assignments and home works are dreaded by teachers considering the staggering number of books to mark and to record (adimonyemma, akachukwu & igboabuchi, 2018). class size, school discipline and performance discipline is a variable that impact and influence either way the students’ academic performance in the school. discipline according to animashaun (2009), is the control of the class by the teachers as applicable to a feature of school life. discipline is the training which produces cooperation from the students. classroom discipline is the business of enforcing classroom standards and building patterns of corporation to maximize learning and minimize disruption. makinde (2011) opined that to build positive classroom discipline, teachers should model appropriate behaviour and use appropriate classroom management methods. it is often argued that many notable problems that are militating against students’ academic performance in chemistry originated from the class. a lot of indiscipline acts in the classroom are born of out of the fact that the class is too large for the teacher to manage (mcintyre, 2005). the over population of the classroom and the prevalent acts of indiscipline is a thing of concern for educators and this researcher. several factors have been incriminated as being responsible for the conducive teaching and learning environment. among such factors are class size and discipline (tobih, akintaro & osunlana, 2013). on one side, classroom congestion in terms of large class is blamed and on ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 22 the other hand, low utilization of classrooms in the sense of small class size have been identified as a common feature of secondary schools in nigeria. conflicts has often appeared on the ideal class size. zyngier (2014) stated that the relationship between class size and academic achievement is an approach that has been tried, debated and analysed for many decades. some educators have long argued that students do better in small class sizes and there is a logic that small class size increase students’ academic achievement. despite large amount of research on the debate on relationship between class size and student academic performance, there exist sharp disagreements about the findings. the divergent views have made it difficult to pin down the precise relationship among class size, discipline and students’ academic performance. although, most studies in nigeria revealed significant relationship between class size and students’ academic performance such as, fabunmi, brai-abu & adeniji (2007) who found out that class size alongside classroom space and classroom utilization rate determines significantly secondary school students’ academic performance in oyo state. tobih, et. al. (2013) revealed that there is significant relationship between class size and students’ academic performance in mathematics in jssce examination. status of class size in senior secondary schools chemistry class education is the systematic training of individual in order to bring about positive change in his or her behaviour so as to become fulfilled citizen (angelo, 2008). across the globe, trends in education have reflected significant increase in students’ enrolment (ademola, 2014). this is very evident in nigeria with an upward trend in school enrolment at all levels of education including science (chemistry) after the civil war in 1970. nigeria, like most of the countries across the globe has adopted and implemented to a large extent the education for all (efa) policy of the united nations (un), which has in no small measure resulted in the increased students population at all levels of education. the increased numbers in enrolment have led to another educational problem which piqued the interest of educators, particularly when this increased number is juxtaposed with students’ classroom management and engagement. the increased figure in enrolment has led to increased number of students in a chemistry classroom. according to yusuf (2015), classrooms are used as appropriate places for seeking and acquiring education usually from a teacher to the learners. classroom size is the population of a given class in terms of number of students per teacher. the frn (2013) recommended an average of 40 students per class as the standard class size in nigeria. two class sizes are normally distinguishable in the educational sector. a large class size falls within 41 and above learners to one teacher while small class size is within 15-40 learners to one teacher (aliu, 2015). many scholars including yusuf (2015) all support this classification of class sizes. therefore, class size with 1 40 students per teacher will be categorized as small class size while class size with 41 and above students per teacher will be categorized as large class size. dror (2009) noted that class size (in chemistry) has become a phenomenon often mentioned in the educational literature as an influence on students’ socializing pattern and academic performance, quality of instruction, administration and school budgets. the scholar added that class size is an administrative decision which teachers have little or no control. ogunyemi & hassan (2011) maintained that the issue of small or large class size can be counter-productive. in remote and even local areas, classes are found to be over-congested which is indeed an indication of the dearth of educational facilities in schools. the issue of large class sizes and the associated consequences is paramount. the phenomenon of large classes is fast becoming the vogue of senior secondary schools in nigeria and in most developing countries. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 23 the large class syndrome has been attributed to the expansion in annual students’ enrolment. sesugh (2012) discovered that there is tremendous increase in the enrolment of students and in the average size of classrooms in nigeria senior secondary schools these days from 30 40 students to 60 75 or even more. though, open enrolment in schools is laudable, yet, the deficiency is in the corresponding provision of adequate infrastructures, inadequate classrooms, short supply of teachers, dilapidated structures and classrooms which look like poultry in some schools. seats and desks which are basic classroom requirements are insufficient and in some senior secondary schools, students are sitting on ransacked furniture and some even sit on bare floor (omwirhiren & anderson, 2016). the size of classes has become increasingly unmanageable, leaving the chemistry teachers with the impossible task of giving individual attention to the learner’s needs. the chemistry teachers’ eye contact with the learner in class becomes so dissipated that a number of poorly motivated learners can form small committees at the back of the class to engage in non-school discussion, while the teacher is busy teaching. continuous assessments are dreaded by teachers when they consider the staggering number of scripts to be marked and recorded. in modern education, attention is centered on the needs and comfort of the learner, how the learning is distributed by social background and may be influenced by the structural and organizational properties of the school. thus, attention is centered on class size which allows (chemistry) students to learn effectively without disturbing one another (ajayi, audu & ajayi, 2017). large class size and academic achievement of chemistry students teaching large classes is particularly challenging. the challenge to schools to provide a high quality education comes when secondary schools are also facing budget crises. a solution that many schools have turned to is large classes. besides, the literature has argued that pedagogies specifically designed for teaching smaller classes sometimes overlap with pedagogies employed when teaching larger classes but have distinct characteristics that differentiate them from those employed when teaching larger class (aturupaneet al., 2013; azigwe, kyriakides, panayiotou & creemers, 2016). although no consensus exist as to the exert size of the large class, the term generally applied to classes with more than 50 pupils. some regard a large class as one with more than 100 pupils. according to amadahe (2016), one of the most essential parts of the teaching and learning process is assessment and evaluation of students. large classes call for large volumes of marking to be done and feedback given to students. this is a major challenge, especially in nigeria public senior secondary schools. in the face of large classes, instructors are upset with the workload and resort to traditional teaching and assessment methods. teachers are unable to finish marking assignments, exercises and examinations on time, and this delays the feedback given to students. kasumi (2014) stated that large classes are less likely to make compositions and oral presentations and are more likely to mark students with multiple-choice-exams involving multiple solutions. large classes may be a cost effective solution to budget crises at some schools, but they have been criticized by teachers and education stakeholders. instructors frequently feel that teaching large classes is an unrewarded, ineffective or, at the very least challenging situation. olatunde (2010) in his study on class size and academic achievement of students in mathematics in southwestern nigeria, found out that the performance of students in large classes was very low (23%) compared to those students in smaller classes (64%). and for many schools, regardless of experience, teaching a large class seems difficult to do well. the large class experience also challenges pupils. most largeclass courses are introductory and intended for first and second year pupils for whom learning in a large class is a new experience. they must learn to get by with less individual attention than they may have ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 24 received in primary schools. as a result, some chemistry students may feel anonymous in the class and this anonymity may make it harder for them to become motivated to keep up. another obstacle is that with so many of their peers listening, many pupils in large classes feel too intimidated to ask questions or too overwhelmed by the material to approach instruction or others for help. larger classes needed fewer teachers and classrooms, hence the per-pupil cost was less (tomlinson, 1998). the response of educators and school reformers to this practice was the same then as now. they believed that larger classes would increase the teachers’ work burden and reduce the efficacy of instruction. seats and desks which are basic classroom requirements are insufficient and in some secondary schools, students are sitting on ransacked furniture and some even sit on bare floor (oyeniran, 2014). the size of the classes has become increasingly unmanageable, leaving the teachers with the impossible task of giving individual attention to the learner’s needs. the teachers’ eye contact with the learner in class becomes so dissipated that a number of poorly motivated learners can form small committees at the back of the class to engage in non-school discussion, while the teacher is busy teaching. small class size and academic achievement of chemistry students class with a smaller number of students is often perceived to allow teachers to focus more on the individual needs of students and shorten the amount of time in the classroom that teachers dedicate such as discipline, or disruption among students. factors that affect the interaction between teachers and students in the class are: courses subjects, teachers’ sharing time between teaching and other duties, students’ grouping within the classroom and teaching practice in groups or teams (kasumi, 2014). resnick (2018) stressed that class size must be reduced substantially to achieve the benefits. there is no experimental research suggestions that any benefits are realized by subtracting only a few children from a larger class, for example, transitioning from 28 to 25 pupils. muraina & muraina (2014) revealed that comfortable classroom temperature and smaller classes enhance teachers’ effectiveness and provide opportunities for students to receive individual attention, ask more questions, participate fully in discussion, reduce discipline problems and perform better than students in schools with larger classes. filges, sonne‐schmidt & bjørn (2018) concluded that reducing class size from 40 or more to 20 pupils led to almost no increase in achievement. not until class size is being dropped to 15 pupils or lower will there be larger effects on achievement. in light of the varying definitions and methodologies for defining school and class size, a procedure had to be established for on the effect of class size on pupil achievement. identifying large and small schools, then calculating the class size in those schools, was the most logical way to define class size. filgesset al (2018) emphasized the importance of investigating underlying motivations for teachers and parents and the need to examine teaching practices. disruptive students are reasons why some promote small classes. improving classroom management skills, providing alternative settings or additional support for disruptive pupils, or changing the curriculum might have more of an effect on pupil achievement performance than universally reducing class size. normore & ilon (2006) concluded that smaller class size had a positive impact in several areas like having time to cover school curriculum, higher levels of pupilpupil and pupil-teacher relationship and safer schools with fewer discipline problems. at the same time, the evaluation of small class sizes is better, where teacher has an idea, prediction and keeps complete records for each student, for their achievements or their full performance (kasumi, 2014). teachers and students shall be provided with appropriate classroom conditions and limited number of students per classroom in order to organize and develop work in groups and course related practical activities. the class size could also affect ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 25 the teacher’s allocation of time and, hence, effectiveness, in other ways, too. according to johnson (2010), classes that require active participation of the students are small. small classes tend to be effective, since students actively process the material rather than just listen and read. olatunde (2010) investigated the class size and the students’ mathematics achievement of senior secondary schools in southwestern nigeria. the results showed that the performance of students in large classes was very low (23%) compared to those students in smaller classes (64%). it was then recommended that policymakers and the government should ensure that more classrooms are built and the number of students in a class should not be greater than 30. bakasa (2012) also investigated the effect of class size on academic achievement at a selected institution of higher learning in south africa. descriptive findings, which were a triangulation of the data gathered from the various instruments of data collection, pointed towards a conclusion that class size and school factors such as teacher effectiveness can influence student achievement. cho, glewwe & whitler (2012) analyzed the minnesota comprehensive assessment test of all third and fifth grade students in minnesota. they found that reducing class size had a positive impact on student performance in reading and mathematics. however, the researchers’ analysis of the data showed only a minimal increase with a 10-student decrease in class size, resulting in a 0.04 to 0.05 standard deviation increase in the distribution of student standardized test scores. kassile (2014) conducted a study to look at the effects of various resources on student achievement. the study analyzed the effect of student-teacher ratio on pass rates on the primary school leaving examination in mainland tanzania. it was found out that studentteacher ratio had a statistically negative effect on student achievement with a pearson correlation coefficient of 0.74176 and p=.0001. mahlo (2015) in his study compared class size (learner-teacher ratio) between boarding and non-boarding schools, along with the correlation between them and academic achievement of grade 12 learners of the capricorn district in the limpopo province of south africa. a simple random sample was drawn from the population of 339 schools, comprising of 51 principals, 158 teachers and 290 learners from 51 schools. the school environmental questionnaire (seq) collected data on the school environment, while the capricorn district academic summary report of the grade 12 collected data on academic achievement. the data analysis technique used was the t-test. the results showed no significant difference in learner-teacher ratio between boarding and non-boarding schools. it also revealed no significant difference in class size exists between low and high achieving schools indicating that the class has no significant relationship with academic achievement. mckee, sims & rivkin (2015) investigated patterns of heterogeneity in the effects of class size on student achievement in the project star classes that showed improvement. they found out that students in higher poverty schools and academically gifted students both benefitted from smaller class size. it was conjectured that in higher poverty classrooms, there are a larger number of interruptions and classroom management issues that can be minimized with smaller class sizes. in academically gifted classrooms, smaller classes can result in more individualized and challenging instruction. methodology the design of this study was quasi – experimental research design. it utilized the null randomized pre-test and post-test design. the target population for the study consisted of the students in senior secondary school class 2 (sss 2) studying chemistry in ikere local government area of ekiti state. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 26 the choice of senior secondary school ii chemistry students was borne out of the researcher decision that this is the class in which organic chemistry was being introduced to students in secondary schools and also it is a class preparing for ekiti state unifying mock examination for senior secondary school students. the sample for the study consisted of seventy five (25) ss2 chemistry students in a selected secondary schools in ikere local government area. purposive random sampling was used to select a school that has practice co-educational school programme with at least 100 chemistry students in the ss2 classes. the students were randomly selected into two groups. group 1 named large class consisted of 50 students while the second group, group 2 was named small class with 30 chemistry students. the only instrument for the study was a students’ chemistry achievement test (scat). the scat was a 50 – item multiple choice test developed by the researcher based on the chemistry concepts organic chemistry. the scat consisted of two sections a and b. section a was used to elicit demographic data of the respondents like name of school, gender and age while section b consisted of fifty multiple choice questions with four options labeled a – d. the scat was used as pretest and posttest. the pretest was used to establish the baseline of all the selected students before the commencement of the treatment. the posttest was used to determine the effect of class size on students’ achievement in chemistry. the students chemistry achievement test (scat) was subjected to both content and face validity. the content validity was accomplished by ensuring that the test reflected the test blue print. face validity was established by evaluation of the test items by the researcher’s supervisor and one lecturer in department of chemistry in university of nigeria, nsukka, ikere-ekiti campus. the validators were given the research topic, research questions and hypotheses to enable them validate the instruments. reliability of the instrument to ensure that the items are consistent, test retest reliability method was used. a pilot study was carried out in a school which involved 50 ss2 students in ikere ekiti, ekiti state. the school selected was not part of the school selected for the study. the data collected were subjected to item analysis using pearson product moment correlation statistics. this was used to obtain the reliability index of the instrument. the reliability index obtained was 0.85. the researchers personally visited the selected secondary schools and get the consent of the school management before administering the same pre and post achievement test i.e. scat for the students. the study lasted for six weeks. in the first week the researchers divided the student into 2 classes’ i.e. large class and pre-tests was administrated on the participating students after the researcher has brief the student on the importance of the study. on the second week, the researchers taught each days on different hour based on the chemistry concept (organic chemistry).the researchers had prepared the lesson notes for the lesson and this lasted for two hours a week. on the last week which is the sixth week. the scat was re-administered to the students as post-test so as to determine their level of achievement. frequency counts and percentage were used in analyzing the demographic data of the respondents. while the research hypotheses were tested using the t-test at 0.05 level of significance. results and discussion test of hypotheses hypothesis 1: there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those taught in large class in the pre-test. table 1: t-test analysis of performance of students in chemistry pre-test. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 27 variable n mean sd df tcal. ttab. decision small class 30 19.80 3.66 78 0.37 1.96 not significant large class 50 19.50 3.39 p < 0.05 significance level table 1 shows the result of analysis of performance of students in chemistry pre-test. the table revealed that mean score for students taught in small class (19.80) was greater than the mean score of students taught large class (19.50) with a mean difference of (0.30). the t-test revealed that t-calculated (0.37) was less than the critical t-value (1.96) at the 0.05 significance level. hence, the null hypothesis was upheld. this means that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the pre-test. hypothesis 2: there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those taughtin large class in the post-test. table 2: t-test analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. variable n mean sd df tcal. ttab. decision small class 30 44.20 4.01 78 0.13 1.96 not significant large class 50 44.08 3.93 p < 0.05 significance level table 2 shows the result of analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. the table revealed that mean score for students taught in small class (44.20) was greater than the mean score of students taught in large class (44.08) with a mean difference of (0.60). the t-test revealed that t-calculated (0.13) was less than the critical t-value (1.96) at the 0.05 significance level. hence, the null hypothesis was upheld. this means that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the post-test. hypothesis 3: there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the post-test. table 3: t-test analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. variable n mean sd df tcal. ttab. decision male small class 16 43.75 4.00 28 0.65 2.00 not significant female small class 14 44.71 4.10 p < 0.05 significance level table 3 shows the result of analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. the table revealed that mean score for students taught in male small class (43.75) was less than the mean score of students taught in female small class (44.71) with a mean difference of (0.96). the t-test revealed that t-calculated (0.65) was less than the critical t-value (2.00) at the 0.05 significance level. hence, the null hypothesis was upheld. this means that there is ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 28 no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the post-test. hypothesis 4: there is no significant difference between the chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in large class in the post-test. table 4: t-test analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. variable n mean sd df tcal. ttab. decision male large class 22 43.05 4.38 48 1.68 2.00 not significant female large class 28 44.89 3.39 p < 0.05 significance level table 4 shows the result of analysis of performance of students in chemistry post-test. the table revealed that mean score for students taught in male large class (43.05) was less than the mean score of students taught in female large class (44.89) with a mean difference of (1.84). the t-test revealed that t-calculated (0.65) was less than the critical t-value (2.00) at the 0.05 significance level. hence, the null hypothesis was upheld. this means that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in large class in the post-test. discussion of results the results of finding revealed that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the pre-test. the findings agreed with the findings of olatunde (2010) that the performance of students in large classes was very low (23%) compared to those students in smaller classes (64%). and for many schools, regardless of experience, teaching a large class seems difficult to do well. the large class experience also challenges students. the size of classes has become increasingly unmanageable, leaving the chemistry teachers with the impossible task of giving individual attention to the learner’s needs. the chemistry teachers’ eye contact with the learner in class becomes so dissipated that a number of poorly motivated learners can form small committees at the back of the class to engage in non-school discussion, while the teacher is busy teaching. also, the findings from hypothesis 2 revealed that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the post-test. the findings is in line with the assertion of resnick (2018) that class size must be reduced substantially to achieve the benefits and further stated that there is no experimental research suggestions that any benefits are realized by subtracting only a few children from a larger class, for example, transitioning from 28 to 25 pupils. not until class size is being dropped to 15 students or lower will there be larger effects on achievement. the findings also agreed with the finding of muraina & muraina (2014) that comfortable classroom temperature and smaller classes enhance teachers’ effectiveness and provide opportunities for students to receive individual attention, ask more questions, participate fully in discussion, reduce discipline problems and perform better than students in schools with larger classes. in light of the varying definitions and methodologies for defining school and class size, a procedure had to be established for on the effect of class size on student achievement. identifying large and small schools, then calculating the class size in those schools, was the most logical way to define class size. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 29 the findings in hypothesis 3 revealed that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the posttest. this supported the findings of bruhwiler (2011) that students who were taught in smaller classes in their early elementary grades continue to have enhanced academic achievement even if they are in larger classes in upper elementary or middle school. this implies that irrespective of gender, students’ performance is guaranteed when taught in smaller class size. this established the fact that students taught in class size have improved academic performance whether male or female students. chemistry students who are taught in small class size have access to sufficient learning materials, teachers’ attention, enough instructional materials for enhancing learning and improved academic performance. smaller class size had a positive impact in several areas like having time to cover school curriculum, higher levels of student student and student -teacher relationship and safer schools with fewer discipline problems. teachers and students shall be provided with appropriate classroom conditions and limited number of students per classroom in order to organize and develop work in groups and course related practical activities. the class size could also affect the teacher’s allocation of time and, hence, effectiveness, in other ways, too and this will all have their effects on students’ performance in chemistry. hypothesis 4 revealed that there is no significant difference between chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in large class in the post-test. this is in line with the statement of kasumi (2014) that large classes are less likely to make compositions and oral presentations and are more likely to mark students with multiplechoice-exams involving multiple solutions. large classes may be a cost effective solution to budget crises at some schools, but they have been criticized by teachers and education stakeholders for less effective academic performance of students in subject like chemistry. even, teachers frequently feel that teaching large classes is an unrewarded, ineffective or, at the very least challenging situation. just as johnson (2010) stated that classes that require active participation of the students are small. small classes tend to be effective, since students actively process the material rather than just listen and read. conclusions based on the findings of the study, the researcher made the following conclusions: chemistry class size either small or large class size had no effects on students’ academic achievement but students’ achievement in either small or large class size could be affected by factors like teachers’ effectiveness, teaching method, instructional materials available for use etc. students’ treatment in either large or small class size had no effects on chemistry achievement scores of students taught in small class and those in large class in the post-test.the implication of this is that teacher’s methodology and mode of instruction could be main determining factors that affects the academic achievement of students in chemistry. class size did not affect chemistry achievement scores of male and female students taught in small class in the post-test. this implied that class size could have influence on students’ performance but students’ achievement in chemistry in small class size is independent of gender of students. this is because if students either male or female are exposed to chemistry teaching that is experimental in nature, they are likely to perform well and achieve better than those taught using traditional method of teaching. gender chemistry achievement is independent of large class in the post-test. that is male and female students in large class can perform at the same level if other factors such as environment and other learning materials are available. recommendations the following recommendations are suggested based on the outcome of the findings: 1. in spite of the amazing results of the influence of class size on the academic performance of secondary school students, and the facts that large classes has some ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 30 advantages it is still recommended that schools should stick to the 40:1 student – teacher ratio as stipulated by the national policy on education. class management and control is easier to achieve in a smaller class which goes a long way to determine the outcome of the learning experience. 2. restructuration of class size in chemistry require more facilities, therefore stakeholders should endeavour to provide required facilities and instructional materials for the teaching and learning of chemistry in senior secondary schools. 3. recruitment of chemistry teachers in senior secondary schools should be commensurate with the number of students in schools today so that the studentteacher ratio will not be so wide. this will reduce the possibility of taking more number of chemistry students by teachers in a particular class. 4. where class size is inevitably large, chemistry teachers should devise a means of dichotomizing students into segments so that instructional and pedagogical strategies to be applied by the teacher will enable the students to effectively harness the lesson very well. 5. ekiti state government should build more classrooms and provide adequate learning facilities so that chemistry students and teacher have enabling teaching-learning environment. 6. more instructional materials should be provided to include public address system so that the students in a large class could be instructed as appropriate. 7. chemistry teachers should direct more attention particularly to female students to make them improve on their academic achievement. 8. parents as well as chemistry teachers should encourage the students to develop positive attitude towards chemistry. also, parents should provide equal learning opportunities to their children and should not discourage the girls from studying chemistry. references ademola, e. o. 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(2004). school size and the interpersonal side of education: an examination of race/ethnicity and organizational context. social sciences quarterly, 85(5), 12591274. doyle, w. (2014). classroom organization and management. in m. c. wittrock (ed.). handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). new york: macmillan. dror, y. (2009). school locations as a function of uniqueness, autonomy integrated and comprehensiveness: an historical model with current implication. journal of educational administration and history, 27(1), 35 50. eamon, m. k. (2005). socio-demographic, school, neighbourhood, and parenting influence on academic achievement of latino young adolescent. journal of youth and adolescents, 34(20), 163-175. eboatu, v. n. & ehirim, j. u. (2018). perceived effect of class size on academic achievement of junior secondary school students in awka north local government area of anambra state, nigeria, international journal of research and innovation in social science (ijriss),ii(vi), 150-155. evans, d. k. & popova, a. (2015). what really works to improve learning in developing countries? an analysis of divergent findings in systematic reviews. the world bank. eze, s. (2010). effect of practical knowledge of chemistry as predictors of students’ performance in theoretical aspect of chemistry. unpublished phd thesis, university of nigeria, nsukka. fabunmi, m., brai-abu, p. & adeniji, i. a. (2007). class factors as determinants of secondary school student's academic performance in oyo state, nigeria. journal of social science, 14(3), 243 -247. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 32 federal government of nigeria, (2013). national policy on education and 4 year strategic plan for the development of the education sector: 2011 2015. yaba, lagos: nerdc press. filges, t., sonne‐schmidt, c. s & bjørn, c. v. n. (2018). small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: a systematic review, campbell systematic review wiley online library, 12-20. garret, d. j. (2008). classroom management essentials. london: cambride university press. hattie, j. a. (2009). visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. new york, ny: routledge. hoxby, c. (2000). the effects of class size on student achievement: new evidence from population variation. the quarterly journal of economics, 115. 1239-1285. 10.1162/003355300555060. ikolo, v. e. (2011). effect of classroom size on students’ academic performance of secondary school students in kosofe local government area of lagos state. unpublished m.ed dissertation, lagos state university ojo. imoke, f. (2006). class size and academic success among adolescent nigerians. ile-ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd. jegede, s. a. (2010). nigerian students perception of technical words in senior secondary school chemistry curriculum. pakistan journal of social sciences, 7(2), 109-111. johnson, i. (2010). class size and student performance at a public research university: a cross-classified model. research in higher education, 51, 701-723. 10.1007/s11162-010-9179-y. karbalaei, a. (2012). critical thinking and academic achievement, íkala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 17(2), 121-128. kassile, t. (2014). pass rates in primary school leaving examination in tanzania: implication for efficient allocation of resources. south african journal of education, 34(2), 121.retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.za. kasumi, h. (2014). smaller class size improves student achievement, scientific research of the union of scientists in bulgaria-plovdiv, series a. public sciences, art and culture, i. kedney, r. j (2013). performance measurement in non-advanced further education: the use of statistics. unpublished phd. thesis, university of lancaster, united kingdom. korau, y. k. (2006). educational crises facing nigerian secondary schools and possible solutions, being a paper presented at faculty of education, university of ibadan. maguson, k. (2007). material education and children’s academic achievement during middle childhood. developmental psychology, 4, 149-152. mahlo, d. (2015). a comparative study of class size and academic achievement of pupils in boarding and non-boarding schools, international journal of education and science, 11(2), 128-136. makinde, b. o. (2011).teachers and classroom climate. journal of research in counseling psychology, 6(2), 13-30. mcintyre, t. (2005). assertive discipline. hunter education publication. mckee, g., sims, k., & rivkin, s. (2015). disruption, learning, and the heterogeneous benefits of smaller classes. empirical economics, 48(3), 1267-1286. michael, k. (2010). the effects of class size on student academic achievement in a rural state. published ph.d dissertation, university of vermont, u.s.a. mick, z. (2011). south carolina school environment initiative. south carolina department of education, columbia. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 33 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/dosearch?contribauthorstored=sonne-schmidt%2c+christoffer+scavenius https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/dosearch?contribauthorstored=nielsen%2c+bj%c3%b8rn+christian+viinholt http://www.scielo.org.za/ mokobia, m. o. & okoye, n. s. (2011). effect of class size on the teaching and learning of in secondary schools in delta state, nigeria. journal of education and policy, 3(1), 1 7. muleyi, g. (2008). effects of home factors and type of school on academic performance of girls in bungoma district (unpublished m. phil. thesis), moi university, eldoret. muraina, m. b. & muraina, k. o. (2014). class size and school climate as correlates of secondary school students' scholastic achievement in itesiwaju local government area of oyo state, nigeria. global journal of humanitarians and social science, 14(3), 15 -21. normore, a. & ilon, l. (2006). cost-effective school inputs: is class size reduction the best educational expenditure for florida? educational policy, 20, 429-454. ogunyemi a. o. & hassan, e. m. (2011). academic self-efficacy study. study of educational issues, 4(1), 311. okebukola, p. a. o. (2005). the race against obsolescence: enhancing the relevance of stan to national development, memorial lecture series, 17, science teachers’ association of nigeria. olagunju, a. m., adesoji, f. a., iroegbu, j. o. & ige, t. a. (2018). innovations in science teaching for the new millennium, in o. ayedele-bamisaiye, l.a. nwazuoke and a. okedrim (eds) education: this millennium innovations in theory and practice. ibandan, nigeria: macmillan publisher nigeria. olatunde, y. p. (2010). class size and students’ mathematics achievement of senior secondary schools in south-western nigeria. the social sciences, 5(2), 108-112. oloyede, i. o. (2010). enhanced mastery learning strategy on the achievement and self concept in senior secondary school chemistry. humanity and social sciences journal, 5(1), 19-24. omwirhiren, e. m. & anderson, f. e. (2016). effect of class size and students’ attitude on academic performance in at demonstration secondary school, ahmadu bello university zaria, nigeria. iosr journal of research and method in education, 6(1), 1-6. opara, f. & waswa, p. (2013). enhancing students’ achievement in chemistry through the piagetian model: the learning cycle. international journal for cross-disciplinary subjects in education (ijcdse), 4(4), 1270-1278. owoeye, j. s. & yara, p. o. (2011). school location and academic achievement of secondary school in ekiti `state, nigeria. journal of asian social science. 7(5). oyeniran h (2014). the influence of class size on students’ academic performance in ikorodu local government area of lagos state. (unpublished m.ed dissertation). pember, s. t. & humbe, t. t. (2009). science education and national development. being a paper presented at the assutibs maiden national conference at ceo katsinaala 6th -9th october. pong, s. and pallas, a. (2001). class size and 8th grade math achievement in the u.s. and abroad. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 23(3), 251-273. resnick, l. (2018). class size: counting kids can count. american educational research association, 1(2), 1-4. retrieved online from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51066398.pdf saage, o. (2009). causes of mass failure in mathematics examination among students. a commissioned paper presented at government day secondary school. karu abuja science day 1st march. sesugh, s. (2012). the class size debate: is small better. nigeria: open university press. sparks, j. (2010). teaching large classes. retrieved from http://www.englishclub. com/teachinglarge classes html. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 34 tobih, d. o., akintaro, o. a. & osunlana, d. o. (2013). effect of class size reduction on students' performance in mathematics in jssce examination in ibadan municipal. international journal of educational research, 1(4), 165 -178. tomlinson, t. (1998). class size and public policy: politics and panaceas. washington, dc: office of educational research and improvement. wassce chief examiner’s reports, (2014). report on students performance in chemistry, wassce. yunus, f. & ali, z. (2012). urban students’ attitude towards the learning of chemistry, asia pacific international conference on environment-behaviour studies), mercure le sphinx cairo hotel, giza, egypt, 31 october -2 november. yusuf, h. (2015). effect of class size on the listening skills of primary (5) pupils in zaria local government area of kaduna state. unpublished m.ed dissertation, ahmadu bello university, zaria. zyngier, d. (2014). class size and academic results, with a focus on children from culturally, linguistically and economically disenfranchised communities. evidence base, (1), 1 23. retrieved from www.journal.anzsog.edu.au. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 35 http://www.journal.anzsog.edu.au/ “freedom” in pre-political thought: parallel between bergson and s. thomas1. prof. gennaro giuseppe curcio foreword “maritain’s philosophy is non-political, it goes beyond factions’ alliances even though it inspires them, as for the christian democrats south americans factions, which would choose maritain as their mentor”2. maritain’s political conception finds its fundament in a precise purpose: it is pluralist, responsible, free and virtuous. pluralism arises from the idea that men first interest is the search of a common good. maritain “recognizes fundamental importance to pluralism as methodology which allows people to reach the common good”3. therein it is possible to understand how “pluralism suggests personalism to leave behind abstract ideas and rhetoric, adding value to everyone as a whole, respecting diversity without let it become disparity”4. this kind of politics protects human rights promoting a way of life based on mutual respect through authentic values that share a common good founded on bonum honestum. a society that follows this model does not live by a series of individual goods gennaro giuseppe curcio, is the general secretary at international institut jacques maritain in rome, italy. he is professor in philosophy of human rights at university of cassino and southern lazio and theoretical philosophy at university of basilicata. he is the author of amore-passione, amore dilezione. un confronto-intreccio tra san tommaso d’aquino e dante alighieri (aracne, 2005), la politica ne “le primauté du spirituel” di jacques maritain (rubbettino, 2008), la laicità ne le “paysan de la garonne” di jacques maritain (rubbettino 2008), il senso dell’educazione in “pour une philosophie de l’èducation” di jacques maritain (rubbettino, 2014), jacques maritain e il concilio vaticano ii (studium, 2015), per un’economia più umana (edizioni di comunità, 2016), il volto dell’amore e dell’amicizia tra passioni e virtù (rubbettino, 2009), bellezza e responsabilità. i fondamenti della virtù politica (il mulino, 2013), democrazia, inclusione e pace nel mediterraneo (aracne, 2017), fratellanza e amicizia civile. per una cultura di pace (aracne, 2018), pace e diritti nei paesi del mediterraneo. un percorso interculturale (aracne, 2018) and etica del dialogo. diritti umani, giustizia e pace per una società intraculturale (il mulino, 2019). in 2017 in matera, italy, he established the first jacques maritain chair on dialogo e pace tra le culture e le religioni del mediterraneo, inaugurated by sergio mattarella, president of the italian republic. 1 all the following extracts are translated in english by a partner of international institute jacques maritain, rome. 2 p. viotto, grandi amicizie. i maritain e i loro contemporanei, città nuova, rome 2008, p. 174. 3 g. galeazzi, jacques maritain, un filosofo per il nostro tempo, massimo, milan 1999, p. 34. 4 ibidem. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 17 but by the communion of these goods in order to live well.5. from this pluralist and responsible context comes out a free and virtuous society, made on purpose by nature and reason, the most perfect among temporal societies. it is a tangible and entirely human reality, tending towards a tangible and entirely human good, the common good. it is the result of reasoning when reason relieved from instinct follows exclusively a rational order; it is not a pure reason as a man is not a pure man6. considering that a political structure is “made of flesh and blood, it has instincts and passions, reflexes and psychological subconscious’ structures7”, virtues become the means to overcome human faults and desires, to fly high in a realm of truth, peace and authentic freedom. a politician needs to understand that the superiority of a virtuous life can overcome the vulgarity of circumstances born from mere senses. he has to find a way to reveal again the beauty of men behavior resulting from intelligence that should guide human beings and their choices first and political preferences after. 1. a definition of man in a political thought, a pre-defined idea of man is essential in order to analyze in great depth the metaphysical idea of ‘politic’ as a value. as a matter of fact maritain thinks that such idea is the only base on which building a ‘truth of politics’ becomes possible. a man is not an idea but a real person who inhabits the universe in front of god and other men8. maritain believed that if bergson, on one hand tries to restore man’s unity denying division between body and soul, on the other he tends to remove spirituality from the soul. therefore human spirit ends up becoming the memory that “is the same way of our spirit9”, a confusion that destroys the human being’s unity10. the origin of this confusion has a counterpart within the body’s movement and aptitude. conscience thus 5 cf. j. maritain,les droit de l’homme et la loi naturelle, in ouvres complètes, éditions universitaires fribourg suisse-éditions saint paul, paris 1989, vol. vii, pp. 622-625. 6 id., l’homme et état, in oc, 1990, vol. ix, p. 491. 7 ibidem. 8 cf. id.,de bergson à thomas d’aquin. essais de métaphysique et de morale,in oc, 1989, vol. viii, p. 154. 9 id., la philosophie bergsonienne, in oc, 1989, vol. viii, p. 344. 10 cf. h. bergson, le due fonti della morale e della religione, laterza, rome-bari, 1998. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 18 becomes the central idea: from movements it reaches the thought. in bergson’s anthropology we can recognize a sort of monism where the difference between body and soul doesn’t rely on its nature but on a different level of intensity of the same thing that becomes action11. a man is not made up of a body and a soul, he is only a soul that uses the body carries the actions; only the soul is capable of action and constitutes the human persona as pure intellect. maritain overlooks bergson’s ideas to propose a more existentialist interpretation that reflects s. thomas aquinas beliefs: a new humanism, “free and conscious of itself capable of leading men towards sacrifice and a superhuman greatness. human pain brings clarity when is tolerated with love, when doesn’t sacrifice the joy, but instead looks for it with a spirit of rejoicing.”12. the french philosopher senses that the only way to create a new humanism in a society dominated by atheism and materialism, is to engage oneself with what exists. only relating to the existent around us: we can bring close what is good and what is bad, we can reach those hidden places of the human heart and the original greatness of men and their downfalls, tuning up with the secret aims of this strange image of god. pseudo-dionysius used to say that god is called zealot because of his great love for all that exists. saint thomas often repeats this word because he was zealot as well; for this reason he had the virtue to reassure, to alleviate and to reinforce in a peaceful way everything real and human we have inside ourselves13. maritain always looks for a mediation among intellectuals who give intelligence the main importance, and those who destroy reasoning, looking for an absolute pessimism14. between these two groups s. thomas stands out as the philosopher of existence15 who perfectly combined humanism and existence. according to maritain, s. thomas was able to truly respect human life and the man himself without separating intelligence and existence as two absolute entities, but using intelligence to grasp existence16. in this sense the created human being acquires meaning in front of both god and other men, it goes from nothingness to a complete rehabilitation in the name of god; an 11 cf. j. maritain, la philosophie bergsonienne, cit., p. 387. 12 id., humanisme intégral, in oc, 1984, vol. vi, p. 300. 13 id., de bergson à…,cit., p.154. 14 cf., ivi, p. 155. 15 cf., ivi, p. 154. 16 cf., ivi, p. 155. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 19 integral humanism of incarnation that reclaims a highly wise concept of freedom where men can autonomously and truly make choices. 2. freedom of spontaneity and freedom of independence between bergson and s. thomas maritain perceives that freedom coming from an integral humanism is the only one capable of building a politic of truth, in which the person becomes the center, the one who makes choices without forgetting that his actions have an existential purpose. maritain sustains that bergson talks about freedom but he does not define what is a “free action” because of the confusion between body and soul. in politics there is not an acting soul, but a real man living in the world, finding the rightest and truest solutions and having bonum honestum as purpose. in the anthropological bergson’s idea of monism the soul prevails over the body, and what becomes essential are the notions of time and change. in this vision we catch a glimpse of the meaning of freedom, divided into freedom of spontaneity and freedom of independence17. the first one has to go through four steps before turning into freedom of independence. the first step is part of nature in general, it’s spontaneity that surfaces even in not-living corporeal substances. on this level, corporeal substance is only controlled by external actions. it’s a transitive activity18. the second step is given by living corporeal organisms at a vegetative state, where it is already recognizable an immanent activity19. on the third step one finds the knowledge of instinct – states maritain – called estimative by s. thomas. everything that seems beyond physical is canceled by the physical. the fourth step is part of a higher order since intellectual life resides here. everything is spiritual and goes beyond any form of possible nature20. with the freedom of independence a man naturally aims to the desire for transcendence and spontaneity becomes the main manifestation of independence. 17 cf., ivi, pp. 95-96. 18 cf., ivi, pp. 96-97. 19 cf., ivi, p. 97. 20 cf., ivi, p. 100. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 20 maritain notices that also s. thomas21 was mentioning freedom of choice and freedom of spontaneity. transcendence becomes second nature of the freedom of choice where love is necessary to men searching a common good. in st. thomas idea of freedom there is not only desire coming from the senses but also free will that wants to achieve always and necessarily an absolute good and a full happiness22. if happiness is what inevitably defines free will – and happiness is a boundless and total good that satisfy all my desires – therefore what is not boundless good cannot necessarily define my will23. every particular, human or celestial good is chosen by a free action of will24. each choice taken reveals both the desire for something as free will and the intelligence to comprehend that will. intelligence brings us to an uncertainty principle caused by the absence of what is desired. this is “freedom itself25”, indeed “freedom is in the will’s control over the practical judgment that determines it26”. will has a precise task: bringing this indeterminacy of intelligence from a speculative-practical view to a practical-practical one. through this transition carried out the by will, intelligence can reach the hoped for happiness. naturally the individual is at the center of this process not only as a combination of body and soul, but also embodied in the world, projected towards the ultimate good. according to maritain – in st. thomas thought – being truly free means “to be the master of one’s own judgment27” and to have total control over actions. freedom of spontaneity is more independent and substantial and free from obligations. this level of freedom makes man aware of his fragility and of his need of a body and instincts as proofs of his finite nature. an individual perceives a basic need: a drastic ontological unity from where freedom can grow strongly. 21 cf. th. aquinatis, summa theologiae, in opera omnia, cura et studio fratrum eiusdem ordinis, ex typographia poliglotta, romae, 1891, vol. vi, i-ii, q. 89. 22 cf. j. maritain, de bergson à…, cit., p. 75. 23 ibidem. 24 cf. th. aquinatis, summa theologiae, vol. vi, i-ii, q. 13, a. 1. 25 cf. j. maritain, de bergson à…, cit., p. 78. 26 ibidem. 27 ivi, p. 80. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 21 maritain’s analysis of bergson and s. thomas concepts of freedom does not reveal a big difference between the two. what inspires the french philosopher is the interweaving between the two kinds of freedoms described by st. thomas because are fundamental to bring out the “free act”. it is a crucial moment when men make choices, all kind of them, even the political ones. the dynamism of a free act comes from the link between those two kinds of freedom, the freedom of choice is necessary to the freedom of spontaneity. you cannot live in a perfect freedom outside of this connection. “a free man is the one that decides for himself, he is his own master and controls his life; a servant instead is related to another man and in this state of slavery he only can contribute to the individual good of his lord28. 3. freedom: instinct and virtue in politics29 only this freedom based on a superior level is able to relate politics and common good from which it is possible to build a society on honesty and authentic values. it is a freedom of a spiritual order, but it’s present in everyday life with the purpose of elevating human weaknesses and encouraging men corrupted by their own fragility, making them fly high beyond personal interest. freedom becomes power inside of us since it transcends material aspects, beyond hedonism and every physical aspect of life. only this kind of metaphysical freedom can drive us towards dialogue because it gets rid of prejudice. embracing a dialogue means to remove prejudices and every single judgment, and to be free from this form of slavery in order to appreciate the beauty of this given treasure. dialogue clearly becomes the foundation around which to build the good as bonum honestum, that kind of good that is more than simply physical and reaches through a practical-practical act the common good. where bonum honestum is to be found? maritain replies even among intellectually divided men is possible to cooperate for a practical common objective30. 28 ivi, p. 87. 29 for a wider knowledge on freedom’s relationship with impulse and virtue under an ethical aspect please refer to il volto dell'amore e dell'amicizia tra passione e virtù. una riflessione etica su jacques maritain, rubbettino, saveria mannelli, 2009. 30 cf. j. maritain, address at the opening of the unesco conference”, mexico city 1947, in proceeding of the second session of unesco, i, april 1947, pp. 27-43, “discorso di apertura all’assemblea dell’unesco a città del messico”, in “studium”, xliv, 1948, pp. 325-333. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 22 it is possible to find this practical purpose in the rudiments of common good, since they come from inner freedom which allows dialogue, looks for a non egotistical good but for the good in itself: person, politics, science, technology or other domains. the concept of good resulting from this reasoning means to make it a goal, not just a temporary moment (i would like this today because it is going to give me something back). good is going to be the same forever. following this path the purpose of politics is to find an ontological good for the people and society, in which a party becomes a medium to lead us to that goal. a society like this based on authentic freedom is able to transcend the temporal values and to encourage a true dialogue, always searching for bonum honestum. in this sense diversity – in its status – will have valid values for everyone according to both practice and theory31. as viotto says “practice and theory influence each other, but a philosophic consideration – that can lead to a political project – cannot put itself at the service of a political faction32. a true faction becomes analysis and resolution of common human life’s fundamental problems. a philosopher places himself outside of factions. his independence in front of the immediate action to do – which needs quite a bit of art and techniqueis the exact opposite of escaping reality. the philosopher is useful to other human beings only as a human being himself who chooses the freedom of intelligence over the temporary instants. to be free doesn’t mean to be emotionless but it means working towards the goal of establishing the correct principles of politics33. it follows that according to maritain trusting a faction is not a way to be in the world, it is necessary that reason guide us in our actions, because only reason is able to recognize the ultimate goal, through bonum honestum, the only good that has a value in itself. only intelligence enables us into making authentic, true and free choices, in the most total independence. it is therefore evident how “it’s necessary to overcome the left and the right’s schematism34”, to make flourish “the values of truth, justice and fraternal 31 cf. p. nepi, “la questione laicità”, in la laicità ne le paysan de la garonne di jacques maritain, by g. g. curcio, rubbettino, soveria mannelli, 2008, pp. 22-23. 32 p. viotto,grandi amicizie. i maritain e i loro contemporanei, città nuova, rome, 2008, p. 174. 33 ivi, p. 175. 34 ibidem. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 23 friendship35”. these values belong to everyone, no matter if he’s politician, christian, muslim or jewish: true values belong to the whole community. maritain asserts that this is the truth pursued by a philosopher, because “if philosophy is one of the forces that contributes to the making of history with all its transformations in the world, it’s because philosophy, whose main task is the metaphysical comprehension of the being, only aims to contemplate the truth36”. authentic and valuable politics are possible only if supported by that kind of freedom based on truth and virtues. politics may be corrupted, may be vicious, may suggest the desire to prevaricate on others or to gain illicit rewards. there is a delicate balance between instinct – or man’s desire – and intellect. learned moral virtues can help our action and lead us to a wise freedom. justice, prudence, fortitude and restraint can resist to the assaults of humans nature or of those in power37. man after his downfall became weak and only virtues can save him. his actions become a choice in which he “is free and responsible38”, since he has “the power of well doing, as soon as he becomes aware of the idea of good and the life of reason39”. starting from this intention of living and acting as a consequence of choosing a universal good, it’s possible to build true politics. men are not only free because they can choose but above all because through their choices they can reach the truth in politics, a common good and they can assert their true nature. real freedom then does not come from choice but it originates from a general truth shared by every responsible individual. clearly, a free action doesn’t come only from a will’s decision but also from an intellect’s obligation40. where will and intellect meet we also find the desire of acting good against bad habits and the rationality of our actions. the political action needs a preeminence of intellect and a preference for cognitive processes over operative and emotional processes. those politicians who are not able to go beyond the “left-right” duality are trapped within a politic that is not free, that is slave of itself and where political alliances “are nothing less than exasperated emotional complexes41. to understand the sense of a political system and its central importance, we need to refer to the basic relation of body and soul that each human being carries within himself. 35 ibidem. 36 j. maritain, la philosophe dans la cité, in oc, 1991, vol. xi, p. 17. 37 cf. id., science et sagesse, in oc, 193, vol. vi, pp. 180-210. 38 id.,raison et raisons, in oc, 1990, vol. ix, p. 332. 39 ibidem. 40 cf., id., neuf leçons sur les notions premières de la philosophie morale, in oc, 1990, vol. ix, pp. 873-887. 41 id., lettre sur l’indépendance, in oc, 1993, vol. vi, p. 276. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 24 even if earthly things seem more important, they cannot prevail on spiritual matters since inside spirituality is the key to make a man’s path authentic. politics, entangled in the temporal events, can elevate only if it understands that the only power able to solve everyday problems comes from intellect. hoping for “good” politics means choosing a human environment where the instinct of supremacy and power is overcome by a “good life” that, associated to a “virtuous life”, commands our existence thanks to bonum honestum42. conclusion maritain’s political approach is truly anthropological, metaphysical and ethical. political freedom is only possible through a human education since men are called to a supernatural life, and the goals of earthly life are far less important than the ones associated to eternal life. for this reason it is necessary to base everything on a superior level rather than human deficiencies. in “primauté du spirituel”maritain pursues the creation of a realm beyond earthly life, which is not outside of it, but at the same time he also dislikes politics that depends from church but if i am persuaded to speak about politics and religion, it is not to treat church as dominant neither to abandon philosophic ground […]: the present study represents a work of a philosopher observing contemporary occurrences from his point of view43. the individual becomes author and center of politics because good politics can only be the result of a good human and spiritual education44. politics is built for and by this type of virtuous man in which responsible freedom is the source of actions and choices; there is instinct – that belongs to the sensory capabilities of a man – that joins the intellect – which instead belongs to the spiritual values of a human being. in conclusion the choice of living politics for a common good is not reduced to a spontaneous approach but it’s rational. a man who looks for spirituality chooses love for guiding his 42 cf. j. maritain, science et sagesse, in oc, 193, vol. vi, pp. 180-210. 43 j. maritain, primauté du spirituel, in oc, 1984, vol. iii, p. 785. 44 with the term “spiritual” is intended the dedication of who wants to research itself and something which is beyond humanity, not simply being part of a religion. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 25 actions and doing so reaches a big accomplishment: he makes of his life a better path, where justice, freedom and authenticity come together in the search of the truth. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 26 motivation to learn as correlate of students’ academic achievement in chemistry in senior secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria o. o. boris (ph.d) department of science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. abstract this study examined the motivation to learn as correlate of students’ academic achievement in chemistry in senior secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state, ekiti state, nigeria. the research design that was used for the study was survey design of the descriptive type. the population of the study comprised of chemistry students from public senior secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. the sample of the study was two hundred and forty (240) students selected from eight (8) public secondary schools. simple random sampling technique was used to select thirty (30) respondents from each of the selected secondary schools. the instrument for data collection for the study was a questionnaire. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism. a coefficient of reliability of 0.88 was obtained. the formulated hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics of pearson correlation statistical analysis. the findings of the study revealed that there was a significant positive correlation between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school students in chemistry and there was a significant positive correlation between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students based on these, appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: motivation, chemistry, academic achievement, secondary school student. introduction science learning, at the helm of the 21st century, is confronted with the relevance of science and technology to the societal needs and demands (awodun & kenni, 2020). in its concordance to relevance, science learning is paramount to reshape the mental cognition of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 students towards academic performance and the acquisition of the desired competencies, e.g., subject specific skills and general and transferable scientific skills (bautista, 2012). aptly, science learning is to engage and expose students in a meaningful learning condition that constantly make them wander in a sustained culture of practice. currently, chemistry as a course is developing rapidly and strongly affects human everyday lives. for this reason, chemistry is considered to be an important part of education for the current and future population (awodun & kenni, 2020). there is also expert consensus that science education (including chemistry) should be a compulsory part of the education of all children. chemistry enables students to provide explanations for almost all natural phenomena they encounter in their daily life or school laboratories (woldeamanuel & selassie, 2019). it’s also a requirement to study pharmacy, medicine, pharmacy, environmental science, chemical engineering, geology, biology, agriculture and others so on (eridemir & bakirci, 2009). generally, chemistry affects all aspects of human life and help people in making decisions in areas such as health, environmental conservation (environmental care and love), dietary intake (starch, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins) and food choices which are directly related to their daily life and affect the quality of their lives. however, studies have shown that the majority of students at secondary school perceived chemistry as a difficult subject and this perception become more evasive when they reach university. chemistry deals with the scientific study of matter, its structure, composition, properties and the changes (chemical and physical changes) it undergoes. chemistry is made up of five branches which include; organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry and biochemistry (awodun & kenni, 2020). apart from its major branches, chemistry is found in other field of studies such as agriculture, geography, chemical physics, medicine, geochemistry, engineering, molecular physics, food and nutrition and so on. ekpen (2019) stated that chemistry and indeed chemists are linked to everything on earth as aptly captured in a slogan; what on earth is not chemistry? chemistry plays a pivotal role at engineering sustainable economic development and growth in any nation. put succinctly, there is no aspect if human endeavored on natural phenomenon that chemistry does not feature. it features prominently in the area of oil, gas, agriculture, health, environment, solid minerals, textiles, cosmetics, water supply and sanitations, crime detection, pulp and paper, waste management just name it. motivation affects students’ learning and engagement in formal, semi-formal, and informal activities. motivation has an important role in learning. student’s achievement is related to the way of thinking, feeling and behavior of students (mokhtar, 2013). students who have problems at school, they show the level of motivation is low. teachers need to seek an increase in student’s achievement motivation by providing support in the form of awards/ reinforcement for his achievements, paying attention to awareness, giving feedback and making students felt the ability (mushawwir, arsad & rezky, 2012).motivation can be described as the most crucial and paramount factor determining the students’ success or failure in learning process and academic performance. motivation as a concept is very important for both teachers and students in identifying and perceiving the root of academic success or failure (uyulgan & akkuzu, 2014). individual student believes that he/she has the capacity and ability to achieve the learning expectation through teaching activities and goals to be realized with a certain effort and difficulty. student perception can have negative effect on the student’s motivation in academic programme such as whether it is easy or very difficult. the student perceives learning activity as valuable and makes efforts to achieve success in it if he or she considers the learning activity to be one that will provide a benefit for him or her (okutan, 2012). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 many students of chemistry believe chemistry is difficult because of people perception and motivation students derived from their environment. the researcher observed that many of the students do not just have the feelings that chemistry is difficult but all these happened due to some factors such as notion of their senior about chemistry, students’ perception, teacher methodology, availability of learning materials, not having access to textbook written locally that relates chemistry to immediate environment of learners and rewards, among others. all these influence the motivation to learn and attitudes of secondary school students towards chemistry. it is believed that motivation to learn and attitude is about rewards, availability of learning materials, disposition and perception of chemistry. if a student is well motivated for learning in chemistry, then he or she will be able to develop affection for chemistry, he or she will always be eager to learn, engage in discussion about chemistry and develop curiosity that prompt deep understanding of chemistry. thus, this study intended to find out the relationship of motivation to learn and attitude towards chemistry on the academic achievement of secondary school student in ado local government area of ekiti state. research hypotheses these hypotheses were tested in this study: 1. there is no significant relationship between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students in ado local government area of ekiti state. 2. there is no significant relationship between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students in ado local government area of ekiti state. concept of motivation the concept of motivation is considered as a crucial factor that affects human behavior and performance (turan, 2015). especially educational researchers and practitioners express that motivation is one of the most important factors in student achievement and in ensuring continuous achievement (alkış, 2015). lin (2012) describes motivation as intrinsic desires which are already present in the individual or which are reflected in the individual while acquiring new information and learning. there are, however, in the literature other definitions of motivation; the latter word was derived from the word “movere”thatmeans moving in latin (seiler et al., 2012). küçüközkan (2015)defined motivation as the sum of the efforts made for mobilizing the individual towards one or more particular goals and for ensuring the continuity of this movement. therefore, motivation has a multi-dimensional structure instead of a simple and basic one. motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiations, direction, intensity, persistence and quantity of behavior (ekici, 2010). motivation is an affective factor which makes human organisms behave, determine the decisiveness and energy of that behaviour and keep the behaviours going by directing them. dinah (2012) stated that motivation is a process that begins with a physiological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. motivation therefore consisted of needs (deficiencies) which set up drives (motives) which help in acquiring the incentives (goals). drives or motives are action-oriented while incentives/goals are those things which alienate a need. marques (2010) opined that motivation is what people need to perform better and can only work if the right person with the right skills has been placed in charge of the task at hand. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 motivation is a critical component of learning and plays a very important role in helping students become involved in academic activities. motivation is defined as a situation that gives energy to behavior, directs and sustains it. this includes goals and activity requiring that the objectives provide motivation to move and action. action requires effort and insistence to operate for a long period of time. motivation involves a set of beliefs, perceptions, values, information and actions that are totally related to each other. motivation can lead to many behaviors and it is important to understand the importance of motivation in an educational setting (suhag, larik, tagar & solangi, 2016). learning motivation is a vital precursor to profound and effective learning. suhag et al. (2016) stated that motivation has several effects on the learning and behavior of students: firstly, motivation leads behavior to specific goals. motivation sets specific goals that people strive for and, thus, influences the choices of students. motivation also increases the effort and energy to determine whether a student will pursue a task that is difficult with enthusiasm or lifeless attitude. motivation will be an important factor affecting the learning and success of the students by affecting the initiation and continuity of the activities, increasing the time of the students' duties. motivation affects how information is processed and how it is processed as it increases the cognitive processing process and, thus, motivated students get more inclined to understand and examine material than to observe learning movements just superficially (yilmaz, şahin & turgut, 2017). concept of academic achievement academic achievement is the educational outcome that indicates the extent to which the specific goal of education has been accomplished in an instructional environment. this is normally shown in terms of students’ scores and grades in test examinations or assignments. academic achievement is commonly measured by examination or continuous assessment but maintains that there is no general agreement on how academic achievement is best tested (ward, stoker and murray-ward, 2019). academic achievement is the extent to which a learner is profiting from instructions in the given area of learning i.e. achievement is reflected by the level to which skill and knowledge has been imparted to him. bhat (2013) opined that academic achievement indicates the knowledge attained and skill developed in the school subject, generally designated by test scores. achievement is influenced by the personality, opportunities, motivation, training and education (curriculum reform). academic performance can be described as the overall measure of indices of learning outcomes of a learner. this indices include the knowledge, skills, retention level, and ideas, acquired and gathered in the course of exposure to particular instruction within and outside the classroom environment (okorie, 2014). academic performance refers to a person’s performance in a given academic area (e.g. reading or language arts, mathematics, science and other areas of human learning. academic performance relates to academic subjects a learner studies in school and the skills the learner is expected to master in each (kathryn, 2010). academically successful students have higher self-esteem, lower level of depression. individuals who are better organized, better prepared and have a plan or a planner did better in school and will continue to be like that in their career. academic achievement is important for the successful development of young people in society. students who do well in school are better able to make the transition into adulthood and to achieve educational, occupational and economic success (mcinerney, cheng, mok & lam, 2012). academic achievement also allows students to enter competitive fields. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 students reinforcement and academic performance the downward trend in the performance of students is blamed on the teachers’ in appropriate teaching methods and their inability to use reinforcement to encourage their students’ performance. reinforcement may be positive or negative, whichever way, it elicits change in behaviour. according to amuma & ibodi (2013) reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experiment results. reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in the experimental analysis of behaviour and much of quantitative analysis of behaviour. reinforcement may be positive reinforcement when there is increase in the future frequency of behaviour due to the addition of a stimulus (reinforcer) following a response. while negative reinforcement increases the future frequency of a behaviour positive reinforcement is one of the teacher’s most valuable behaviour management tools. positive reinforcement is an interesting technique that helps teachers to improve the overall behaviour of students. positive reinforcement can be explained simply as “timely encouragement” which is gentle and effective at the same time. the words, actions and inactions of a teacher can make or mar the academic performance of a student. students need positive reinforcement to improve their performances. most teachers are interested in just using the conventional methods of teaching without considering how positive reinforcement can impact positively on students’ academic achievement. akinade (2012) defined positive reinforcement as reinforcement that involves the application of pleasant or desirable stimuli in the treatment of behaviour. in other words, positive reinforcement is the encouragement that follows good behaviour. for instance, a student submits an assignment on time and includes some extra information that she or he gathered about the topic. the teacher wanting to appreciate the student’s efforts asks the other students to clap for her. the teacher’s action acts as an impetus for the student to repeat the same effort again. positive reinforcement as the name implies is a hassle-free technique to bring about a sense of responsibility and discipline in a class (eremie & doueyi-fiderikumo, 2019). positive reinforcement effects our everyday life and personality while on the other hand negative reinforcement effects the development of avoidance tendencies. both reward and punishment are means of motivation and have significant effects on behavior (khattak & ahmad , 2018). positive reinforcement does not involve any kind of force that would pressurize a student into behaving well. positive reinforcement can be in the form of verbal remarks like praises, commendations, compliments, approval, encouragement and affirmation e.g. good job, well done, nice work etc. or tangible rewards like cash gift, pen, cake, sweets, erasers etc. or none-verbal rewards like being clapped, a pat on the back, being smiled at etc to encourage the repetition of such behaviour. the researcher conceives positive reinforcement as any activity that motivates a learner to do more of his activities to achieve a better result (eremie & doueyi-fiderikumo, 2019). provision of learning materials and academic performance parental involvement is the participation of parents in regular, two way and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities, including ensuring that parents play an integral role in assisting their child’s learning; that parents are encouraged to be actively involved in their child’s education and are included as appropriate, in decision –making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child (oyedare, ogunjinmi & durojaiye, 2016). parental involvement may be different from culture to culture and society to society. parental involvement may have different types, which might have differential influence on academic performance of their children. parental expectations have a greater impact on student’s educational outcomes. parental involvement may include activities like helping children in reading, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 encouraging them to do their homework independently, monitoring their activities inside the house and outside the four walls of their house, and providing coaching services for improving their learning in different subjects (hafiz, tehsin, malik, muhammad & muhammad, 2013). oyedare, ogunjinmi & durojaiye (2016) revealed that parental involvement clearly and consistently has significant effects on pupils performance and adjustment which for outweighs other forms of involvement. the question is, why is parental involvement so significant and how does it promote performance and adjustment. the broad answer to these questions seems to be that it depends on the age of the child. for younger pupils, parenting provides the child with a context in which to acquire school related skills and to develop psychological qualities of motivation and self-worth. for older children, the specific skills component seems to be less salient and the motivational component assumes increasing importance. comer (2019) stated that parents’ interest in, and support of their children’s school help reinforce students’ sense of belonging to school and their identification with teachers and other school personnel. clark (2019) pointed out that parent–initiated contacts with their children’s school help strengthen students’ identification with teachers. in examining the interaction among parental involvement, teacher’s support and students’ sense of belonging to school, students whose parents are involved in their school activities are better able to take advantage if the benefits of supportive teachers or school environments for their academic performance. varghese & jasmine (2019) stated that child needs their parents’ true love and skilful guidance in the process of overall development -body, mind and spirit. parents must understand child’s strong and weak areas, his needs, interests, feelings, difficulties in growing up in the process of realizing his best potentialities. parents more than anybody else influence the development of each child in different way. the main role of the parents is involved in creating a conducive home environment where child develops his attitude towards himself, parents, teachers, others, things, incidents and institutions. many studies emphasize the role of parents and family as of great importance in the development of child, both physically and psychologically. parent involvement have not only a strong impact on relationships within the family but also affect the attitudes and behaviour of the children. studies on successful and unsuccessful children in the academic achievement have shown that most of those who became successful in academic achievement had come from homes where parent involvement towards them were favourable and where a wholesome relationship existed between them and their parents (varghese & jasmine, 2019). nnodum, agbaenyi & ugwuegbulam (2014), in another study investigated the efficacy of positive reinforcement (pr) and self-control (sc) in the management of aggression among pupils. 30 pupils were randomly selected through a purposive sampling procedure in owerri north local government area of imo state using a quasi-experimental design with three experimental groups comprising, two treatment groups and one control group. the results revealed that positive reinforcement was more effective than self-control (sc) both at post-test and follow-up periods in reducing aggression among the pupils. amadi & onyeike (2015) conducted an experimental study among 120 js1 students in abia state on the effectiveness of token economy and verbal rewards on students’ academic achievement in igbo language in aba north local government area of abia state. the results of the study revealed that token economy which is a form of tangible positive reinforcement significantly enhanced students‟ academic performance over verbal rewards which are intangible forms of positive reinforcement although the verbal rewards significantly improved academic performance over the control group. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 arbabisarjou et al. (2016) found that there was a significant relationship between academic achievement motivation and academic performance among medical students. a longitudinal study by liu and hou (2017) has shown that intrinsic motivation considerably promotes academic performance. korantwi-barimah et al. (2017) study amongst university students demonstrated positive significant correlations between academic self-concept, motivation and academic performance. the study indicated that motivational factors played vital roles in academic performance. in short, from previous studies, there were evident that students’ motivation was imperative in science teaching and learning. febriana (2017) investigated the analysis of student’s achievement motivation in learning chemistry. the aim of the study is to determine the effect of student’s achievement motivation toward learning chemistry. the research was conducted at smk kesehatan rahani husada. the descriptive method was used in the research. the data was collected using test for student’s cognitive achievement and questionnaire for achievement motivation. data was analyzed using descriptive analysis techniques. the results showed that achievement motivation on xi grade of smk kesehatanrahanihusada students was in the category of achievement motivation “high” at 47,54%. woldeamanuel & selassie (2019) in a research work titled “relationship between attitudes and motivations of first year biology and chemistry students to learn chemistry”. the study adopted co relational research design. a total of 155 first year biology and chemistry students (95 first year biology and 60 chemistry students) taking chemistry in the second semester of 2017/2018 at dire university, ethiopia, were involved in the study. data for the study were collected using attitude inventory test and the achievement motivation scale. data were analyzed using statistical package for social science (spss) version 21. the results showed that there is no statistically significant difference between biology and chemistry students in their attitudes and motivation towards learning chemistry. furthermore, there is no statistically significant relationship between attitudes and motivation of these students towards learning chemistry (i.e. there is negligible degree of relationship between attitude and motivation to learn chemistry). on the basis of the results of this study, it was concluded that there is no statistically significant relationship between attitude towards chemistry and the motivation to learn chemistry. the results did not support the expectation that there is a statistically significant relationship between attitude towards a given domain of science and the motivation to learn it. yilmaz, şahin & turgut, (2017) in their study on variables affecting student motivation based on academic publications. the variables having impact on the student motivation have been analyzed based on the articles, conference papers, master's theses and doctoral dissertations published in the years 2000-2017. a total of 165 research papers were selected for the research material and the data were collected through qualitative research techniques through document review and content analysis. according to the research results, the most important factors affecting student motivation are the fields of teacher, teachers’ classroom management skills and their teaching methods. in addition, factors having less influence on the student motivation are parental communication, student characteristics and study fields. methodology the research design that was used for the study was survey design of the descriptive type. the population of the study comprised of chemistry students from public senior ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. the sample of the study was two hundred and forty (240) students selected from eight (8) public secondary schools. simple random sampling technique was used to select thirty (30) respondents from each of the selected secondary schools. the instrument for data collection for the study was a questionnaire. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism. a coefficient of reliability of 0.88 was obtained. the formulated hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics of pearson correlation statistical analysis. the data collected from these respondents was subjected to inferential statistics of pearson’s product moment correlation (ppmc) to determine the value of reliability coefficient (r) at 0.05 level of significance. the researchers personally administered the questionnaire to the selected students with the help of two (2) self-trained research assistant. the questionnaires were retrieved immediately from them as soon as they completed their responses. in analyzing the data for this study, the researcher used descriptive statistical tools of frequency counts and percentage to analyse the demographic data of respondents, percentage was used to answer the research questions while inferential statistics of t-test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level of significance. the analysis was done through computerized package of spss software version 20. results and discussion test of hypotheses hypothesis 1: there is no significant relationship between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students in ado local government area of ekiti state. table 1: correlation analysis of students’ response students’ reinforcement students’ performance spearman’s rho students’ reinforcement correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 240 0.472* 0.031 240 students’ performance correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.472* 0.031 240 1.000 240 * = significant at the 0.05 level. the result in table 1 shows the correlation between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school students in chemistry. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school students in chemistry (r = 0.472, n = 240, p < 0.05). hence the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 2: there is no significant relationship between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students in ado local government area of ekitistate. table 2: correlation analysis of students’ response ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 learning materials students’ performance spearman’s rho learning materials correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 240 0.399* 0.015 240 students’ performance correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.399* 0.015 240 1.000 240 * = significant at the 0.05 level. the result in table 2 shows the correlation between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students (r = 0.015, n = 240, p < 0.05). hence the null hypothesis was not upheld. discussion of results the finding revealed that there was a significant positive correlation between students’ reinforcement and academic performance of senior secondary school students in chemistry. the finding was in line with the assertion of eremie and doueyi-fiderikumo (2019) that positive reinforcement as any activity that motivates a learner to do more of his activities to achieve a better result. positive reinforcement is one of the teacher’s most valuable behaviour management tools. positive reinforcement is an interesting technique that helps teachers to improve the overall behaviour of students. the finding also agreed with the assertion of khattak et al. (2018) that positive reinforcement effects our everyday life and personality while on the other hand negative reinforcement have effects on the development of avoidance tendencies. both reward and punishment are means of motivation and have significant effects on behavior. this is to say that both type of reinforcement such as positive and negative have role to play in enhancing students’ academic performance in chemistry. the finding of also revealed that there was a significant positive correlation between provision of learning materials and academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students. the finding agreed with the findings of varghese & jasmine (2019) that findings have shown that most of those who became successful in academic achievement had come from homes where parent involvement towards them were favourable in terms of provision of learning materials and support. the finding further agreed with the assertion of hafiz et al. (2013) that parental involvement may include activities like helping children in reading, encouraging them to do their homework independently, monitoring their activities inside the house and outside the four walls of their house, and providing coaching services for improving their learning in different subjects. conclusion based on the findings, the following recommendations were made: students’ reinforcement influence the academic performance of senior secondary school students in chemistry. consistent provision of learning materials on chemistry influence academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students. students’ interest influence their passion, commitment and readiness to learn in chemistry class and have effects on their academic performance in senior secondary schools. students’ positive perceptions pre-determined the academic performance of senior secondary school chemistry students. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 recommendations based on the findings, these recommendations were made: 1. teachers at all levels should learn the use of positive reinforcement to help improve academic achievement of students. 2. state and federal government ministries should train teachers on how best to apply positive reinforcement for the maximum benefit of students. 3. teaching without any form of reinforcement should be discouraged in the teaching and learning of chemistry in senior secondary schools. 4. parents should provide varieties of chemistry textbooks for students so that they can have access to more information on perceived chemistry concepts and improved their performance. 5. teachers should ensure that students have needed and recommended textbooks on chemistry and must be used in chemistry class. 6. chemistry teachers should continue to encourage students to develop positive interest towards chemistry in order to make them maintain their interest toward active learning and improved academic performance. references adebowale, t. a. 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(2017). variables affecting student motivation based on academic publications, journal of education and practice, 8(12), 112-120. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 6 | june 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 food and mood-the interplay between nutrition, mood, brain, and behavior. dr. priya magesh assistant professor in psychology, madras school of social work, egmore, chennai 08. address for communication dr.priya magesh, flat no 703, hibiscus block, alliance orchid springs, no 54, canal road, korattur north,chennai-76. declaration i solemnly declare that the manuscript submitted is original and the same has neither been previously published or submittedelsewhere. in case of publication of this manuscript, the copy right of the same will vest with the editor/ publisher. priya magesh. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 abstract certainfoods and nutrients help brain to make chemicals that can impact mood, attention and focus, while other foods can zap our energy. the best meal to enhance our mood is one that combines complex carbohydrates with lean proteins. for example, complex carbohydrates from whole foods (like sweet potatoes, rolled oats, beans and quinoa) can increase availability of the feel-good chemical serotonin in our brain. protein consumption (from foods like fish, beef, chicken, turkey, tofu, beans, eggs and unsweetened yogurt) which has been linked to higher levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, which are brain chemicals that play a role in ourmood, motivation and concentration. fruits and vegetables are high in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that nourish your body and have also been shown to boost happiness. the focus of nutrition research is shifting away from nutrients in isolation and toward the unique interactions that occur between nutrients in food. eating moderate portions of a wide variety of whole, minimally processed foods will provide optimal nutrition and contribute to overall diet satisfaction. a healthy eating pattern should include foods from every food group: dairy, vegetables, fruits, whole grains and protein. eating healthfully under this broad definition can look different depending on factors such as age, physical activity, health condition, taste preference and cultural variation. this article explores how food affects our mental health, helps in using food to improve our overall mental and physical wellbeing.more research is needed on the impact of individual nutrients on mental health disorders, yet it is clear there is a link between low-nutrient, highly processed diets and mental health issues. early intervention for mental disorders is key, so ensuring children receive nourishing food and are educated about nutrition is more important than ever. physical and mental states are closely intertwined, and nutrition plays an important role in maintaining a state of health and wellness. a nourished body and mind will be better equipped to handle life’s challenges. keywords: behaviour, food, nutrition, mood. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 1.food and mental health what we eat and drink affects how we feel, think and behave. there is research to suggest that what we eat may affect not just our physical health, but also our mental health and wellbeing. eating well (i.e., a well-balanced diet rich in vegetables and nutrients) may be associated with feelings of wellbeing.we all know eating “healthy” food is good for our physical health and can decrease our risk of developing diabetes, cancer, obesity and heart disease. what is not as well known is that eating healthy food is also good for our mental health and can decrease our risk of depression and anxiety. one of the most obvious yet under recognized factors in the development of mental health is “nutrition”. just like the heart, stomach and liver, the brain is an organ that requires different amounts of complexcarbohydrates, essential fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals and water to remain healthy. from a young age, we’re taught that eating well helps us look and feel our physical best. what we’re not always told is that good nutrition significantly affects our mental health, too. a healthy, well-balanced diet can help us think clearly and feel more alert. it can also improve concentration and attention span. conversely, an inadequate diet can lead to fatigue, impaired decision-making, and can slow down reaction time. in fact, a poor diet can actually aggravate, and may even lead to, stress and depression.  diet: usually refers to the kinds of food that a person habitually eats. inwestern culture ‘diet’ is also often applied to the lifestyle changes used to lose weight. although applied to the changes most often used to resolve a problem associated with being overweight or health issues, this may be more in line with the latin origins of the word taken from the greek ‘diaita’, meaning a ‘way of life’.  balanced diet: refers to eating a wide variety of foods in the right proportions and consuming the right amount of food and drink to achieve and maintain a healthy body weight.  nutrition: refers to the quality of the food we eat (for example, whether food is processed or fresh), the kind of food we eat (for example, whether foods are vitamin and mineral rich; or how many calories they contain), how we chose to eat (quantity, timing, motivation for eating different types of food) and how the food has been produced (for example, has it been treated with pesticides?). 2.nutrient depletion can imitate mental health disorders ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 symptoms in mental health disorders such as fatigue,anxiety, depression, irritability, poor mood, stress intolerance, overeating, cravings, inability to sleepand neurotransmitter depletion are also present in nutritional depletion as well.healthy eating contributes to a healthy mind, body and spirit and not just physical health.unfortunately, many of the foods we eat today are over-processed, contain chemicals and preservatives, and lack nutrients.among other benefits, good food can, boost our energy, lower the risk of developing certain diseases, provide fuel to brain, counteract the impact of stress on body and affect mood-related body chemicals 3.essential nutrients macronutrients includes carbohydrates such as sugars, starches and fiber, proteins from animal and plant sources, fats from animal and vegetable fats,and fish oils.micronutrientsare vitamins – a, b complex, c, d, e, k, mineralslike calcium, iron, sodium, magnesium, zinc and water 4.nutrition and the brain food intake affects a person’s mood, behavior, and brain function. the brain is an organ with very high metabolic and nutrient demands. on average, the brain consumes 20% of a person’s daily caloric intake, approximately 400 calories per day. it is composed of 60% fat, and contains high concentrations of cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids (pufas) such as omega-3s.poor mood or behavior may be the first signs of a nutritional deficiency production of monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, important in the pathophysiology of mental illness, depends on adequate building blocks of amino acids, and mineral dependent co-factors. folate and other b vitamins are essential for the methylation cycle, which produces a co-factor crucial for monoamine neurotransmitter synthesis, bh-4. proper function of the methylation cycle also reduces homocysteine elevated levels of which are linked to cardiovascular disease and depression. inflammation may play an important role in mediating the link between diet and mental health. multiple lines of research support the pathogenic role of neuroinflammation in mental illness. lucas et al. (2014) used several inflammatory biomarkers including crp, tnf alpha receptor 2, and il-6 and data from food frequency questionnaires to derive an inflammatory dietary pattern from a sample of over 12,000 participants from the nurses’ health study. participants who consumed a diet consistent with the inflammatory dietary pattern had a statistically significant increased risk of developing depression over time after adjusting for multiple confounders. specifically, over twelve years of follow up, participants with the highest adherence to the inflammatory dietary pattern had a relative risk of 1.41 (1.22–1.63) of developing depression according to the strict definition (physician diagnosis and anti-depressant use). the inflammatory dietary pattern was high in in sugar-sweetened soft drinks, refined grains, red meat, diet soft drinks, and margarine and low in wine, coffee, olive oil, green leafy, and yellow vegetables. 5.nutrition and mental disorders ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 increased prevalence of mental health disorders linked to poor quality diet. common nutritional deficiencies seen in patients with mental health disorders are omega 3 fatty acids, b vitamins and some minerals and amino acids.the foods you eat can affect the chemical composition of your brain because the nutrients in foods are precursors to neurotransmitters. neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that tell our body what to do and how to feel. the most important neuro transmitters are serotonin,dopamine,endorphins and choline (precursor to acetylcholine). omega-3 fatty acids form an integral part of neuronal cell membranes and influence a number of essential processes in the central nervous system. more specifically, they regulate neurotransmission, influence gene expression, and directly affect neurogenesis and neuronal survival. they also act as anti-oxidants and have anti-inflammatory properties. along with omega-3 intake, the balance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids also appears to be relevant. western diets tend to be abundant in omega-6 fatty acids, and quite low in omega-3s, a phenomenon that has occurred with the shift towards industrialized and processed food. omega-6 fatty acids are the primary fatty acid in many vegetable oils, such a corn oil and soy oil, often the cooking fats of choice in packaged and restaurant food. long chained omega-3 fatty acids are found in fish, seafood, and grass-fed beef. typically, these are not foods that come to mind as staples of the standard american diet. grass fed beef omega-3 content varies greatly, but generally contains 100mg of long-chained omega-3 fatty acids per 100g serving, much less than an equivalent serving of fatty fish. this highlights the importance of educating patients about meat quality and alternatives, such as grass-fed beef, which is generally more nutrient dense than conventionally-raised beef. omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to be effective as either stand-alone or adjunctive treatment for adhd, major depressive disorder, bipolar depression, and ptsd. in addition, an elevated omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio in the blood has been associated with major depressive disorder and adhd. there is some evidence that reducing the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio with omega-3 supplements lead to improvement in symptoms of adhd. several possible biological mechanisms underlie these associations, i.e., the same enzymes are required to convert both short chain omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids to their long chain biologically active versions. thus, excess omega-6 could interfere with the production of omega-3s by limiting the conversion to the longer chain forms. these foods are not rich sources of nutrients crucial for brain health. when considering brain health, fish and seafood are among the most nutrient dense foods that one can eat. protein consumption (from foods like fish, beef, chicken, turkey, tofu, beans, eggs and unsweetened yogurt) has been linked to higher levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, which are brain chemicals that play a role in your mood, motivation and concentration. the mediterranean diet has gained significant attention for decreasing symptoms of depression, with key components being increased intake of vegetables, fruit, omega-3-rich fish, nuts, legumes and olive oil. consuming a diet based on whole, unrefined foods with enough protein, healthy fat and fibre also helps to keep blood sugar stable after meals, which has been linked to improvements in mood and anxiety. any mention of olive oil, wine, and vegetables when speaking about nutrition leads to thoughts about the mediterranean diet. this dietary pattern is based on the traditional cooking style of countries bordering the mediterranean ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 sea and is rich in fish, olive oil, legumes, and whole grains. it also contains small, but regular amounts of red wine, cheese, and yogurt. mediterranean diet has been associated with decreased incidence and prevalence of depression. an attempt to explore the potential mechanisms to explain this association, one research group looked at brain derived neurotrophic factor or bdnf. bdnf is an important neurochemical that is active in many areas of the brain. it plays a role in many crucial functions such as neuroplasticity, neuronal survival, and growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses. low serum levels of bdnf have been found in a number of mental disorders including major depressive disorder, ptsd, schizophrenia, and alzheimer’s dementia. bdnf has also been implicated in the mechanism of action of anti-depressant medications. one prospective study examined the impact of diet on plasma bdnf levels in humans. participants were randomized to follow one of three diets: the american heart association guidelines, a mediterranean diet augmented with olive oil, and a mediterranean diet augmented with nuts. after three years of follow up, the mediterranean diet with nuts group had a relative risk of 0.22 (0.05–0.90) of having a very low plasma bdnf level. what is more, individuals in this group who had depression at baseline had significantly higher mean plasma levels of bdnf at the end of the study. another aspect on the frontier of the link between diet and mental health is the microbiome. fermented foods have been part of the human diet since the palaeolithic period and they remain part of the dietary practices of most known traditional diets today. these types of foods are commonly referred to as probiotic since they contain microorganisms that positively influence health. prebiotics, on the other hand include nondigestible fibre, which stimulates the growth and or activity of these beneficial microorganisms. the impact of the microbiome on mental health is an emerging area of research that is beyond the scope of this article. suffice it to say that the microbiome provides another link between diet and mental health since short-term dietary changes can induce species level changes to intestinal microbes. therefore, it appears that dietary pattern can influence mental health through a number of mechanisms. basic building blocks of the brain such as monoamine neurotransmitters, myelin, and neuronal membranes depend on adequate nutrient intake. food choice influences neuroplastic processes via effects on bdnf expression and systemic inflammation via omega-3 to omega-6 ratio. finally, food is the primary arbiter of the microbiome, an emerging area of research in general and mental health. 6.other nutritional factors and mental health another very important topic when it comes to mental health and nutrition is gut health. the gut is implicated in immune function, neurotransmitter synthesis and function, inflammation, pain syndromes, and general brain health. notably, gut bacteria produce ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 hundreds of neurochemicals that the brain uses to regulate basic physiological processes as well as mental processes such as learning, memory and mood. additionally, our microbiome is essential for digestion, absorption, vitamin production, controlling growth of harmful microorganisms, and keeping the integrity of our intestinal cells. suffice to say there is so much research coming out about this connection that in recent years the gut was named ‘the second brain.’ when the gut’s microbiome is disturbed, which happens due to a plethora of reasons, our brain suffers and often results in mood disturbance. the 100 trillion microbes that make the gi tract their playground is critical to health. gut bacteria regulate digestion and metabolism. they extract and make vitamins and other nutrients from food that you eat. they program the body's immune system.gut bacteria also produce hundreds of neurochemicals that the brain uses to regulate basic physiological processes as well as mental processes such as learning, memory and mood. for example, gut bacteria manufacture 80 to 95 percent of the body's supply of serotonin, which influences both mood and gi activity.our guts and brain are physically linked via the vagus nerve, and the two are able to send messages to one another. while the gut is able to influence emotional behaviour in the brain, the brain can also alter the type of bacteria living in the gut. 7.healthy diet a healthy diet affects brain health by; boosting brain development. changing brain proteins and enzymes to increase neural transmitters, which are the connections between brain cells. increasing good gut bacteria, which promotes a healthy gut biome, which decreases inflammation. inflammation is known to affect both cognition and mood. raising serotonin levels through various food enzymes, which improves mood.recently there have been major advances addressing the influence certain foods have on psychological well-being. increasing these nutrients could not only increase personal well-being but could also decrease the cost of mental health issues all around the world. healthy food-1. complex carbohydrates one way to increase psychological well-being is by fuelling brain cells correctly through the carbohydrates in our food. complex carbohydrates are sugars made up of large molecules contained within fibre and starch. they are found in fruit, vegetables, and wholegrains and are beneficial for brain health as they release glucose slowly into our system. this helps to stabilise our mood.simple carbohydrates found in sugary snacks and drinks create sugar highs and lows that rapidly increase and decrease feelings of happiness and produce a negative effect on our psychological well-being.we often use these types of sugary foods to comfort us when we’re feeling down. but this can create an addiction-like response in the brain, similar to illicit drugs that increase mood for the short term but have negative longterm effects.increasing intake of complex carbohydrates and decreasing sugary drinks and snacks could be the first step in increased happiness and well-being. healthy food 2. antioxidants oxidation is a normal process our cells carry out to function.oxidation produces energy for our body and brain. unfortunately, this process also creates oxidative stress and more of this happens in the brain than any other part of the body.chemicals that promote happiness ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 in the brain such as dopamine and serotonin are reduced due to oxidation and this can contribute to a decrease in mental health. antioxidants found in brightly coloured foods such as fruit and vegetables act as a defence against oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain and body. antioxidants also repair oxidative damage and scavenge free radicals that cause cell damage in the brain. eating more antioxidant-rich foods can increase the feel-good chemicals in our brain and heighten mood. healthy food3omega 3 omega 3 are polyunsaturated fatty acids that are involved in the process of converting food into energy. they are important for the health of the brain and helps to produce feel-good chemicals dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. omega 3 fatty acids are commonly found in oily fish, nuts, seeds, leafy vegetables, eggs, and in grass fed meats. omega 3 has been found to increase brain functioning, can slow down the progression of dementia and may improve symptoms of depression. omega 3 are essential nutrients that are not readily produced by the body and can only be found in the foods we eat, so it’s imperative we include more foods high in omega 3 in our everyday diet healthy food 4-b vitamins b vitamins play a large role in the production of our brain’s happiness chemicals serotonin and dopamine and can be found in green vegetables, beans, bananas, and beetroot. high amounts of vitamins b6, b12, and folate in the diet have been known to protect against depression and too low amounts to increase the severity of symptoms. vitamin b deficiency can result in a reduced production of happiness chemicals in our brain and can lead to the onset of low mood that could lead to mental health issues over a long period. increasing b vitamins in our diet could increase the production of the feel-good chemicals in our brain which promote happiness and well-being. healthy food 5-prebiotics and probiotic the trillions of good and bad bacteria living in our tummies also influence our mood, behaviour and brain health. chemical messengers produced in our stomach influence our emotions, appetite and our reactions to stressful situations.prebiotics and probiotics found in yoghurt, cheese and fermented foods such as kombucha, sauerkraut and kimchi work on the same pathways in the brain as antidepressant medications and studies have found they might have similar effects.prebiotics and probiotics have been found to suppress immune reactions in the body, reduce inflammation in the brain, decrease depressed and anxious states and elevate happy emotions. incorporating these foods into our diet will not only increase our physical health but will have beneficial effects on our mental health, including reducing our risk of disorders such as depression and anxiety. 8.brain foods 8.1. salmon-it’s a “fatty” fish, containing high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, which have been linked to a reduction in mental disorders such as depression. omega-3s have been ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 shown to boost learning and memory as well. salmon also has a naturally high-occurring amount of vitamin d, which is often added to foods and has been linked to lower rates of depression. 8.2. chicken-chicken, like turkey, is a delicious lean-protein choice containing the amino acid tryptophan.help your body produce serotonin — which is vital in helping our brain manage your mood, fight depression and help maintain strong memory. 8.3. whole grains-many types of food fall under this category, like beans, soy, oats and wild rice. while your body and brain utilize carbohydrates for energy, too often we consume simple carbs, which lead to blood sugar spikes.foods classified as whole grains contain complex carbohydrates, which leads to glucose being produced more slowly, as a more even and consistent source of energy. also, whole grains help the brain absorb tryptophan, which means that when eaten in conjunction with foods like chicken and turkey, one can further reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety while boosting brain function. 8.4.avocados-avocados are full of vitamin k and folate, which help protect our brain against stroke. they also provide a boost to your memory and concentration. avocados serve up a high dose of lutein, too, which studies have linked to improved brain function.avocadocontains oleic acid, which gives brainpower, avocados are power foods because, again, they contain healthy fat that our brain needs in order to run smoothly. three-fourths of the calories of an avocado are from fat, mostly monounsaturated fat, in the form of oleic acid. an average avocado also contains 4 grams of protein, higher than other fruits, and is filled with vitamin k, different kinds of vitamin b (b9, b6, and b5), vitamin c, and vitamin e12. finally, they are low in sugar and high in dietary fibre, containing about 11 grams each. 8.5. spinach-spinach and other leafy greens provide your brain with solid amounts of folic acid, which has been shown to be a great deterrent to depression. it also helps fight off insomnia, which is heavily linked to mental impairments and can help reduce dementia in older adults. 8.6. yogurt-yogurt and other products containing active cultures are excellent sources of probiotics. often associated with digestive health, probiotics have been shown to play a role in reducing stress and anxiety.yogurt can also provide you with potassium and magnesium, which helps oxygen reach the brain, further improving its ability to function. 8.7.nuts-like salmon, nuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, helping to fight depression. cashews, for example, help provide oxygen to the brain with a dose of magnesium.walnuts are one of the richest plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids, and numerous studies have demonstrated how omega-3 fatty acids support brain function and reduce depression symptoms. nuts contain a compound called phenylalanine, which is shown to help the brain produce dopamine and other neurotransmitters that boost your mood. phenylalanine has also been linked to a reduction in the symptoms of parkinson’s disease. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 8.8. olive oil-pure, extra virgin olive oil has been quite popular as of late as a part of healthy mediterranean-style diets. olive oil contains polyphenols, which help to remove the effects of proteins linked to alzheimer’s disease. it can also help improve learning and memory. 8.9. tomatoes-the source of a tomato’s red hue, lycopene is classified as an all-around beneficial phytonutrient. one of the many health boosts it provides is in the fight against brain disease. it’s been shown to delay the onset and progression of alzheimer’s disease, fighting off cell damage. in addition, lycopene has been shown to help with memory, attention, logic and concentration. tomatoes are packed with depression fighters.folic acid can prevent an excess of homocysteine — which restricts the production of important neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine — from forming in the body. 8.10.beans-beans have satisfyingly high mood-stabilizing fibre.“beans, beans, good for the heart. the more you eat, the more you smile.” they can act as anti-diabetes and weight-loss foods. 8.11. onions-onions are layered with cancer-fighting allium.“eating onions and garlic frequently is associated with a reduced risk of cancers of the digestive tract,” explains fuhrman. “these vegetables also contain high concentrations of anti-inflammatory flavonoid antioxidants that contribute to their anticancer properties.” 8.12. seeds-seeds are small but mighty sources of omega-3s. flaxseeds, hemp seeds, and chia seeds are especially good for your mood because they are rich in omega-3 fatty acids. fuhrman writes, “not only do seeds add their own spectrum of unique disease-fighting substances to the dietary landscape, but the fat in seeds increases the absorption of antioxidants. 8.13. apples-like berries, apples are high in antioxidants, which can help to prevent and repair oxidation damage and inflammation on the cellular level. they are also full of soluble fibre, which balances blood sugar swings. 8.14. dark chocolate-dark chocolate contains high levels of flavonoids, a type of antioxidant. it has been shown to boost attention and memory, enhance mood and help fight cognitive decline in older adults. just remember, chocolate should still be consumed in moderation. 8.15. mushrooms-here are two good reasons why mushrooms are good for our mental health. first, their chemical properties oppose insulin, which helps lower blood sugar levels, evening out your mood. they also are like a probiotic in that they promote healthy gut bacteria. and since the nerve cells in our gut manufacture 80 to 90 percent of our body’s serotonin — the critical neurotransmitter that keeps us sane. 8.16. berries-blueberries, raspberries, strawberries, and blackberries are some of the highest antioxidant foods available to us. antioxidants help significantly in lowering depression. 9.the best foods for mental health ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 9.1. spices to support mental health: saffron, turmeric (curcumin), saffron plus curcumin, peppermint (for attention), cinnamon (for attention, adhd, irritability). 9.2. dopamine-rich foodsfor focus and motivation: turmeric, theanine from green tea, lentils, fish, lamb, chicken, turkey, beef, eggs, nuts and seeds (pumpkin and sesame), high protein veggies (such as broccoli and spinach), protein powders. 9.3. serotonin-rich foods:for mood, sleep, pain and craving control: combine tryptophancontaining foods, such as eggs, turkey, seafood, chickpeas, nuts and seeds (building blocks for serotonin), with healthy carbohydrates, such as sweet potatoes and quinoa, to elicit a short-term insulin response that drives tryptophan into the brain. dark chocolate also increases serotonin. 9.4. gaba-rich foods:for anti-anxiety: broccoli, almonds, walnuts, lentils, bananas, beef liver, brown rice, halibut, gluten-free whole oats, oranges, rice bran, spinach. 9.5. choline-rich foods: shrimp, eggs, scallops, sardines, chicken, turkey, tuna, cod, beef, collard greens, brussels sprouts. 9.7. omega-3-rich foods: to support nerve cell membranes and serotonin. helps manage moods and inflammation. 9.8. antioxidant-rich foods: acai fruit, parsley, cocoa powder, raspberries, walnuts, blueberries, cranberries, kidney beans, blackberries, pomegranates, chocolate, olive, and hemp oil (not for cooking at high temperatures), and green tea. 9.9. magnesium-rich foods: for anxiety: pumpkin and sunflower seeds, almonds, spinach, swiss chard, sesame seeds, beet greens, summer squash, quinoa, black beans, and cashews. 9.10. zinc-rich foods: oysters, beef, lamb, spinach, shiitake and cremini mushrooms, asparagus, sesame and pumpkin seeds. 9.11. vitamin b6, b12, folate-rich foods: leafy greens, cabbage, bok choy, bell peppers, cauliflower, lentils, asparagus, garbanzo beans, spinach, broccoli, parsley, cauliflower, salmon, sardines, lamb, tuna, beef, and eggs. 9.12. prebiotic-rich foods: dandelion greens, asparagus, chia seeds, beans, cabbage, psyllium, artichokes, raw garlic, onions, leeks, root vegetables (sweet potatoes, yams, squash, jicama, beets, carrots, turnips). 9.13. probiotic-rich foods: brined vegetables (not vinegar), kimchi, sauerkraut, kefir, miso soup, pickles, spirulina, chlorella, blue-green algae, kombucha tea. 10.conclusion nutrition and psychology are linked, a healthy diet is associated with better mood and less depressive symptoms. a diet high in refined/processed foods is associated with increased risk of depressive symptoms and lower mood. nutritional deficiencies lead to mental health disorders and cognitive impairment. sugar consumption has deleterious effects on mental, physical, and cognitive health.in conclusion, the food we eat is not only important for our ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 physical health, but also for our mental health. although more studies are needed to help understand how and why this may be the case, there is now plenty of research that shows what we eat can influence our mood. this suggests diet may be able to play an important role in the prevention and treatment of general mood related disorders. references firth, j., marx, w., dash, s., carney, r., teasdale, s. b., &solmi, m., (2019). the effects of dietary improvement on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. psychosomatic. medicine. 81:265268. jacka, f. n., o'neil, a., opie, r., itsiopoulos, c., cotton, s., &mohebbi, m., (2017). a randomised controlled trial of dietary improvement for adults with major depression. .british medical journal 21,23-26. sarris, j., logan, a. c., akbaraly, t. n., paul amminger, g., balanzá-martínez, & v., freeman, m. p.,(2015). international society for nutritional psychiatry research consensus position statement: nutritional medicine in modern psychiatry. world psychiatry. 14:370–375. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 modern security equipment and crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria emeka, josephat o., ojoagba, a.m. ogaboh&asongo tersoo abstract the study examined the relationship between modern technology and crime in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. specifically, the study assessed the relationship between utilization of biometric technology, cctv cameras, social media policing, tracking device and crime control. using quantitative method, data was generated from 357 respondents through multi stage sampling technique. quantitative data were analyzed using version 20 of statistical package for social science (spss), and simple linear regression was used to test the hypotheses. findings from the study revealed that there is a significant relationship between the utilization of biometric technology, cctv cameras, social media policing, tracking device and crime control in calabar metropolis. the study, therefore, recommended among others that there is an urgent need to improve the general conditions of service of police officers in nigeria, this will motive them to discharge their constitutional responsibilities efficiently and effectively. in addition, government should provide increased funding in equipping officers of the npf with renewed emphasis on modern policing techniques including training on forensic science, psychology and the use of dna and ballistics techniques. keywords: modern security, crime control ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 introduction crime is a social problem globally, which affects continents, nations and peoples differently. it afflicts people in various depths and levels, at different times and phases of existence. there is no nation that is absolutely free from crime. the main difference is the intensity and prevalence of this malaise. in america, the increase from 2015 to 2018 in the number of violent-crime victims age 12 or older, from 2.7 million to 3.3 million, was driven by increases in the number of victims of rape or sexual assault, aggravated assault, and simple assault(morgau& oudekerk, 2019;ukwayi, ojong, austin, & emeka, 2012;ayuk, emeka, chibuzo &omono, 2013;owan, achu, tiku, & nwankwo, 2019;emeka, ayuk, &ezikeudu, 2013). in england and wales, villa-llera (2020) observed that anti-social behaviour increased by 22%, drug offences by 28%, public order offences 22%, and violence offences by 6%. a study by ukoji and okolie-osemene (2016) revealed that africa has been on the forefront on global statistics on crime. the evidence of ukoji and okolie-osemene further explains that south africa and nigeria have recorded high incidents of violent and non-violent crimes in recent times. according to agence france presse (2017) in south africa between 2016 and 2017, the rate of murders increased to 52 a day, with 19,016 murders wasrecorded. in nigeria, the un refugee agency (2021) opined that there has been a surge of violence in northwest nigeria as result of fighting between herders and farmers since the start of 2021. those fleeing the violence have described murders, kidnapping and looting. armed banditry in the north-west also resulted in more than 1,600 people being killed during the first half of 2020 and has displaced more than 300,000 civilians in zamfara, kaduna, katsina, sokoto, niger and kebbi states since june 2020. armed bandits have also perpetrated attacks on secondary schools in zamfara, katsina and niger states, including kidnapping 333 boys on 11 december 2020 and 279 girls on 26 february. regarding to armed robbery, adamu and saka (2018) argued that approximately 246 persons were murdered and 542 vehicles stolen, resulting in the arrest of 486 armed robbery suspects between 2006 and 2015. igbo (2009) maintained that crimes such as murder, rape, and armed robbery are violent crime and are more common than other crimes in africa especially, nigeria. this is because african countries also have the highest level of unemployment, corruption, and generally unacceptable low standard of living. the rising increase in crime has affected both developed and developing countries (ojong, agba, njirinze& angioha, 2021;owan, ayuk, tiku, & nwankwo, 2019; ayuk, owan&uyang, 2013;ukwayi, akintola& angioha, 2019).. the offenders of either violent crime ornon-violent crime can impact negatively on the economic in a variety of ways, from encouraging emigration and brain drain to discouraging foreign direct investment (bakery, 2012; nnam, owan, idike, ibiam, agboti, kanu, & okechukwu, 2020). it is in view of the negative consequences of crime in the society that nigerian government and corporate organizations have strategized efforts in controlling crime. another positive stride made by the nigerian government, and corporate organizations in controlling crime is the introduction modern technology (ukwayi, okpa, adewoyin, angioha, &udom, 2017; ukwayi, ojong, austin, & emeka, 2012; ayuk, owan,&uyang, 2013; ayuk, owan, ekok, &odinka, 2012). according to sethi (2013) and fatih and bekir (2015), modern technology is a generic name used to describe a range of technologies for gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analysing, and transmitting information. the results of systematic reviews and meta-analyses conducted by welsh and farrington (2002, 2008, 2009) have synthesized the empirical knowledge on cctv. the initial review of welsh and farrington, (2002) included 22 evaluations and found that cctv had a small but significant effect on vehicle crimes and no ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 effect on violent crimes. the updated review of welsh and farrington, (2008 &2009) included 44 evaluations and examined the effect of cctv across four main settings: city and town centers, public housing, public transport, and car parks. it was found that cctv was associated with a 16% reduction in crime, which was a significant effect. this effect was driven by a 51% reduction in crime in the car park schemes, with cctv in the other settings having small and non-significant effects on crime.anselin, cohen, cook, gorr and tita, (2000) observed that police departments globally, make use of tracking device to provide solutions for crime analysis, criminal tracking, traffic safety, community policing, intranet/internet mapping, and numerous other tasks. similarly, anselin and getis (2010) revealed that tracking device helps crime officers determine potential crime sites by examining complex seemingly unrelated criteria and displaying them all in an interface. they maintained that it also helps them map inmate populations, fixtures, and equipment to provide for the safety of inmates by separating gang members, identifying high-risk or potentially violent inmates, and identifying hazardous locations in an area.however, williams (2007) observe that advances in technology also present law enforcement agencies with an enormous opportunity to transform how they tackle crime. in the light of above, this study intends to examine the relationship between modern technology and crime control in the calabar metropolis of cross river state, nigeria. statement of the problem the traditional and age-old system of intelligence and criminal record maintenance has failed to live up to the requirements of the existing crime scenario. nigeria has suffered immensely from the problem of insecurity, which has led to the killing of innocent citizens, expatriates, security personnel, politicians and political party faithful, government officials, and others. the security situation in nigeria has over the years deteriorated, forcing the high and mighty, the political class, as well as, the poor to regret the loss of human life, material and immaterial things across the country (ewetan&urhie, 2014;iji, ojong & angioha, 2018). the unhealthy security situation in the country apparently demonstrated in the wilful killings, aggression, cruelty, fraudulent activities like child trafficking, kidnapping and hostage taking have rendered many nigerians deeply embittered about the safety profile of the country (ukwayi, okpa, adewoyin, angioha, & udom, 2017). a number of other violent crimes such as ritual killings, cultism, insurgency, militancy, suicide bombings, religious killings, assassinations, drug trafficking, vandalism of oil installations, ethnic crisis, destruction of lives and properties, armed robbery and a host of other crimes, has increasingly become regular occurrence across the length and breadth of the country (imhonopi&urim, 2016;edem, agba, & ojong, 2020). the sad and bitter truth is that insecurity principally characterized the nigerian society. insecurity in calabar, the cross river state capital in recent past has become a major concern to all and sundry. the current state of insecurity according to comfort, david and moses, (2013) is a product of the growing spate of the unresolved socio-economic and infrastructural developmental deficit that supports the prevalence of poverty, unemployment, family disorganisation, social exclusion, urbanization, and inequality. these, have resulted to disappointment, estrangement, and finally, social dissatisfaction that ignite hostility and crime among the residents and the citizens. the prevailing security situation in calabar (the cross river state capital), is becoming worrisome considering the rate at which criminal gangs and rampaging cultists inflict pains on residents. it is on police record that some parts of calabar, particularly, calabar south had witnessed drastic and unprecedented security challenges. these ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 challenges range from kidnapping, ritual killings, assassinations, theft, burglary, rape, prostitution, murder, assault, armed robbery, and child stealing (bassey &ugbal, 2016). other forms of crime common in this area are militancy, hostage taking, arms insurgence, cult activities, among others. the rising tide of insecurity in the state, especially in calabar and the surrounding environs has created fear and anxiety in the minds of residents, forcing them sleep with one eye open (ewa, 2016). residents have severally been attacked by these criminal elements who often break into their apartments with all kinds of sophisticated weapons and dispossess them of their valuables like cell phones, laptops, cars, wrist watches, money, among others, leaving most of their victims in a sorrowful state. this development has created panic in the life of residents who are now scared of staying outdoors at night for fear of being attacked by hoodlums, who have devised new strategies to prevent them from being caught by the law enforcement agencies (bassey &ugbal, 2016). following the general state of insecurity, investors are scared to invest because of the fear of the unknown. this development has significantly affected the economy of the state. despite frantic efforts by law enforcement agencies to check the excesses of these hoodlums through routine patrol, intelligence gathering, as well as, stop and search exercises in different parts of calabar, the security situation is still delicate. imhonopi and urim (2016) and ewetan and urhie, (2014) posit that the current wave of insecurity in the state poses a greater threat than ever before. they reported that the prevailing security situation has caused sufficient harm to the affected areas in terms of loss of lives and properties, discouragement of local and foreign investors; large part of government resources meant for development purposes channelled into the security vote. all of these stifles and retards the socio-economic development of calabar, the cross river state capital. against this backdrop, the following research questions were formulated to guide the study: (i) what is the relationship between the utilization of biometric technology and crime control in calabar metropolis? (ii) how does the utilization of close-circuit television (cctv) cameras result to crime control in calabar metropolis? (iii) what is the relationship between social media policing and crime control in calabar metropolis? (iv) to what extent does the utilization of tracking device result to crime control in calabar metropolis? study area the study area is the calabar metropolis of cross river state, nigeria. it has an area of 274.429sq. km and with a population of 371,022 by the 2006 census, of which the efiks, ejaghams and bekwarras are the major ethnic groups (agbor, 2007; national population census, 2006). according to google maps, (2013) the city’s population is estimated at 399, 761. national population commission (2007) also revealed that there are about 74,580 households in the metropolis. methodology the study adopts the cross-sectional survey research design. the choice of this design is because it allows the researcher to make inferences about the population by studying the sample as well as the generalization of the research findings. the study population were drawn from selected law enforcement agencies operating in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 nigeria. the selected law enforcement agencies are the nigeria police force, dss, custom services, immigration and the nigeria correctional service. the population of this study consists of all male and female law enforcement officers aged 20 years and above serving in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. the population of the study comprised rank and files, as well as, senior officers (sos). the researcher believes that this population are in better position to supply relevant information on the relationship between modern technology and crime control, as being employed and utilized in the study area. two methods of sampling techniques were adopted namely, simple random and purposive sampling techniques. in stage one, the simple random sampling technique was used to select three (3) security outfits from five (5) selected law enforcement agencies in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. these security agencies were selected using the balloting methods of the simple random sampling technique. this was achieved by writing down names of the five selected law enforcement agencies in a piece of paper and put in a small basket where the researcher objectively and randomly selects three. from this activity, the following law enforcement agencies were selected: the nigeria police force, dss, and the nigeria immigration service. these three (3) security outfits formed the three (3) clusters of the study. in stage two, the researcher purposively select one hundred and twenty-eight respondents from each of the three selected security organisations in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. this suggest that a total one hundred and twentyeight respondents were selected from the nigeria police force, another one hundred and twentyeight respondents were selected from the dss and nigeria immigration service respectively, to give a total of 384 respondents. sample size the sample comprised of male and female officers who are currently serving with the nigeria police force, dss, customs, immigration and the nigeria correctional service in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. since the population of the study is unknown, cochran sample determinant was adopted in determining the sample size. to determine the sample size for officers serving in the calabar metropolis, cross river, cochran’s formula (1963) was adopted. the formula for cochran sample size determinant is stated thus: � = ��(��) �� where: n = required sample size z = confidence level (put at 95% or 1.96) p = proportion of officers serving in the calabar metropolis, cross river state age 20 years and above (given in this study as 50%). that is 0.5 q = compliment of p (put at 50%, i.e, 1 50%). that is 0.5 e = level of accuracy or margin error (put at 0.05). applying the formula therefore, � = 1.96�(0.5)(0.5) 0.05� � = 3.8416 (0.25) 0.0025 � = 0.9604 0.0025 � = 384.16 � = 384 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 the sample for this study thus consists of three hundred and eighty-four (384) male and female respondents purposively drawn from selected security outfits in the calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. data for the study werecollected through questionnaire. out of three hundred and eighty-four (384) questionnaires administered, three hundred and fifty-eight (358) were recovered and therefore used for analysis.the statistical tool adopted for data analyzes was linear regression. results this segment of the study focuses on the analysis of data about the research hypotheses that were asked at the early stage of this investigation. hypothesis ho1:utilization of biometric technology does not significantly contribute to crime control in the calabar metropolis. table 1: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of biometric technology to crime control the independent variable in this hypothesis is utilization of biometric technology, while the dependent variable is crime control. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 1. the result of analysis as presented in table 4.2 for greater impression of data distribution, revealed r-value of 0.260a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect.also, the r2 –value of .068 imply that 68% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (utilization of biometric). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 356) = 11.424; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (utilization of biometric) on crime control in the study area.the adjusted r2 (.067) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.068) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that utilization of biometric significantly contributes to crime control in the study area. hypothesis ho2: there is no significant relationship between utilization of cctv cameras and crime control in the calabar metropolis table 2: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of cctv to crime control variables mean std. deviation utilization of biometric crime control 15.4246 24.8436 5.72487 9.85881 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 167.717 1 167.717 11.424 .260a .068 .067 .000a residual 41927.524 356 117.774 total 42095.240 357 variables mean std. deviation cctv 12.5084 7.60651 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 the independent variable in this hypothesis is utilization of cctv, while the dependent variable is crime control. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 2. the result of analysis as presented in table 4.3 for greater impression of data distribution, revealed r-value of 0.244a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect. also, the r2 –value of .060 imply that 60% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (utilization of cctv). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 356) = 14.608; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (utilization of cctv) on crime control in the study area. the adjusted r2 (.058) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.060) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that utilization of cctv significantly contributes to crime control in the study area. hypothesis ho3:there is no significant relationship between social media policing and crime control in the calabar metropolis table 3: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of social media policing to crime control variables mean std. deviation social media policing crime control 19.8352 24.8436 6.21268 9.85881 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 281.011 1 281.011 12.392 .211a .045 .043 .000a residual 41814.230 356 117.456 total 42095.240 357 the independent variable in this hypothesis is utilization of social media policing, while the dependent variable is crime control. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 3. the result of analysis as presented in table 4.4 for greater impression of data distribution, revealed r-value of 0.211a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect.also, the r2 –value of .045 imply that 45% crime control 24.8436 9.85881 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 537.934 1 537.934 14.608 .244a .060 .058 .000a residual 41557.306 356 116.734 total 42095.240 357 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (utilization of social media policing). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 356) = 12.392; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (utilization of social media policing) on crime control in the study area. the adjusted r2 (.043) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.045) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that utilization of social media policing significantly contributes to crime control in the study area. hypothesis ho4:utilization of tracking device has no significant relationship with crime control in the calabar metropolis. table 4: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of tracking device to crime control the independent variable in this hypothesis is utilization of social media policing, while the dependent variable is crime control. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 4. the result of analysis as presented in table 4.5 for greater impression of data distribution, revealed r-value of 0.233a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect.also, the r2 –value of .054 imply that 52% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (utilization of tracking devices). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 356) = 22.110; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (utilization of tracking devices) on crime control in the study area.the adjusted r2 (.054) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.052) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that utilization of tracking devices significantly contributes to crime control in the study area. discussion of findings the findings of the first hypothesis revealed that the utilization of biometric technology significantly relate to crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. the implication of this result is that increasing number of security agencies like the police force, dss, immigration service are relying on biometric technology in the discharge of their security duties. this important security equipment is receiving a lot of attention among security organisations because of the potential to increase the accuracy and reliability of identification variables mean std. deviation tracking device crime control 14.6927 24.8436 4.44518 9.85881 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 248.048 1 248.048 22.110 .233a .054 .052 .000a residual 41847.192 356 117.548 total 42095.240 357 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 and authentication functions, especially in crime detection and control. through the deployment of this technology, which consists of cameras, fingerprint scanners, and dna analysers, stationed at strategic places in the state likes borders and airports, government institutions, and schools, criminal investigation has been made easy, criminals are deter from operating in those place for the fear of being easily identified and apprehended. the findings further revealed that although the presence of these sophisticated security equipment has not stop crime completely, rather it has reduced the rate of crime occurrences, enabled law enforcement agents to carry out their statutory responsibility efficiently and effectively, which is to investigate and apprehend criminal offenders. it was also gathered from the key informant interview (kii) that there is a high relationship between the use of biometrics technology and crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. qualitative responses gathered from during the kii session corroborate with the findings of the quantitative data. a significant number of the interviewee noted that biometrics technology has been used over the years by law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the state to curb criminal activities. the result of the second hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between the utilization of cctv cameras and crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. this is to say that the installation of cctv cameras by corporate entities, and shops has helped prevent crime by reducing the number of criminal opportunities and increasing the perceived risk of offenders being apprehended with easy in the study area. corporate organisations in the state are encouraged by law enforcement agents to install cctv camera in other to deter criminal elements from attacking them. the study shows that cctv has the potential to assist police after the commission of crimes, specifically by improving the response of personnel to emergencies (ratcliffe, 2006), providing visual evidence for use in criminal investigations (ashby, 2017), and securing early guilty pleas from offenders (owen, keats, & gill, 2006). put differently, cctv is considered to be the triggering of a perceptual mechanism that impacts an offender's choice structuring properties in a manner that persuades them to abstain from crime (ratcliffe, 2006). the result of the statistical analysis relating to hypothesis three indicates there is a significant relationship between social media policing and crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. the study reveals that social media policing facilitates opportunities for surveillance and communication, providing tools for systematically gathering and disseminating information by law enforcement agents. as the popularity of social media rises, these tools provide opportunities for law enforcement agencies to proactively reach out and connect with citizens and facilitates crime control in real time. stuart (2013) revealed that social media is a crucial tool for law enforcement agents, because it can help them connect with the public. he maintained that with social media, the public can send and receive real time information and provide related documents such as pictures and audio records that can help to control crimes. social media allow law enforcement agents to remain in contact with local communities thus providing a useful source of information in an effective way. leveraging facebook is just one of many ways law enforcement officials are gleaning evidence from social media to help them control crimes. kelling and moore (2005) observed that with the start of the 21st century, policing has entered an information era in which order maintenance is data driven, intelligence led, and technologically mediated. the result of the statistical analysis for hypothesis four reveal that the utilization of tracking device has a significant relationship with crime control in calabar metropolis, cross river state, nigeria. the findings of the study show that tracking device enables police ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 personnel to plan effectively for emergency response, determine mitigation priorities, analyse historical events, and predict future events (chan, brerton, legosz, & doran, 2001). according to chainey and ratcliffe (2005) tracking device helps identify potential suspects to increase investigators suspect base when no leads are evident. bond and braga (2013) reported that the ability to access and process information quickly while displaying it in a spatial and visual medium allows agencies to allocate resources quickly and more effectively. the findings of the study reveal that tracking device helps co-ordinate vast amounts of location-based data from multiple sources. it enables the user to layer the data and view the data most critical to the issue or mission (ariel & sherman, 2012). conclusion conclusively, modern security equipment has been used all over the world by various law enforcement agents to respond to, detect, and prevent crime. particularly, the police force, dss, and immigration service daily depend on different modern security equipment in adapting and responding to unexpected or unknown situations, as well as recognized situations, such as theft or other severe criminal attacks. modern security equipment enables law enforcement agents to carry out routine patrol, criminal investigation, intelligence gathering, surveillance, as well as enhance service delivery to the public. this suggests that, the quality and quantity of security equipment at the disposal of law enforcement agents significantly influences their performance during operations and responses to emergency. the implication of operating with obsolete security equipment include but not limited to inability of law enforcement agents to effectively and efficiently response to distress call and unravel criminal incident at record time. increase in criminal activities especially violent crime involving armed robbery, ritual, murder, political assassinations, kidnapping, ethno-religious violence, and electoral violence explains why law enforcement agents should be empowered with modern security equipment. this is because an ill-equipped and ineffective law enforcement agent cannot guarantee the security of citizens. recommendations based on these findings, the following recommendations were made: (i) there is an urgent need to improve the general conditions of service of police officers in nigeria, this will motivate them to discharge their constitutional responsibilities efficiently and effectively. (ii) government should provide increased funding in equipping officers of the npf with renewed emphasis on modern policing techniques including training on forensic science, psychology and the use of dna and ballistics techniques. (iii) government should establish good diplomatic relationship with countries with wellequipped security forces with the aim of these nations helping the nigeria security outfits in training and developing necessary skills to handle and operate sophisticated modern security equipment ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 references achu, a., owan, j. e., uyang., & francis, a. 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(2016). a study of crime reporting in nigeria. global centre for the responsibility to protect ukwayi, j. k., akintola, a. & angioha, p. u. (2019); biometric security in business organisation: an assessment of its’ impact on checking corporate crime in business organizations in cross river state nigeria ; international journal of scientific and research publications (ijsrp) 9(5) (issn: 2250-3153), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29322/ijsrp.9.05.2019.p8966 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2020.100411 https://doi.org/10.35877/sainsmat1012102021 http://dx.doi.org/10.29322/ijsrp.9.05.2019.p8966 ukwayi, j. k., ojong, f. e., austin, e. b. & emeka, j. o. (2012). impact of crime on sustainable tourism in cross river state, nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences, vol.2 no.11 pp.35-44 ukwayi, j. k., okpa, j. t., adewoyin, s. a., angioha, p. u., &udom, h. t. (2017). security equipment and policing in central senatorial district of cross river state, nigeria iosr. journal of humanities and social sciences, 22(2), 6-13. welsh, b. c., & farrington, d. p. (2002). crime prevention effects of closed circuit television: a systematic review(no.252). london, england: home office research. welsh, b. c., & farrington, d. p. (2008). effect of closed circuit television surveillance on crime. campbell systematic reviews, 17, 1–73. welsh, b. c., & farrington, d. p. (2009a). public area cctv and crime prevention: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. justice quarterly, 26, 716–745. welsh, b. c., & farrington, d. p. (2009b). making public place safer. surveillance and crime prevention. new york: oxford university press. williams, h. w. (2007): “cybercrime, cyber-terrorism, cyber-warfare”. the centre for strategic and international studies global organized crime project. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 socio-economic variables and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria emeka. josephat o., omotosho, t. j., agba, a. o. ogaboh, ojong, felix e., &asongo tersoo department of sociology, university of calabar, p.m.b. 1115, calabar, cross river state, nigeria corresponding author emeka, josephat owan ogabohagbagroup@yahoo.com abstract this study examined the relationship between socio-economic variables andgambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. specifically, the study examined the relationship between parental care, financial strain, parental influence, peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. the study adopted cross sectional survey research design. the study adopted simple random and purposive sampling technique. structured questionnaires were administered to three hundred and eightyfour (384) juveniles selected for the study. data was analysed using simple linear regression. all the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. the findings of the study revealed that there is significance relationship parental care, financial strain, parental influence, peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. based on the findings, the study recommends that parents should encourage their children to participate in school-based extra-curricular activities such as sport, creative arts, or youth groupswhereby they can have the opportunity to broaden their social networks. this help keep them away from gambling. keywords: socio-economic variables, gambling, addiction, juveniles introduction grambling also known as betting is the wagering of money or something of value which refers to as the stakes on an event with an uncertain outcome, with the primary intent of wining money or materials goods. according to nelson, robert (1998) gambling thus requires three elements to be present include consideration (an amount wagered),risk (chance),and a prize. gambling activates are many and diverse ranging from simple activities such as dice rolling, machine gambling, rolling wheel, sample betting and card playing to more complex activities such as blackjack playing, casino games, online betting among many others. while casino and card playing remain the most popular, more people access gambling opportunities through handheld devices as mobile phones, iphones and laptops computers. in nigeria, the most common form of gambling is sports betting and machine gambling machine gambling like lotto gambling known as “baba ijebu” is spreading fast in both urban and rural areas where individuals buy cheap gambling machines from china and open small booths and shops where people meet to play.the prevalence of gambling and its problems among juveniles in both economically developed and developing countries has attracted the attention of governmental and non-governmental organizations. in united states and canada, korn,murray, marrison, reynlds and skinner (2006) observed that 60-90% of youth aged 13-19 years old report participating in some form of gambling activity, regardless of age restrictions. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 mailto:ogabohagbagroup@yahoo.com in nigeria, a survey reported by noipolls (2017) revealed a significant proportion of nigerians polled (77%) attested to the high prevalence of betting and gambling in their locality; particularly amongst respondents in the south-west (92%)and south-south (91%) geo-political zones which recorded the highest prevalence. also, the top four betting platforms identified by nigerians are: bet9ja (64%), nairabet (34 %), pool (22 %) and lotto (20%). similarly, betting has become a growing trend amongst juvenilenigerians aged between 13 – 17 years, who accounted for the highest proportion of nigerians who engage in the practice (bankole,2017). one among the reasons for the prevalence gambling among juveniles in nigeria is the quest for money, timely payment, greedy, poverty, passion for sports and peer influence. gambling in any form increases the likelihood of participation, perhaps this may escalate into serious problem. the devastating effect of the gambling is on the perpetrator, the family and the society at large. according to gupta and derevensky (2008)the problematic gambling among juveniles is associated with increased behavioural problems such as delinquency and crime, disruption of relationships, impaired academic performance and work activities as well as poor psychological outcomes, including low self-esteem, depression, and suicidal ideations and attempts. gambling also makes an individual wager his/her money or other valuable items on uncertain events. according to blinn-pike, worthy and jonkman (2007) financial behaviour were associated with sensation seeking and risk-taking activities like gambling. juveniles often use resources such as credit cards, debits cards, or borrowed money to gamble. gambling also destroys ones relationship with family, friends, and peers. due to obsession with the game, a person is isolated from family members which causes serious family crisis. in spite of the negative effects of gambling among juveniles in nigeria, thegambling industry is considered to have a beneficial impact on the economy through employment and taxation, unfortunately, gambling addiction is increasingly evolving into a public health concern in nigeria, especially among juveniles (rataemane&ligthelm, 2003). there is no doubt that gambling industry has established itself as a prominent social and economic force in nigeria with significant impact on job creation and revenue generation. it has also expanded avenues and opportunities for nigerians in entertainment and socialization and opened opportunities for advertising for newspapers, radio and tv, but those seem to be too few benefits compared to the negative effects of gambling in nigeria (rataemane&ligthelm, 2003). unfortunately, there is a dearth of prevention programs or specific treatment facilities for juveniles who have developed gambling addiction in nigeria (kincaid, daniels, dellis, hofmeyr, rousseau, & sharp, 2013). therefore, a specific set of actions should be taken with collaborative efforts between governments, private, and civil society sectors as well as prevention specialists, legislators, researchers, and treatment providers will help contribute to the development of social policies and effective public health intervention options for treatment of juveniles with problem gambling within nigeria. gambling is a common activity among young people, and various studies conducted around the world have reported a high prevalence of gambling among juveniles (blinn-pike, worthy, & jonkman, 2010; calado, alexandre, & griffiths, 2017; dowling, merkouris, greenwood, oldenhof, toumbourou, youssef, 2017). there is a paucity of research on socioeconomic determinants of gambling behaviour among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. in light with the above, this study examines the socio-economic determinants of gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. a study of this nature is important in terms of providing a comprehensive understanding and knowledge of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 variables under study and will assist in designing effective preventive and treatment programs for victims. statement of the problem gambling among juveniles remains a silent problem that is less recognised as a social menace among education stakeholders and researchers. this is because it is a common phenomenon that is considered as recreational activity and even legalised by nigeria government through which revenue are generated (tax collected from the owners of various gambling companies). however, derevensky, gupta, dickson and deguire (2004) noted that gambling causes more harm to the juveniles and the society than good. at the individual level, compulsive gambling problems affect a measurable proportion of young gamblers (abdi, ruiter, & adal, 2015;edem, agba, & ojong, 2020; emeka, ayuk&ezikeudu, 2013) and may manifest in both psychiatric (e.g., anxiety, depression, and sleep deprivation) (abdi, ruiter, & adal, 2015; sharp, dellis, hofmeyr, kincaid, & ross, 2015) as well as long-term physical conditions (e.g., cardiovascular disease, peptic ulcer disease, and hypertension). surprisingly, very few gamblers would admit that gambling is an addictive habit (ligthelm, 2001). minors and young people who indulge in gambling are found to perform poorly in their studies, to lose their school/tuition fees in gambling-related activities, and to engage in risky behaviour, such as alcohol use and highrisk sexual behaviour (abdi, ruiter, & adal, 2015; ahaibwe, lakuma, katunze, mawejje, 2016;ayuk, emeka, chibuzo &omono, 2013;owan, ayuk, tiku, & nwankwo, 2019). financial hardship is another cross-cutting concern. for instance, in most states in nigeria, gamblers recounted experiences of landing themselves in debt, family financial hardships, and high levels of poverty in their communities (ahaibwe, lakuma, katunze, mawejje, 2016; ayuk, owan, &uyang, 2013; owan, achu, tiku& nwankwo, 2019). other notable impacts of gambling include loss of productive school or work hours, truancy, and domestic and community violence as well as loss of family assets (ahaibwe, lakuma, katunze, & mawejje, 2016; ligthelm, 2001; emeka, ayuk, udiba&uyang, 2016). gambling problems adversely affect intimate partners and children in a number of ways (dicksonswift, james, & kippen, 2005; hodgins, shead, et al., 2007; vitaro, wanner, brendgen, & tremblay, 2008;omang, angioha, ojong-ejoh, & abang, 2020). while emotional difficulties, physical complaints and behavioural difficulties are common, they can be experienced and expressed quite differently, the children of problem gambling parents are also at risk of developing gambling problems themselves. people with problem gambling fathers were 11 to 14 times more likely to have gambling problems and people with problem gambling mothers were 7 to 11 times more likely to have gambling problems. against this backdrop, the following research questions were formulated to guide the study: (i) what is the relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar? (ii) how does financial strain relates to gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar? (iii) what is the relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar? (iv) to what extent does peer pressure relates to gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar? research hypotheses four research hypotheses were formulated for this study. they are: (i) there is no significant relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 (ii) there is no significant relationship between financial strain and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar. (iii)there is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar. (iv) there is no significant relationship between peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar. study area the study area is calabar, cross river state, nigeria. calabar, the capital of cross river state is located in south-south, nigeria. calabar is divided into calabar south and calabar municipality local government areas and covers an area of about 1,480 sq km. calabar is located between longitudes 80 17’00 e and 80 20’00’’e latitudes 40 50’00’’n and 50 10’00’’n (udoimuk, osang, ettah, ushie, egor, & alozie, 2014;angioha, akintola, ogunnubi, &butum, 2021; angioha, nwagboso, ironbar, &ishie, 2018). calabar is sandwiched between the great kwa river to the east and the calabar river to the west. calabar falls within tropical equatorial climate with high temperature, high relative humidity and abundant annual rainfall. two major air masses affect the climate of calabar as well as other contiguous locations in the west african region. calabar lies within a tropical region with well-marked rainy and dry seasons. the wet season starts from may and spans to october while the dry season starts from november to april (ekiji, nwosu & agba, 2011;ukwayi, eja&unwanede, 2012; osonwa, eja, & emeka, 2015). the three dominant ethnic settlement in calabar are the efiks, quas and efuts (effiongfuller, 1996; agba, ojong, akintola, maruf, udom, &usung, 2021); but because of migration occasioned by socio-economic activities, calabar is today a cosmopolitan society with mixed bag of people from different cultural backgrounds. calabar owns a seaport, an airport, a market for agro-produce from the hinterlands and home of many industrial outlets. the city is a home to the prestigious university of calabar established in 1975, a college of technology, a teachertraining college, and numerous secondary schools. historically, calabar was a centre for trade between europeans on the coast and africans farther inland. fish, cassava, bananas, palm oil, and palm kernels were traded at calabar for european manufactured goods, and the town also served as a major slave-trading depot. methodology the study adopts the cross-sectional survey research design. the design was chosen because it allows effective collection of data, about social events, as well as accurately and objectively describe existing relationship among variables or phenomena (otu, eja, eko, & josephat, 2011; edem, agba& ojong, 2020; akpabio, angioha, egwuonwu, awusa, & ndiyo, 2020). it was also adopted because it is specifically designed to systematically elicit data from respondents through interviews, questionnaire, and mails, among others.the study adopts the simple random and purposive sampling technique. the simple random sampling technique was used to select thirty-two (32) betting centres across calabar, cross river state, nigeria. the betting centres were selected using the balloting methods of the simple random sampling technique. this was achieved by writing down names of all the betting centres in each of all street where these betting centres are located in a piece of paper and put in a small basket where one centres was selected. the researcher purposively select twelve (12) from the thirty two (32) betting centres from different parts of calabar. this suggest that twelve (12) respondents were purposively selected from bet centres in amika utuk, uwanse, white house street, dan archibong street, mayne avenue, inyang nta henshaw avenue, anansa road, palm street, target road, new airport road, goldie street, mount zion street, ekpo abasi, egerton, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 calabar road, and anantigha street. in the same vein, bet centres located in diamond hill, barracks road, eta agbor road, parliamentary street, otu street, okoro agbor street, marian road, ndidemusang iso road, spring road, odukpani road, akim, ikot ansa, ikot ishie, kasuk, duke town, henshaw town were selected from calabar municipality. in all, the study respondents were selected from both calabar south and calabar municipality. the total sample size is three hundred and eighty-four (384) juveniles found in bet centres, age 15-17. the sample size was determine using cochran sample determinant. this sample determinant was adopted because the population of the study is unknown. to determine the sample size for juveniles who are victims of gambling addiction in calabar, cross river, cochran’s formula (1963) was adopted. the formula for cochran sample size determinant is presented as follows: � = ��(��) �� where: n = required sample size z = confidence level (put at 95% or 1.96) p = proportion of juvenile with gambling addiction in calabar, cross river state age 15-17 years (given in this study as 50%). that is 0.5 q = compliment of p (put at 50%, i.e, 1 50%). that is 0.5 e = level of accuracy or margin error (put at 0.05). data for the study werecollected through questionnaire. out of 384 copies of the questionnaire distributed to the respondents, only 372 were returned and found usable showing a response rate of 96.9%. the data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as simple percentages and tables, whereas inferential statistics such as simple linear regression was used to explored the relationship between socio-economic variables and gambling addiction among juveniles. results this segment of the study focuses on the analysis of data about the research questions that were asked at the early stage of this investigation. table 1: responses on the respondents’ ondemographic data variable category n percent (%) sex male 146 39.00 female 226 61.00 total 372 100.00 age below 11 years 104 28.00 12 – 14 years 211 57.00 15 – 17 years 57 15.00 total 372 100.00 religion islam 61 16.00 christianity 285 77.00 african traditional religion 26 7.00 educational qualification total 372 100.00 fslc 171 46.00 ssce 201 54.00 total 372 100.00 time involved in gambling less than 5 years 133 36.00 6-10years 111 30.00 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 11-15years 70 19.00 16years and above 58 16.00 total 372 100.00 descriptive statistics (percentages and graphs) were first used to analyze the demographic data (sex; age; educational qualification, religious affiliation and time involved in gambling) and the results are presented in table 1, while mean and standard deviation was used for other variables and presented in table 4. the independent variables in the study are; parental care, financial strain, parental influence, peer pressure, while the dependent variable is gambling addiction among juveniles. results of analysis of demographic data of respondents as presented in table 4.1 revealed that; out of the 372 accessible respondents’, 146 respondents representing 39.00% are males, while 226 representing 61.00% are females. as for age distribution of respondents’, 104 (28.00) are below 11 years, 211 (57.00) are between 12 – 14 years, 57 (15.00) are between 15 – 17 years. as for religious affiliation; 61 (16.00) practice islamic religion, 285 (77.00) practice christian religion and 26 (7.00) practice african traditional religion. for respondents’ educational qualification; 171 (46.00) have primary school education (fslc), while 201 (54.00) have secondary school education (ssce). as for how long they have been involved in gambling; 133 representing (36.00%) have been involved for less than 5years, 111 (30.00) have been involved between 6 10years, 70 (19.00) have been involved between 11 – 15 years, while 58 respondents’ representing 16% have been involved for 16years and above. table 2: responses of respondents on the common forms of gambling among juveniles in calabar metropolis forms of gambling n parentages (%) lotto (baba ijebu) 21 5.6 bet9ja 139 37.5 nairabet poll betking sportybet 118 15 51 28 31.7 4.0 13.7 7.5 total 372 100 this section examined the forms of gambling available in calabar metropolis. respondents expressed their views on the forms of gambling on available to them. the result indicates that majority of the respondents 37.5% (139) purported that bet9ja is the most form of gambling available in calabar metropolis, while a significant percentage 31.7% (118)of them acknowledged the form of gambling to them was nariabet. while an insignificant number of 4% (15) of the juveniles saw poll as another form of gambling among them.this result may show the facts that gambling has become a growing trend amongst juveniles in nigerians aged between 13-17 years. similarly, the findings coincided with the finding of bankole (2019) that a significant proportion of nigerians polled (77%) attested to the high prevalence of betting and gambling in their locality; particularly amongst respondents in the south-west (92%)and southsouth (91%) geo-political zones which recorded the highest prevalence. also, the top four ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 betting platforms identified by nigerians are: bet9ja (64%), nairabet (34 %), pool (22 %) and lotto (20%). table 3: factors influencing gambling among y juveniles statement stronglyagree agree undecided disagree stronglydisagree i gamble because my family is poor 72 (19.5%) 25 (6.7%) 41(11.0%) 134 (36.0%) 100 (26.8%) i gamble because my parents gamble 111(29.8%) 70(18.8%) 27 (7.3%) 89 (23.9%) 75 (20.2%) i gamble because my parents have permissive attitude to gambling 80 (21.5%) 160 (43.0%) 51 (13.7%) 68 (18.3%) 13 (3.5%) i gamble because i need pocket money 97 (26.1%) 130 (34.9%) 18 (4.8%) 33 (8.9%) 94 (25.3%) i gamble only when i urgently need money 60 (16.1%) 101 (27.2%) 25 (6.7%) 114 (30.6%) 72 (19.4%) i gamble because i want to get rich 98 (26.3%) 94 (25.3%) 17 (4.6%) 111 (29.8%) 52 (14%) i gamble because my friends gamble 92 (24.7%) 121 (32.5%) 52 (14%) 23 (6.2%) 84 (22.6%) gambling gives me sense of belonging 100(26.9%) 126 (33.9%) 25 (6.7%) 20 (5.4%) 101 (27.1%) i gamble because gambling is interesting and fun 85 (22.8%) 123 (33.1%) 62 (16.7%) 30 (8.1%) 72 (19.4%) i cannot control my gambling attitude 0 (0.0%) 65 (17.5%) 13 (3.5%) 111 (29.8%) 183 (49.2%) various factors have been found to influence the incidence and prevalence of youth gambling. these factors are both intrapersonal factors such as personality, attitude, arousal etc. and interpersonal factors like relationships with parents and peers, parent and peer gambling, and on the role of social norms and the portrayal of gambling in the media. table 3 presents information on some of the interpersonal factors that influence gambling among youths. respondents were asked questions relating to their family background and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 parental involvement in gambling activities. the results indicate that the majority of the respondents disagreed (36%) and strongly disagreed (26.8%) to the statement that they gamble because their families are poor economically. only 6.7% of the respondents agreed to the statement. this shows that the economic status of the family is not necessarily a determinant of juveniles involvement in gambling. in other words, the children from economically rich homes also participate in gambling activities. thus, gambling behavior of juvenile is not a function of the economic standing of their families, but as earlier found, self-inquisitiveness is a key determinant of gambling activities among juvenile. the study also examined the relationship between parental involvement in gambling activities and youth gambling. respondents were asked if they gambled because their parents gamble. results indicated that almost all of the respondents (29.8%) vehemently strongly with the statement that they gambled because their parents are involved in gambling activities. however, 11% of the respondents were indecisive about the statement. similar result was obtained regarding the statement that respondents gamble because their parents have permissive attitude towards gambling. majority of the respondents agreed (43%) and disagreed (3.5%) to the statement while only 21.5% of the respondents agreed to the statement. meanwhile, 13.7% of the respondents were undecided about the statement. this implies that parents’ socialization plays a significant role in the gambling behaviour of juvenile. this finding collaborated with the findings of ladouceur and mireault’s (1988) on the study of quebec city high school students found that 90% of those surveyed who reported that they gambled said that their parents knew they did so, and 84% claimed that their parents did not object to their gambling; 61% stated that they actually put bets on in the company of their parents; and 25% had borrowed money from parents or relatives to bet or repay gambling debts. beyond the familial context, the study also examined the role of peer groups as an important factor influencing the involvement of youths in gambling. the result in table 3 reveals that 24.7% and 32.5% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement that they gamble because their friends gamble. however, 6.2% of the respondents disagreed with the statement while 14% of the respondents were undecided. this reveals that the majority of the respondents were influenced by their peer groups that equally participate in gambling. this is not unconnected with the result obtained concerning the statement that gambling gives gamblers some sense of belonging. the result shows that a preponderant percentage of the respondents (32.5%) agreed that they derived belongingness from participating in gambling with their friends. however, a significant percentage of the respondents (22.6%) disagreed with the statement. no doubt, peer groups have tremendous influence in the lives of the young ones, particularly in the decision pertaining to their involvement in risk activities. these findings underscore the fact that peer groups also have an important influence on young people’s risktaking behaviour (including not only gambling but also smoking, drinking, and under age sex) which represent an inherent part of the process of making the transition from childhood to adulthood. for example, griffith’s (1995) work demonstrates the significance of young people’s social networks in relation to gambling. this has shown that young people who are in peer groups of problem gamblers put pressure on each other to continue gambling; whereas those who participate in gambling with non-problem gamblers actually used peer pressure to look after each other and to try and stop vulnerable individuals from gambling too heavily. table 3 also provides information on intrapersonal factors that influence the involvement of youths in gambling. specifically, intrapersonal factors such as gambling beliefs, cognitions ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 and attitude were given consideration. respondents were asked to express their gambling beliefs which have influenced their involvement in gambling. the result reveals that majority of the respondents (21.6%) were involved in gambling activities because of their belief that it is a source of their pocket money, followed by 34.9% of the respondents that claimed otherwise. this shows that most young people engage in gambling on the basis that it provides them with money to run their everyday lives, such as to remain relevant in the peer groups they belong to. more than half of the respondents (25.3%) saw gambling as a quick way to meet urgent financial needs. interestingly, the result also reveals that most of the respondents (26.3%) believed that they could get wealth through their consistent and diligent involvement in gambling activities. it is therefore apparent that youth gamblers engage in gambling because of its financial fascination and rewards. in a similar manner, majority of the respondents (33.1%) claimed that they gamble because gambling is interesting and fun. only 8.1% of the respondents disagreed to the statement. this is so because when played among ones peer group, it gives a sense of competition and solidarity to the group especially when it is rewarding. these findings point to the fact that individuals gamble for a variety of reasons, including: money, enjoyment, excitement, and social reasons. these are the salient motivating factors for gambling (splevins, mireskandari, clayton, &blaszczynski, 2010). in addition, lloyd,doll, hawton, duttom, geddes, goodwin and rogers(2010) found that adult internet gamblers in britain gamble to escape from routine and boredom, and to modify their mood, for money, and for enjoyment. table 3 also presents information on gambling addiction. respondents expressed their opinion on whether they have control over their gambling behavior or not. the result indicates that majority of the respondents (49.2%) claimed that they have control over their gambling behavior while a significant percentage of the respondents (17.5%) agreed that they could not control their gambling habit anymore. testing of hypotheses hypothesis ho1: there is no significant relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar. table 4: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of parental care to gambling addiction among juveniles’ variables mean std. deviation parental care 10.7903 4.85744 gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 70.229 1 70.229 10.462 .214a .047 .046 .001a residual 56214.578 370 151.931 total 56284.806 371 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 the independent variable in this hypothesis is parental care, while the dependent variable is gambling addiction among juveniles’. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 4. the result of analysis as presented in table 4 revealed r-value of 0.214a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect. also, the r2 –value of .047 imply that 47% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (parental care). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 370) = 10.462; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (parental care) on gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. the adjusted r2 (.046) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.047) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that parental care significantly contributes to gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. hypothesis ho2: there is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar table 5: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of financial strain to gambling addiction among juveniles’ the independent variable in this hypothesis is financial strain, while the dependent variable is gambling addiction among juveniles’. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 4 5. the result of analysis as presented in table 5 revealed r-value of 0.230a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect. also, the r2 –value of .049 imply that 49% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (financial strain). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 370) = 16.441; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (financial strain) on variables mean std. deviation financial strain 11.9301 3.14650 gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 218.336 1 218.336 16.441 .230a .049 .048 .001a residual 56066.470 370 151.531 total 56284.806 371 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. the adjusted r2 (.048) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.049) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that financial strain significantly contributes to gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. hypothesis ho3: there is no significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar table 6: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of parental influence to gambling addiction among juveniles’ the independent variable in this hypothesis is parental influence, while the dependent variable is gambling addiction among juveniles. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 6.the result of analysis as presented in table 6 revealed r-value of 0.241a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect. also, the r2 –value of .053 imply that 53% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (parental influence). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 370) = 17.045; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (parental influence) on gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area.the adjusted r2 (.051) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.053) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that parental influence significantly contributes to gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area hypothesis ho4: there is no significant relationship between peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar table 7: summary simple linear regression analysis of the contribution of peer pressure to gambling addiction among juveniles variables mean std. deviation parental influence 12.7903 3.71436 gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 6.874 1 6.874 17.045 .241a .053 .051 .001a residual 56277.933 370 151.103 total 56284.806 371 variables mean std. deviation ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 the independent variable in this hypothesis is peer pressure, while the dependent variable is gambling addiction among juveniles. both variables were measured continuously and inferential statistics involving simple linear regression was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and the result is presented in table 47. the result of analysis as presented in table 7 revealed r-value of 0.318a. correlation coefficient is a standardized measure of an observed degree of relationship between variables, it is a commonly used measure of the size of an effect, and that values of ±.1 represent a small effect, ±.3 is a medium effect and ±.5 is a large effect. also, the r2 –value of .068 imply that 68% of total variance is accounted for by predictor variable (peer pressure). furthermore, the regression anova revealed that the f (1, 370) = 23.327; p < .05, is significant. thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. this implies that there is a significant linear association (contribution) of the predictor variable (peer pressure) on gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. the adjusted r2 (.066) shows some shrinkage of the unadjusted value (.068) indicating that the model could be generalized on the population. based on the result, it was concluded that peer pressure significantly contributes to gambling addiction among juveniles in the study area. discussion of findings the statistical analysis for hypothesis one shows a significant relationship between parental care and gambling addiction among juveniles’ in calabar, river state, nigeria. the findings of the study revealed that children rely on their parents for their basic needs, such as clothing, shelter and food, with their family providing their primary sense of physical security. this suggest that giving children a stable home routine also enables them to feel secure, as they know they will eat, drink, bathe, and sleep at certain times without being disturbed. parental care is a recipe for children to develop their skills and talents, grow physically, and develop cognitively and emotionally. similarly, parental care is also important in building trust between children and their parents. when children know that they can trust those around them, they feel more comfortable and secure. according to mwangangi (2016) proper nurturing of children is the primary responsibility of parents, because the values given to children and the type of training they receive from their parents seem to largely determine their future life-style and whether they will develop gambling addiction or not. parents help their children develop certain behavioural attitudes, and once established these attitudes are difficult to change or suppress. parental care plays an important role in shaping a child by providing security and developing their values and skills. the result of the second hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between financial strain and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, peer pressure 9.6505 4.17687 gambling addiction 14.3710 5.31710 model sum of squares df mean square f r r square adjusted r square sig regression 201.218 1 201.218 23.327 .318a .068 .066 .000a residual 56083.589 370 151.577 total 56284.806 371 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 nigeria. this is to say that without pocket-money a modern child feels inferior to his playmates, he lacks independence, but more important still, he cannot learn the value of money or develop the ability to handle it: he either steal or gamble to make up for the deficiency. previous studies have revealed that debt and financial problems have been found to be associated with delinquency (blom, weijters, & van der laan, 2011). there is also a strong need on the part of parents to keep check on their children in this way they will restrain them to develop delinquent personality robert (2002) concluded that children exposed to risk factors such as behavioural problems and family dysfunction, follow a well described and documented path beginning with behavioural manifestations and reactions such as defiance of adults, lack of school readiness and aggression towards peers. this leads to negative short-term outcomes including truancy, peer and teacher rejection, low academic achievements, and early involvement in drugs and alcohol. these factors lead to causes school failure and eventual dropout, leading to negative and destructive attitudes such as delinquency, adult criminality and violence. the result of the statistical analysis relating to hypothesis three indicates that there is a significant relationship between parental influence and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. the findings of the study suggest that parents play an important role in inculcating norms and values within children (mwenda, 2012). these include an understanding of right and wrong, respect, fairness, compassion and responsibility. similarly, the study noted that children learn these values by observing and emulating their parents’ behaviour, and being taught by their parents. thus, children learn both the importance of these values and the consequences of not observing them. according to a review of studies of family influence on youth gambling, there is a higher prevalence of gambling or problem gambling among youth who belong to families where the parents provide little social or emotional support, the parents approve of or are involved in the adolescent’s gambling, the parents gamble, or a family member uses substances. this study lends support to earlier work by pitt, thomas, bestman, daube, and derevensky (2017), which indicates that there is a range of socialisation factors, particularly family and the media (predominantly via marketing), which may be positively shaping children’s gambling attitudes, behaviours and consumption intentions. the result of the last hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between peer pressure and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. this is to say that peer pressure is a very real thing, and minors will often act out in front of their “friends” so that they feel accepted and are a part of a group and ids reasons for juvenile delinquency. research has demonstrated that peer-based gambling may also lead children (and girls) to gamble more than they would if they were on their own (hardoon&derevensky, 2001). the finding of this study is in accordance with the works of ajiboye (2015) who investigated the influence of parenting styles and peer pressure on delinquent behaviours among senior secondary school students in kaduna metropolis. result revealed that there is a peer pressure was also found to strongly encourage delinquent behaviour among students r = .683; p < .000. conclusion the study concludes that there is a significant relationship between socio-economic variables and gambling addiction among juveniles in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. women are undoubtedly the foundation of the basic unit of human society. while gambling has been traditionally viewed as an adult activity, there is ample evidence suggesting its popularity amongst juveniles who continue to engage in both regulated (in spite of age restrictions) and unregulated forms of gambling. this is likely a result of gambling’s general social acceptability, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 media advertisements, endorsement and sanctioning by governments, and the glitz and glamour associated with this form of social activity. the perceived ease of becoming wealthy without working has resulted in gambling taking on a new level of status amongst juveniles, with becoming a professional gambler (often poker player) being a new preferred vocation. the implication of this findings is that if nothing is done very fast to address the problem of gambling among juvenile, an increasing number of them with gambling addictions will experience a wide range of social, economic, personal, academic, mental health, familial, criminal, delinquent and legal problems. as well, these individuals will experience poor academic performance, increased rates of suicide ideation and attempts, and difficult peer relationships resulting from their excessive problematic gambling. all of these behaviours place the adolescent at high risk for multiple mental health issues. recommendations in view of the various findings, summary and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations were made: (i) there is need for basic parenting research for the development, evaluation, and dissemination of parenting information in nigeria. government should provide funds for such research. the outcome of such research can lead to a greater understanding of the important role of responsible parenting in the development of children and the nation as a whole. (ii) parents should create a safe space where children can discuss friendship issues with them and make demand of the necessary things they need both for their personal use and for their studies. (iii) parents should help their children and their friends explore their interests and find things in common they enjoy doing together and help to foster their interest by supporting them and encouraging the extra activity. (iv) parents should encourage their children to participate in school-based extra-curricular activities such as sport, creative arts or youth groups where they have the opportunity to broaden their social networks. this will help keep them away from gambling. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 references abdi, t. a., ruiter, r. a. & adal, t. a. 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(1998). blackjack and the law (1st ed.). oakland, ca: rge publications. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 nisar, m., ullah, s., ali, m. &alam, s. (2015). juvenile delinquency: the influence of family, peer and economic factors on juvenile delinquents. scientia agriculturae, 9(1), 37-48. omang, t.a., angioha, p.u., ojong-ejoh, m.u. & abang, t. (2020). covid-19measures and the exacerbation of intimate partner violence in calabar, ijo-international journal of social science and humanities research., 3(12)83-94 osonwa, k. o., eja, e. i. & emeka, j. o. 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(2012). gambling behaviour of university students in south-westernnigeriapsychologia: an international journal, 20(1): 252-262. pitt, h., samantha, l. thomas, a. b., daube, m., &derevensk, j. (2017). factors that influence children’s gambling attitudes and consumption intentions: lessons for gambling harm prevention research, policies and advocacy strategies. harm reduction journal, 14(11), splevins, k., mireskandari, s., clayton, k., &blaszczynski, a. (2010). prevalence of adolescent problem gambling, related harms and help-seeking behaviours among an australian population. journal of gambling studies, 26, 189-204 stage, s. a. & quiroz, d. r. (1997). a meta-analysis of interventions to decrease disruptive classroom behaviour in public education settings. school psychology review, 26:333– 368. tomé, g., de matos, m. g. & simões, c. (2012). how can peer group influence the behaviour of adolescents: explanatory model. global journal of health science. 4, (2), 26-35 udoimuk, a. b. b., osang, j. e. a., ettah, e. b. a., ushie, p. o. a., egor, a. o. a. & alozie, s. i. c. (2014). an empirical study of seasonal rainfall effect in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. iosr journal of applied physics (iosr-jap), 5(5), 07-15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ugoji, f. n. &ebenuwa-okoh, e. e. (2015). parenting styles, peer group influence as correlate of sexual behaviour among undergraduate adolescents. international journal of humanities social sciences and education, 2(8): 103-110 ukwayi, j., k, ojong, f. and austine, e. b. (2012), socio-economic impact of festivals in community development in calabar, nigeria, developing country studies, 2 ( 8),74-80. ukwayi, j.k., eja, o. f.&unwanede, c. c. (2012). peer pressure and tobacco smoking among undergraduate students of the university of calabar, cross river state. higher education studies, 2(3): 92-101.available at: https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v2n3p92 van dam, c. (2005). juvenile criminal recidivism: relations with personality and post release environmental risk and protective factors. nijmegen, the netherlands: radboud university nijmegen vitaro, f., wanner, b., brendgen, m. & tremblay, r. e. (2008). offspring of parents with gambling problems: adjustment problems and explanatory mechanisms. journal of gambling studies, 24, 535–553. wolfe, d. & mash, e. j. (2006). behavioural and emotional problems in adolescents. in: wolfe da, mash ej, editors. behavioural and emotional disorders in adolescents: nature, assessment, and treatment. ny: guilford, 3–20 zangeneh, masood, blaszczynski, alex & turner nigel e. (2008). in the pursuit of winning: problem gambling theory. research and treatment. new york: springer science business media ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v2n3p92 social studies and the nigerian child: review of abraham maslow ideas in dealing with problems dr. daramola c. oladayo department of social science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: dayoasoju@gmail.com , phone no: +2348067098100 abstract this paper assessed maslow hierarchy of needs which has great implications for the practice of effective teaching and learning. it also discussed the seven levels of needs as physiological needs, safety and security needs, love and belongingness needs, self-esteem or self-worth needs, understanding and knowledge needs, aesthetic needs and self-actualization needs. the national philosophy of education in nigeria recognizes the need for social studies education in building the desired orientation needed after independence in mobilizing the young citizens for national development. an explanation was also made on the challenges of the social studies education teachers in meeting the needs of the nigerian child. nigerian child is the bedrock of the nigerian society therefore; it is pertinent to consider their basic needs. the paper discussed the goals and aim of social studies education within the view to examine and understand the communities locally and globally, their various heritages, physical systems, interactions and the nature of citizenship within them. learning must be structured to permit critical thinking and experience based while the nigerian child should be encouraged to interact among themselves and practice democratic values in school and beyond. the paper concluded that the nature of any society is determined by its educational system, so, to solve the problems of the society, emphasis should to be laid on what and how a subject is taught. if social studies is to deliver purposeful and meaningful instructions in nigerian context, it must engage in challenges of real life activities which directly link the school and community. keywords: social studies, child needs assessment, hierarchy of needs, nigerian child. introduction need basically, can be defined as a state created when an organism does not have or is deprived of an object or condition it requires. all organisms need food and water periodically. thus need connotes lack of something essential as man has an insatiable nature (muktar, 2014). a child according to ekpu (1991) in bozimo, gotep, zwalchir & obanya (2004) is the family crowning glory, he is the link between the present and future. that is, he is the natural extension of the family, a projection or self into the future and is the one who receives the baton from mum and dad depending on how well the child was trained. nigerian child is the bedrock of the nigerian society therefore; it is pertinent to consider their basic needs. maslow (1987) identified these needs as physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and selfactualization. other needs like food, water, shelter are biological/natural which all organisms require for their survival maslow (1987) described the psychological needs as basic and it not met they make one uncomfortable. in support of this, muktar (2014) said need is that aspect of a person's psychological entity, which has great influence on the life of the individual of which the nigerian child are no exception. need motivates and drives an individual to achieve. accordingly, needs arranged hierarchically that is organized according to levels based on considerations. this paper intends to consider maslow's approach ideas in relation to the nigerian child from the social studies perspective. if basic needs are not met, one ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 18 mailto:dayoasoju@gmail.com becomes uncomfortable and motivated or driven so as to be able to sufficiently fulfill these needs. one can understand the concept of social studies better by looking at different approaches to its definitions. kissock (defines social studies as a programme of instructions or studies which a society uses to instill in students or pupils, the knowledge skills, attitude, values and action that is considered important concerning the relationships which human beings have with others. the national council on education (nce, 1983) in nigeria accepts and recommends social studies as a study of man as a biological, social, political, economic and spiritual being responsible and responsive to nature in its entire ramification. dubey (1980) define social studies as a process of education which utilizes the study of human life for the purpose of giving us the opportunity to practice, solving problems of crucial importance both for individual and the society. in line with the above definitions, social studies is a subject that deals with man, his problems, and environment in a broad framework towards the inter-relationships of issues or problems and knowledge of helping man to think and act systematically, critically and creatively in the world of human affairs. it is indeed a sort of concentrating on human interactions in an environment either politically, socially, economically, technologically and psychologically. towards harmonious living. it is a value -laden and value free education being imbibed or dispensed inside and outside the classroom for the purpose of producing prospective citizens for the society. hence, this paper assessed maslow hierarchy of needs which has great implications for the practice of effective teaching and learning. abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs maslow's theory of motivation, presents an hierarchy of needs. children have needs that should be satisfied and gratified. need gratification according to maslow is the most important single principle underlying all developments. as lower needs are gratified, maslow's principle holds that higher need emerges. this explains why some children are more motivated to learn than others and why some individuals are better adjusted than others. mulwa (2008) stated that maslow’s theory of needs is specifically built on the idea that human behavior are really motivated by the simple desire to meet specific human needs in the society. egbule (2007) and onah (2015) remarked that in 1943, brandies university professor of psychology abraham maslow as a renowned researcher in the study of human needs and motivation came up with his hierarchy of needs theory with the proposal that people are motivated by seven levels of needs common to all people namely. 1. physiological needs-food, water, air, set sleep, shelter clothing 2. safety and security needsshelter, protection, survival 3. social needs-love belonging, affection, association friendship acceptance. 4. esteem or prestige needs or ego needs-self respect 5. understanding or knowledge needs-access to better education accountability. 6. aesthetic needs-enjoy and promote beauty, taste appreciating 7. self-actualization needs-development of talents or potentials. maslow represented these needs as a hierarchy in the shape of a pyramid. a hierarchy is an arrangement that ranks people or concepts from lowest to highest. according to maslow, individuals must meet the needs at the lower levels of the pyramid before they can successfully be motivated to tackle the next levels. the lowest four levels represent deficiency needs and the upper three levels represent growth needs. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 19 fig. 1: abraham maslow hierarchy of needs 1. physiological needs physiological needs are such human basic needs as food, water, clothing, shelter, sleep and procreation. these needs are the lowest in the hierarchy. maslow contends that when physiological needs are unsatisfied no other needs will serve as a basis for motivation. once satisfied newer and still higher need will emerge. maslow asserts that needs are satisfied in order of priority within each person's hierarchy, (maslow, 1970). once the physiological needs have been satisfied their strength and importance decreases and the next higher level need becomes the strongest motivator of people. this process is unending and continues from birth to death (hellriegel & slocum, 1977). basic biological needs generally take precedence over psychological needs. if two needs are incompatible the more basic one is usually satisfied first. if children are hungry and feeling lonely they will probably seek something to eat before they participate fully in the process of learning. we must realize that unfortunately we cannot meet the psychological needs of all our children/learners. there is no possible way that a teacher can provide food, clothing, shelter and adequate sleep for each learner. fortunately, free and reduced lunch programs have helped combat the effects of hunger in schools. when these basic needs are not met learners will not be able to focus on learning. 2. safety and security needs safety and security needs deal with protection and survival from chaotic situations, social disorder, social disturbance and physical dangers in human environment. safety is feeling that people get when they know no harm will befall them physically, mentally or emotionally. security on the hand is the feeling people get when their fears and anxieties are low. examples of chaotic situations are communal crisis, conflicts, wars, riots, terrorism, militancy, kidnappings, civil disturbances, wanton killings among others that usually threaten peaceful co-existence and harmonious living of people in the society in the contemporary human environment. similarly physical/natural dangers include flood disasters, fire disasters, earthquake, earth tremors etc. diaz-rico (2009) stated that because students learn better in a supportive, non-threatening environment teachers must develop methodologies that make the learning environments comfortable as possible and reduce tension. aruma (2014) states that the high rate of insecurity of lives and property occasioned by insurgency of boko haram as an armed rebellious group against constituted authorities of federal government in the north east zone of nigeria presents a serious challenge to educational development in the affected areas. 3. love and belonging need or social needs ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 20 social needs involve needs to feel needed, need for affection, belongingness, association, love, friendship, interaction and acceptance in relationship with other people. these needs are met through satisfactory relationships with family members, friends, peers, classmates, teachers and other people with whom individuals react (acceptance by others) (muktar, 2014). when people feel secured and safe enough in an environment, the tendency is that they feel the need to identify and belong to a social organization of family, community among others in the society. anyanwu et. al. (1985) stated that love and belongingness indicate the need to be part of a group. such as family, group of colleagues in a workplace, friendship social group in the society. the learner and children will want to feel loved and cared about. they often seek this fulfillment from teachers or other personnel. teachers must then ensure that our learners know that they are valued as individuals or appreciated for the effort they are making during your time together in the learning environment. the more you understand the basic needs of each student the more likely you are to help remove obstacles from learning so that learning can be enhanced and maximized 4. self-esteem, self-worth or prestige needs or ego needs it is always natural that people seek for esteem and prestige inhuman environment when it is obvious that they feel secure in their respective social groups in the society. when people achieve their social needs or love and belongingness needs to social groups they tend to seek for self-respect, recognition, reputations, status, self-worth among others in their respective social groups. onah (2015) asserts that when people achieve their social needs that they focus attention on such matter as reputation, recognition, self-esteem and prestige or self-worth, self-respect, status among others that give people strong confidence to participate in activities that will certainly improve their living condition in their various communities. the fulfillment of the esteem needs leads to feelings of worth, adequacy and self-confidence. the inability of individual to fulfill these needs may lead to a feeling of discouragement. job title and responsibilities, praises, merit, pay increases, peer/supervisory recognition and competent management are all important factors in satisfying the ego needs in an educational setting 5. the ned to know and understand (understanding need) the understanding needs deals with the desire of people to know in human environment. this reminds human beings of the urgent need to acquire relevant knowledge, skills, information, and attitude in order to enable them to function very efficiently and effectively in various social settings in human environment. anyanwa, omolowa, adeyeri, okanlawon & siddiqui (1985) opined that understanding needs deal with human need to see how, what they are and what they do and the part they play, in the larger society .understanding needs widen people's access to education in the contemporary society. the provision of better education with its corresponding more job opportunities and higher income will indeed enhance peoples living conditions in various social settings in human environment. mulwa (2008) asserted that people need to instill values of honesty, accountability and transparency as opposed to the assumed great courage in stealing from the public purse without guilt or impunity in the society. 6. aesthetic need aesthetic needs refer to human desire to enjoy and promote the beauty of human environment. the focus of aesthetic need is to conscientize people on the need to love, understand, appreciate and promote the beauty of human surrounding in the society. it also refers to the quality of being creatively, beautifully or artistically pleasing; i.e. expressing oneself in pleasing ways. for example, decorating your living room, wrapping birth day ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 21 presents attractively, washing and rating your car and keeping up with the latest styles in clothing are all ways of expressing your aesthetic sense. people are encouraged to love, understand, appreciate and promote the efficacy of beautiful things such as art, music, flowers and painted background in human environment. aesthetic needs offer people an opportunity for relaxation and recreation in various communities. mulwa (2008) noted that people need to relax at the appropriate time in the society. relaxation is imperativein human environment inspite of tight schedule of the days business and work in order to rest and recreate human body need mind. 7. self-actualization need at the top of the pyramid is the need for self-actualization, which is a person's desire to become everything he or she is capable of becoming to realize and use his or her full potential, capability and talents. this need can be addressed only when the previous have been satisfied. it is rarely met completely; maslow (1968) estimated that less than 1% of people become fully sell-actualized because our society rewards motivation, primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs. self-actualization needs deal with the desire of people to develop their talents and potentials that are hidden in them. self-actualization or selfrealization needs help people to develop the desire to exploit all their talents that are hidden in them. onah (2015)perceived self-actualization as self-fulfillment-the need to develop a person's full-potentials in order to enable him or her to become the best that he or she is capable of being in the society. maslow (1968) defined self-actualization as the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is to become everything one is capable of becoming. it concerns the need to maximize the use of one's skills, abilities and realize ones potentialities for continued self-development for being creative in the broadest sense of the term. the actualızing person may be described as one who has increased the acceptance of self and others, increased problem solving ability, increased spontaneity, increased detachment and a desire for privacy and the like. people with dominant self-actualization need seek challenging assignments that allow for the use of one's creative or innovative talents and provide opportunities for personal growth and advancement. implication of the maslow's hierarchy of needs to social studies and the nigerian child the national philosophy of education in nigeria recognizes the need for social studies education in building the desired orientation needed after independence in mobilizing the young citizens for national development. bozimo (2004) defines social studies as a specialized area of study that deals with the study of man and his environments and how they interact with each other. thus, the various definitions have focus on man in relations to his environment with vital variables as values, attitudes, skills and knowledge which constitute the content of the subject. maslow’s hierarchy of needs posits that humans need is to have the most basic life needs met before they can achieve anything in life. beyond those basic needs for example, we must be able to be fed, clothed and sheltered before we are able to work on being part of the society, meeting our social needs, which are higher on maslow’s pyramid. teachers must have an awareness of the unmet needs of students, since teaching and learning occur at the higher parts of the pyramid with social gratification, self-esteem and self-actualization. these are what leaning is meant to achieve. a student who is homeless or unsafe cannot focus on learning anything properly. a student who is hungry or tired cannot either. learning implies that one's brain is clear of the dreadful disruption of problems such asthese. so while teachers sometimes complain that they are not social workers, it is incumbent upon us to understand ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 22 maslow's dynamics and do our best to ameliorate the appalling conditions under which students often are trying to learn. the teacher's goal is to aid students in self-actualizing or becoming all that one can be by creating a safe classroom environment. that is, develop rules and procedures which provide a structured environment rich in routine and shared expectations where no student would physically or verbally hurt another. additionally learn to use positive reinforcement instead of negative reinforcement to correct students' behaviours. teachers should take time out to let each student know how well they are doing. this could take the form of short handwritten note on their papers or verbal comment. the key is to focus on the students positive attributes and aid the student in developing on increased level of self-esteem. let the students know that you care about them, want them to succeed and you appreciate their work. similarly, the students must feel a sense of connection and love from their school. they must sense that their school administrators and teachers care for them. in addition, they must develop a healthy sense of self-regard fostered by their schools, and parents. only if all these elements are in place they will be able to move to the level of self-actualization or realizing their potentials. goals and objectives of social studies generally, social studies education all over the world has fourma in goals which are directly or indirectly derived from its meaning, according to kazi (2006) the goals and objectives are: 1. the inculcation of values, attitudes and appreciations in the learners. 2. the development of skills like groups, social, intellectual and manipulative. 3. the acquisition of knowledge and understanding. 4. the development of concepts and generalization peculiar to social studies as a discipline or subject. the primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed or reasoned decisions for the public's good as citizens of a culturally diverse democratic society in an independent world (ncss, 1992). jarolimek (1981)viewed social studies as a subject that concerns itself with learning about people, how and where they live, how they form a structure societies, how they govern themselves and provide for their material, psychological needs, how and why they love and misuse the resources of the planet (earth) which is their home. our goal as teachers is for students to learn or gain knowledge and information purposeful and meaningful to them so that it may be retained and used throughout their lives. an essential factor involved in meeting these goals is motivation. if students are unmotivated in one way or the other no learning will take place or if by chance some learning should take place, it is possible that it will not be retained or utilized. challenges facing social studies education teachers if a successful classroom dispensation of social studies in the minds of pupils and individuals alike, is to be achieved as eagle (1977) entertained, then the teacher must be charged with the responsibilities of manipulating the environment of the nigerian child in such way that their likelihood of acquiring certain specific behavior is increased. this development could create the basis that will enable the child acquire and display a variety of human resources and capacity-build skills and access intrinsic drive in the social studies curriculum. social studies scholars suggested ways that will underscore the relevance and vitality of the aspects of an educational environment in the effort of providing an optimum educational setting if nigerian child are to attain goals established in norms of citizenship studies education aspiration of a given society (abdulraheem & ayorinde, 2009). it has been noted that social studies curriculum is determined by the problems and aspirations of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 23 society in question. nigeria needs to develop a social studies curriculum which will emphasize the issue that unite rather than divide the nation and that will develop responsible citizens who will preserve and continue to advance efforts towards a just and humane society (bolarinde, 2011). therefore, the social studies content in nigeria should be determined by the problems of nigeria, and address her democratic challenges in order to meet the educational objectives of the country. conclusion the seven levels of needs in abraham maslow's hierarchy of need range from the basic human needs of physiological needs for food, clothing, shelter, water, comfort, procreation among others to the highest level of aesthetic and self-actualization needs. human needs are insatiable. it is fundamentally part of human nature and characteristics to always desire to achieve more and more things inhuman environment. the realization of the human needs demands appropriate application of abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs with specific focus on certain basic needs which must be achieved before any consideration is given to other human needs in the society. the seven levels of needs of abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs undoubtedly strengthen human desire to address human needs with a view to improving children's living condition in the environment. recommendations the nature of any society is determined by its educational system, therefore in order to solve the problem of the society emphasis should be laid on what and how a subject is taught. if social studies are to deliver purposeful and meaningful instructions in the nigerian context, it must engage in challenging real life activities which directly link the school and the community. maslow's hierarchy of needs reveals that humans need to have the most basic life needs met before they can achieve any other. teachers must have an awareness of the unmet needs of students because learning is at its peak of one's brain which must be clear of the dreadful disruptions of problems. students must feel a sense of belonging and love from their school. that is, they must sense that their administrators and teachers care for them. many teachers’ sometimes keep food handy or take time out to listen and offer best advice on solving student’s most basic needs. it would be wonderful if the rest of the society would understand this hierarchy and be willing to ensure that the most basic needs of all students were met to achieve a better society. references abdulraheem a. & ayorinde, a. s (2009).effects of citizenship education component of social studies on civic. nigerian. journal of social studies and civic education, 12(2). anyanwu, c. n. omolowa, m. a. adeyeri, c.l.k okanlawon a. b.& siddiqui, a. a. (1985). adult education and community development. ibadan: heinemann educational books (nig) ltd. aruma, e. o. (2014). peace as a critical component for sustainable community development in nigeria. in d.u. akubuilo. african journal of educational foundation (ajep), 5 (2), 21.department of educational foundations, enugu state university of science and technology (esut). bolarinde, o. (2011). the place of social studies education soscea, soscian. org/african review of arts; social science and education, (1)/153. bozimo, g. o. (2002). social studies theories and perspectives. onitsha. outright publishers ltd. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 24 bozimo, g. gotep m. g. zwalchir r & obanya o. a. (2004). current trends in social studies, federal college of education pankshinwais printing press. jos, nigeria. diaz-rico, l. (2009). teaching english learners,: pearson u.s.a. dubey, d. l. (1980). social studies methods for nigerian teachers. university press ibadan. eagle, s. h. (1977). exploring the meaning of the social studies in rubin i (ed) curriculum handbook: boaston: allyn and bacon inc. egbule, j. e (2007).readings in educational psychology published by chins and chis ventures owerri, nigeria. ekpu, a. o.o. (1999). the law on domestic violence and child abuse, university press. hellriegel, d. & slocum, j. w. (1977), organizational behaviour south-western cengage learning. mason, u.s.a. jarolimek, j. (1981).teaching social studies in elementary education n.c.e. macmillan publishing company newyork. kazi, n. p. (2006) social studies for nigerian schools: a scholar handbook published by federal of college of education, pankshin. wais printing press jos. kissock, c. (1979). curriculum planning for social studies teaching, john willey & sons new york. maslow, a. h. (1968). towards a psychology of being. van nostr and rernhold, new york, u.s.a maslow, a. h. (1970). motivation and personality. harpert row new york. maslow, a. h. (1987). a theory of human motivationhttp://psycnet.apa.org1987-98126-000. muktar, n. (2014). abraham harold maslow theory of need and its implication to nigerian primary school children. department of adult education and extension services, usman danfodiyo university sokoto, university press. mulwa, f. w. (2008). demystifying participatory community development nairobi, paulines publications africa. national council on education (nce, 1985). perspective of qualities & quantities in nigeria education. government press lagos. national council for the social studies (ncss, 1992). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies (washington, d.c: ncss, 1994). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 25 influence of technological facilities on behaviour and perception of secondary school students in ekiti state, nigeria james adedeji ajayi (ph. d.) department of educational technology, school of science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: ajayi.james@bouesti.edu.ng , phone no: +2348033667745 abstract this paper examined the influence of technological facilities on behaviour and perception of secondary school students in ikere local government area, ekiti state, nigeria. the research design used for this study was survey design of the descriptive type of research. the sample size of two hundred (200) secondary school students were selected as respondents for the study through a random sampling technique from five (5) secondary schools in ikere local government area, ekiti state, nigeria. the instrument for data collection for the study was a selfstructured questionnaire. the reliability index obtained was 0.89. frequency counts and percentage were used to analyse the demographic data of respondents and were used to answer the research questions generated for the study. base on the findings of the study, conclusion and appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: technological, facilities, behaviour, perception, secondary school ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 mailto:ajayi.james@bouesti.edu.ng introduction education for any nation is believed to be veritable machinery for the development of a country. this is obvious because of the roles played by educated people in the development of science, socialeconomic and political structure to improve the individual, families and making the society a better place to live (akinoso, 2023). in the light of these values, education prepare the child to function effectively as an adult to be, and these cannot be achieved without adequate school facilities (abiodun, 1997). however, the history of school technological facilities could be traced to the era of traditional system of education. it equally changes with the system of education, even though, such other facilities like money and human resources are required. over the years, enrolment into the secondary education has been on the increase, following series of educational reforms being introduced in nigeria (laouni, 2023). one of such is the universal basic education (ube) scheme (bolaji & jimoh, 2023). a ssuccessive governments have and are still allocating an appreciable percentage of their annual budgets to the provision and maintenance of school facilities meant to improve the sector (aberlman, 1996). in the early 1950s there was nothing like phones, laptop, go tv, dstv, radio and television stations in the whole of africa, then things were going on well with satisfied working and living conditions. technology development is generally regarded as a catalyst for national development, because it offers among other things, the necessary support for change in all the major sectors of the economy, most especially in agricultural and industrial sectors. the internet is a global linking of computers that allows information transfer. due to the development and spread of cheaper and more user-friendly computer technology and software (e.g., portable computers, microsoft word etc), the use of the internet has increased dramatically. in 2010, the world’s internet use was 28.7% of the population. while this may not seem like a very large portion of the world’s population, the growth in the use of the internet has been dramatic. for example, between 2000 and 2010, the rate of growth of internet use was 444.8% . there are many benefits associated with internet use, such as access to needed information, worldwide access to news and events, and interpersonal communication through email. technological facilities like television and other electronic gadget like phones, computers and radio as electronic media of mass communication used to reach a large heterogeneous audience simultaneously has over time become a powerful media to which secondary students and adolescents are uniquely susceptible. these technological facilities have the capacity to shape students social learning psychology, orientation and perspective about education. akin(2003) submitted that there are certain kinds of technological facilities which may influence secondary school students dramatically, social networks like whatsapp, twitter, facebook among others had streamline student memory from learning to earning money online and making social communications during school time and holiday period. this era has changed into the era of online information acquisition and e-learning in developing countries like nigeria (durkin, 1992). the demerit of technological facilities have promoted and encouraged social mishaps among secondary school students and the society at large. for instance, many of the secondary school students are found of watching mind breaking movies on internet, including pornography, war films to mention few (colins, sobol & westby, 1991). these aforementioned activities on internet and television do not only corrupt students mind but also pollute our environment by creating negative impression in them (aletha & lyneth, 1972). moreover, the society we live in does not even help matters at the same time. several audiovisual programme of nowadays also contribute in no small measure to some of the noticeable and prevalent social maladaptive or maladies among secondary school students (christopher, 2005). for instance, most of the audio-visual programme produced by nigerian presenters, actor and actresses encourage hooliganism, thuggery and robbery, thereby offer little or no room for correcting the mistakes of improper behaviour among the secondary school students in ekiti state (anderson, 2004). in nigeria, technological facilities are high utilized by students in a way which causes a great havoc on their academic performance and reasoning faculty. educational activities are geared towards ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ensuring that students achieve mastery of educational objectives (bryce & leichter, 2003). in school, the extent to which these objectives have been achieved is determined by their level of peer pressure, social technology exposure and time management as students’ success are reflected in their academic performance (ball & gogatz, 1990). could it be that students are insensitive to the possible negative influence of technological facilities on their academic performance. it is in view of these concerns that this study was carried out to determine the effect of technological facilities like phones, television, and radio to mention few on the behaviour of secondary school students and their parent/guardians perception in ekiti state (burce, 2001). the main purpose of the study is to make a descriptive analysis of the influence of technological facilities on the behaviour and perception of secondary school students in ikere local government area, ekiti state, nigeria. research questions the following research questions were answered in the study: 1. what is the effect of technological facilities development on ekiti state secondary school students? 2. what is the difference between the behaviour of artist in movies and that of secondary school students in ekiti state? 3. what negative effect does the introduction of technological facilities have on ekiti state secondary school students? 4. what is the relationship among social network, audio-visual programmes and academic performance of ekiti state secondary school students? methodology the research design: the research design used for this study was survey design of the descriptive type of research population and sample selection of respondents: the population was all the students in secondary school in ekiti state, nigeria. the sample size of two hundred (200) secondary school students were selected as respondents for the study through a random sampling technique from five (5) secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state, nigeria. research instrument: the instrument used for this study was adapted questionnaire and it is titled: influence of technological facilities on behaviour and perception of secondary school students in ekiti state, nigeria. the questionnaire was divided into two parts, section a and b. section a contains the bio-data of particular respondent while section b contains items structured five options which include; agreed, strongly agreed, undecided, disagreed and strongly disagreed. reliability of instruments was ensure using the pearson product moment correlation formula and the reliability coefficient of 0.89 was found, which is suitable for the study. analysis of data: data collected were analyzed using frequency counts and percentage to analyse the demographic data of respondents and were used to answer the research questions generated for the study. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 results research question 1 what is the effect of technological facilities development on ekiti state secondary school students? table 1: opinion of respondents base on the effect of technological facilities development on ekiti state secondary school students s/n item statement respondents responses categories sa % a % u % d % sd % mean sd 1 technological facilities are powerful medium which influence secondary school students behaviour parents 16.32 39.93 13.72 22.74 7.29 3.352 1.203 guardians 29.17 25.00 0.00 20.83 25.00 3.125 1.650 2 some technological facilities are of great advantage to secondary school students parents 29.17 45.83 0.00 25.00 0.00 3.791 1.141 guardians 10.90 29.41 9.34 31.83 18.51 2.822 1.329 3 excessive addiction of secondary to browsing playing of games and watching of videos hampers communication between parents and their children parents 30.38 43.75 11.11 8.68 6.08 3.836 1.133 guardians 4.17 66.67 0.00 29.17 0.00 3.458 0.977 4 children misbehavior attitude becomes rampart due to parents 4.17 50 0.00 45.83 0.00 3.125 1.075 their exposure to internet and other technological facilities guardians 7.81 34.20 18.92 25.52 13.54 3.064 2.442 5 low moral values are trailed to uncensored television technological facilities habits parents 11.11 52.29 16.15 21.70 18.75 3.033 2.4666 guardians 4.17 20.83 0.00 2.541 0.00 2.541 0.977 table 1 illustrates the opinion of respondents base on the effect of technological facilities development of ekiti state secondary school students. item1 was accepted by parents and guardians, that technological facility are powerful medium which influence secondary school students behaviour. item 2 was accepted by parent with mean score 3.791 and rejected by guardians by mean score 2.822, that some technological facilities are of great advantage to secondary school students. in respect to item 3, it was accepted that excessive addiction of ekiti state secondary school student to browsing, playing of games and watching of online videos and television hampers communication between them and their parent. in item4, it was accepted by the parents and guardian that children misbehavior attitude becomes rampant due to their exposure to internet and other technological facilities. in item5, it was rejected by guardians that low moral values in ekiti state secondary school student is traceable ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 to the uncontrolled watching of television and use of mobile phones while it was accepted by parents by 3.033 mean score. research question 2 what is the difference between the behaviour of artist in movies and that of secondary school students in ekiti state? table 2: opinion of respondents base on the difference between the behaviour of movie artist and that of ekiti state secondary school students s/n item statement respondents responses categories sa % a % u % d % sd % mean sd 1 online films downloaded and those watched on television by secondary school students present mixture of violence and occult to their mindset parents 4.17 50.00 0.00 45.83 0.00 3.125 1.075 guardians 19.79 43.58 18.40 17.53 0.69 3.607 1.251 2 violence of secondary school students is traceable to the violence seen on online website movies and those shown on television parents 4.17 20.83 29.17 45.83 0.00 2.833 0.916 guardians 10.42 21.70 24.31 22.74 20.83 2.781 1.284 3 low moral varies of many secondary school students is traceable to the habits inherited from uncontrolled watching of television and internet exposure parents 9.38 31.94 24.65 22.92 11.11 3.055 1.169 guardians 0.00 20.83 29.17 50.00 0.00 2.708 0.806 4 high rate of raping and drug addiction among secondary school students is traceable to those watched online and those saw on television by the students parents 10.90 31.83 9.34 29.41 18.51 2.822 1.329 guardians 4.17 75.00 0.00 20.83 0.00 2.541 0.977 5 secondary school students misbehavior attitude becomes rampant due to their exposure to internet parents 12.15 26.91 14.24 32.47 14.24 2.902 1.281 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 and other technological facilities guardians 4.17 19.83 2.50 73.00 1.00 2.541 0.977 table 2 reveals the opinion of parents and guardians on the differences between the behaviour of movies artist and that of secondary school students in ekiti state. item 1 shows that online films downloaded by the students and those watched by them on television present mixture of violence and occult to them, since both parent and guardian accepted with mean score 3.125 and 3.607. from item 2, the responses of parents and guardians on the violence of secondary school students which is traceable to the violence seen online website pages and in movies, was accepted with mean score 2.833 and 2.7813. in item3, it was accepted by respondents that, low moral varieties in secondary school students is traceable to the effect of uncontrolled watching of movies. in item 4, it was accepted by guardians and parents with mean score 2.822 and 2.541 that, high rate of raping and drug addiction practice by students is traceable to those watched in movies. in item 5, it was rejected by parent and guardians with mean score 2.902 and 2.541 that secondary school student misbehavior attitude becomes rampant due to their exposure to internet facilities. research question 3 what negative effect does the introduction of technological facilities have on ekiti state secondary school students? table 3: opinion of respondent base on the negative effect of introducing technological facilities to ekiti state secondary school student s/n item statement respondents responses categories sa % a % u % d % sd % mean sd 1 secondary school students feel boring when they are not watching television or allow to press phones ss2 male student 19.79 43.58 18.40 17.53 0.69 3.607 1.251 ss2 female student 4.17 66.67 0.00 29.17 0.00 3.458 0.977 2 am allow to press phones and watch movies at any time and it has no effect on my academics ss2 male student 7.81 34.20 18.92 25.52 13.54 3.064 2.442 ss2 female student 4.17 20.83 0.00 75.00 0.00 2.541 0.977 3 is good for secondary school students to be using mobile browsing phones and have free access to other technological facilities ss2 male student 9.38 31.94 24.65 22.92 11.11 3.055 1.169 ss2 female student 0.00 50.00 0.00 29.17 20.83 2.791 1.284 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 table 3 reveals the opinion of ekiti state ss2 male and female student on the general effect of introducing technological facilities to secondary school students. item 1 shows that secondary school students feed bore when they are not watching television or allow pressing phones. this could be seen from the responses of the respondents where the decisions mean of ss2 male and female students in ekiti state are all accepted with their mean score 3.607 and 3.458. from item 2, the responses of the respondents on the pressing of phone having no effect on the performance of secondary school student were accepted by male ss2 students with mean score 3.064 and rejected by the female students with mean score 2.541. item 3 was accepted by ss2 male and female students with the mean score 3.055 and 2.791 that is a good idea for secondary school students to be using phone. research question 4 what is the relationship among social network, audio-visual programmes and academic performance of ekiti state secondary school students? table 4: opinion of respondents’ base on the relationship among social networks, audio – visual programs and the academic performance of ekiti state secondary school students s/n item statement respondents responses categories sa % a % u % d % sd % mean sd 1 many textbooks and subjects can be downloaded easily from online to enhance secondary school student performance student using phone 4.17 66.67 0.00 2.917 0.00 3.102 1.319 student not using phone 17.53 43.03 13.72 14.06 11.63 3.408 1.254 2 mobile phones and other technological facilities provided more learning platform to secondary school students student using phone 0.00 50.00 20.83 29.17 0.00 3.208 0.88 student not using phone 23.61 49.10 20.24 8.140 0.00 2.833 1.007 3 secondary school students which are off from television develop variety of interest in reaching and proper studying of their books student using phone 16.32 35.94 18.40 11.98 17.36 3.218 1.334 student not using phone 50 25 0 25 0 4 1.251 4 social network like whatsapp, facebook twitter and the likes improves the level of secondary school students laziness and low academic performance student using phone 29.17 20.83 25.00 25.00 0.00 3.416 1.100 student not using phone 16.32 35.94 18.40 11.98 17.36 3.218 1.334 5 secondary school students whose parents have television and student using phone 0.00 29.17 0.00 70.38 0.0 2.583 0.928 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 those using mobile phones are prone to examination delinquency student not using phone 4.86 37.67 20.49 29.51 7.465 3.029 1.079 table 4 reveal the opinion of students using mobile phones and students not using mobile phones on the relationship among social network, technological facilities and academic performance of ekiti state secondary school students. item 1 shows that many textbooks and subject topics can be download directly online to enhance secondary school student performance, since that student using mobile phone and those that are note using accepted with mean score of 3.102 and 3.408 from item 2 the responses of the respondent on the exposure created to secondary school student by technological facilities was accepted by student using mobile phones with mean score 3.208 and rejected by does not using phone with mean score 2.833. in respect to item 3, it was accepted by both students using mobile phones and not using with mean score 3.218 and 4.0 that secondary school students which are off from television and mobile phones develop variety of interest in proper studying. in item 4, it was accepted by student using mobile phones and those not using that social networks like whatsapp, facebook, twitter and the likes improves the level of secondary school student laziness and low academic performance. item 5, it was accepted by students not using phones and rejected by those using phones with mean 3.029 and 2.583 that secondary school students whose parents have television and those using phones are prone to examination delinquency. conclusion the study revealed that there is a significance difference between the performances of secondary school students using phones, television and exposed to internet and those without phones no exposure to internet. finally, the study pointed out that there is significant difference between the behaviour of secondary school students using phones, television and exposed to internet and those without phones and no exposed to internet. recommendations 1. the parents/ guardians should know the types of movies and channel to buy or watch. for instance, instead of creating special attention on programmes that can pollute their minds they will rather settle for those that are educative and spirit lifting. 2. concerted efforts form religious bodies and the youths are needed to correct these bad gross misconducts among the secondary school students, which as a matter of facts have reared its ugly head into the cycle of secondary school students in ekiti state. 3. parents / guardians must pay serious attention to the welfare of their secondary school students under their tutelage. consequently, development of positive minded impression will be the disposition of these secondary school students towards the usefulness of any technological facility. 4. those actors and actresses whose moral aspects have been tampered with should be corrected by government or by the society. hence the needs to discourage the showing of pornography as a television programme, as this may create bad and indelible impression on the minds of secondary school students in ekiti state. references abiodun, w.o. (1997). junior world encyclopedia, harver edu-service, 12 & 14. aberlman, j.o. (1996). psychological foundations of education in african. stirling horden publishers. akin, c.k. (2003). effects of television advertising on children. new york academic press. akinoso, s.o. (2023). motivation and ict in secondary school mathematics using unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model. indonesian journal of educational research and technology, 3 (1), 79-90. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 aletha, s.o. & lyneth, f.w. (1972). television content and young children behavior, 203-307 washington d.c.u.s government printing press. anderson, a.j. (2004). children understanding of television new york academic press. ball, t.f. & gogatz, b. (1990). the first year of sesame street: an evolutionary testing services, princeton new jersey. bolaji, h.o. & jimoh, h.a. (2023). usability and utilization of ict among educational administrators in secondary students in public school. indonesian journal of educational research and technology, 3(2), 97-104. burce, w. (2001). communicating research findings to television’s creative community public policy and the impact of education television, united state. bryce, h. & leichter, p. (2003). the family and television forms and mediation. journal of family issues, 4 (2), 309-2b. christopher, f.s. (2005). family and television viewing. implication for family life education. family relation, 33, 210-214. colins, a, sobol, p. & westby, g. (1991). schemata for understanding television cambridge university press dewitt, c. r. (2003). the mass media and the school, newspaper california, wads morth publishing company. durkin, k. (1992). television sex roles and children milton keyness open university press fazer, p (1993). children talking television, burgess science press basingotoke. laouni, n.e. (2023). school principals’ self-efficacy beliefs and level of technology integration in moroccan public schools. international journal of educational leadership and management, 11(1). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 05 | issue 11 | november 2022 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 determinants of attitude of civil servants towards preparation for retirement in ebonyi state. ojong, felix e., emeka, josephat o., agba a.o.ogaboh, williams okon william, eshitong, winifred n. &aja, ezekiel department of sociology, university of calabar, p.m.b. 1115, calabar, cross river state, nigeria abstract many studies have examined the attitude of different set of workers toward retirement, but the aspect of factors influencing attitude of civil servants towards preparationfor retirement have been overlooked. against this background, this study examined employees’ preparedness attitude for retirement; examined the extent to which employee’s educational level, salary/income size, and number of dependentsinfluence preparation for retirement.the study utilized a survey research design and guided by relative deprivation theory. data were purposively collected in ebonyi state because of its high incidence of retirement compensation crises. simple random sampling was usedto select ten ministries and a total of 300 respondents. data were obtained through the use of questionnaire, and were analyzed using frequency, simple percentages, and incidence index analysis. it was revealed that most civil servants exhibited negative attitude towards preparation for retirement,for instance; greater number of them 70%were not anxious about preparing retirement plan, they leave by fate, believing that godwould help them; again, 58% employee were apathetic towards preparation and rarely made adequateretirement plan or program to support a living after retirement. it further revealed that thenegative attitude towards preparation for retirement was determined by low level of employees’education obtained, low salary/ income earned, and high number of dependencesthe employees maintained in their respective households. therefore,government shouldincrease workers’ salaries, introduced mandatory adult education programe, and organized retirement education to enhance awareness of benefits for retirement plan. keywords:retirement, attitude, retirement preparedness, pension scheme, civil servants introduction in the world of work employees either in public or private sector are statutorily required to retire from employment having reached a prescribed age limit or years of service. retirement, according to atchley & barusch, (2004) isinstitutionalized separation of employees from an occupational position, with continuation of income through a retirement pension based on prior years of service. it therefore implies that in retirement, employees stop employment completely, by withdrawing or giving up office or work. indeed, suchseparation marks the end of a status that has long been a source of income and a means of personal identityfor the retirees (atchley & barusch, 2004; odey& owan, 2014;ada& akan, 2019). in fact, in this modern times, most developed countries have systems to provide pensions on retirement in old age, which may be sponsored by employers and/or the state. however, in many developing and poorer societies, support for the old is still provided through the family. notwithstanding, today, retirement with ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 60 pension is considered a right of the worker in many societies (okechukwu&ugwu, 2011).even though retirement ageand years of service vary from country to country,depending on the occupational sector (either federal or state), butin nigeria,the mandatory age of retirement in state civil service that attracts payment of gratuity and pension to the retirees is sixty (60) years or at completion of thirty (35) years in service, invariably, civil servants who retired voluntarily are equally qualified for retirement compensations,provided, the employees work for a minimum of ten (10) years, and put in fifteen years in the service.(fgn public service rule, 2008). currently, the most common adopted pension payment schemes in nigeria are“defined benefit scheme” (dbs) and “contributory pension scheme “(cps).incontributory scheme,both employer and employee made monthly contributions into employees’ retirement saving account (rsa), while in defined benefit scheme, funding comes from various tiers of governmentbudgetary provisions. define benefit is mostly used by some state government, but unfortunately, because of its unsustainable nature, it is unstable, and usually accompanied with many challenges such as delay in paying retirees’ gratuities and pensions. in fact, these challenges have made retirement from civil service frightful to civil servants and intending retirees.obviously, these overwhelming challengeshad compelled federal government to established 2014 contributory pension act that made it mandatory for state and local government to implement contributory pension schemes for their employees. but ever since 2014, few states in the federation (zamfara,niger,kaduna,jigawa,osun, lagos, delta, rivers, including federal capital city) have fully implemented and adopted contributory scheme, whilemost of the states includingebonyi are still operatingdefined benefit scheme.(pencom bulletin, 2020; otu, ushie, attah, & owan, 2008;odey, emeka, & ayade, 2012). currently, ebonyi state is operating the defined benefit scheme for payment of gratuity and pensions to retirees. however, there had been countless of problems emanating from this scheme, such as delay in payment of retirement benefits, withholding of gratuities, endless and rigorous verification and screening exercise. it is really worrisome, that these practicescertainly havestressed many retirees to collapse and others dead without enjoying the fruit of their labour(okechukwu & ugwu 2011;agba, agba, & chukwurah, 2020; achu, owan, uyang., & francis, 2013).worse still, the retired civil servants are usually protesting over nonpayment of pensions and gratuity in the state. in fact, these inherent retirement crises experienced by retiree , and further witnessed by remaining civil servants who are still on the job have created a state of uncertaintiesamong civil servants,thus compelling some employees to take certain actions to enable them stay long in serviceso as to avert the looming retirement predicaments. all this situation has made civil servants in ebonyi state to develop certain degree of feelings towards retirement and the extent to which they have prepared for retirement. statement of the problem after successful retirement from active service, civil servants in ebonyi state are statutorily entitled to be paid gratuities and pensions regularly so as tosustain a living while on retirement. but such payments are usually delayed, and sometimes withheld for a very long time. most often, the retirees are subjected to endless verification and screening exercise. even in many cases where the state had proactively made budgetary provisions for retired civil servants, inadequate and untimely released of funds resulted in intense delays and accumulation of arears of payments of pension’s rights do persist. this situation has caused frustration and suffering and even death to the retirees. it has equallypropelled them to embark on incessant protests and agitations. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 61 as a direct response, civil servants who are still in service are usually afraid that they may experience the same suffering like their former colleagues after retirement, therefore, many of them do not want to retire.this certainly pushed some young employees to alter their age at assumption of duty so as to have more years of service. again, some employeeswho are on the job already haveequally changed their age or alter their records to enhance their longevity on the job. actually, the consequence of this behavior pattern could clearly breed a generation of overaged workforce which in turn jeopardizes efficiency and promote organizational ineffectiveness, as well as increasing youth unemployment. though, several studies have been conducted on retirement attitude, for instance , chibueze, nwosu and agba, (2011) examined the pattern of attitude to retirement, while nweke, (2016), wata etal, (2015) assessed organizational and managerial dimension of attitude to retirement, but much is unknown about the determinants of civil servants’ attitude toward their preparedness for retirement in term of socio-economic and demographic characteristics. in view of the above, this study was designed to examine employees’ attitude towards preparedness forretirementand also assess the extent to which employees’ socio-economic factors(years of education, salary size and number of dependents) predicted their preparedness for retirement.what then is the civil servants’ attitude toward preparation for retirement, and how do socioeconomic demographic factors influence employees’ attitude towards retirement in ebonyi state. methodology the study was conducted in ebonyi state. it adopted the survey research design. the design allows a researcher to select representative sample from a larger population . (emeka, ayuk, udiba, & uyang, 2016;agba, ojong, akintola, maruf, udom, & usung, 2021; ojong, agba,njirinze& angioha, 2021; akpabio, angioha, egwuonwu,awusa, & ndiyo, 2020; ukwayi, ojong, austin& emeka, 2012; ayuk, owan, ekok. &odinka, 2012).simple random sampling was used to select 10 ministries out of 31 and a total of 30 respondents(staff of the ministry) each, making a total of 300 were selected based on their willingness to completed the instrument and availability on seat at the time of administering the questionnaire. primary data was obtained from the respondents through the use of questionnaires. the two-sectioned questionnaire was designed to reflect the major objectives of the study. section a contained 5 items designed to obtain information on the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents while section b contained 7 items designed to measure the respondents’ preparedness attitude towards retirement. the preparedness towards retirement scale was scored using a four-point likert scale, with scoring ranging fromstrongly agree(sa, 4points) agree (a, 3 points) disagree (d, 2 points) and strongly disagree (sd,1 point). the respondents were reached in their offices during work hours. the questionnaires were administered and retrieved the same day. data were analyzed using frequency, simple percentages and incidence index analysis. results a. socio-economic characteristics of the respondents table 1 shows the results of the respondents’ socio-economic characteristics. item 1 reveals that majority (25.7%) of the respondents were within 31 to 40 years of age, only 19.3% were less than 31 years old while the rest were above 40 years. this shows majority of the respondents were in active young and middle age rangethat could probably prepare well for retirement time. while only 25.3% of them were single, majority (66.3%) were married. based on this, whatever ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 62 decision made concerning preparations towards retirement is based on family and household level.for education, all the employees had one form of education or the other, but majority of them (68.0%) were senior school certificate holders, ordinary national diploma/ national certificate in education (ond/nce) holders. it therefore implies majority of the employees have low level of education and probably lack investment skills to aid retirement preparation. this buttresses fao (1999) report that, highereducation attainment makes individual more knowledgeable for investment advantages and food consumption likelihood. in terms of dependents, majority (42.0%) of the respondents had dependents members in their households up to 12 persons and above, 31.3% had 6 to 11 persons dependents while 26.7% of the respondents had above 0 to 5 dependent members in their households.number of dependent members of the house, to a large extent, may determine the attitude towards preparation for retirement among working members of the family. thus, higher dependent members might increase the workers perception towards retirement negatively. and for salaries, majority (43.3%) of the respondents had salary size below n40, 000, 35.7% had salary size of n40,000 to n60,000, while 21.0% where enjoying salaries above n60,000. this indicates that majority of the respondents where low-income earners as they are grossly underpaid. b. analysis of preparation towards retirement analysis was done to examine the attitude of civil servants towards their preparation for retirement. the respondents were made to express their agreement or otherwise on seven (7) item statements that border on attitude toward preparation for retirement. and the extent of their agreement with these statements portrayed their level of preparation.findings on the table revealed that most of the respondents were not in agreement with most of the statements whichimplied thatthe employee generally had very poor attitudetowards preparation for retirement. this could be well understood by analyzing specific preparedness index pattern percentage (pip) on the table. for instance, on the first item, only 18%of the civil servants were sure of crossing current consumption pattern after retirement because they had better plan for post-retirement life, whereas majority of them consisting 82% are not sure because they seem unprepared for retirement. this therefore implies majority of civil servants displayed negative attitudes towards preparation for retirement. secondly, very few employees (15%) were sure of retiring on the fixed date,whereas significant numbers of civil servants 85%, would likely wish to do anything to elongatetheir stay in the service. it therefore signifiesmajority of them were afraid leaving their work.thirdly,some employees (36%) had affirmed they would not face financial difficulties after retirement, while most of themconsisting 64% were afraid because they had noretirement savings or contributions to sustain themselves after retirement.this collaborate with hdp age intl, 2016, ilo, 2014, dugarova, 2018 assertion that in developing countries, only few older retirees have access to pension and must therefore rely on other sources of income.furthermore, only 30 percent of workersdeclared they would not experience health challenges since they had prepared savings plan, which implies most of them 70% did not make adequate financial preparation to handle any emerging health issues after retirement. indeed, this circumstance madethe workers to get worried on how to cope with future health conditions. based on itemfive,very few employees (15%) maintained they would not prolonged retirement age,likely because, they had prepared for retirement, but majority 85% of them rather preferred to extend their retiring age rather than preparing for retirement because they were not sure that their pension income would sustain them after retirement. this buttresses jah, (2019) assertion ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 63 that workers tend to work over 60/65 years due to inadequate savings and pension benefits. invariably, most respondents (58%) never bordered about retirement days, and this apathetic attitude made them to prepare poorly towards retirementas they never care to plan for retirement time. finally, it was also revealed, majority of the respondents (70%)knew they had to leavetheir job, but put faith in god to intervene in theirretirement life. this indicated negative attitude towards preparationfor retirement as theyspiritually believed that god would take care of them after retirement. table 2: distribution of respondents based on preparation towards retirement item statements sd d a sa pip% and rrop 1 i am sure of crossing current consumption pattern over retirement because of my savings 48.0 34.0 12.0 6.0 d18.05th 2 i am not sure if i will retire at the calculate date 5.0 10.0 33.0 52.0 d15.07th 3 i will not face financial difficulty at retirement since i have retirement savings or contributions 28.0 36.0 18.0 18.0 c 36.03rd 4 health challenge will not confront me at retirement 40.0 30.0 10.0 20.0 c30.04th 5 i will prolong my retirement age if given the chance since i have no future investment 12.0 13.0 38.0 37.0 d15.07th 6 retirement is a normal thing that should not bother me 20.0 22.0 25.0 33.0 b58.02nd 7 i am not anxious about retirement; god is in control 12.0 18.0 33.0 37.0 a70.01st note: n-300 respondents, pip% means preparedness incidence pattern percentage, rrop means relative rank order positioning, sd means strongly disagree, d means disagree, a means agree and sa means strong agree. table 3 shows the result of the dimensions underlying civil servants’ attitude towards preparation for retirement.based on preparedness incidence pattern percentage, it revealed ‘categorya’ had the highest number of civil servants within the range of 70100% who believed in spirituality and fateduring retirement, hence failed to plan for retirement. it therefore signifies, they exhibited negative attitude towards preparation for retirement. ‘category b’also affirmed most of the civil servants equally developed negative preparedness attitude since 50– 60 percent remained indifferent toward preparation. ‘category c’indicated few civil servants within the range of 30 – 40 percent displayed preparedness capacity to sustain their future wellbeing after retirement, which implies majority of them had expressed negative preparation. more so, ‘category d’ revealed very few numbers of civil servants within the range of 10 – 20 percent had preparedness capacity to maintain future consumption pattern, and equally willing to retire as ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 64 when due. this equally indicates greater number of civil servants displayed negative preparation attitude for retirement. c. dimensions underlying civil servant attitude towards retirement preparedness table 3: showing preparedness incidence pattern percentage analysis and underlying implication of the attitude of civil servant towards retirement in ebonyi state pip % category pip% range attitudinal item frequency percentage composition pip% underlying implication a 70 – 100 1 14.3 spirituality and fate confidence level b 50 – 60 1 14.3 relative indifference attitude for retirement c 30 – 40 2 28.6 capacity for future wellbeing maintenance d 10 – 20 3 42.8 ‘on the job” longevitymanipulation and consumption pattern sustenance discussion of the findings certainly, the ebonyi state, civil servantshad exhibited negative attitude towards retirement such attitude was expressedbecause most of themperceived retirement as frightening. most of them felt retirement was a period of frustration, suffering, financial lack, acute illness and even leading to untimely death. this happened because the employees had witnessed thesufferings the retirees and their former colleagues encountered after retirement from service, therefore most of them felt they might suffer the same way. consequently, most of the civil servants had experienced relative deprivation since the felt that their legitimate compensation rights were being blocked, whereas other colleagues in federal service and some states were getting their full benefits after retirement. this collaborates with relative deprivation theory that when people experience discontent about their condition the feel deprived relative to some standard of comparison. in fact, many of themwere aggrieved because of the inhuman treatment (delay in payment/ outright stoppage of pension payment, constant but fruitless verification exercise)encountered during retirement.this grievance had created lot of discontentment which eventually propelled them to engage in “perceived resistance”, and self -helpsuch as absent from work, age falsification, and personal record adjustment to stay longer in service so as to avoid being retired on due date. consequent to this inherentnegative attitude,most of them poorly prepared for retirement. in other word the negative attitude towards retirement had led to poorlevel of preparedness for retirement. this could be evidenced from the fact that the civil servants were not quite sure of retaining their current consumption pattern after retirement because the felt the lop-sided retirement income would not feed them in future as they never planned for any other source of income. by nature, civil servants are particularly interested in sustaining their wellbeing, but unfortunately, they failed to prepare for investment or savings that would maintain their health conditions, consumption pattern and financial upkeep after retirement. in fact, the civil servants’ attitude towards preparation for retirementwas so poor to the extent that these employees remained indifferent to any retirement plan like saving program, or even bother to think out of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 65 the box by creating another source of income like small business ventures. in fact, they leave a life of fate, believing that god would certainly take care of them during retirement period. it is certainly affirmed that some civil servant in the state were not ready to retire from service as at when due, and they often skimmed their way by doctoring documents in order to stay long in service. this arose due to fear of uncertainties engulfing retirement. as found in this study, low level of education, low salaries/income, and high number of dependents on employees’ household were the core determinants of the employees’ poor attitude towards preparation for retirement.as pereducation, the extent an employee is educated is proportionally to his abilities and potentials to adjust to situations including retirement (nweke, 2016). nevertheless, most civil servants in ebonyi state were lowly educated, this low level of education has contributed to the poor attitude they exhibited toward preparing for retirement, since most of them could not develop their career plan or skills. in fact, the civil servants never thought of doing a part time work after retirement, or planning to take up other ventures in terms of investment (having no “plan b”), instead they preferred to adjust their age to work for longer years. this implies some of the civil servants rarely prepare for retirement time, and this is because most of them acquired low level of education. this buttress joo & pauwell assertion that employees with low level of education exhibit low level of knowledge about all concepts regarding retirement. (wata, etal, 2015) according to kim, etal, (2005) level of salary and income plays a significant role in employees’ attitude to retirement, hence higher salaries and household income predict higher levels of retirement confidence and attitude. but in ebonyi state, most of the civil servants were lowincome earners. in fact, concerning monthly salaries, the civil servants were grossly underpaid, while other incomes such as pension and gratuity for retirees were not sure. and because of this, they displayed low preparedness attitude for retirement to the extent of developing poor savings attitude in terms of financial or savings plans for retirement. more so, due to the inconsistent retirement compensations emanating from “defined benefit scheme”, most of the employees perceived that after retirement they would be subjected to suffering since they might not have regular income to take care of themselves in future. this equally buttress sheriff & isa (2019) observation that when employees perceived retirement income is inadequate, they become less likely to express positive attitude to retirement. weaver, (1994), joo &pauwel, (2005) assert that having financial dependence influences workers’ decision to invest.by implication, it is expected that those employees with large household size and corresponding number of dependents are less likely to save for retirement. accordingly, most civil servants in the state maintained high number of dependents in their respective households. aside their children and housemates, other dependents comprised siblings, family relatives, friends and extended family members. in fact, the influence of extended family culture has compelled the civil servants to used their little income to support their large household and dependents, hence could not adequately save for retirement and this had consistently contributed to low preparation for retirement period, since most civil servantsrarely had savings programs, or adequate contribution scheme. conclusion and recommendations retirement problems in ebonyi state were aggravated by the adoption of defined benefit pension scheme. this scheme is heavily marked with irregularities in pension compensation payments, as ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 66 a result, the ebonyi state civil. servants and potential retirees had displayednegative attitude towards preparation for retirement. majority of the civil servants failed to prepare for retirement time, they never had adequate future retirement plans.this negative attitude exhibited by thecivil servants toward retirement was determined by their employees’ low level of education, low salary/income and high number of dependents the employees maintained in their respective households it is therefore recommended that the ebonyi state government should implement and adopt contributory pension scheme to replace defined benefit scheme, while upward review of salary be carried out. employees should adjust and proactively plan for retirement while still in active service. references: achu, a., owan, j. e., uyang., & francis, a. (2013). traditional methods of crime control and community security in odukpani local government area of cross river state nigeria. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss, 14(5), 61–66 ada, j. a., & akan, p. a. (2019). knowledge integration and service delivery of health professionals in public hospitals in south-south nigeria. european journal of training and development studies vol.6 no.2, pp.18-33 agba, a. m. o., ojong, f. e., akintola, a. i., maruf, g. s., udom, h. t., & usung, e. u. (2021). attitudes of health workers and outpatients’ recovery in public hospitals in calabar metropolis, nigeria: an information analysis. jinav: journal of information and visualization, 2(2), 83-92. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.jinav351 agba, m. s., agba, a. o., & chukwurah, d. c. j. (2020). covid-19 pandemic and workplace adjustments/decentralization: a focus on teleworking in the new normal. brain. broad research in artificial intelligence and neuroscience, 11(4), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/11.4/148 akpabio, u. p., angioha, p. u., egwuonwu, c. v., awusa, e. b., & ndiyo, m. n. (2020). risk factors of maternal mortality in calabar: journal of information and visualization, 1(2), 83-92. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.jinav262 atchley, r. c. & barusch, a. (2004). social forces and aging. an introduction to social gerontology (10th ed). belmons ca: wadsworth atchley, r. c. (1998). educating the public about personal finance: a call for action. journal of the american society of clu & chfc, (28): 30-32. ayuk, a. a., owan, e. j., ekok, o. c. and odinka, g. e. (2012), curbing multi-dimensional violence in nigeria society: causes, solutions and methods of solving this trend. journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies (jeteraps), 3(5): 616623 bmo. (2012). broadening the approach to preparing for retirement. montreal: bank of montreal institute for retirement. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 67 https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.jinav351 https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.jinav262 chibueze, c.i, nwosu, u.w & agba, a. m. o (2011). contributory pension scheme. workers commitment, retention, and attitude to retirement in nigerian civil service. global journal of management and business research, 11(4):50-59 dugarova, e. (2018). undp/: ageing, older persons and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. ebrima, d., isa, z. m., & ali, n. (2012). malaysian saving behavior towards retirement planning. second international conference on economic marketing and management, singapore. eme, o. i, sam, c. u. (2011). the law and administration of retirement in nigeria; a historical approach. kuwait chapter of arabian journal of business & management review vol 1. no 2 emeka, j. o., ayuk, a. a., udiba, u. d. & uyang, f. (2016). awaiting trial among suspected criminal persons and lack of legal representation in cross river statenigeria. international journal of sociology and anthropology research 2,1: 1-6. engel, j. f., blackwell, r. d., & miniard, p. w. (1990). customer behavior. risk management and insurance review, 7(2), 121-149. federal republic of nigeria, (2008), public service rules, abuja: federal government printer ilo. (2011). social security for social justice and a fair globalization. jah, i. (2019). retirement preparedness of public sector employees in cameroon: the case of civil servants in the buea municipality. a research project submitted to the department of business and management studies of the pan african institute for development west africa (paid-wa) buea. joo, s. h. & pauwels, v. w. (2002). factors affecting workers’ retirement confidence.: a gender perspective. financial counselling and planning 13(20.1-10 kim, j. kwom, j. & anderson, e. a. (2005). factors related to retirement confidence: retirement preparation and workplace financial education. financial counselling and planning 16(2) 77-89 lusardi, a. & mitchell, o. (2011). how ordinary consumers make complex economic decisions: financial literacy and retirement readiness, nber working paper, 15350. maestas, n. (2004). back to work: expectations and realizations of.8. national pension commission, (2020), annual reports wuse nwagbara, e. n, (2007) contemporary issues in industrial sociology. serenity publisher, lagos nweke, j. o. (2016). preretirement anxieties among civil servants in ebonyi state nigeria. on the noncontributory pension scheme. international journal of humanities and social sciences. 6(3). 121134 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 68 odey, s. a., emeka, j. o., & ayade, f. (2012). the effect of labour union’s formation of cooperative societies and provision of transportation facilities on maritime workers in nigeria. iosr journal of pharmacy and biological sciences, 3(6), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.9790/3008-0360106 odey, s.a. & owan, e.j. (2014). trade unionism and the enhancement of workers‟ welfare in nigerian maritime sector: an empirical analysis. international journal of humanities, social sciences and education, 1 (7), 121 – 129. ojong, f. e., agba, a. m. o., njirinze, c. j., & angioha, p. u. (2021). ethno-communal crisis and its implication on food security and business activities in nigeria. sainsmat: journal of applied sciences, mathematics, and its education, 10(1), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.35877/sainsmat1012102021 onoyas, a. (2013). financial planning strategies towards retirement as perceived by potential retirees in universities in the niger delta, nigeria. international journal of business and social science., vol. 4(14), 256. otu, j. e., ushie, a. m., attah, f. m., & owan, e. j. (2008). applying accountability and transparency in the management of tertiary institutions in nigeria. sophia: an african journal of philosophy and public affairs, 10(2). oyuke, j. (2009). new retirement age limit faces big hurdles. nairobi: the standard. pinquart, m., & schindler, i. (2007). changes of life satisfaction in the transition to retirement: a latent-class approach. psychology and aging, 22(3), 442. ukwayi, j. k., ojong, f. e., austin, e. b. & emeka, j. o. (2012). impact of crime on sustainable tourism in cross river state, nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences, vol.2 no.11 pp.35-44 wata, l. kamau, c. & bett, b. (2015). determinants of employees’ attitude towards retirement in energy sector in kenya: a case of kenya pipeline company. international journal of scientific and research publications. 5(10) 1-6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 69 https://doi.org/10.35877/sainsmat1012102021 impacts of gender-based violence: the nkerefi experience 2004 2014 chukwu c. james department of history and international studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. abstract this work focused on the impacts of gender-based violence in nkerefi, nkanu east local government area of enugu state, nigeria. the rate of gender-based violence in eastern nigeria is alarming. as a matter of fact one might say that it has moved from an alarming state to a fatal stage. worst still, the culture of gender based violence are ingrained in socio-cultural and traditional practices of many african societies. this paper examined that the stratification emanating from socio-cultural roles have ensured a perpetual prejudice on the women folks as there is no balance of cultural implication. the paper finds out that, the growing cases of domestic violence have given rise to serious health issues, its repercussion on health and overall being of women and children. the paper, thus argues that gender-based violence can limit the economic opportunities and potentiality of women owing to the society they found themselves. relying on both primary and secondary sources, this study further argues that gender based violence brings huge economic costs to any society.this paper is historical; hence, it adopts a qualitative method of analysis. useful piece of information were obtained from important relevant documents, reports and array of secondary sources. keywords: impacts, gender-based, violence, nkerefi, experience. introduction the impacts of gender-based violence in the society generally cannot be overemphasised and must be totally discouraged and stiffer legislations and laws should be put in place across board to bring perpetrators of the dastard act to face the full wrath of the law in various climes. in addition, the impacts of gender-based violence which is always negative, affects not only the victims but the effects are also witnessed by the families, friends and well-wishers of the victim, and even the society at large. however, the impact of the above act in any society where it hold sway, have never been positive nor useful as it destabilises, disintegrate and as well brings the total fall out of the socio-cultural and economic fabric of any society to a halt or a near-total ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 collapse, as the case may be. it has been observed from avalanche of studies, how gender based violence poses a threat to family structure, visible in children that suffer emotional wreck and damage watching their mother and female siblings being battered by their biological or step fathers. in a case of broken home leading to the emergence of single parent, it exposes the children especially the female ones to all forms of dangers and more cases of gender based violence are bound to be witnessed by the children. more so, it is worthy to also note that victims of gender based violence in most cases transfers their frustration to their children or even friends alike which will impact negatively on them as children especially will have no choice than to see violence as a conventional method of resolving dispute or conflict, owing to the experiences they have had in their formative years. from the foregoing, several negative impacts of gender based violence abound globally and transcend culture, extraction, religion, and locality and so on. however, between the years 2004 and 2014, the above issue have affected drastically, the socio-cultural and economic sector of nations where it thrives, especially in nkerefi in nkanu local government area of enugu state, nigeria. for the case of the later, it become well pronounced because gender based violence is prevalent in rural settlement than is witnessed in urban area as a result of high rate of poverty that is witnessed in the rural areas. morrison and orlando posited that, there are strong impacts of gender based violence on women’s health outcomes, especially on reproductive health.1 going further, they used the countries of haiti, peru and zambia as case studies by quipping that gender based violence also increase not surprisingly women’s usage of health services, and that lifetime physical violence by intimate partner increase the probability of working in a paid job in all three countries.2 going by the above study, one could deduce that one of the negative impact of gender based violence stems from income earnings, and in the traditional africa society, men have been ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 empowered by tradition through the concept of patriarchy to be the supreme head of the family. thus, when the lady is a working class and in some cases earn more than the husband, there is bound to be pockets of disputes between the man and the woman which in most cases will lead the man to resort to self-help; violence. lending affirmative voice to the foregoing, and in underscoring the debilitating effects of gender based violence which as we have noted earlier transcends physical abuse, ebere, chisom sunday and nwaroh, jennifer chizoba, in their thesis, posited that, the harm caused by gender based violence extends far beyond the physical injuries inflicted.3 they further highlighted the deep effects of gender based violence to its victims who might even live with the effect forever. thus, they stated that; gender based violence is linked to a wide range of long-term physical and mental health problems. it helps fuels. the spread of hiv and women who have experienced violence are up to three times more likely to be infected with hiv than those who have not.4 in a similar note, gender based violence have amplified the rate of feminism globally. gender sensitive apologists have tended to propagate the issue of gender based violence through various channels that seeks to protect the right of the girl child and female gender generally. thus, a feminist theorist noted that, the theory is a woman centred theory which sees gender inequality and its elimination as the starting point for working with women individually, a groups and within organisations.5 the theory seeks to promote women’s well-being and highlights the oppressive character of structural inequality based on gender. it is worthy to note that the african society conferred a lot of authority on patriarchy; hence the accompanying effects of gender based violence on women. on this note, this research shall further observe the following paragraphs, it will try to highlight the socio-cultural and economic impacts of gender based violence on women. however, there are other aspects that gender based violence impact negatively on women, but, the choice of the above is in consideration of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 thrust of this research, nkerefi rural women, are at the receiving end of gender based violence, this would be accounted for by the social stratification that is inherent in this clime and on the economic sector, and the impact is equally alarming. for instance, in our contemporary society, when a woman rises to a position of prominence or affluence, the general narrative will be that she is promiscuous or rather not submissive to her husband, as the case may be. the paper is divided into four parts. the first part is introduction. this is followed by the brief history of nkerefi, their geographical location and migration. the penultimate section examines the impacts of gender-based violence in nkerefi. this is further sub-divided into three parts which comprises the, socio-cultural impact of gender-based violence, health impact and economic impact. the last part is the conclusion. the argument tends to suggest that the rate of gender-based violence in eastern nigeria is alarming. as a matter of fact one might say that it has left the alarming state to a fatal stage. the work argues that impacts of gender-based violence is always negative, affects not only the victims but the society at large. this paper deduced that gender-based violence is an age long issue and not peculiar to any society. the work also argues that there are numerous campaigns and awareness programmes against gender-based violence, yet there seem to be no solution in sight. a brief history of nkerefi nekerefiis a clan in nkanu east local government area of enugu state in south eastern nigeria.6 it comprises of four autonomous communities namely: imeoha nkerefi, ohuani amofu nkerefi, ishienu amofu nkerefi, and enuogu nkerefi.7 the pre-colonial history of nkerefi was essentially that of the migration and fusion of people and rise and full of kindred and villages.8 various people and claims point to the fact that nkerefi people are the descendants of ezeokeuna – a cattle rearer from edemberri.9 according to archival reports, “the people of nkerefi being ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 descendant of ezeokeuna of ezza at one time used to make periodic sacrifice at their ancestor’s shrine at ezza, but however, this custom has ceased for many years”.10 nkerefi traced her origin from ezzakuna (ezeoke-una) the founder of ezza, whose father una okpoto okumeze came from afikpo group of the igbo history.11 these people have been organized into something like vassal state by their possession of a common dialect (language) and culture, but in reality, there is no nkerefi state or race. the word nkerefi refers more to the dialect and occupation than people.12 one particular legend and oral school of thought state that when ‘ezeoke una’ the father of nkerefi saw that his son – ezeoke una junior (ogbonnaa) has matured into manhood, he gave him few cows and some yams to start his own life and maintain his family.13 he received the paternal gifts and blessings from his father, and moved southwards in search of settlement and livelihood. he had acquired the art of cattle rearing and farming from his parents. as he moved, his cattle (efi) multiplied and he started selling some through trade by barter (exchange of goods for goods), and people were happy with him for his clemency, industry and enterprise.14 whenever a visitor said that he was going to the home of ezeoke una, people were confused it was going to be the home of ezeoke or his father, they called him ezeoke una – ‘nke-na-ereefi’ which means cattle seller or dealer. this was the genesis of the name nkerefi.15 further evidence to show ezeokuna of ezekoha ezza in the farther of nkerefi are: that at the burial of ezeokona, chukwuma ighudu of obuno was among the representatives from nkerefi that participated and that ezeokona was buried in a house with three doors each facing and directed to ezza, nkerefi and onicha. the above three towns are brothers with ezza as eldest and onicha as the youngest. nkerefi then spread and constituted segments of other communities such ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 as atani in ogbaru local government area of anambra state, some others in part of ukwuani in present delta state and anambra state.16 impacts of gender-based violence 2004 – 2014 socio-cultural impacts the socio-cultural impacts of domestic violence are quite numerous and alarming in the society, nkerefi especially. however, domestic violence could be said to have emanated from sociocultural roles assigned to them; suffice it to say that domestic violence has a socio-cultural underpinning. the causes could be multidimensional, and can be triggered by social, economic and psychological issues. in the case of social factors, this could emanate from pressures from the society to cause a partner to inflict harm on his partner. when society believes that aggression is a feature of masculinity, men tend to be abusive. however, the socio-cultural role the society has assigned to women, in one way or the other affects her general well-being. thus, a married woman in nkerefi is totally forbidden to cheat with another man. it is considered a taboo which could lead to madness or any other great calamity or nemesis. but then, the bitter thing is that a man as much as cheats and there are no consequences that would befall him at all.17 in view of the above, the stratification emanating from socio-cultural roles have ensured a perpetual prejudice on the women folks as there is no balance of cultural implications in respect to infidelity which have relegated women to the margins of the society. globally, gender based violence remain the largest single cause of morbidity and mortality among women aged between 15-49 years, claiming more lives than cancer, malaria, traffic accident and war combined.18 studies of various igbo society have shown that a woman who is guilty of infidelity is culturally forbidden from cooking for her husband which is believed to have several implications both on ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 the woman or the husband, and in extreme cases the both couple. leading a voice to the above, a wife is not expected to even cook for her husband as long as she is suspected to be cheating whether true or not until proven innocent. this act is totally wrong because it should be done in such a way it would affect both man and wife.19 even in some parts of igboland and nkerefi in particular, women who fall short of these traditionally forbidden vices face severe punishments culminating in domestic violence. here, it is noted that, there are also cases whereby the woman will probably not run mad but she would be physically abused by her husband and even the community at large would support the man, then umunna might likely gather to decide the faith of such woman and in some cases she is told of things to buy to use and appease her husband and she has no right to complain if such man cheats openly. therefore, because she is a woman, she has no say and should be lucky she is not sent home to her parents as someone that committed “nso ala” which is a shame.20 in a similar vein, it is normative for nkerefi men to engage in extra marital affair, but the woman is culturally bound not to cheat on her husband nor complain of her husband’s promiscuity. however, an nkerefi man would provide the wife with almost all necessary material things but would not be judged for being a cheat, as long as he cares for his family. he is not seen as irresponsible for openly flirting with women asides the wife because he is a man and it is considered a norm. and if the wife complains she is likely to be battered by the husband and would in turn be blamed by the society and even condemned by other women.21 the wide held belief generally is that so long as a man can provide the basic needs of his family, he is regarded as a responsible man, other things notwithstanding. regrettably, between the periods covered in this study, several changes have been taking place which have several impacts on the socio-cultural relation of woman. on this note, it is aptly ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 observed that, between 2004 and 2014 there are some changes as the women are becoming bolder and more courageous in challenging their men. health impact the health implication of domestic violence cannot be overemphasised as it is the area that women are mostly affected. the unending cases of rape in the society have lift the victims with severe damages in their private parts, in extreme cases unwanted pregnancy which the victim out of pressure emanating from the society, culture, tradition, as well as pressure from parents, peers or even religious organisations, resorts to abortion. thus the above cleavages such as have been noted, culminate in abortion through the aid of quackery, or unprofessional such culminate in either death of the victim or total damage of the womb and the end product is infertility. in a similar note, battering from the male counterparts has also not aided the women folks. thus, in the case of the latter, the victim will end up bruised, or even having scars in strategic or sensitive parts of her body like the eyes, breast, stomach, and so on. physical manhandling, financial threats, sexual abuse, emotional blackmailing, encapsulated as gender based violence, have not aided the course of the female folk as enough attention from well-meaning organisations, have not been accorded to it. the growing cases of domestic violence which have given rise to serious health concern to women need an urgent attention. it is aptly noted that, literature review on reproductive health indicates an escalating concern on domestic violence, and its repercussion on health and overall being of women and children.22also researchers across various regions have identified gender based violence as a major contributor to poor reproductive outcomes for women, with abused women twice as likely to report unintended pregnancy and three times more likely to give birth as an adolescent compared to those not experiencing any violence.23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 we must however note that the above is not peculiar to any clime or peoples. thus, in a study in south asia, it has been stated that the issue of gender based violence hold sway in that region than any other part of the world. hence it has been pointed out that, violence against women, in any form, is highly prevalent across south asia, in northern india, 25% of husbands reported having perpetrated physical violence against their wives during the preceding year and 30% reported having committed sexual violence. in a bangladesh study, more than one in three men reported physical violence, sexual violence or both against their wives in the past 12 months, one of the worst results for any south asian nation. according to this, we must however note that the above is not peculiar to any clime or peoples.24 the above excerpt lends credence to the following assertion that gender based violence is witnessed in any society, even in developed countries, and is not confined to any particular people from a particular region. in a similar study in zambia, it was observed, that, in zambia, almost half (47% of 5,236) of women interviewed reported to have experienced physical violence since they were 15 years old. recent zambia police service annual crime returns of 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 shows a drastic increase in reported gender based violence cases of 8147, 8261, 8467 and 11980 respectively.25 then, on the impact of gender based violence on the neurocognitive system of victims, especially those with human immune virus (hiv), suffice it to say that gender based violence and other depressive symptoms are the primary causes of neurocognitive deficiency which is mostly common among hiv patients. it has been observed in a recent study that gender based violence victims showed cognitive deficits in working memory, verbal learning and recall. therefore it can be deduced that gender based violence is a predictor of poor performance on neutrocognitive functioning.26 moreover, the root cause of gender-based violence lied in unequal power relations between woman and men. however, a variety of factors on the individual level, the family level, and at ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 the level of community and society, often combine to raise the likelihood of violence occurring. the effects of gender-based violence are far-reaching and extend beyond the individual survivor, to the family and society as a whole. potential social responses to gender-based violence are most effective when there is a common understanding of the nature and causes of gender-based violence and it is addressed from all angles, through the participation of multiple sectors and entire communities. economic impact gender based violence have several implications on women, and economic impact is another area that must be given a due consideration. thus, gender based violence can limit the economic opportunities and potentialities of women owning to the society they found themselves. in view of this, economic impacts of gender based violence can manifest in various dimensions like, rejection; ostracism and social stigma at community level; reduced ability to participate in economic activities; acute fear of future violence, which extends beyond the individual survivors to other members in community. in addition, it has been noted that it can damage the women’s confidence resulting in fear of venturing into public spaces (this can often curtail women’s education, which in turn can limit their income-generating opportunities).27 moreover, it increases vulnerability to other types of gender-based violence and as a result can lead to job loss due to absenteeism as a result of violence. it can in addition, impact negatively on women’s income generating power. in an analysis on the economic impact of the scourge of gender based violence, it is averred that violence against women and girls (vawg) is one of the most pervasive human rights violations occurring in the world. it happens in every country, not only in situations of conflict or crisis, but in contexts others call peaceful, and in both public and private spaces.28 analysing the economic ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 effect of the foregoing, they also surmised that, studies indicate, for example, that in india women can lose an average of at least five paid work days for each incident of intimate partner violence. this fact would mean the affected woman would get 25 per cent less of her salary each time an incident of violence happens.29they further noted that women who are exposed to intimate partner violence are employed in higher numbers in casual and part-time work, and their earnings are 60 per cent lower, compared to women who do not experience such violence.for instance, in uganda, about nine per cent of violent incidents forced women to lose time from paid work, amounting to approximately 11 days a year, equivalent to half a month’s salary, affecting not only the incumbent person but her family and dependents.30 unfortunately, violence against women and girls brings huge economic costs to any society. the negative impact on women’s participation in education, employment and civic life undermines poverty reduction. it results in loss of employment and productivity, and it drains resources from social services, the justice system, health-care agencies and employers. such, violence against women is a clear barrier to sustainable development. to this end, it was observed that it has been acknowledged in the recently adopted agenda 2030 for sustainable development; for the first time, violence against women and girls is included as a target area under goal 5 on gender equality, reaffirming that such violence is a barrier to gender equality, women’s empowerment and overall sustainable development, as well as to the achievement of the other goals.31 moreover, the economic impacts of gender based violence are many and cannote be exhausted in this discourse, but, for the purpose of the study, an examination of the economic impact of gender based violence in nkerefi, it has been found that, any home or society that has no peace does not prosper or progress. it hinders good things; once there is conflict in a home, the spouses start hurdling wealth, spend money on irrelevant things and even buy properties and hide it away ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 from themselves. most acquire properties with the name of their children without the knowledge of the man/woman. thus, they end up living in slums and their wives engage in petty trading at nearby markets which at the end of the day affects the society at large.32 from time immemorial, women are been subjected to not been equal to a man in all ramifications. yet, this day most women play the roles of breadwinners in their respective homes and the society at large. it is through domestic violence that the man deprives the wife of equality. but if a man listens to his wife, some mistakes would have been avoided. thus, the popular traditional dictum, “it is the affair of men”.33 conclusion this work has been able to ascertain the level of domestic abuse in nkerefi, encapsulated in gender-based violence. however, following avalanche of research and oral evidiences, the work has been able to unearth the impact of this deadly phenomenon on the females. from the study, it can be deduced that gender-based violence is an age long issue which sways in any society developed, developing and undeveloped countries, as the case may be. in other words, the issue above is not peculiar to nkerefi, but the alarming rate with which it is being witnessed in the extraction above, informed the choice of this work, and thus became a nucleus on which this work was produced. the implications of gender-based violence can be understood in the light of its threat to peace, progress and to the principle of equality, and it has however become a normative action which have subjugated the woman folks and as well deprived them much of their humanity. more so, if not tackled adequately and proactively, the tendency of hindering the role of human in the society cannot be overemphasised, even as it will inhibit their participation in national development. also in the study, it was highlighted several impacts of gender-based violence ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 which include health problems like hiv/aids or stds, unwanted pregnancies, culminating in abortion through the aid of a quick which ends in untimely death. from the foregoing, the bane of gender-based violence if not nipped in the board, will spread like a wild fire and in long run will become an accepted societal norm which is already rife in most societies, especially in the rural areas where the cultures and traditions of the people are still been revered. in a similar note, this study was able to bear, the impacts of gender based violence in the society. endnotes 1 andrew r. morrison and maria beatriz orlando, “the cost and impacts of gender-based violence in developing countries: methodological considerations and now evidence.” 2004, 3 2 morrison and orlando, “the cost and impacts of gender-based violence… 3 3 ebere chisom and nwaroh jennifer chizoba, “perception of women about gender based violence in nsukka local government aerea of enugu state,” m.a. thesis, university of nigeria, nsukka, 2015, 25 4 ebere and nwaroh, “perception of women… 25 5 ebere and nwaroh, “perception of women… 41 6 j. c. chukwu, “gender-based violence in nkerefi nkanu east local government area, enugu state, nigeria, 1995 – 2014”, “iconic research and engineering journals”, 5(12) 2022, 134-135. 7 enugu state of nigeria official gazzette, no 2, enugu – 5th september, 2002 vol. 11, b. 20 8 emmanuel n. aninwogo and kelvin m. aniemeka, a history of the nkerefi igbo, lagos: first academic publishers 2002 4 9 gabriel o. aja, the history of nkerefi (a reflection of nkanu people) 1993, enugu: the agop communications and publishers, 5. 10 nigeria: nae/2/2/onp rof. 8.1.4740 and ud div 4/1/30 and ud div 4/1/29 – an intelligence report on the nara group in the nkanu area of the udi division by s.p.l. beaumoni, esq. (assistant district officer. 11 chief donatus aniemeka, (eze ugo na nkerefi), 74 years, igwe cabinet, interviewed at his house in umuokpalla, nkerefi on 30th march, 2021 12 aninwogo and aniemeka, a history of the nkerefi… 4 13 a. u. igwe and j. c. chukwu, “aspects of intercommunal relations between nkerefi and nara unateze 1900 – 1960”,journal of humanities and cultural studies, vol. 3, 2022, 78 14a. u. igwe and j. c. chukwu, “nkerefi and anaevuna relations in pre-colonial nigeria”, igwebuike: an african journal of arts and humanities. 8(1)2022, 164 15aninwogo and aniemeka, a history of the nkerefi… 5 16j. c. chukwu, “violence against women in africa: a case study of nkerefi in nkanu east local government area, enugu state, nigeria”, “global publication house international journal of social science and humanities research”, 5(8) 2022, 20-27. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 17chief john o. chukwu, 64 years, interviewed at his house in umunama etiti, nkerefi on 30th march, 2021 18 ghose bishwajit, sajeeb sarker and sanni yaya, “socio-cultural aspects of gender based violence and its impacts on women’s health in south asia.” 05 may 2016, 5:802 (doi: 10,12688/f1000research.8633.1), 2 19ijeoma chukwu, 39 years, businesswoman, interviewed in her house at umunama-etiti, nkerefi, on 24th march, 2022 20 beatrice sunday chukwu, 64 years, businesswoman, interviewed in her house at aviele etsako west local government area edo state, nigeria, on 5th august, 2022 21ijeoma chukwu, interview cited 22bishwajit, sarker and yaya, “socio-cultural aspects… 6 23bishwajit, sarker and yaya, “socio-cultural … 6 24bishwajit, sarker and yaya, “socio-cultural … 5 25 m. l. imasiku, and j. hamweene, “effects of gender based violence on neurocognitive functioning in hiv positive individuals”, medical journalof zambia, 40(2) 2013, 64 26 imasiku, and hamweene, “effects of gender based violence… 68 27 pan american health organization, women, health and development programme, fact sheet: social responses to gender-based violence.http://www.paho.org/english/hdp/hdw/socialresponesesgbv.accessed on september 24th, 2019, 7 28 “the economic cost of violence against women”, remarks by un assistant secretary-general and deputy executive director of un women, lakshmi puri at the high-level discussion on the “economic cost of violence against women”, september, 21, 2016, 2 29“the economic cost of violence… 3 30“the economic cost of violence… 3 31“the economic cost of violence… 3 32ijeoma chukwu, interview cited 33chief john o. chukwu, interview cited ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 09 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 impact of audio – visual materials on students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria 1oke j. ajogbeje ((ph.d) , 2edward o.osuntuyi (ph.d) & 3adebisi o. awodun (ph.d) 1department of counselling psychology, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. phone no: +2348137779336 2department of industrial technology education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: osunkenny@yahoo.com , phone no: +2349064088155 3department of science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: bisawoideas@yahoo.com abstract this study investigated the impact of audio – visual materials on students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria. a descriptive research design was adopted which seeks to find out the application and usage extent of usage of audiovisual materials in the teaching of physics in senior secondary school in ikere local government. the population for the study consists of all senior secondary school physics students in ikere-ekiti. the schools used for the study were randomly selected from all the senior secondary schools in ikere-ekiti, the sample used in this study were sss 2 students from the some selected senior secondary schools in ikere-ekiti. four schools were sampled from all the secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state and one hundred (100) sss 2 students from the four selected schools were selected as participants for the study. the students were to provide responses to the questionnaire items. the only instrument to be used for data collection was questionnaire. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism. in analyzing the collected data, the researchers used descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentage to analyse respondents’ demographic data, to answer the research questions while inferential statistics of chi-square analysis was used to test the formulated research questions. based on the findings, appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: audio, visual, audio-visual materials, junior secondary school. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 1 mailto:osunkenny@yahoo.com introduction according to nacino-brown, oke & brown (2005) for effective teaching to take place, a good method must be adopted by a teacher. teachers are aware that students learn in different ways and have different ways of absorbing information and of demonstrating their knowledge (tamahloe, atta & amedahe, 2005). teacher employ a variety of teaching strategies and methods to ensure that however be stated that methodology in education is not a new concept in the teaching and learning process. new methods and techniques evolve almost every day to supplement existing ones in teaching. notable among them is technology – supported ones. kochlar (2004) observes that more recently technology has been successfully introduced in the field of education to make education more productive and more individual. kochlar (2004), the most outstanding development in modern education is the increase in the use of supplementary devices by which the teacher through the use of one sensory channel helps to clarity, establish and correlate accuracy, concepts, interpretation and appreciation increase knowledge, rouses interest and even evokes worthy emotions and enriches the imagination of students fillmore (2008) have also recommended that in education we should appeal to mind chiefly through the visual and auditory sense organs since it is possible that 85% of our learning is absorbed through these senses. science has been regarded as the bedrock of modern day technology countries all over the world especially the developing ones like nigeria are making a lot of effort to develop technologically and scientifically. this has become necessary because the world is turning “scientific”. and the situation in schools is no exception. at the core we can say science comprises three disciples: biology, chemistry and physics. oladajo, olasunde & isola (2001) stated that science is a dynamic human activity concerned with understanding the workings of the world. this understanding, he says, help people to know more about the universe without have been difficult for man to explore that other planets of the universe. investigations however, have shown that physics education is in crisis as the number of students studying physics at all levels of declining rapidly (fillmore 2008: smithers & robinson, 2007). it has also been found that of all the sciences, physics is the subject in which the increase in number involved has been particularly low (barbosa, 2003 : donnellan, 2003). the reason may include lack of specialist physics teachers and the perception that physics is a difficult subject (buabeng & ntow, 2010); (fillmore, 2008; isola, 2010). other researchers (paas & sweller, 2004; prow, 2003) have also reported that physics is a difficult subject to learn where maximum effort is required and the resulting grade may not always reflect the effort that students (need to learn) studies have also revealed that the performance of students i physics in most african countries was generally and consistently poor over the years (oladajo, et. al, 2001). tamakloe atta & amadahe (2005) observed that it is not all those who teach student that are considered in the traditional sense as teachers. in their opinion, the teacher is the one who understand what his or her students need to learn and their capabilities of learning. thus the teacher is the one understands what his or her student needs to learn and their capabilities of learning. thus the teacher must be able to judge just how much intervention students will require in their learning process of learners. he/she ought to be a professional who will make use of any available resource to enhance teaching and learning. the use of audio-visual material in education has been found to be an effective way of communicating ideas and concepts to students (quallette, 2004). literature has also established that audio-visual aided instruction has greatly improved the performance of students in physics especially those with special needs and slow learners abilities (osokoya, 2007). however, many teachers in senior secondary schools in nigeria do not use audio-visual material when teaching physics. although there are a few notable exceptions, others either feel these materials are inappropriate for instruction or use them poorly. some teachers find it quite complex to use audio-visual material to complement the traditional lecture of time with respect to instruction, student achievement and attitude toward learning research has not only proven the efficacy of technology related materials but has also found the result overwhelmingly positive (dabbagh, 2011). teaching and learning with audiovisual resources play an important role in the teaching – learning process. students often benefit ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 2 from the visual/sound appeal of audio-visual material because it tends to focus their on the topic when teachers present material in various manners such as providing students with both a summary statement and a chart on a given topic, the visual material enhances the written materials. king (2010) indicated that audio-visual resources, wisely selected and intelligently used, arouse and develop intense and beneficial interest and so motivate students to learn; and properly motivated learning means improved attitudes, permanency of impression and rich experience and ultimately more wholesome living, since most students consider physics as an abstract subject the use of audio-visual resource should be a requirement for every physics teacher if the aim of the teacher is to guide the student to master concepts in the subject (physics). quellette (2004) sums up tenaciously that word may easily be forgotten but mental pictures will long be remembered. it is therefore important to prepare illustrative materials and short demonstrations or other visual material which are effective means of helping student to understand and thereby facilitating learning. the study is motivated by the fact that students do not retain for long or understand what they are taught without audio-visual materials, such learning does not encourage participation and lacks interest or stimulation. it is not based in sense experience nor does it extend their experience. above all, such learning cannot be permanent. yet there is also evidence of low utilization and non-availability of audio-visual materials in schools. this study will there investigate the impact of audio-visual materials on student academic performance in physics in senior secondary school in ikere local government. research questions the following research questions are raised to guide the study: 1. does audio-visual materials impact students interest in physics in secondary schools? 2. does audio-visual material impact students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools? importance of physics physics is a model for thinking, for developing scientific structure, for drawing conclusions and for solving problems. it is a subject that deals with facts. as a result, olademo (2010) opined, "this subject-physics should be given much consideration and let no man think of it as abstract or as untrue". as posited by balogun et al (2002), "physics instruction is a training of logical thinking. it is a means of solving many problems. it is confronted with finding solutions to problems that have not been provided by a similar type. its greatest virtue is its flexibility and the high esteem at which it is held as a tending discipline is partly due to its illustrious pedigree". people who have become more and more skeptical towards physics saw it as discipline that pursues needless complications, inventing unrealistic problems and prescribing solving methods within the frame of elementary physics. to this end, adenegan (2003) highlighted physics importance under four broad functions-utilitarian, cultural, social and personal functions.  utilitarian functions: it is useful in everyday life that is it serves as a functional tool in studying individuals everyday problems; it is useful as a tool to other discipline, that is, serves as a hand maiden for explanation of quantitative situations in other subjects such as economics, physics, navigation, finance, biology and even the arts. this service of physics is exceedingly important to future scientists, engineers, technologists, technicians and skilled mechanics; it is useful for national income and budgeting and useful for laying foundation for further education.  cultural functions: it is useful for calculation in local languages and useful for naming objects.  social functions: it is useful in voting, games and lotteries, birth and death rates and population census. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 3  personal functions: it encourages correct or accurate thinking, allows for cooperation with others to achieve common goals, allows for character building (patience, persistent and perseverance) and remarkably, it makes one to be happy. in a nutshell, "physics is now an enormously useful science which, in order to attain this status, has had to cross a desert of usefulness where physics was nursed tenderly as a science of mind (balogun et al, 2002). astronomy is a practical science of physics. it is used to foretell the calendar, feast, eclipses, wars, pestilence, whirlwinds, storms and the future of nation and even of individuals. it is a useful application of physics and would link on for at least the next two millennia. the diverse applications of physics abundantly establish that physics, as a discipline, is fit for purpose, as physics continually drives the expansion of the frontiers of other disciplines through their progressive formalization and symbolization and the building of mathematical paradigms of real world systems. in nigeria, a credit in physics is required for admission to countless programmes of study at the tertiary level of education. ekhaguere (2010) asserted that in view of this fate-determining place of physics in the nation's educational system, a policy must be formulated and implemented toward ensuring that no child is left behind in physics at the pretertiary level of education. types of audio-visual materials there are different ways of classifying audio-visual materials. as listed by (doosuur & sandra, 2013) together with the necessary related equipment for putting them to work in the classroom, audio-visual materials include the following: these materials, situations, and the people have to be visited, studied, observed, reacted to and worked with, right in their natural environment. the study of relia may then demand field trips, demonstration, experiments and other direct experiences as processes for getting the meaning. they may come into the class in display cases or attached on bulletin boards. dramatic performances (portrayal of people, events, procedures) dolls and puppets are produced for use as dramatic models. models, mock-ups globes, and relief maps. these can be purchased or produced by the teachers and students jointly. exhibits and dioramas made up of models can be borrowed, purchased or constructed. television programmes: this requires television receivers and antenna systems. they can be produced jointly by students and teacher as learning experiences. motion pictures: projection equipment for accommodation either optical and/or magnetic sound tracks and projection screens are required. still pictures projection materials include transparencies and micro-projector materials (microscopic slides and microscopic slides and microscopic objects). study prints and pictorial illustrations radio and audio programmes, as found in tapes or disk recordings and radio broadcasts (doosuur & sandra, 2013). graphic materials such as maps, graphs, cartoons, diagrams and charts. according to aina & olutade (2006), the chief visual tools which can be used by the teacher may be classified as follows: pictorial and graphic materials chalkboard textbooks illustrations charts pictures (a) drawing (b) reproductions (c) photographic maps of various types diagrams. picture language (isotype, etc). teachers' perception of the use of audio visual materials in teaching though funding, equipment, lack of time, and knowledge are known obstacles to successful technology integration (lam, 2000), a critical component in meeting teachers, critical component in meeting teachers, technology needs is responding to teacher's beliefs toward technologies. hope (2007) wrote, "teachers basically had to contend with two factors (with technology adoption); (a) the psychological effect of change and (b) learning to use microcomputer technology". understanding teachers' beliefs towards technology play an essentials role in successful technology adoption. previous studies employed a variety of methods and perspective to assess in-service teachers' technology beliefs. these methods included: likert-scale questionnaires (ross, hogaboam-gray & hannay, 2009) case study methodology (ertmer, gopalakrishnan, & ross, 2001). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 4 teachers who participated in a two-year technology integration program improved their technology self-efficacy and their interest in learning more about how technology could impact the curriculum. ross, hogaboam-gray & hannay (2009) reported that access to technologies increased teachers' "opportunities for successful teaching experiences, thereby contributing to greater confidence in their instructional ability". in addition, they also noted, "teachers who interpret their interactions with computers as indicative of high grow in self-confidence, regardless of their experience". research also reveals that before teachers use technology for instruction, they must be personally convinced of its benefits and must see the utility of using a particular technology (lam, 2000). before technology is used in the classrooms, teachers focus attention upon their students. they want to know what impact it will have on students' learning outcomes (e.g., higgins & moseley, 2001). teachers use technology because it motivates students and offers a different mode of presentation. instead of using computers for drill and practice, more confident teachers use technology as an instructional tool to enhance students' learning (lam, 2000). successful technology adoption in teachers' classrooms is dependent upon school administrators providing an individualized, differentiated process of training and implementation (gray, 2001). glean (2007) commented, "often districts rely upon a 'one size fits all' approach that meets the needs of only a few participants". teachers must see how technology fits within their localized classroom setting (stein, smith, & silver, 2009). teachers' technology beliefs are influenced by their philosophy. resistance to adopting new technologies stem from teachers' existing teaching beliefs (norton, mcrobbie, & cooper, 2000). for technology adoption to be successful teachers must be willing to change their role in the classroom. when technology is used as a tool, the teacher becomes a facilitator and students take a proactive role in learning. niederhauser & stoddart (2001) noted a "consistent relationship between teachers' perspectives about the instructional uses of computers and the types of software they used with their students". often, this change of teaching philosophy and methods focuses on learners-centered teaching and constructivist teaching practices (rakes et. al, 2009). in fact, ertner, gopalakrishnan & ross (2001) found that exemplary technology-using teachers exhibit more constructivist teaching practices. successful integration of technology into teaching depends on transforming teachers' belief and philosophy concurrently (windschitl & sahl, 2002). pros and cons of audio-visual materials an old chinese proverb goes like one picture had more worth than thousand words, indeed if teacher uses words along with pictures students are better able to grip the crux of the concept earlier. when an audio-visual aid is practiced by the teacher, there must be some benefits and advantages of using it. some commonly known pros of using audio-visual materials are expressed in opinions of following scholars: helps in comprehension by bringing the child in a direct contact with the concept and how it actually works in real life situations (kinder, 2009). student is more attentive, motivated and interested as compared to that classroom session that is in function without the use of audio-visual materials (sampath, pannneerselvam & santhan, 2008). conceptualizing is clearer and concrete as the use of audiovisual materials appeals, activates and utilizes the five senses of individual student i.e. see, hear, touch, taste and smell (prasad, 2005). while use of audio-visual materials provide freedom to the students i.e. students discuss, comment and express their opinion which they cannot while a typical teacher lecture is in progress; at the same time this discussion helps them in developing language other, then mother tongue, gaining confidence by probing and showing tolerance to opposite opinions (doosuur & sandra, 2013). using audio-visual materials improves teachers' performance by saving time and energy. prasad (2005) advocates that audio-visual materials provide basic means of planning, organizing and invigorating the curriculum. the basic aim of education must be to lead students towards self-learning and life long learning and this aim can be achieved through the use of audio-visual ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 5 materials as it improves the learning capacities of individual students i.e. learning experience that is worth memorable (singh, sharma & upadhya, 2008). retention rate of the students increases by the use of audiovisual materials (prasad, 2005). activity based learning leads to critical thinking, reasoning, creativity and the development of inquisitive mind which is the real aim of education. audio-visual materials entail activity for teacher as well as for students that keep them attentive and motivate them to think and inquire resulting in deep comprehension about what is being taught (mangal, 2008). handling and manipulating of audio-visual materials by students help them develop working habits. use of audio-visual materials provides students with opportunities to think speak and interact without fear and hesitation with teacher and peers resulting in students' personality development. audio-visual materials help in maintaining the class discipline as every of the student is focused and attentive towards learning. when teacher lecture the students they get bored and start whispering that brings indiscipline in the classroom (prasad, 2005). using of audio-visual materials seems very essential in today's education; individuals of 21st century belong to virtual age brackets. they experience video games, online learning and computerized programming ranging from classroom learning to every shopping mall. it is often experienced in daily life that children love to watch an educational movie than to read a book. to meet this end teacher incorporate audio-visual materials i.e. models, video presentation, power point slides show etc in the classroom sessions. but all these and other teaching materials carry along with them many disadvantages, therefore along with merits one must keep the demerits of using audio-visual materials in mind. by an effective and timely use of audio-visual materials one can better able to eliminate following deserting aspect of using audio-visual materials in classroom: while any specific audio-visual aid is in operation for say, over head projector; any technical problem may hit all of sudden. projector bulb may burn out. desired sound and color missed while using a multimedia or if using a digital video disc (dvd) or compact disc (cd) they may not well-match your players. therefore possibility of technical problems is higher (prasad, 2005). critiques believe that audio-visual materials carry high rate of attractiveness that results in child being diverted from desired path of learning and lost in recreation and fantasy (mangal s, 2008). most of the schools suffer budget constraints and as the fact is clear i.e. audiovisual materials are expensive; it is impossible to make adequate availability of such materials in every classroom. brown, lewis & harcleroad (2005) states that activity supplemented by audio-visual materials is completely mere waste of time and resources if choice of desired audio-visual materials is not possible. suppose a teacher is to teach about specific culture of a particular area using a map is a waste full activity rather charts with pictures of traditional dresses, food and life style etc can be beneficial. preparing audio-visual materials require substantial amount of time. making your very own transparencies, slides, films, posters, charts or any other teaching aid is very time taking. while arranging them teacher totally overlooks the importance of developing clear and well-organized lesson plan (sampath, pannneerselvam & santhan, 2008). displaying too many of audio-visual materials simultaneously in a single class can be very confusing for students and even for teachers' as well. concepts can overlap and can lead to misunderstanding and poor retention (sampath, pannneerselvam & santhan, 2008). mangal (2008) describes that selection of appropriate audio-visual materials in relation with the age group of students is very rare. often teachers are not aware about particular audiovisual materials that are most suitable for young kids, grown-ups and higher grade students. teachers when use audio-visual materials overlook the aspect of explanation rather consider audio-visual materials as self-explanatory. but explanation at every level of learning is a must. suppose if a diagram of heart is shown to the students and if it is wrongly labeled, instead of passing concrete concept it will lead to misinformation (prasad, 2005). the human being is curious by nature so as student too. students are always enthusiastic and eager to see, touch and hear new things. when a teacher chooses to supplement the lecture with audio-visual aid; managing the class happened to be very difficult task. suppose if a teacher is to show model of atom then controlling the excitement of the students is must, and if not the teachers' effort go in vain (prasad, 2005). using ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 6 inappropriate audio-visual films creates aggression and develops destructive behaviors in students. a common practice at toddlers' school is to use cartoon films. childs' adopt maximum of violence from those cartoon movies. therefore the uses of such audio-visual materials are strongly criticized by psychologist and educationist (kinder, 2009). the importance of audio-visual materials in the teaching and learning processes cannot be over emphasized. below are some of the roles of audio-visual materials. basing learning in sense experience, extending experience, encouraging participation, stimulating interest, individualizes instructions, serves as a source of information, making leaning permanent. research methodology a descriptive research design was adopted which seeks to find out the application and usage extent of usage of audio-visual materials in the teaching of physics in senior secondary school in ikere local government. the population for the study consists of all senior secondary school physics students in ikere-ekiti. the schools used for the study were randomly selected from all the senior secondary schools in ikere-ekiti, the sample used in this study were sss 2 students from the some selected senior secondary schools in ikere-ekiti. four schools were sampled from all the secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state and one hundred (100) sss 2 students from the four selected schools were selected as participants for the study. the students were to provide responses to the questionnaire items. the only instrument to be used for data collection was questionnaire. the section a contained information designed to get the students biographic data of individual respondents such as name, sex, school while section b contained items developed from the purpose of the study to elicit data for analysis on the application and usage extent of usage of audio-visual materials in the teaching of physics in senior secondary school in ikere local government. for internal consistency of the questionnaires, split-half reliability was determined by pilot testing with questionnaires using 20 students at a school that did not form part of the sample. the questionnaire was administered on the subjects. the administration was conducted by the researchers with the aid of one (1) trained research assistant. in analyzing the collected data, the researchers used descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentage to analyse respondents’ demographic data, to answer the research questions while inferential statistics of chi-square analysis was used to test the formulated research questions. test of research questions research question 1 does audio-visual materials impact students interest in physics in secondary school? table 1: chi-square analysis of data on the impact of audio-visual materials on students interest in physics in secondary school. s/n items x2 – cal x2– table df remark 1 television adds interest but teaches little in teaching of physics. 20.30 7.82 3 * 2 the use of audio-visual per se makes teaching redundant. 18.20 7.82 3 * 3 audio-visual materials help me to have better interest in physics. 18.84 7.82 3 * 4 audio-visual like television, radio, video cassette etc assists better academic performance in physics. 41.04 7.82 3 * ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 7 5 it is against the interest of our children education as a matter of experiment. 11.40 7.82 3 * p < 0.05 , * = significant research question 2 does audio-visual materials impact students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools? table 2: chi-square analysis of data on the impact of audio-visual materials on students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools. s/n items x2– cal x2–table df remark 1. audio-visual material assists me in the understanding some topics in physics. 21.04 7.82 3 * 2. course of instruction taught by radio, tapes and record assist me in learning physics. 36.72 7.82 3 * 3. use of charts and television assist me to understand physics better. 38.84 7.82 3 * 4. the use of audio-visual materials helps my better performance in physics. 30.02 7.82 3 * 5. listening to physics programmes through radio assists me to understand physics better. 24.42 7.82 3 * p < 0.05 , *= significant discussion the results in table 1 (i.e chi square analysis of the data on the impact of audio-visual materials on students’ interest in physics in secondary school) revealed that x2 – calculated value of 20.30, 18.20, 18.84 41.04 and 11.40 for items in serial numbers 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively in the questionnaire at p < 0.05 and if df=3. a cursory look at the values showed that all the calculated values (i.e x2– cal) is greater than the critical values of 7.82 (i.e x2 – table value). this shows that all the items are significant. this implies that the use of audio-visual and audio-visual materials stimulates students’ interest in physics in secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state. similarly, the result in table 2 (i.e chi-square analysis of data on the impact of audiovisual materials on students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools) revealed that x2 – calculated value of 21.04, 36.72, 38.84, 30.04 and 24.42 for items in serial numbers 6,7,8,9 and 10 respectively i the questionnaire at p < 0.05 and df=3. a good look at the values revealed that all the calculated values (i.e x2 – cal) is greater than the critical value of 7.82 (i.e x2 – table). this shows that all the items are significant. this implies that the use of audio-visual and audio-visual materials influences students’ academic performance in physics in secondary schools in ikere local government area of ekiti state, nigeria. conclusion this study has shown that when appropriate media (i.e audio-visuals) are integrated into the curriculum to complement the traditional method, higher learning outcomes in terms of achievement scores would probably result. secondary students taught with the audio-visual materials achieved better than student taught with the traditional method. performance was significantly improved by the use of audio-visual materials approach in teaching physics. the mean achievement of both male and female students were significantly improve by the use of audio-visual materials. this study has shown that the use of audio-visual materials assists students’ achievement in physics better. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 8 recommendations based on the results from this study, it is thereby recommended that: 1. states school management should encourage the use of audio visual materials by inculcating them in the physics syllabus in all levels of education. 2. students and teachers alike should get involved in their various roles in the improvisation and utilization of audio-visual materials when necessary 3. secondary school teachers should be encourages to adopt the method in their teaching. 4. also, it is suggested that secondary school physics teachers should explore the use of audio-visual materials to teach physics areas not covered by this in order to determine its effectiveness and possible adoption as a major instructional strategy. references dabbagh, n. (2001). concept mapping as mind tool for critical thinking, journal of computing in teacher education, 17(2), 15-24. fillmore, c. (2008). a smarter way to teach physics. paper presented at the international education research conference, brisbane, australian. retrieved date: february 20, 2011, from http://www.aare.edu.au/08pap/fil081140.pdf isola, o.m. (2010). effects of standardized and improvised instructional materials on students’ academic achievements in secondary school physics. unpublished master of education thesis, university of ibadan, ibadan. king, j.w. (1990). using media in teaching. teaching at unl, ne: teaching and learning centre, the university of nebraska-lincoln. kochhar, s.k. (2004). methods and techniques of teaching. new delhi: publishers pvt. ltd. oladajo, m.a., olosunde, g.r., ojebisi, a.o. & isola, o.m. (2011). instructional materials and students’ academic achievement in physics: some policy implications. european journal of humanities and social sciences, 2(1), 113-126. osokoya, i.o. (2007). effects of video-taped instruction on secondary school students’ achievement in history, international journal of african & african american studies, 6(1), 27-34. ouellette, r.p. (2004). the challenges of distributed learning as new paradigm for teaching and learning. college park, usa: university of maryland college. paas, f., renkl, a. & sweller, j. (2004). cognitive load theory: instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. instructional science, 32(1-2), 1-8. prow, t. (2003). physics is hard, not impossible. engineering outlook, 42, 1-8. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 04 | issue 08 | august 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 9 combating violent conflicts and terrorism in nigeria: some considered measures u.k. emoefe ekiugbo (ph.d) college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria phone no: 08137230258 ; e-mail: ekiugbouche@gmail. com abstract there is no disputing fact that terrorism has increasingly become widespread criminal violence as actors in different countries across the globe have their own unique ways of perpetrating the act. in nigeria which holds a strategic place in the african continent and the global community, democratization process and stability of the country are visibly jeopardized by the high level violence resulting from political, ethnic and religious conflicts as well as organized violent crimes in almost all states of the federation. there are different facilitations of insecurity in nigeria, among which are porous borders, social inequality, poverty, joblessness and widespread availability of illegal arms and light weapons. this paper tries to highlight some measures to be put in place to combat violent conflicts and terrorism in nigeria. an understanding of all these issues and other complex dimensions of the nigerian security environment is imperative for all of us as stakeholders in nigeria. keywords: conflict, terrorism, violence, measures and security. introduction nigeria is a heterogeneous society with enormous potential for economic and social development. however violence has reached unprecedented level and thousands have been killed with much more wounded or displaced from their homes on account of violence. schools are disrupted, businesses have lost 1 billions of naira and property worth millions of naira are vandalized. nigeria is usually characterized as a deeply divided state in which major political issues are vigorously contested along the lines of complex ethnic, religious and regional division. okene (2010) put it this way “the prevalence of political gangsterism, ethnic military, illegal drug dealings and alms trafficking, human kidnapping rapacious corruption and financial mismanagement are manifestation of failure of national security. all the indices basically meant insecurity and is a threat to peaceful coexistence, mitigation of democratic governance and a high barrier to economic and socio-political integration which are prerequisite to growth and development of a state. it is pertinent here to clarify some key concepts used this paper in order to make the discussion comprehensive and understandable. a violent act involves threat to actual execution of acts which have actual or potential capacity to inflict physical emotional and psychological injury on a person or a group of persons (strouse, 2009). erickson (1985) felt ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 8 that violence or a violent act may also be collective (perpetrated by a group) or individual (perpetrated by an individual). it therefore means that when social and political space is contested or economic resource are allocated, the potential for conflict is also there. violence is inevitable when the accommodation structures breakdown. conflict on the other hand can be described as a situation or condition of disharmony in an interaction process. conflict erupts when interest of various groups clashes. imobigbe (1992) points out that conflict is not limited to any particular level of interaction. in other words it could occur at any level of human interaction and it often manifest violent activities. terrorism has haunted the political landscape of nigeria for decades. it has imposed a new strategic climate on the present day nigeria by making every human being a potential victim of its various forms. the terrorism framework sees terrorist as unrepresentative and abnormal outlers in society. terrorism isolates terrorists from negotiation or constructive engagement. terrorists methods and objective are condemned. terrorists are seen as psychological defective – seeking violence for its own sake. terrorism is seen as either a law enforcement or military problem which simply means rooting out a few bad apples. all acts of terrorism are marked with the following features (1) the use of violence or force in the manner of threats to action (2) the primary objective is a political one (3) thriving in the use of fear or terror to elicit the desired reaction (4) the expectation that the perpetrated actions will induce psychological and political effects and response (cunningtom 2003). every act of terrorism utilizes methods of violence to get their message across. they can be anything from assault, weapons or explosive devices to toxic chemicals that are released into the air. these attacks may occur at any time or place which makes them an extremely effective method of instilling terror and uncertainty into the general public. kydd and walter (2006) succinctly analyse five principal strategic logic at work in terrorist campaigns. these are (1) attrition when terrorist seek to persuade the enemy that they are strong enough to impose consideration costs if their enemy continues a particular policy (2) intimidation – using intimidation to convince the population that they are strong to punish disobedience and government is weak to stop their (3) provocation strategy is an attempt to induce the enemy to respond to terrorism with indiscriminate violence, which radicalizes the population and make them to support the terrorists (4) spoilers strategy is an effort to persuade the enemy that moderates on the terrorists side are weak and untrustworthy, thus undermining attempts to reach a peace settlement and (5) outbidding strategy – when groups engage violence to convince the public that the terrorists have greater resolve to fight the enemy than rival groups and therefore are worthy of support. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 9 according to the national advisory committee on criminal justice standards and goals, there are six distinct types of terrorism all of them share the common trait of violence that destroy property, invoke fear and attempt to harm the lives of the civilians. they are: i. civil disorder: this is held by a group of people who are unhappy and therefore send message to a political party to demand change; ii. political terrorism: used by one political faction to intimidate another; iii. non political terrorism – a fermist act, most often of a religious nature with a goal distinct from a political goal; iv. quasi terrorismit is a violent act that utilize the same methods terrorist employ but does not have the same motivating factor; v. limited political terrorism: the goal here is not to overthrow the government but to protest a governmental policy or action. vi. state terrorism defines any violent act initiated by an existing government to achieve a particular goal. in nigeria, in recent years, the democratization process and the stability of the country are visibly jeopardized by the high level violence resulting from political ethnic and religious conflicts as well as by organized violent crimes in almost all states of the federation. perhaps there is no other time since the civil war ended that nigeria was seriously engulfed in perennial security challenges that threaten the very foundation of the country than in the last few years. it should be noted that there are different facilitators of insecurity in the country, among which are: porous borders, social inequality, poverty problems and widespread availability of illegal arms and light weapons. therefore, an understanding of these issues and other complex dimensions of the nigerian security environment becomes imperative for all of us as stakeholders. all parts of nigeria today are affected by the terrorists and their activities. in one region, crime is on the increase, while in another, inter-ethnic conflict and wars are being quelled, all of which are the making of militia groups in nigeria. these militia groups are known for unconstitutional means they employ in expressing their grievances. they result to violence in drawing sympathy and attention to their plight. thousands of diverse sophisticated assault rifles, seek propelled grenade explosive and bombs are smuggled into the country. the weapon inflow empowers the communities and militias for accelerated violence conflicts. thousands of people lose their lives annually in such bloody clashes. aside such mindless and needless killings of nigerians, they also engage in wanton ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 10 destruction of public and private property all in a bid to vent their frustration about certain issue (shittu, 2013). types of militants and separatist groups in nigeria the search and quest to re-assert identities institution values and arms that make meaningful sense to the average nigerian cannot be wished away, particularly amidst the decaying infrastructure and deteriorating social services in the country (isa, 2010). six decades after independence nigeria has not been able to create societies that ensure human dignity and respect for all. since gaining independence in 1960, military coups, ethnic and religious have characterized post independence nigeria. the end of the civil war (1967-1970) was believed to be an opportunity to unite nigerians. yet, in the post civil war era, nigerians has been confronted with daunting security challenge including militancy, insurgencies and recurrent criminal violence that have pitted various communities against one another in the country. after many years of military rule, the re introduction of civilian rule in 1999 has coincided or seems to have spurred the intensification of the ethnic and religious militancy, characterized by acts of catastrophic terrorism, civil strife and mass protest (bamidele, 2012). indeed, nigerian internal security has been significantly undermined by violent activities of armed non state actors, largely made up of radicalized youths groups of foot soldiers prominent among these groups are the movement for the emancipation of the niger delta (mends) the odua people’s congress (opc) the arewa peoples congress (apc) bakassi boys, egbesu boys, the movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob) and more recently, boko haram, ansaru kala–kalo and ombatse among others (ckeen foundation, 2014). these ethnic militias have contributed to the cycle of violence over the years. they have a political element to them and are often seen as self defense by particular ethnic – religious communities. the fact is that many of these ethnic militias and separatist group in nigeria are proof that there are many grievances and injustices to the system (firsing, 2012). causal factors of the conflict in the niger delta and north eastern part of nigeria the roots of the niger delta conflict is the history of the struggles for self determination local autonomy and democracy of the ethnic minorities in the region, which goes as far back as the second decade of the 20th century. the creation of nigeria by the british as their colony in 1914 consigned the people of the niger delta to the status of ethnic ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 11 minorities in relation to the numerically preponderant neighbouring ethnic groups which dominated life in what later became the western and eastern regions of the country. the successive institutionalization of revenue sharing and power distribution along regional lines tends to reinforce the politization of ethnic identity, and its mobilization in the struggle for access to power and resources. on these basis smaller groups defined as ethnic minorities tended to pose out while the dominant ethnic groups asserted power at the regional (north, hausa-fulani, east, igbo and west, yoruba) and the national level. the causes of the niger delta crisis has been located in the frustration – aggression theory. a theory which posits that men are mostly inclined to aggression when subjected to unjustified frustration. danjibe (2009) opined that people are motivated to act aggressively by a drive induced by frustration, the concept of frustration denotes condition that arises when goal attainment is blocked, while aggression constitutes actions aimed at harming perceived stumbling blocks. it implies that frustration will inevitably lead to some form of aggression. courson (2009) submits that niger delta conflict is the result of a complex mixture of grievances, greed, marginalization, deprivation, political, and the quest for equity and justice. ibada (2011) itemized four inter – related factors that created condition for the conflict – first, the niger delta is the hub of nigerians oil industry. second, oil is the mainstay of the nigerians economy and has generated huge revenues for the country, contributing 40% of gdp, about 90% of total earnings and about 80% of national gross income. third, oil related environmental problems, such as oil spills and gas flares–have undermined environmental quality and the productivity of the local economies where oil is produced. fourth, the niger delta is a strong paradox as it represents one of the extreme conditions of poverty and lack of development in the country, despite its oil and gas resource. these main factors have motivated conflicts against the nigerians government, accused of developmental neglect and deprivation and against the oil companies for neglecting, coorperate social responsibility in the region. the socio economic hardship and inequity in the distribution of the nation’s oil wealth, al large proportion which comes from the niger delta occasioned by marginalization and deprivation is expressed in violent activities by militia groups in the region. the niger delta indigenes are ethnic minorities anchored their resistance in their exclusion from the benefits of the oil industry, resulting in the lack of social development, good governance, widespread poverty and high levels of unemployment in the region inspite of more than fifty years of oil production. however, one of the most important religious social transformations of the last century has been the gradual rise of fundamentalism, the embrace of anti – modern religious ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 12 orthodoxies fundamentalism generally require unquestioning acceptance of transcendent religious precepts astrict adherence to compulsory rituals and a subjugation of the self to higher powers. one of such is the boko haram movement in nigeria known for terrorism especially in the north eastern part of the country. boko haram ideology is embedded in a deep tradition of islamism, and is but one of several variants of radical islamism to have emerged in northern nigeria. its followers are reportedly influenced by the koranic phrase which says: “anyone who is not governed by what allah has revealed is among the transgressors”. however, the groups’ ideology resonates for many reasons beyond religion. socio economic grievances include the huge gap between aspirations of nigeria’s youths and the opportunities provided by the system for achieving a better life (forest, 2012). a cursory look at the situation in northern nigeria shows that youth radicalization is the centre of the current crisis. radicalization by definition is a process that leads to a situation in which a person or group of persons imbibe and adopt extreme social, religious and political views. at the stage of complete radicalization individuals totally reject the status quo and seek to undermines other expression contrary to theirs. the notion of the sect core ideology that western education is dogmatically wrong, is highlighted through the abductions and raids of private and public school. they reject globalization and colonization, a further criticism of western ideologies. in many parts of the country, the government is unable to provide security, good roads, water, health, reliable power and education. the situation is particularly dire in the northern state of borno where only 28% of the children attend schools, according to the nigerian government statistics and the literacy rate in the north is 32% compared with the 68%, national average. nigerians poverty rate grew from 55% in 2004 to 61% in 2010, largely because of the collapse of the northern economy. the pervasive poverty level especially among the youths is an avenue for tension generation, since the ground has been watered for disappointment and frustration. infact, poverty has often led to intolerance, and intolerance leads to violence. in the north, the illiterate population is easily manipulated by the rich to cause chaos especially the almajiri institution which has produced an army of dysfunctional unemployed, unemployable, uneducated and confused population (ata, 2011 cited in ngele and ukandu, 2014). suggested measures to combat violent conflicts and terrorism in nigeria ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 13 conflict is an attendant feature of human interaction and cannot be eliminated, however its proper management and transformation are essential for peace and progress in human society (samyer, 2003). it must be stated, however, that every conflict situation is unique, and it is obviously not possible to develop an approach that covers every situation. this paper will look at combating violent conflicts and terrorism in nigeria from the following dimensions. (1) the rule of law and human development dimension. it has been affirmed that governance and human rights are inextricably linked with peace and security, inefficient and weak governance and rights abuses can cause conflicts which can weaken governance and human right protection. in order to effectively contain violence in nigeria and to fight boko haram, tactical counter insurgency, should be paired with economic development and increased support for the rule of law. the nigerian government should realize that boko haram has emerged from the shortcomings of the governments own system and should start dealing with that fact. the government of nigeria needs to address the development of the state by concentrating on reconciliation of the country, before it can start addressing the expansive issue of terrorism. development, along with the education of human rights, can combat terrorism common rhetoric. in nigeria to regain its geostrategic importance as a regional power house that set the pace in africa security governance, it must take development and human security deficits in northern nigeria seriously as a means of growing the seed of peace and diffusing insurgency. also, the empowerment and meaningful participation of individuals and civil society in governance system are necessary to tackle inequality and promote social inclusion. isa (2010) opined that government can turn around this negative trend by strengthening its capacity to provide public good, proactively responding to the needs of its citizens and strengthening democracy as well as free and fair election to guarantee the rights and security of citizens. the state must distribute national resources equitably and transparently. the international community could assist nigeria through the use of foreign aid earmarked to create economic opportunities in the country’s northern regions. (2) governance and democratization dimension. governance is a central feature in the often internal or societally based threats nigeria faces. some of the underlying or triggering causes of conflict are illegitimate or weak institutions, corruption, insufficient respect for human rights, lack of good governance and the perception that the administrative and political channels are not adequate or that they are inaccessible. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 14 at the grassroot level ripe 2002 suggested a number of reforms that could be put in place to stem the cycle of violence in nigeria: resolve the settlers and indigenes distinction at a constitutional level institute police reform so that police are accountable at the local level and must be well trained to proactively, prevent violence rather than react in the aftermath; expand the role of local universities and non-governmental organizations to train communities in conflict prevention and resolution; enact electoral reform that establishes a level playing field and provides a non violent method for citizen to express their frustrations with corruption and abuse of power and vote for accountability and transparency; empower traditional leaders who are currently underutilized to play a constructive role in inter faith dialogue and conflict mitigation. (3) the socio-economic dimension. in addition to ensuring that the general economic conditions are reasonably okay, governments at all level of nigerians should endeavour to identify those who might be marginalized. such persons could be taken care of through special programme to prevent them from slipping into potential terrorists groups or cells. the role of foreign based religious and non religious entities in community based social interventions should be critically looked at. some of these organization prop radical groups using their social activities to conceal their true intentions. in nigeria therefore, a roadmap for de –radicalization and reintegration of the ex militias and insurgents should also be part of the wider reconciliation process. the provision of further education and skills training which enable young people to earn a living should form a pivotal part. the nigerian government needs to re engage the national orientation agency (noa) to do its work with re-energized focus than it had been done before. noa should put in place a national reorientation programme through which they can regularly interact with the nigerian youths. (4) the security institution and international dimension. given the huge security challenges facing the country, it is important that nigerian as a nation devises effective public strategies that will stem the violence and creates conditions for the protection of human rights and the deepening of democracy. government’s brute force strategy and insufficient knowledge of the adversary have been counter productivity and have failed to reduce in the affected areas significantly (amaregbe 2013) nigerian needs novel techniques targeted at restructuring and evolving effective security strategies than have robust human intelligence element with sustainable ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 15 developmental components. efforts to prevent violence should be more holistic and systematic and must address the human security dimension. in addition, the advance in technology have to be harnessed to produce new and novel means to deal with the internal security problem. use of non lethal weapon should be explored. the intelligence group must be given greater impetus and more funding. above all, the country’s borders must be tightly manned to hinder illegal influx and exit of insurgents through usage of over a thousand of unofficial routes. if nigeria’s borders are not properly secured, the war against violence will linger for an unforeseeable period because of challenges associated with their cross borders activities. conclusion this paper highlighted measures to combat the violent conflicts and terrorism that has bedeviled the nigerian state. as tension discontinues to mount in very region in this country, the government should decide either to uphold her secularity stand and strengthen it or accept the state as a failed state. the international community could assist nigerian through the use of foreign aid earmarked to create economic opportunities in the northern part of this country. but for countries to give aid, they would have to be sure that the money would be used for its intended purpose. references afa, l.i. (2011). exploring the role of religion in the management of ethno religious crisis: a paper presented at the 32nd annual conference of the national association for the study of religious held at benue state university, makurdi. amaraegbu, d.a. (2013). failure of human intelligence, boko haram and terrorism in nigeria .journal of sustainable development in africa, 15(4). curson, e. (2009). movement for the emancipation of the niger delta (mend). political marginalization, repression, and petro-insurgency in the niger delta, nordiskes african institute discussion paper 47 cunningham, w.g. (2003). terrorism definitions and typologies in terrorisms. concepts, causes and conflict resolution, advanced systems and concepts office. defence threat reduction agency & institute for conflict analysis and resolution george masoa university. danjibo, n, d. (2009). islamic fundamentalism and sectarian violence: the maitasine and boko haram crises in northern nigeria, in clement boutillier (ed) proceedings of the 2009 ifra nigeria conference in zaria. erickson, b. (1985). life, history and historical movement new york: norton & co. forest, j.f. (2012). confronting the terrorism of boko haram in nigeria jsou report 12-5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 16 the jsdu press maedill air force base, florida. firsting, s. (2012). should boko haram be designated a foreign terrorist organization. international policy digest june 13, 2012. ibaba , s.i. (2011). “terrorism in liberation struggles: interrogating the engagement tactics of the movement for the emancipation of the niger delta in perspectives of terrorism, 5 (3 -4). imobigbe, t.a. (2009). challenges in categorizing domestic terrorism in okumu and botha (eds) domestic terrorism in africa: defining, addressing and understanding its impact on human security, south africa, published by the institute for security studies. isa, m.k. (2010). militant islamist group in northern nigeria in wafulu. okumu & augustine ikeugbe (eds), militias rebels and islamist militants: in human security and state crises in africa, pretoria south africa, institute for security studies. kydd, a. h & walter, b.& walter, b.f. (2006). the strategies of terrorism. international security, 31(1 summer). pape, r. (2005). dying to win: the strategic logic of suicide terrorism new york. random house. okene, a.a. (2010). national security and integration in nigeria. a lead paper presented at the 6th annual national conference by school of arts and social sciences fce kano on 13th july, 2010. siro, a.d. (2015). boko haram: nigerian’s invisible enemy international journal of scientific research in education, june 2015, 8 (2), 79-86. strause, j. (2009) will nigeria’s amnesty, campaign. have a lasting impact on the delta insurgency terrorism monitor vii (32), october 30. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn: 2805-413x) volume 3 | issue 9 | september 2020 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 17 l’instrumentalisation et l’incivisme des dozo dans le debat politique ivoirien : des obstacles a la securite interieure, au dialogue politique et au processus de la reconciliation nationale (2002-2015) the instrumentalization and incivism of the dozo in the ivory political debate: obstacles to internal security, to political dialogue and to the national reconciliation process (2002-2015) * datro okobé noël enseignant-chercheur d’histoire contemporaine (histoire africaine) université alassane ouattara, bouaké (côte d’ivoire) (225) 0708040031 /0143666981/datronoel@outlook.fr/datronoel1978@gmail.com * dr. bley hyacinthe digbeugby enseignant-chercheur d’histoire contemporaine (histoire politique) université félix houphouët-boigny de cocody (côte d’ivoire) (225) 0707269226/ 0141268098 / hyacinthebley20017@gmail.com résumé les dozo sont des chasseurs traditionnels d’origine mandé-bambara et malinké en afrique de l’ouest regroupés en une confrérie initiatique et exotérique. leur existence remonte au xiiie siècle avec la fondation de l’empire du mali, dans le soudan occidental. le dozoya repose fondamentalement sur la croyance aux divinités (jinh) ou aux génies de la brousse. les dozo, au terme de leur initiation deviennent des individus peu ordinaires, pacifiquesmais craints de tous pour leurs pouvoirs mystiques aigus et du don d’ubiquité qui les caractérise. dotésd’un savoir, savoir-faire et savoir-être, ils se mettent au service de leur communauté. au cours de ces dernières décennies, dans l’histoire sociopolitique de la côte d’ivoire, ces chasseurs traditionnels se sont illustrés militairement au côté de la rébellion contre le régime en exercice, de septembre 2002 à l’entame du second mandat d’alassane ouattara, leur référent politique, en 2015. depuis lors, ces supplétifsservent de réservoir militaire potentiel disponible au pouvoir en place ;mettant ainsi en péril les fondamentaux de la démocratie et de l’etat de droit. ainsi, leur intrusion militaire dans le débat politique national leur confère le statut de soldats-mercenairesà la solde de l’exécutif. pour service rendu à la rébellion, ils bénéficient d’un traitement particulier et sont intégrés dans l’armée nationale. ils sont promus à des hauts postes dans l’administration civile et militaire du pays. du coup, ces mercenaires peu outillés à la chose républicaine, dans l’exercice de leur nouvelle fonction et au regard de l’impunité dont ils jouissent, n’ont cessé de poser des actes de violence contre les populations déjà traumatisées et désarçonnées par la crise. tous ces faits menacent la sécurité intérieure, l’unité nationale, la cohésion sociale et le processus de la réconciliation nationale. il se pose alors la problématique de l’intrusion des mercenaires-dozo dans le jeu politique national et les actes de violence, de crimes économiques et humanitaires dont ils sont auteurs en côte d’ivoire.pour y répondre, l’exploitation rigoureuse et méthodique de plusieurs ouvrages et travaux scientifiques en rapport avec notre sujets’est imposée à nous.aussi, les zones du centre, nord et ouest (cno) assiégées par les rebelleset celles du sud, dites gouvernementales ont servi de cadre d’enquêtes orales auprès de dozo, chefs coutumiers, victimes, femmes, jeunes, autorités administratives et élus locaux. le traitement rigoureux et objectif des informations recueillies a permis de bâtir notre travail autour de trois axes principaux. le premier axe mettra en relief l’intrusion des dozo dans le ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:/0143666981/datronoel@outlook.fr/datronoel1978@gmail.com débat politique national, à partir de 2002. le second point se chargera de montrer les actes d’incivisme des dozo au cours de la crise. la dernière partie sera le lieu de présenter l’impact de la présence et de l’incivisme des dozo dans le jeu politique national sur la stabilité du pays. mots clés : instrumentalisation, incivisme, dozo, débat politique national,dialogue politique, reconciliationnationale. abstract the dozo are traditional hunters of mande-bambara and malinke in west africa, united in an initiatory and exoteric brotherhood. their existence dates back to the 13th century with the founding of the mali empire in west sudan. the dozoya is fundamentally based on the belief in deities (jinh) or bush spirits. the dozo, at the end of their initiation become unusual individuals, peaceful but feared by all for their acute mystical powers and the gift of ubiquity that characterizes them. endowed with knowledge, know-how and interpersonal skills, they put themselves at the service oh their community. notwithstanding, during these last decades, in the socio-political history of côte d'ivoire, these traditional hunters have distinguished themselves in the most violent way (militarily) alongside the rebellion against the regime in exercise, of september 2002. at the start of the second term of alassane ouattara, their political referent, in 2015. since then, these auxiliaries have served as a potential military reservoir available to the power in place; thus endangering the fundamentals of democracy and the rule of law. thus, their military intrusion into the national political debate gives them the status of soldiers-mercenaries in the pay of the executive. for service to the rebellion, they received special treatment and were integrated into the national army. they are promoted to senior positions in the country's civil and military administration. suddenly, these mercenaries little equipped with the republican thing, in the exercise of their new function and with regard to the impunity which they enjoy, did not cease carrying out acts of violence against the populations already traumatized and disconcerted by the crisis. all these facts threaten internal security, national unity, social cohesion and the process of national reconciliation. this raises the issue of the intrusion of the mercenaries-dozo into the national political game and the acts of violence, economic and humanitarian crimes of which they are perpetrators in the ivory coast. to answer this, the rigorous and methodical use of several books and scientific works related to our subject has become obvious to us. also, the areas of the center, north and west (cno) besieged by the rebels and those of the south, so-called governmental, served as a framework for oral inquiries with dozo, customary chiefs, victims, women, young people, administrative authorities and local elected officials. the rigorous and objective treatment of the information collected has made it possible o build our work around main axes. the first axis will highlight the intrusion of the dozo in the national political debate, from 2002. the second point will be the place to present the impact oh the presence and incivism of the dozo in the national political game on the stability of the country. keywords: instrumentalisation, incivism, dozo, national political debate, political dialogue, national reconciliation. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 introduction l’histoire sociopolitique de la côte d’ivoire au cours des dernières décennies, principalement entre 2002 et 2015, est marquée par l’intrusion des dozo, des chasseurs traditionnels-guerriers d’origine mandé-bambara et malinké vivant dans la boucle du niger. leur existence en afrique de l’ouest remonte au xiiie siècle avec la fondation de l’empire du mali. en côte d’ivoire (hellweg, 2012, p163), la majorité des dozo sont des mandéphones, ceux qui parlent des langues mandingues d’afrique de l’ouest tels que les bamanankan (le bambara), le julikan (le dioula) et les malinkan (le malinké), communément appelés mandinkan. mais on trouve aussi parmi les dozo, des locuteurs de langues gur, notamment lesyemara (le sénoufo), bien représenté. a la fin des années 1980 et en 1990, les dozo se sont transformés en agents de sécurité privée parce que la police ivoirienne s’est montrée impuissante devant l’insécurité grandissante, surtout dans les milieux urbains pauvres et dans les campagnes. c’est dire qu’ils étaient déjà sortis de leur cadre naturel de prédilection qui est la chasse traditionnelle pour se transformer en agents de sécurité privée. mais, si nous avons choisi 2002 comme notre première borne chronologique, c’est pour mettre particulièrement l’accent sur le côté rebelle et guerrier des dozo dans l’histoire sociopolitique et militaire de la côte d’ivoire. en effet, ces chasseurs traditionnels ont lutté dans les rangs de l’armée des forces nouvelles pendant la rébellion de 2002 qui portera au pouvoir alassane ouattara après une crise post-électorale sans précédent en 2011. ainsi, dès son accession au pouvoir avec le soutien de ces soldats supplétifs, le président alassane ouattara met-t-il en place une nouvelle politique militaire qui nécessite le recrutement de certains d’entre eux pour l’armée nationale. on comprend dès lors que leur intervention dans le jeu politique national est à mettre à l’actif d’une classe politique qui aspire au pouvoir d’etat par les moyens anticonstitutionnels, alors que la politique n’est pas, par essence, leur domaine de compétence. recrutés alors comme des militaires supplétifs par cette classe politique qu’ils considèrent comme leur référent politique dans sa course effrénée au pouvoir d’etat, ces dozo-mercenaires se font remarquer à tous égards sur le théâtre des opérations contre les populations des zones assiégées, dans le centre, nord et l’ouest (cno) du pays et même dans certaines localités gouvernementales1. leurs agissements peu cordiaux et très violents confisquent les droits fondamentaux des citoyens, entre autres, la libre circulation des biens et des personnes, la liberté d’expression, d’opinion, d’association et le droit à la vie. du coup, le tissu social et l’unité nationale, facteurs de stabilité politique légendaire dont se réclamait la côte d’ivoire dans la sous-région ouest-africaine,ont du mal à se reconstituer et menacent le dialogue politique inclusif et fragilisent les efforts déployés pour réconcilier les ivoiriens. il se pose alors, dans ce sujet, la question centrale de l’immixtion des chasseurs traditionnels dozo sur la scène politique nationaleen côte d’ivoire et les violences sous toutes ses formes perpétrées contre les populations au cours de la période entre 2002, date du déclenchement de la rébellion armée et 2015, le début du deuxième mandat du président 1 la rébellion armée menée par des mercenaires contre le pouvoir de laurent gbagbo en 2002 a entrainé la partition du pays avec d’un côté les zones centre-nord et ouest (cno) contrôlées par les rebelles et les zones du sud placées sous l’autorité du l’exécutif en exercice. cette division du territoire national en deux parties antagonistes, pour des raisons politiques a créé une fracture sociale profonde entre les ivoiriens. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 alassane ouattara, leur référent politique. autrement dit,en quoi le recrutement des dozodans le jeu politique et leurs actions sur le terrain politique constituent des menaces à la sécurité, au dialogue entre les classes politiques et la consolidation de la cohésion sociale ? dans notre souci de répondre à cette problématique, nous avons exploité plusieurs ouvrages se rapportant à certains pans de notre sujet ou nous orientant vers certaines pistes d’informations nécessaires à l’élaboration de ce travail. des ouvrages d’auteurs spécialistes de la question des dozo ont été exploités. il s’agit, à titre d’exemple, des ouvrages de (manzon, 2014), ceux de (soro, 2005), de (helleweg, 2012), de (youssouf,1994) et de (guyon,2015). dans leurs travaux, ces auteurs ont axé leurs réflexions sur l’origine des dozo, le fonctionnement ancestral de la confrérie et leur implication dans les crises sociopolitiques en afrique de l’ouest, dans un contexte du multipartisme en afrique. particulièrement (guynon,2015) et (varlène, 2012) ont insisté sur leur intrusion dans le débat politique national ivoirien et les conséquences de leurs agissements et comportements sur le terrain des combats. l’ouvrage de (xavier renou, 2005) nous a été d’un intérêt capital parce que dans sa démarche, l’auteur nous a permis de comprendre le fonctionnement des mercenaires et sociétés militaires privées au service du marché dans les crises sociopolitiques qui ont secoué les etats à travers le monde. des actes de colloques, des mémoires, thèses et articles scientifiques ont été également exploités. entre autres, nous pouvons citer les actes du colloque du(centre de documentation et de recherche sur la paix et les conflits, 2000), de (datro et al, 2018). ces travaux scientifiques ont pointé du doigt les actes de violences et d’incivisme des mercenaires recrutés par des sociétés privées qui engagent des militaires, dans la plupart des cas, à la retraite ou des mercenaires kamajors et dozo qui ont sévi dans les conflits politiques armés en afrique. au surplus, la question du concept d’« ivoirité » abordée par (boa thiémélé, 2015, p39) nous a fait comprendre que mal utilisé et sorti de son contexte est contribué, de loin, à la fracture sociale et à l’unité nationale. d’ailleurs, l’auteur le démontre en ces termes : l’ivoirité culturelle etpolitique est une idée grandiose qui n’a pas réussi à concrétiser les institutions bienveillantes de ses créateurs. elle a subi également le destin d’une mal comprise, mal présentée et nécessairement mal critiquée. l’ensemble de ces ouvrages consultés a été très capital dans notre travail. toutefois, nous avons ouvert nos recherches sur d’autres sources, notamment, les sources orales. en effet, nous avons fait un travail de recherches sur le terrain des enquêtes orales, auprès des personnes ressources, à savoir, les ex-rebelles dozo, des autorités coutumières, des animateurs de la scène politique, agents des forces de l’ordre et de sécurité et quelques victimes. les informations recueillies ont permis de comprendre les violences avec lesquelles les mercenairesdozo se sont imposés aux populationsdes zones sous contrôle rebelles et même sur celles de certaines localités placées sous l’autorité de l’exécutif. nous avons, par la suite, fait un croisement de toutes les informations recueillies tant dans les ouvrages, publications scientifiques que dans les témoignages oraux des différentes localités parcourues. l’analyse objective et la consolidation de toutes ces informations écrites et orales ont permis de dégager un plan tripartite. dans la première partie, il sera question de porter un regard sur l’intrusion des dozo dans le jeu politique national. en second lieu, les actes d’incivisme des dozo constituera l’essentiel de notre analyse. la troisième et dernière partie portera sur l’impact de l’immixtion des dozo dans le débat politique et leurs actes d’incivisme sur la cohésion sociale, la sécurité intérieure et la réconciliation nationale. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 i. l’intrusion des dozo dans le jeu politique national la présence des chasseurs traditionnels dozo sur la scène politique, à partir de 2002, leur recrutement dans les rangs des forces armées rebelles et leur formation particulière au métier de la guerre constitueront les idées à développer dans cette première partie. 1. les motivations plusieurs raisons expliquent l’intrusion de la confrérie initiatique des dozo sur la scène politique nationale. ces raisons sont ethno-identitaires, religieuses et politiques, dans un contexte conflictuel au sommet de l’etat. en côte d’ivoire, les questions politiques qui devraient se faire selon les principes fondamentaux de la démocratie et de l’etat de droit, ont malheureusement fait place, aux rivalités ethniques et identitaires entre les différents référents politiques qui ont attiré avec eux, leurs bastions politiques, militants et sympathisants. en effet, une crise identitaire s’installe dans les habitudes des populations du nord de la côte d’ivoire qui se sentent marginalisées par les différents pouvoirs au sommet de l’etat. mais cette position tranchée d’une frange de la population ivoirienne du nord se justifie particulièrementpar les candidatures aux différentes présidentielles des dernières décennies au cours desquelles aucun acteur politique originaire du nord, en pays malinké et sénoufo n’a accédé au pouvoir d’etat. le cas du candidat alassane ouattara qui a vu sa candidature rejetée par la cour suprême, pour « nationalité douteuse » (datro et al, 2018, p.43) lors du scrutin de 2000. cette situation jugée inconfortable de leur référent politique, alassane ouattara, qui aspire au pouvoir d’etat entrainera la mise à jour de la charte anonyme du nord en veilleuse depuis 19912.a (sandlar, 2005, p.297-298) d’ajouter que : cette charte tire son argument du sous-développement du nord pour présenter les populations autochtones comme des individus exclus du développement par l’autorité politique suprême et tente de faire de semblable posture, un ressort de mobilisation important. particulièrement les dozo d’origine mandé-bambara et malinké ne se feront pas prier, au nom de leurs accointances ethniques et identitaires pour soutenir le rassemblement des républicains (rdr) parti politique de leur mentor politique, alassane ouattara, dans cette lutte effrénée vers le fauteuil présidentiel. d’ailleurs, le chef rebelle, (soro guillaume, 2005, pp.17 et 21) soutient et explique cet état de fait dans ces lignes : deux raisons essentielles m’ont décidé à prendre les armes le 19 septembre 2002 pour appeler au retour de la démocratie dans mon pays.la première remonte aux calamiteuses élections présidentielles d’octobre 2000 en côte d’ivoire. ces élections n’ont pas été légitimement remportées par lurent gbagbo, l’actuel occupant du fauteuil présidentiel (…). ce qu’on appelle l’ivoirité n’a été inventé que pour empêcher cet homme dérangeant de se présenter. mais par ricochet, les bazookas du discours anti-ouattara se sont retournés contre l’ensemble des ivoiriens originaires du nord du pays. 2 la charte du nord intitulée « le grand nord en marche » est accueillie avec enthousiasme dans leur grande partie par les populations du nord. elle est diffusée dans toutes les localités de cette partie de la côte d’ivoire sous forme de tract et d’extraits dans des journaux de la place qui leur sont proches. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 c’est vrai que ces raisons évoquées par soro guillaume et les considérations d’exclusion soutenues par la charte du nord ont largement contribué à l’intrusion des dozo sur la scène politique en côte d’ivoire. mais il convient de souligner que d’autres raisons sont à l’origine de l’immixtion des dozo dans les affaires politiques du pays du côté des forces rebelles. a croire aux témoignages de coulibaly fousseni, les supplétifs-mercenaires dozo n’avaient jamais été intéressés par la politique. ce sont leurs frères ressortissants du nord qui les ont mobilisés massivement pour chasser gbagbo laurent du pouvoir, parce que dans les pays voisins, comme au mali, en guinée et en sierra leone, les dozo ont amélioré leurs conditions en prenant les armes pour chasser des présidents du pouvoir. pour nous les dozo, la cherté de la vie et les conditions misérables dans lesquelles nous vivons par rapport aux autres franges de la population, la prise des armes dans les affaires politiques est un moyen sûr pour améliorer leur situation de vie grâce au butin de guerre amassé pendant la rébellion3. ces chasseurs traditionnels, désormais acquis à la cause du candidat alassane seront recrutés en masse pour préparer l’offensive militaire contre le pouvoir de laurent gbagbo, dans la nuit du 18 au 19 septembre 2002. 2. le recrutement des mercenaires-dozo la recrudescence des opérations mercenaires et le développement de la privatisation de la guerre justifient l’élaboration d’un état des lieux de l’emploi du mercenariat (cdrpc, 2001, p.3).la côte d’ivoire au cours de ces dernières décennies, dans l’histoire desa vie sociopolitique n’est pas en marge de l’emploi des supplétifs militaires qualifiés de mercenaires. en effet, des acteurs de la scène politique opposés à la gestion du pouvoir par l’exécutif en exercice, ont recruté en nombre important, des chasseurs traditionnels dozo, sous la bannière ethnique, religieuse et identitaire. mais comment se faisait le recrutement des dozo au sein de la confrérie ? qui était chargé de leur recrutement ? telles sont les questions essentielles qui guideront notre analyse à ce niveau de notre travail. en réponse à ces questions,draman ouattara explique que le recrutement était l’affaire de l’état-major de la rébellion. cet état-major était composé de militaires déserteurs originaires du nord du pays et anciennement engagés dans l’armée nationale, dans la majorité des cas. les plus actifs dans notre recrutement, nous les dozoétaientwattao et koné zakaria 4. ces chefs rebelles, selon les témoignages, parcouraient les villages dozo pour confier cette mission, au niveau local, aux dozoba5. a leur tour, ces dozobase chargeaient de mobiliser ceux qui allaient servir de mercenaires dans les rangs des forces armées de la rébellion. nos 3 entretien du 10 juillet 2021, 10h 45-11h 20 à korhogo 4 entretien du 10 juillet 2021, 16h25-17h40, kolia 5 la confrérie des dozo est socialement hiérarchisée mais homogène. elle est divisée en trois couches sociales avec à la tête, les anciens, les vieux dozo qui sont les dépositaires des pouvoirs mystiques et de la tradition. agés de 50 ans et plus, ils sont au premier rang de l’initiation des jeunes candidats au dozoya. les jeunes adultes sont au niveau intermédiaire. ils ont entre 25 et 50 ans révolus. initiés au métier de la chasse traditionnelle et de la guerre, ils constituent la classe guerrière de la confrérie. ils sont chargés d’assurer la sécurité et la protection et la libre circulation des biens et des personnes au sein de la confrérie. au bas de l’échelle, nous avons les pousse. c’est la classe des adolescents âgés de 18 à 25 ans au maximum. ils sont candidats au dozoya ou nouvellement initiés qui ont la charge de conduire les bétails et de préparer le sol pour les activités agricoles. c’est la masse productrice des biens de consommation en dehors du butin de chasse. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 témoignages évoquent que le nombre des mercenaires dozo recrutés variait d’un village à un autre et pouvait atteindre parfois deux cent ou trois cent selon les localités. la sélection de ces combattants obéissait à des critères bien définis et connus de tous au sein de la confrérie. il s ’agit des critères d’âge, de bravoure, de loyauté et de confiance, tout reposant sur l’initiation originelle au dozoya. toutefois, dans les zones assiégées du centre, nord et ouest et même dans certaines localités sous gouvernementales, des individus enrôlés de force par les chefs rebelles ou ayant pris volontairement la décision d’adhérer à la confrérie, dans un contexte conflictuel au sommet de l’etat, ont été initiés au dozoya et ont intégré les forces armées rebelles (datro, 2017). ayantintégré les forces armées rebelles par la force ou par la volonté individuelle, pour des raisons diverses, les dozo ont subi une formation particulière. 3. la formation des mercenaires la formation des combattants est une étape importante dans la marche vers la prise du pouvoir par les armes, en ce sens que les enseignements étaient bien définis et les messages bien choisis de nature à les préparer militairement contre les forces loyalistes et contre toutes formes de résistances des populations des localités visitées. la formation s’est déroulée tant au niveau local qu’au burkina faso, qui a servi de base arrière aux rebelles au cours des hostilités etla déstabilisation du pouvoir en place. la formation s’est déroulée en deux étapes : la formation mystique et la formation militaire. la formation mystique des combattants dozo relève exclusivement de la compétence des dozoba. en effet, en plus de l’initiation habituelle reçue, ils sont soumis à des rituels spécifiques, pour se protéger des offensives adverses et pour renforcer certains pouvoirs, notamment celui d’ubiquité. la formation pouvait durer, selon les cas, un mois ou un peu plus. a l’issue de cette première étape de formation qui se déroulait sur le territoire ivoirien, dans les localités du nord, zone d’habitation par excellence des dozo, les futurs combattants étaient convoyés par centaines dans les camps de formation, aux frontières ivoiro-burkinabè, créés pour la cause. on leur apprenait les premiers rudiments des techniques de combat (moderne), le maniement des armes sophistiquées et la discipline au côté de leurs frères d’armes avec qui ils devraient former l’armée des forces rebelles, une fois la formation achevée. l’etat-major commis à la formation militaire était composé d’anciens militaires ivoiriens à la retraite originaires du nord du pays et des déserteurs qui avaient pris fait et cause pour leurleader et candidat alassane ouattara et pour son parti politique, le rdr. les propos de drame daouda sidiki6 en disent clairement : nous avons reçu deux types de formation, la première étape de formation était typiquement mystique. il a été question de renforcer nos pouvoirs mystiques parce qu’on devrait combattre dans des localités que nous ne connaissions pas. nos frères militaires en activité ou non nous ont apporté un soutien important dans notre formation. ils se sont chargés de nous donner les bases essentielles, dans une courte durée, les techniques de combat moderne. avec nos pouvoirs mystiques connus de tous et notre statut de chasseurs traditionnels et guerriers qui font de nous des individus craints et vénérés par les autres, nous étions prêts 6 entretien du 29 juin 2021, 16h21-18h10 à bouaké ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 pour la mission qui devrait nous être confiée par notre étatmajor, une fois sur le terrain des opérations. a l’issue de leur formation et mis dans les conditions optimales de guerre contre le gouvernement en exercice, les combattants dozovont se faire remarquer de façon violente sur le terrain des opérations. ii. les actes d’incivisme des dozo en cote d’ivoire entre 2002 et 2015 dans leur offensive militaire contre le gouvernement d’abidjan, les combattants dozoont posé d’énormes actes d’incivisme contre les populations et contre l’autorité de l’etat, à plusieurs égards. 1. la désacralisation et la défiance de l’autorité des chefs coutumiers des zones assiégées la feuille de route des forces rebelles était bien définie et expliquée par l’état-major de la rébellion et connue des rebelles, avant les hostilités de septembre 2002. dans leur mission, les forces armées des forces nouvelles (fafn) dont faisaient partie les dozo recrutés et formés, avaient pour mission essentielle de soumettre tous les villages, hameaux et villes du pays dans leur majorité acquis à la cause du président laurent gbagbo, pour créer un climat de panique générale et de désespoir, afin de les mettre en situation de déroute et les soumettre aux sons des armes. ainsi, dans leurs offensives militaires, les dozo, au vu de leurs pouvoirs mystiques originels connus de tous et donc capables de faire blocage à tous les obstacles aussi mystiques dressés sur leur chemin par les populations des zones à assiéger,étaient au premier plan de la destruction des lieuxde rituels sacrés (grottes, eaux, arbres, pierres, etc.) des villages attaqués. en procédant ainsi, ces chasseurs traditionnelsmercenaires cherchaient à maitriser la situation et à créer aussi facilement que possible les conditions de progression et d’occupation du territoire national de la branche militaire de la coalition des forcesmilitaires étrangères qui les soutenaient dans leurs actions (guyon,2015).les populations prises de panique et désarçonnées par l’arsenal militaire des dozo et leurs tenues vestimentaires dissuasives sur lesquelles étaient gravés des ornements de tout genre (cauris, ergots de coqs, queues et peaux séchées d’animaux, amulettes, sifflets)ne pouvaient que fuir leurs villages laissant derrière eux leurs lieux de cultes et d’adoration entre les mains des dozo qui n’ont aucunement eu des difficultés pour les détruire ou emporter certains objets sacrés avec eux. aussi, dès leur entrée fracassante dans les villages, ils faisaient arrêter et prisonniers, dans des conditions humiliantes, les autorités coutumières qui n’avaient pas eu le temps de fuir le village avant leur arrivée. mondankangnonsonpan michel7 martèle à ce titre que : les dozo ont trouvé le village de guitrozon déjà meurtri et affaibli. les populations ont fui le village sans protection et ont envahi les forêts, pour préserver leurs vies. ceux qui n’ont pas eu la chance de fuir avant leur arrivée etnous, responsables de jeunesse et les chefs des villages qui n’avons pas voulu abandonner nos populations, par devoir moral, sont restés sur place.nombreux parmi nous ont été assassinés ou faits prisonniers dans les camps de concentration à man ou à 7 entretien du 17 mai 2021, 09h20-10h31 à guitrozon ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 duékoué, dans des conditions inhumaines qui bafouent notre dignité. dans le même ordre d’idée, la déclaration de gnabrognagbo jules8, chef du village en second de gnagbodougnoa est révélatrice et confirme notre argumentation : avec la présence des dozo dans nos villages, les militaires rebelles d’alassane ouattara, nous n’avons plus droit à la parole parce qu’ils ont pris le pouvoir en côte d’ivoire. non seulement ils ont détruit nos forêts sacrées, mais ils géraient les villages comme leur bon vouloir au dépend des chefs que nous sommes. l’appareil judiciaire traditionnel du village et la prise de décisions face à une situation donnée étaient l’affaire des chefs rebelles dozo qui ont érigé des barrages ou corridors militaires aux entrées et sorties de nos villages. les actes d’incivisme notoires des dozo se traduisaient aussi par le fait qu’ils se constituaient enforces de défense et de sécurité de l’armée régulière (fds) dans leurs actions de soutien militaire au mouvement politique de leur leader. 2. les dozo, substituts des forces armées régulières comme il est transcrit dans la constitution qui régule la vie des etats à travers le monde, la mission régalienne d’une armée nationale, c’est d’assurer la défense de l’intégrité territoriale, d’assurer la protection et la libre circulationdes biens et des personnes. en outre, l’armée nationale contribue au processus de développement socio-économique des etats qui se veulent sérieux. en conséquence, aucune institution ou un groupement de soldats (militaires) illégalement constitué, dans un contexte conflictuel au sommet de l’etat, ne peut prétendre jouer ce rôle régalien. malheureusement, la côte d’ivoire, dès le déclenchement de la rébellion en 2002 s’est retrouvée dans une situation déplorable du point de la sécurité intérieure. les militaires qui combattaient dans les rangs des rebelles avant même leur intégration dans l’armée nationale ivoirienne au lendemain de la signature de l’accord de ouagadougou, en 2007, se faisaient passer pour des militaires réguliers et avec cette posture illégale posaient des actes qui défient l’autorité militaire ou même les reléguaient au second plan, dans les zones placées sous leur contrôle. l’administration militaire ayant été contrainte de fuir les villes ou ses postes pour sa sécurité aux sons des kalachnikovs et des armes lourdes était systématiquement remplacée par celle des rebelles. dans les commissariats de police nationale, dans les brigades de la gendarmerie, mieux dans les casernes, l’armée des rebelles dont les dozo étaient en amont et en aval du fonctionnement des services administratifs. ils détenaient l’appareil judiciaire dans les commissariats des zones assiégées à leur bon vouloir, sans en être inquiétés. sans aucune procédure judiciaire au préalable, pourvu que l’affaire leursoit transmise, lesdozo, se donnaient les moyens à tort ou à raison de condamner les présumés coupables des délits qui leur sont reprochés. les témoignages de kapézahui edouard et de lobrégnongazoa jules sont édifiants et irréfutables9. 8entretien du 10 août 2021, 12h32-14h00 à gnagbodougnoa 9 entretiens des 14 juin 2021, 10h41-12h00 et 14 juin 2021,15h21-16h08 14 juin 2021, 15h2116h08 à abidjan ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 des militaires rebelles et les dozo surtout étaient devenus des maitres des lieux qui contrôlaient tout. ils occupaient les commissariats et les corridors aux entrées et sorties des villes, au cours des voyages, des barrages payants étaient érigés sur les tronçons. même dans les cars et autres moyens de transport, la scène était identique. 3. les dozo, auteurs de viols, crimes économiques et humanitaires dans leur marche militaire pour l’installation de leur leader, alassane ouattara dans le fauteuil présidentiel, les dozo ont commis plusieurs actes qualifiés d’actes de viols, de crimes économiques et humanitaires. les institutions de l’etat ayant été mises sous l’éteignoir dans la plupart des cas, les populations étaient désormais à la merci des rebelles dozo qui écrasaient tout sur leur passage dans une impunité indescriptible. selon (amnesty international, 2012), l’ouest montagneux ivoirien porte le lourd fardeau de la crise sociopolitique ivoirienne. des femmes, par plusieurs dizaines, dans les villages, livrées à elles-mêmes, ont subi des actes de viols sexuels par les rebelles sous l’effet des stimulants et drogue qui leur ont été administrés. il est difficile d’établir, avec exactitude, le nombre de femmes violées sexuellement par les dozo dans les villages. toutefois, il convient de retenir, avec certitude, que des victimes, de tout âge (jeunes filles, femmes adultes et de troisième âge) se comptaient par dizaine dans les villages. particulièrement les témoignages font état de ce que dans la localité de guéhombli, dans la seule journée du 30 septembre 2002, onze femmes ont été sexuellement abusées par les rebelles dans leurs camps de concentration qu’ils ont créés dès la prise de l’ouest ivoirien. au niveau économique, les rebelles dont les dozoprélevaient les impôts, rançonnaient les populations rurales et assuraient le convoi des produits agricoles (café, cacao, hévéa, anacarde, huile de palme, etc.) vers les pays voisins, comme le mali, le burkina faso et la guinée. gnonsoakapieu irène10 explique clairement ceci : nous avons tout perdu, nous les femmes dans nos villages. nos produits agricoles ont été détruits, brûlés ou emportés par les rebelles. les greniers et les magasins de stockage de nos produits agricoles ont été brûlés. même les bétails de nos maris ont été emportés par eux. nous sommes restés sans vivres dans les villages. leurs actes ont été des actes gravement méchants. au-delà de la région de l’ouest, tout le pays a subi les affres de la crise sociopolitique au niveau économique. la partition du pays, par exemple, avec le nord sous contrôle rebelle et le sud, la zone gouvernementale a causé d’énormes préjudices économiques. les impôts et diverses taxes étaient prélevés et gérés par l’administration de la rébellion dans le nord sous le regard impuissant du gouvernement dans le sud. nombreux sont les dozo qui ont tiré de gros bénéfices économiques de cette situation. dans les villages, les populations étaient rançonnées et leurs plantations et terres étaient confisquées ou mise en valeur de force par les dozo. au surplus, à l’apparition des dozolourdement armés dans les villages, les populations déjà affaiblies, paniquées et traumatisées psychologiquement et moralement par les détonations des armes lourdes et les vrombissements des chars de combat fuyaient, par masse, vers les centres d’accueil des déplacés, dans les forêts ou vers les pays voisins, laissant derrière elles 10 entretien du 18 mai 2021, 14h25-16h00 à guitrozon ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 leurs biens. les centres d’accueil étaient bondés de monde et étaient militairement occupés par les rebelles dozo qui les traquaient jusqu’à leur dernier retranchement. tous ces actes d’incivisme, particulièrement des dozo, ne pouvaient que fragiliser les acquis en termes de sécurité intérieure, de dialogue politique et du processus de la réconciliation nationale. iii.l’intrusion et l’incivisme des dozo dans le jeu politique : une menace a la securite interieure, la cohesion sociale etla reconciliation natioale la présence des dozo sur la scène politique et les actes d’incivisme dont ils sont auteurs ont obstrué le chemin de la sécurité intérieure, du dialogue politique, de la cohésion sociale et de la réconciliation nationale. 1. la menace de la sécurité intérieure la première victime d’un conflit sociopolitique et militaire dans un pays, c’est bien la sécurité nationale.la désagrégation de la sécurité nationale se justifie par la prolifération des armes légères et la montée du phénomène des coupeurs de route sur l’ensemble du territoire national. a cela, faut-il ajouter la recrudescence de la violence et la montée du phénomène des enfants-soldats. en effet, très actifs dans leur soutien militaire aux forces armées des forces nouvelles (fafn) pour la conquête du pouvoir d’etat d’alassane ouattara et sa consolidation, les dozoont dû user de leurs pouvoirs mystiques et de la formation militaire acquise pour jour pleinement leurs rôles et pour conduire avec efficacité la feuille de route qui leur était assignée, sur le terrain. cette stratégie militaire a consisté à recruter de force, des enfantssoldats des zones assiégées qu’ils ont intégrés aussitôt au sein des fafn, pour augmenter leurs effectifs militaires (bailly, 2016). la sécurité publique était aussi menacée par la prolifération et la circulation des armes légères dans la quasi-totalité des régions du pays. certains parmi les enfants-soldats recrutés de force par les dozo qui n’ont pas été démobilisés et réinsérés dans le tissu socioprofessionnel en côte d’ivoire ont gardé leurs armes avec lesquelles ils opéraient nuitamment sur les routes. la côte d’ivoire fait d’ailleurs partie des pays ouest-africains où la circulation et la prolifération des armes légères en période post-crise (berhezan, 2013). tous ces facteurs sont de nature à confisquer la libre circulation des biens et des personnes dans le pays. 2. les dangers du dialogue politique post-conflit le recrutement et l’incivisme des dozo sur la scène politique en côte d’ivoire a jeté un discrédit sur la question de l’existence d’un groupe paramilitaire illégalement formé dans un etat de droit.leur présence dans le jeu politique est le symbole de la légitimation des armes en lieu et place du dialogue politique autour duquel devrait logiquement, au nom de la démocratie, du respect des lois fondamentales et de l’alternance politique, se construire le débat politique entre les acteurs. ces forces paramilitaires dozo qui constituent un réservoir potentiel pour le pouvoir en place sont régulièrement mis en mission par celui-ci pour faire régner la force là où il y a des poches d’opposition en gestation ou en reconstruction (varlène, 2012). il n’en demeure pas moins avec leur insertion dans le tissu socioprofessionnelau plus haut niveau de l’appareil administratif militaire de l’etat. dans un tel contexte, le dialogue politique entre les acteurs principaux de la vie politique nationale devient un leurre ; chacun étant campé sur sa position, entrainant avec eux, dans leur position figée, leurs militants et sympathisants prêts à découdre avec la famille politique adverse. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 3. la menace de la cohésion sociale et de la réconciliation nationale post-conflit la cohésion sociale et la réconciliation nationale sont des valeurs importantes et à consolider dans la vie d’un etat en proie à des crises sociopolitiques et militaires mais qui cherche à se reconstruire à tous égards, comme la côte d’ivoire. ces valeurs constituent le socle de l’unité nationale entre les populations peu importeleurs appartenances régionales, religieuses, professionnelles et politiques. malheureusement, à cause de l’impunité et la promotion dont bénéficiaient les dozo, le fossé de la fracture sociale s’est agrandi. les efforts déployés pour créer les conditions de la réconciliation nationale battent de l’aile parce que les milices-dozo continuent jusqu’à présent de ne pas être inquiétés par la justice. mais mieux, ils constituent encore un réservoir militaire potentiel prêt à toutes éventualités pour le compte du président alassane ouattara, en l’entame de son second mandat présidentiel, en 2015. or, la cohésion sociale et la réconciliation nationale exigent des acteurs de la vie politique ivoirienne le divorce d’avec le recours permanent aux milices dozo ou autres groupements paramilitaires pour la conquête du pouvoir d’etat, parce que la politique ne relève pas du domaine d’existence de la confrérie. nombreux parmi ces chasseursmilices qui n’ont pas été intégré dans l’armée nationale ou qui n’ont pas bénéficié d’un traitement particulier favorable de la part du gouvernement en exercice ne tardent pas à réclamer violemment, à coups de fusils, par la prise des actes de violence, leur dû pour service rendu à la rébellion. a drame daouda sidiki d’expliquer les raisons de l’échec de la réconciliation nationale et de la cohésion sociale, entre 2002 et 2015, lorsqu’il dit ceci : le président alassane ouattara devrait d’abord se réconcilier avec nous les dozo qu’il a laissés dans la misère. nous qui l’avons porté au pouvoir au prix de notre sang, nous sommes oubliés. qu’est-ce qu’ont fait de si spécial ceux à qui il a donné du travail ou de l’argent après la crise par rapport à nous ? mais notre silence devrait l’interpeler et l’amener à comprendre qu’il y a une partie des dozo qui l’ont porté au pouvoir n’est pas contente11. au regard de ce qui précède, nous sommes à mesure de dire que la sécurité publique, le dialogue politique, la cohésion sociale et le processus de la réconciliation sont menacés et le spectre de l’instabilité politique plane encore sur le pays. conclusion la rébellion militaire a plongé la côte d’ivoire dans un état chaotique, entre 2002 et 2015. recrutés par leur état-major, par plusieurs centaines, au sein des forces armées et des forces nouvelles, en vue d’apporter un soutien militaire au mouvement politique de leur mentor, alassane ouattara, le groupement paramilitaire dozo, des chasseurs traditionnels d’origine mandé-bambara et malinké ont fait irruption dans les affaires politiques du pays. leurs agissements peu cordiaux et violents sur le théâtre des opérations ont négativement affecté la vie du pays à tous égards. des efforts déployés de part et d’autre par les acteurs de la scène politique pour la restauration de la sécurité intérieure, le dialogue politique inclusif, la cohésion sociale et la réconciliation nationale éprouvent d’énormes difficultés dans leur exécution. les milices-dozo, non seulement, sont intégrés dans l’appareil 11 entretien du 29 juin 2021, 16h21-18h10 à bouaké ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 militaire administratif au plus haut niveau, mais,certains parmi eux constituent malheureusement encore des forces potentielles non démantelées qui menacent l’assainissement du débat politique national et la vie du pays. sources et bibliographie indicatives 1. sources orales n° nom et prénoms age fonction/statut thèmes traités dates, heures et lieux des entretiens 1 anonyme ancien ministre ivoirien de 2000 à 2002 et l’impact de la rébellion et de la présence des dozo dans le jeu politique ivoirien sur le processus de la réconciliation nationale 14 août 2021, 11h21-12h00, abidjan 2 coulibaly fousséni 75 ans dozoba (vieux dozo) membre du bureau de l’association des dozo de korhogo recrutement, formation des dozo pour l’armée de la rébellion et leurs actions sur le terrain 10 juillet 2021, 10h 45-11h 20, korhogo 3 draman ouattara 73 ans dozoba (vieux dozo) membre du collège des anciens chargés de l’initiation des dozo de kolia rituels initiatiques au dozoya les devoirs et obligations du dozo dans la société 10 juillet 2021, 16h25-17h40, kolia 4 drame daouda sidiki 45 ans dozo, excombattant démobilisé, membre de la cellule 39 de bouaké les raisons du recrutement des dozo au sein de l’armée de la rébellion le traitement des dozo post-conflit 29 juin 2021, 16h21-18h10, bouaké 5 kapézahui edouard 58 ans adjudant de la gendarmerie les rapports entre les forces de défense et de sécurité et les mercenaires dozo au cours des patrouilles mixtes 14 juin 2021, 10h41-12h00, abidjan 6 lobrégnongazoa jules 70 ans militaire à la retraite les dangers de l’intrusion des mercenaires dozo sur la scène politique ivoirienne 14 juin 2021, 15h21-16h08, abidjan 7 maméri diomandé issa 65 ans membre du conseil des les rapports chefferies traditionnelles/ 18 mai 2021, 10h21ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 notables de kpanpleu mercenaires dozo dans les zones assiégées 12h14,kpanpleu (danané) 8 mondankangnons onpan michel 41 ans président des jeunes de guitrozon la présence des dozoà guitrozonet son impactsur les populations locales 17 mai 2021, 09h20 10h31, guitrozon 9 gnabrognagbo jules 74 ans chef du village adjoint de gnagbodougnoa les rapports chefferie traditionnelle/mercenai res dozo dans la gestion des affaires du village 10 août 2021, 12h32-14h00, gnagbodougnoa 10 gnonsoakapieu irène 60 ans d présidente de e la coopérative agricole des femmes de guitrozon les actes de violence et leurs inconvénients sur les populations de guitrozon et des villages environnants 18 mai 2021, 14h25-16h00, guitrozon 2. bibliographie agnieska (kadzierska-manzon), 2014, chasseurs mandinggues, violence, pouvoir et religion en afrique de l’ouest, paris, karthala,123p. amnesty international, 2012,côte d’ivoire, la loi des vainqueurs, rapport d’enquêtes : 28 février 2013, france, harmattan, 45 p. bailly ferdinand, 2016, « coalition onuci-commando invisible”, in le temps, n°3886,p.5. berhezan georges, 2013, « côte d’ivoire et mali au cœur des trafics d’armes en afrique de l’ouest », in rapports du grip, bruxelles, grip, 41p. boa thiémélé ramsès, l’ivoirité et l’unité de la côte d’ivoire, 2015, abidjan, les 2ditions cerap, 186p. cdrpc, « le boom du mercenariat : défi ou fatalité ? » in actes de colloque du 30 novembre 2000, 2001, lyon, montaine de choulans, pp3-10 et 56-68 datrookobé noël et al, « les chasseurs-miliciens dans les guerres en afrique : etude comparée des kamajors de sierra leone et des dozo de côte d’ivoire (1991-2011) », in revue ivoirienne d’histoire, educi, n°31, 2018, p.40-53 guynonmarie-miran,2015, guerres mystiques en côte d’ivoire 2002-2013, religions, patriotisme, violences,paris, karthala, 369p. helleweg joseph,2012, « la chasse à l’instabilité : les dozos, l’etat et la tentation de l’extralégalité en côte d’ivoire », in migrations, sociétés, migrations ouest-africaines en côte d’ivoire,vol 24, n° 144, usa, union de la presse de chicago,234p. human rights watch, 2013, les effets matériels de la crise postélectorale de 2011 en côte d’ivoire » in rapports d’enquêtes, paris, 25p. varlène i, 2012, abobo la guerre, la côte d’ivoire : terrain de l’enjeu de la france et l’occident, france, editions mille et nuit. soro guillaume, 2005, pourquoi je suis devenu un rebelle, la côte d’ivoire au bord du gouffre, france, hachette, 175p. xavier renou et al, la privatisation de la violence, mercenaires et sociétés militaires privées au service du marché, 2005, presse du groupe horizon, france, 490p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 youssouf tata cissé, 1994, la confrérie de chasseurs malinké et bambara :mythes, rites et récits initiatiques, ivry, editions nouvelles du sud, 234p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 youth unemployment and rural crime in nigeria emeka, josephat o., ojong, felix e. agba a.m ogaboh. &asongo tersoo university of calabar, p.m.b. 1115, calabar, cross river state, nigeria abstract this study examinedthe effect of youth unemployment on rural crime in obanlinku local government area of cross river state. specially, the study examined the relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime, seasonal unemployment and drug abuse, and frictional unemployment and armed robbery. the study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design and structured questionnaire as instrument of data collection. the population and sample size for the study was three hundred and ninety seven (397) youths, farmers, and security personnel’s in obanlinku local government area.data collected was statistically analyzed using pearson product moment correlation. all the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. the findings of the study revealed that, there is positive and high correlation between structural unemployment and burglary crime, seasonal unemployment and drug abuse, and frictional unemployment and armed robbery in obanlinku local government area. it was recommended based on the findings that government should intensify efforts to create more vocational skills acquisition centres across the country especially in rural areas to enable our young men and women to acquire skills for them to be self-employed and also employ others. skills acquisition is a strong instrument for empowerment of youth in areas like tailoring, carpentry, automobile mechanic, ict, metal work as to avert youth seasonal unemployment. keywords: effect, youth unemployment, rural crime ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 introduction youth unemployment is the situations of young people are looking for a job butcannot find a job. the united nation (2012) defined youth unemployment with the age range of 15-24 years old, and in nigeria, the economically active or working age of people is 15-64 years of age. youth unemployment is a social problem; this is because it is undesirable to the society and also the inherent nature of youth unemployment has posed a threat to society as a whole, and to the individuals who live in that society (otu, eja, eko, & josephat, 2011;angioha, nwagboso, ironbar, &ishie, 2018; owan, ayuk, tiku, & nwankwo, 2019). the types of youthunemployment commonly found in urban and rural society especially in nigeria include, structural, frictional, and seasonal. one of the common characteristics of structural unemployment for instance, is when the skills set of a worker does not match the skills demanded by the jobs available, or alternatively when workers are available but are unable to reach the geographical location of the jobs. the seasonal unemploymenton the other hand, comes and goes with the seasons of the year that dictates the demand of certain jobs, and this is commonly found in the rural setting becausethe demand for agricultural labour increases during the rainy season planting, cultivation and harvesting, and in addition, road construction is always out of place in the rainy season, albeit it depends on the terrain of the areas. therefore, some workers are relieved of their work during the prevailing season. the persistent and growing youth unemployment is peculiarnot only in nigeria, butglobally estimates indicates thatout of 148 countries, unemployment was highest in the middle east and north africa (22 %), sub-saharan africa (17 %) and lowest in asia (5 %). seventeen percent of the world’s workforce was underemployed in 2011, a slight decline from 18 % in 2010. as with unemployment, underemployment rates are highest in sub-saharan africa (32 %) and the middle east and north africa (also 32 %), and lowest in asia (13%) (odey& owan, 2014; agba, agba, & chukwurah, 2020;ingwe, ikeji, & ojong, 2010; angioha, nwagboso, ironbar, &ishie, 2018). countries and territories such as south africa, botswana, swaziland, iran, iraq, and the palestinian occupied territories have among the highest unemployment rates in the world, largely driving the high unemployment rates in the middle east and north africa and sub-saharan regions (international labour organization, 2014). in nigeria, there is an increase of 23.1% in youth unemployment from 2018 to 33.3% in 2020 generally, and in rural nigeriato be specific, youth unemployment rose to 28.0% in 2020 (national bureau of statistics, 2020).the resultant of this increase of youth unemployment especially in rural areas is because they do not acquired the kind of skills that are frequently demanded in the environment they operators. evidence from the finding of kpakol (2006) revealed that some youth in rural areas are unemployed because their skills have been rendered obsolete by technological changes or because the youth have no skill at all. however, the growing and persistent youth unemployment has negatively impact on the rise political unrest and anti-social behaviour.theincrease of 34.52% of crime from 2016-2020 (world bank, 2019; ojong-ejoh, bassey & angioha, 2021; ojong, agba, njirinze, & angioha, 2021).such as riots and protests in nigeria are the effects of youth unemployment. the lack of productive engagement of young people in wider society, underlined by high levels of unemployment and under-employment, only serves to add to this feeling of disenfranchisement. in nigerian rural communities, persistent effects of youth unemployment aredrug abuse, burglary, and armed robbery. according to barclay, donnermeyer, doyle and talary (2001)unemployment and drug abuse areas the most prevalent social problems related to farm crime in rural areas. this can be also supplemented by the consumption of alcohol, and the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47 possession of weapons and vehicles which can be so-called crime facilitators (felson & boba 2010; pesch & neubacher, 2011; ukwayi, ojong, austin, & emeka, 2012; ayuk, emeka, chibuzo, &omono, 2013, achu, owan, uyang., & francis, 2013; ayuk, owan, ekok,&odinka, 2012). similarly,ajaegbu (2012) observed thatthe accelerating level of prostitution, armed robbery, rape, terrorism and all facets of violence in rural areas can be largely attributed to the incidence of youth unemployment in nigeria. in obanlinku local government area of cross river state, many cases of drug abuse, arm robbery, and burglary are recorded or reported as observed by the study. this is because, most of the employers rely deeply on seasonal jobs, and most workersdo not match the skills demanded by the jobs available.it is therefore from the backdrop that a research on the effect of unemployment on rural crime inobanlinku local government area of cross river is initiated. statement of the problem youth unemployment has been an endemic phenomenon in almost every human society. the problem of rural crime as a result of youth unemployment is a universal one in both developed and developing countries of the world including nigeria. this menace has seriously affected the residents of rural dwellers. obanliku local government area of cross river state also has been experiencing it fair share of rural crime such as armed robbery, drug abuse and burglary caused most especially by youths who are unemployed. these youth have in recent times perpetuated themselves as agents of crime involving in social vices such as cultism, armed robbery, drug peddlers and abuse with its consequences on the obanliku residents. despite several measures employed by the government by providing youth development and empowerment programmes such as national directorate of unemployment (nde), subsidy reinvestment and empowerment progamme (sure-p), n-power, and national youth policy which are focus on the wholesome development of young people and to active participation in various sectors of nation building.however,with these programmes and policies, youth unemployment remains a major defy to the developmental process of nigerian economy. and the prevalence of this raising unemployment wave has been attributed to a lot of factors. anyanwu and duru (2010) in their study observed that the average graduate in nigeria is unemployable and by implication lacks the skills required for employment in the formal sector by the employers of labour.the findings of ugal, nwagbrara and ugang (2011) and angioha, nwagboso, ironbar, and ishie, (2018). revealed that the phenomenon of youth unemployment has continued in nigeria in the face of unfulfilled political promises of job creation by successive governments. other research studies conducted on youth unemployment include those of galadima, selvadurai and awang (2019) who were on the views that abandonment of agricultural activities as a result of oil in nigeria that yield abundant revenue but oil sector was very inadequate to provide employment opportunities to nigeria unemployed youth. the effect of this youth unemployment on rural crime is severe especially as there is total unrest and restiveness in areas where these crimes are perpetrated. sometimes, life and property worth millions are lost at the instance of these rural crimes. although, little has not been investigated, andit is therefore in recognition of this fact that a study on the effect of youth unemployment on ruralcrime in obanlinku local government area of cross river state is lure in the gap. research questions ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 the general question of this study is to what extent the effect of unemployment on rural crime in obanlinku local government area of cross river state. specifically, the following research questions served as guide for the study. 1. does structural unemployment lead to burglary crime among youths in obanlinku local government area? 2. is there any relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse in obanlinku local government area? 3. does frictional unemployment prompt armed robbery and youth in obanlinku local government area? research hypothesis i. there is no significant relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime ii. there is no significant relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse iii. there is no significant relationship between frictional unemployment and armed robbery literature review the united nations define youth as the age group between 15 and 24. variation in the definitions of individual countries’ official statistics makes cross-country comparisons difficult (international labour organization,2011). in some analyses, the youth are further divided into teenagers (15–19 years old) and young adults (20–24 years old). gorlich, stepanok and alhussami (2013) argued that the unemployment numbers for these two groups and the challenges they face vary significantly and would thus call for separate approaches for alleviating unemployment. an individual is typically considered unemployed when he or she has not worked for a specific period of time but would like to and is, hence, actively searching for work. yet, the definition of unemployment can also vary from country to country. gorlich, stepanok and alhussami (2013) postulated that, in some countries, students who are actively looking for a job is counted as part of the work force while, in others, they are not. the number of inactive youth, that is, those not actively searching for work and not being in the labour force or in education can also exhibit quite a variation across countries. such data of the non-employed, which comprises of both unemployed and inactive individuals, can be more meaningful as it gives a clearer idea of the real magnitude of the problem. it is, however, less viable due to differences in definitions and problems with the availability. there are a number of causes of youth unemployment on many of which there is a fairamount of consensus.the findings of coenjaerts, ernst, fortuny, rei and pigrim(2009) revealed the mismatch between the demand and supply of skills possessed by young workers has been mentioned to contribute to higher youth unemployment rates. similarly, manacorda and petrongolo (1999) exposed that there is a relationship between skills mismatch and total unemployment across oecd countries. the skill mismatch issue is particularly important in the developing world. for example, firm surveys in the mena region by assaf and benhassine(2003)show that entrepreneurs regularly cite the lack of skills as an important constraint to hiring, in some cases suggesting that it outweighs concerns with labour market regulations. skill mismatch, combined with a growing share of youth in the labour force in mena, has created a situation in which too many young people have a hard time finding jobs (assaad &roudi-fahimi 2007;owan, ayuk, tiku, & nwankwo, 2019; osonwa, eja& emeka, 2015). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 49 o’higgins (2007) found that youth unemployment early in life may have persistent negative consequences for thepersons’ subsequent career, as it may impair their productive potential and employmentopportunities. apart from scarring effects, o’higgins (2007); fougère, kramarz, and pouget (2009) discovered that youth unemployment has been found to be associated with drug use and crime. this is particularly severe as youth unemployment is typically concentrated among groups which have additional social problems. crime has been found to hamper development of rural areas in a serious way. gerasimova (2008) notes that corruption alone is a serious obstacle in the development process of developing countries. ceccato (2016) points out that “crime and safety are important dimensions of sustainable rural development”. in other words, persisting crime in rural areas is likely to result in unsustainable development, depriving people of their livelihoods and promoting the outmigration of often younger household members to urban centers. this can have serious implications for foodsecurity in some developing countries: while the availability of workforce in rural areas decreases, and the environment gets deteriorated by criminal acts, more food needs to be produced to feed the urban population. skaperdas, soares, willman and miller (2009) state that violent crime like armed robbery that committed by unemployed youth in rural areas results in high costs on global development, and that it directly reduces economic growth. fafchamps and minten (2004) find for madagascar that crime and insecurity result in a significant reduction in income and access to public infrastructure such as health care centers and schools. indirect costs also occur as psychic cost and loss in work time if people affected by burglary or theft feel suspicious and unsafe at home (barclay et al. 2001; ceccato 2016). furthermore, the findings of grote and neubacher (2016) revealed that in case of property crime, farming households are deprived of their livelihood income if livestock, field crops, or equipment and tools are stolen of their homesteads or fields. a study by alabi (2014) on youth’s unemployment and crime control in nigeria revealed that many social problems such as prostitution, robbery, alcoholism, domestic violence, social, religious and civil unrest and suicide to mention but few, become more severe in times of high unemployment. according to alabi (2014) there is a linkage between unemployment, poverty and crime, when people cannot earn an income from legal, legitimate and social acceptable work/means; they turn to illegal activities.similar study of ugal, nwagbrara and ugang (2011)n in calabar metropolis revealed that many social problems in study area in nature of crime, prostitution, hunger, poverty and general structuralinadequacies are mainly the consequences of unemployment among the youths. persisting crime in rural areas is likely to result in unsustainable development, depriving even more people of their livelihoods and promoting outmigration of often younger household members to urban centers. this can have serious implications for food security in some developing countries: while the availability of workforce in rural areas decreases, and the environment gets deteriorated by criminal acts, more food needs to be produced to feed the urban population. study area the study area is obanliku local government area. the local government area is both an inter-state and international boundary local government area. it is bounded in the north by kwande local government area of benue state, in the east by republic of cameroon, and in the west by obudu local government area. it has an area of 1,057km2and a population of 110,324 at the 2006 census. the people of obanliku local government area are predominantly farmers. agriculture which accounts for about 80% of production is the mainstay economy. the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 50 local government area is blessed with abundant fertile land which is suitable for cultivation of the following cash and crops such as coca, bushmango, yams, kolanut, coffee, rice groundnut, cassava, soya bean, cotton, oil palm, banana, plantain, pineapple amongst others. although, most of these crops are seasonal, andit comes and goes with the seasons of the year that dictates the demand of certain jobs in whichsome of the youths are relieved of their work during the prevailing season, and consequently resorting them (youths) in criminal activities such as drug abuse, burglary and armed robbery. methodology the study adopted a cross-sectionalsurvey research design. the reason for choosing a surveyresearch design is to allow for a broad based input into the effect of youth unemployment on rural crime. it has been pointed out that the survey research design can be used when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of education or social issues (orondho& kombo, 2002).the study was employed quantitative method.the population of the study was youths, farmers, and security personnel’s inobanlinku local government area. obanlinku local government area has a population of 110,324(national population census, 2006). the sampling techniques for this study were purposive and simple random sampling techniques. five (5) council wards in obanliku local government area namely, becheve, bishiri north, basange, busi, and utanga were selected purposively because they most producer of farm crops and most of their agricultural activities are seasonal culminating the youth to unemployed, and the nature and more prone to violence crimebecause of the characteristics of the targeted population of the study. in using simple random sampling which was used to select the youths, farmers, and vigilante members. the study identified five (5) villages in each council ward and wrote the name of the villages and squeezed them; they select three(3) out of five (5), the number of villages were identified at the end of the day form the villages the research work was carried out. four hundred (400) youths, farmers and security personnel’s wereselectedout of the 110,324 populations sample size for the study. this is to ensure a true representation of the entire population of the study. according to wimmer and domincik (2011), we can determine size from a heterogeneous population using taro-yamane’s were: n = n 1 + n (e)2 where, n = sampling size, n = population size, and e = the level of precision (95% and 5% confidence level and tolerable errorsampling respectively). data for the study were collected through questionnaire. out of 400 copies of the questionnaire distributed to the respondents, 397 were returned and found usable showing a response rate of 99.3%. the data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as simple percentages and tables, whereas inferential statistics such as pearson product moment correction was used to test the hypotheses. results this segment of the study focuses on the analysis of data about the research questions that were asked at the early stage of this investigation. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 51 table 1: responses of respondents on the types of youth unemployment in obanlinku local government area. types of youth unemploymentfrequency (f)percentage (%) structural 132 33.2 seasonal 153 38.5 frictional 112 28.3 total 397 100 from the findings, 33.2% (132) respondents viewed structural as a type of youth unemployment, according to them; there are no industries in obanliku local government area, and most importantly, the youth in the area do not have the skills needed for the available jobs.this concurs with the assertion by onwuka (2015) that the structural unemployment occurs when there is mismatch between jobs that are available and the people looking for work. this mismatch between could be because job seekers do not have the skills required to do the available jobs. seasonal unemployment is another type of unemployment as identified by 38.5% (153) respondents, the demand for agricultural labour increases during the rainy seasonplanting, cultivation and harvesting. in addition, road construction is always out of place in the rainy season, albeit it depends on the terrain of the areas. therefore, some workers are relieved of their work during the prevailing season.this corroborates with the findings of danjos and ali (2014) among many others thatthis kind of unemployment is based on the dictate of the season. the frictional unemployment was also identified as a type of youth unemployment by 28.2% (112) represents. the implication of the findings is thatwhen new graduates spend someperiod or time searching for the right job that could orleads themto frictional unemployment.the findings bore semblance to the study of ojo (1998) that frictional unemployment persist as the continuous flow of people from one job to another (in and out of employment). table 2: responses of respondents on the effect of youth unemployment on rural crime in obanliku local government area unemployment effects on rural crime frequency parentages (%) burglary 141 35.5 armed robbery 117 29.5 drug abuse 139 35 total 397 100 from the findings of the respondents, 35.5 % (141) identified burglaryas one of the effect youth unemployment on rural crime in obanlinku local government area. burglary and theft, respectively, affect households not only by loss in property and in work time, but it also creates an indirect psychic cost making people feel suspicious and unsafe at home.the findings has also coincided with the views of grote and neubacher (2016) that most farm crimes which occur in developed countries are property-related and include theft of farm produce (such as fruits and vegetables, maize or wheat, and livestock). armed robbery was also identified as the effect of unemployment rural crime in obanlinku local government area as stated by 29.5% (139) respondents. armed robbery has ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 52 been identified by the residents of obanlinku as violent crime which most often has been resultingto death or permanent disability of the victim. the findings has also coincided with the views of the trent (2014) where an incident involves robbery, victims usually lose their valuables after the attack like the 2014 incident in ogun state where a businesswoman lost n1,803,000 cash, gold worth of n200,000 and wrist watch worth n5,000 and blackberry phone at a total of n2,187,500 to armed robbers.similarly, assassination leads to the elimination of individuals who are usually of immense contribution to their family and indeed society in general. another effect of rural crime among youth unemployment on the people which in turn affects obanlinku local government area as posited by 35% (71) respondents drug abuse. crime has consequences for individuals, groups, corporate bodies and the society. this result is in line with o’higgins (2007) and fougère, kramarz, pouget (2009) that youth unemployment has been found to be associated withdrug use and crime. testing of hypotheses hypothesis ho1: there is no significant relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime variables n mean sd r-value sig structural unemployment 397 15.24 2.63 0.687** .000 burglary crime 397 11.08 2.66 p<.05, df=395, r-crtical=0.113 the table shows that the calculated r-value = 0.687 using 395 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, the critical r-value is 0.113. therefore, since the calculated value of 0.687 is greater than the critical value of 0.113. the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between structural unemployment and burglary is rejected.this implies that there is a positive relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime. hypothesis ho2: there is no significant relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse variables n mean sd r-value sig. seasonal unemployment 397 10.24 4.33 0.773** .000 drug abuse 397 7.28 2.97 p<.05, df=395, r-critical= 0.113 from the analysis of the table, the calculated r-value = 0.773 using 395 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, the critical r-value is 0.113. therefore, since the calculated value of 0.773 is greater than the critical r-value of 0.113. the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse is rejected.this implies that there is a positive relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 53 hypothesis ho3: there is no significant relationship betweenfrictionalunemployment and armed robbery pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between frictional unemployment and armed robbery variables n mean sd r-value sig. frictional unemployment 397 13.43 2.21 0.604 .000 drug abuse 397 14.92 2.37 p<.05, df=395, r-critical= 0.113 from the analysis of the table, the calculated r-value = 0.604 using 395 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, the critical r-value is 0.113. therefore, since the calculated value of 0.604 is greater than the critical r-value of 0.113. the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between frictional unemployment and armed robbery is rejected. this implies that there is a positive relationship between frictional unemployment and armed robbery. discussion of findings the test of the relationship between structural unemployment and burglary crime has shown that there is significant, positive and high correlation between the two variables. this means that the degree of the technological displacement, lack of proper skills in the composition of demand, residency in depressed areas, changes in the structure of wages in relation to the pattern of demand and competition of imports with domestic goods among others. this implies that availability of jobs depend to a great extent on the degree of skills acquired by youths in rural areas which most often are not available. this is in agreement with danjos and ali (2014) who noted that the introduction of technology such as computers has displaced many people in many organizations, especially banks and this has resulted in structural unemployment. this finding is also in accordance to the findings of gange (2016), who maintained that structural unemployment has led many youths in the rural areas to take robbery, kidnapping and hired assassins. the analysis on the relationship between seasonal unemployment and drug abuse showed that there is positive significant relationship between the two variables. this implies that the unemployment is based on the dictate of the season. in essence, it comes and goes with the seasons of the year that dictates the demand of certain jobs. this is similar to the view of unhabitat (2008) who noted that youths who jobs are seasonal are the primary victims of social exclusion through unemployment. this view is equally corroborated by ajaegbu (2012) who survey of children and youth in organized armed violence in nigeria, reported that disenchantment and frustration of young people due to mass unemployment, has increased the number of aggrieved youths and resulted in the emergence of “area boys” and almajiris who target the very society that alienated them. the analysis on the relationship between frictional unemployment and armed robbery showed that there is positive significant relationship between the two variables. frictional unemployment, it is a situation where a person is out of one job and in search of another job.this implies that the changing employment is not particularly easy especially where the level of unemployment is high such as nigeria where the labour market is saturated.this is in line with the finding of bennel (2000) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 54 which disclosed thatrural society is becoming increasingly criminalized, especially with the proliferation of youth gangs. neither homes, nor markets are safe in nigeria because of frequent occurrence of armed robbery incidents. ideyi (2005) similarly revealed that the unemployment problem, which now seems beyond remedy, has produced army of idle hands and some of them have decided to punish the society that fails to provide them with means of livelihood and dignity by robbing its members of their property at gunpoint. conclusion this study has explored the effect of youth unemployment on rural crime in obanlinku local government area of cross river state. considering the findings of the study, the youth unemployment is a major problem. the youth unemployment in obanlinku local government area of cross river state was very important factor for rural crimein spite of political promises of job creation by successive governments. thus, the role of nigeria’sgovernment in the formulation of policies and laws will be of immense benefit to improve theeconomic and social wellbeing of its citizens and deter criminality. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: i. government should intensify efforts to create more vocational skills acquisition centresacross the country especially in rural areas to enable our young men and women to acquire skills for them to beself-employed and also employ others. skills acquisition is a strong instrument forempowerment of youth in areas like tailoring, carpentry, automobile mechanic, ict,metal work as to avert youth seasonal unemployment. ii. government should put more efforts in the area of agriculture to generate employmentopportunities because it has a lot of potentials and if proper investment is made, can goa long way to transform the economy, aside transforming the people engage in it. thus,all the required support for the unemployed to engage in agricultural business should bemade available to them like credit facilities, form inputs at subsidized prices andaccessible land for cultivations. new farming technology should be used to attractyouth into farming because the old methods are not encouraging. iii. government should give more emphasis to entrepreneurial and vocational educationthat is meant to expose our young men and women to self-reliance. therefore, thereview of curricula in our educational institutions is imperative, so as to be in line withthe present demand to empower our youth with skills and make them more employablein the labour market or to be self-reliance. iv. government should give more priority to the provision of infrastructure in the ruralareas such as good roads, electricity, water, schools and small scale industries. this willgo along way to make the youth to reside in the rural areas and resort to farming. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 55 references achu, a., owan, j. e., uyang., & francis, a. (2013). traditional methods of crime control and community security in odukpani local government area of cross river state nigeria. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss, 14(5), 61–66. agba, a. m. o., akpanudoedehe, j. j., ojong, f. e., & agba, m. s. (2021). climate change, adaptation, and global jobs: lessons and urgent policy options for africa. quantitative economics and management studies, 2(3), 163-181. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.qems298 ajaegbu, o.o. (2012). rising youth unemployment and violent crime in nigeria. american journal of social issues and humanities, 2(5):315-325. angioha, p. u., nwagboso, s. n., ironbar, a. e. &ishie, e. u. (2018). underemployment: a sociological and policy analysis of workers well-being in hospitality industry in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), volume 23, issue 6, ver. 5 (june. 2018) pp 57-66. anyanwu, s.o. & duru, i.u. 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(2009). the costs of violence. the world bank,social development department, washington d.c., march. tunji, a. (2014). youth unemployment in nigeria: a situation analysis. retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2014/09/23/youth-unemployment-innigeria-a-situation-analysis/. accessed on 9/3/2020. ugal, g.a., nwagbrara, e.n. &ugang, a. (2011). youth unemployment and its consequences in calabar metropolis: need for government intervention. global journal of social sciences, 10(1&2): & 75-82. ukwayi, j. k., ojong, f. e., austin, e. b. & emeka, j. o. (2012). impact of crime on sustainable tourism in cross river state, nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences, vol.2 no.11 pp.35-44 un-habitat, (2008). crime and violence versus employment opportunities in cities and towns.2nd african ministerial conference on housing and urban development. abuja, nigeria.retrieved from www.unhabitat.org wimmer, r.d. & dominick, j.r. (2011). mass media: an introduction 9th edition. cl publisher,new york. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 58 https://doi.org/10.51709/9951272/spring2021/15-9 https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2014/09/23/youth-unemployment-in-nigeria-a-situation-analysis/ https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2014/09/23/youth-unemployment-in-nigeria-a-situation-analysis/ world bank (2019). nigeria crime rate and statistics 20162021.http://www.macrotrends.net/countries/nga/nigeria/crimerate-statistics>nigeria. accessed on 11/2/2021. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research issn 2805-413x volume 4| issue 07| july | 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 59 http://www.macrotrends.net/countries/nga/nigeria/crimerate-statistics%3enigeria impact of hands-on activities on students’ academic achievement in science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria 1adebisi o. awodun (ph.d) & 2edward o.osuntuyi (ph.d) 1department of science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. 1e-mail: bisawoideas@yahoo.com 2department of industrial technology education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: osunkenny@yahoo.com , phone no: +2349064088155 abstract this study investigated the impact of hands-on activities on students’ academic achievement in science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. the study adopted descriptive survey research method. the target population for the study was all the science subject combinations and technical education students of college of education, ikere ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. a sample of one hundred nce students was selected for the study. the only instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire. 100 copies of the questionnaire were administered on the nce science subjects combination and technical education students. frequency and simple percentage were used to analyse the demographic data of the respondents collected from the questionnaire while the hypotheses were tested using pearson correlation analysis. it was concluded that hands-on activities has strong impact on classroom concentration of science and technical education student of college of education students, hands-on activities influenced and catalysed knowledge retention of science and technical education students, hands-on activities had impact on creativity ability of of science and technical education students, and hands-on activities enhanced and improved problem solving skills of science and technical education students. based of the findings, appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: hands-on, academic achievement, science, technical education ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 mailto:osunkenny@yahoo.com introduction education has made man useful to himself, his generation, his society and the whole existence of mankind. education can be described as an agent of development. it is highly valued by every nations of the world since it initiates total liberation to man. education has transformed the nature of man from being ignorant and expression of unhappiness to great level of knowledge and happiness. through education, individual is able to develop in terms of physical, mental, moral, spiritual and emotional being by providing suitable environment, teaching him new knowledge, attitudes and skills that will enable him to be useful to himself and his society. the implication of this is that education strengthens every learner to be able to move up to the educational ladder and to the zenith of academic attainment through a good foundation of education. education in nigeria is divided into three major level which are primary, secondary and tertiary institution. meanwhile, it is one step before another and the most very vital, essential and foundational base of education is primary school education. the school is an organization where everything: lessons, tasks are planned. moving from the curriculum to the classroom is a structure-process scenario in which it is admissible that nothing is so carefully planned that everything and every moment go exactly according to plan. the unexpected or surprising occurrences should lead to exploration and innovation in spite of earlier plans and improvisations. hands-on activities can be described as a method of instruction in which learners are guided or directed to gain knowledge through experience. this implies that it is kind of teaching and learning process in which the primary school pupils have the opportunity to manipulate the objects they are studying or being used for learning, for instance, plants, water, rulers, shapes among others. the hand-on activities is a process of learning by doing and pupils become active participants in the classroom teaching and learning activities. according to haury & rillero (2015), hands-on activities involves the college of education students in a total learning experience that gives the opportunity to learn base on his or her ability and to make use of his or her ability to think critically. hands-on learning through activities is a form of education in which students learn by doing, instead of simply listening to a teacher or instructor lecture about a given subject. the pupils engages with the subject matter to solve a problem. teaching and learning experiences that take place within the confines of the classroom walls have a range of benefits for both learners and instructors. when students are asked to put into practice in the real world what they are being taught by teacher, the result is a learner-centric learning experience that enhances learning and fosters personal and social development. however, college of education students that engage in learning experiences within the classroom with more of activities based learning are likely have higher levels of motivation to learning, recall what they have learnt more vividly, and have improved academic performance in the class (ryan & deci, 2017). according to hussain & akhtar (2013), creativity and higher order learning may be achieved by the use of hands-on activities which will eventually lead to achieve the aforesaid objectives of college of education. since, college of education is designed to build the foundational education of students towards the advance educational aspiration, there is need for more of hands-on activities teaching process that can stimulate, motivate and enhance pupils’ school readiness for optimizing potential for effective academic performance. barring severe shyness or anxiety, hands-on activities is uniquely positioned to support or elevate any type of learner. everyone has their own specific needs when it comes to their personal learning style. pupils that prefer to listen to their lesson can hear the instructor as they follow along, and those that do well with visuals can watch the instructor, duplicating his or her steps after they are finished. rather than a learning style alone, hands-on learning should be a ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 functional part of every lesson plan, if only to familiarize students with the models and materials they will use later in either secondary school, professional and advance educational progress. especially at the primary level these activities may prove an effective supplement for the teachers. it is obvious therefore, that any teaching strategy that is skilled towards this direction can be seen as an activity-oriented teaching method (hands-on activities). hands-on activities have been proposed as a means to increase students’ academic achievement and understanding of some concepts that could be looking abstract to the pupils through manipulation of objects which may make abstract knowledge more concrete and clearer. through hands-on activities, students are able to engage in real life illustrations and observe the effects of changes in different variables. it offers concrete illustrations of lesson and ideas. this method is learner-centered in nature which gives the primary school pupils the opportunity to see, touch and manipulate objects while learning “do it yourself”. according to adirika (2014), while learners can score high or low in tests, it may be difficult to predict what their skills, knowledge, motivation, and goal outcomes are. it would not be very easy to correctly predict what the learners will know, want to do next, what their goals, dreams and ambitions will be or even where their learning may take them. all education does, to this extent, is to successfully make the behavioural outcomes of students unpredictable. this stance may not go down well with standards of accountability, testing, and measurement advocates who want everything to be predictable, testable and precise. meanwhile, evaluation process is not complete if all learners are expected of to achieve is based on score and not about manipulation skills, skills acquisition, transfer of knowledge which leads to academic performance. beyond simply to better engagement, hands-on activities allows pupils to practice the skills or learned information can attest to, the more practice they get. children by their nature like exploiting their environment and always want to see for themselves what they can receive in terms of learning and knowledge gained. hands-on activities are not a new concept or method of teaching in secondary schools but it is not pronounceable in primary school education system. the researcher was of opinion that many primary school teachers will not want to make use of this teaching approach as they will feel that it is time wasting considering the number of pupils they have to attend to at a time, the age of the pupils and learners’ individual differences. meanwhile, if hands-on activities are adopted as teaching approach among college of education students, the benefits are numerous such include alternative way of learning (changing learning from abstract to concrete), encourages selflearning, make learning real, enhance creativity, and above all leads to improved academic performance of students in school subject. thus, if a beautiful and resources approach like this is not being used among college of education science and technical students, then the pupils would have been denied the access to good level of academic exposure and the capacities to have good academic performance. hence, this study investigated the impact of hands-on activities on science and technical education students’ academic achievement of science and technical education of college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state students. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 research hypotheses these formulated null hypotheses were tested in this study: 1. there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on lecture room concentration of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. 2. there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on knowledge retention of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. 3. there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on creativity ability of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. 4. there is no significant effect of hands-on activities on problem solving skills of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. hands-on activities learning is a pedagogy which enables students experience the processes of knowledge creation and the key attribute is learning stimulated by an enquiry a student centered approach, a more to self-directed learning and an active approach to learning (spronken-smith, 2007). educators play an active role throughout the process by establishing a culture where ideas are respectfully challenged, tested, redefined and viewed as improvable, moving students from a position of wondering to a position of enacted understanding and further questioning (scardamalia, 2002). once students are challenged, they are expected to engage in creating conjecture, analyzing conjecture, communicating, working collaboratively, and engaging in mathematical argument (stonewater, 2005). through the hands-on activities students can achieve relational understanding of scientifically and mathematical concepts since the meaning of ‘knowing’ has shifted from being able to remember and repeat information to being able to find and use it (national research council, 2007). according to crombie (2009), in hands-on activities, the teacher acts as the facilitator of the students learning rather than the provider of information. as well as having an excellent understanding of the content the teacher needs to carefully plan their learning units. this planning will involve the teacher developing an open ended question or devising a topic based on the curriculum for the pupils to determine their own questions. it also involves exploration type activities to activate prior knowledge and also engage the pupils. typically, the lesson will start with an open ended question devised by the teacher, pupil or sometimes both, through the use of carefully planned activities the teacher will encourage the pupils to discuss the question and search for their own answers. proponents of hands-on activities methods suggested that there needs to be some sort of declaration of real world idea and learning experience before any elementary skill sets are committed to memory (thompson, 2006). it is during this process that students gather resources, do their own research and synthesize their information. they then present and share their findings with their peers and will finally need to be given the opportunity to reflect on their learning. through this process pupils build their own knowledge. naturally, every class is different and the approach of the teacher varies according to the ability of the class and the topic to be taught. teachers are able to utilize different levels of hands-on activities. hands-on activities are effective learning experiences. research has evidenced that hands-on approach in science improves understanding of concepts resulting in better achievement score and success in science subject area (hussain & akhtar, 2013). hands-on activities is a process of teaching and learning where instructors engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection to enhance student’ knowledge, skill set and values. hands-on activity allows students to learn through experiencing something and can give them an opportunity to immerse themselves in a learning environment, while putting their acquired skills to use and building new skills. hands-on-learning means learning by doing. this type of learning is best suited for kinesthetic learners, who learn from examples. hands-on activity ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 is another term for experiential learning, where individuals immerse themselves in a subject to learn. primary school pupils learn from partaking in activities rather than passively reading a book or attending a traditional model of learning (daniel, 2020). merriam-webster dictionary (2020) defined hands-on as relating to, being, or providing direct practical experience in the operation or function of something; involving or allowing use of or touching with the hands; characterized by active personal involvement; gained by actually doing something rather than learning about it from books, lectures, etc. hands-on activities can happen in a multitude of ways, with many materials, in a variety of spaces, and through various activities. and students are natural hands-on learners (parkland, 2017). tile (2013) described hands-on activities as a situation whereby a learner uses his/her hands in carrying out activities that could enhance his/her experiences. by implication, concrete activities experiences are activities which involve doing using apparatus or objects. daniel (2021) defined hands-on activities is an educational method that directly involves the learner, by actively encouraging them to do something in order to learn about it. in short, it is hand-on activities is learning by doing. it is clear that there are certain situations in which hands-on activity is the only way to teach something. for example, there is no use trying to teach a child to ride a bicycle in a traditional classroom but such a child need to get outside to try out a bike. many people argued that doing something is the best way to learn about it, rather than attempting to learn about it from a book. no matter how many books pupils read about cycling, they are still sure to fall off the first time they try. hands-on activity is the process of learning by actually doing and experiencing something, rather than just being told about it. the term “hands-on” is used because these activities usually involve the physical use of the hands. for example children might use manipulative such as counting cubes and sorting objects to understand mathematical concepts, rather than just being taught the theory via books or pencil and paper exercises (the apple tree [tat], 2020). hands-on learning is particularly important for young children, as this is how they are programmed to learn. students learn from observing, copying, and experimenting with their hands and body as soon as they are born, and play continues to be the most important way of learning new skills until they reach school age and beyond (tat, 2020). academic achievement represents measures of outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university (steinmayr, meibner, weldinger & wirthwein, 2017). school systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple subject areas (e.g., critical thinking) or include the acquisition of knowledge and understanding in a specific intellectual domain (e.g., numeracy, literacy, science, history). therefore, academic performance should be considered to be a multifaceted construct that comprises different domains of learning. because the field of academic performance is very wide-ranging and covers a broad variety of educational outcomes, the definition of academic achievement depends on the indicators used to measure it. steinmayr et al (2017), averred that among the many criteria that indicate academic performance, there are very general indicators such as procedural and declarative knowledge acquired in an educational system, more curricular-based criteria such as grades or performance on an educational achievement test, and cumulative indicators of academic performance such as educational degrees and certificates. all criteria have in common that they represent intellectual endeavours and thus, more or less, mirror the intellectual capacity of a person. tuckman (2018) defined academic performance as the apparent demonstration of understanding, concepts, skills, ideas and knowledge by a person. it refers to how pupils deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 teachers in a fixed time or academic year (adane, 2013). academic performance is the hallmark and determinant of a pupil’s success and future. it plays an important role in producing the best quality graduates who will become great leaders and manpower for the country; those who would be responsible for the country’s economic and social developments. academic performance defined whether one can take part in higher education, and based on the educational degrees one attains, influences one’s vocational career after education. besides the relevance for an individual, academic performance is of utmost importance for the wealth of a nation and its prosperity. salvation & adzharuddin (2014), while conceding that students’ achievement is a multidimensional construct, opined that it consists of three dimensions: students’ characteristics, teacher/lecturers’ competencies and academic environment. students’ characteristics dimension concerns how pupils deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers. the determinants of this dimension are students’ intelligence, personality and socio-economic status (salvation & adzharuddin, 2014). within the academic context, for example, students’ ability to study and remember facts and being able to communicate their knowledge verbally or down on paper enhances academic performance. hands-on activities provide consistent, positive interactions between teacher and pupils and other pupils and this allows a child to develop a positive, more relevant perception of the world around them and develop the act of concentration in the classroom (hart, 2019). with teachers and pupils engaging in hands-on activities, whole parts of the child’s brain are engaged, which helps develop crucial connections that lead to positive development concentration. anwer (2019) stated that activity-based learning is the baseline for creative and critical thinking skills enhancement. hands-on learning environments allow students to be free to experience learning through the senses and devote their attention towards learning. hart (2019) further stated that children thrive when surrounded by supportive, interactive teaching strategies that focus on their mental and physical development. not only is hands-on activity an excellent way to help primary school students develop better social and motor skills, it is also easy to get them involved. teachers are known to be the backbone of education for all ages of pupils and they play a vital role in the classroom by bringing a variety of learning methods and techniques. they bear the light for all students and aid them in better understanding and developing a unique skill set for every pupil in the classroom. anwer (2019) stated that it comes under the teacher to educate students and motivate them to learn in a classroom and outside it. the emphasis of effective learning in a classroom has vital importance in knowledge retention. the teachers are required to be adaptive to the changing classroom and pupils needs’ such that the students enjoy the course and establish goals. learning by doing is a common theme in an experiential educational environment. this is because when pupils are engaged with their hands and their minds, they actually are more focused and motivated to learn. the hands-on learning benefits that pupils experience in the classroom helps students of all ages retain knowledge and grow. children in all stages, from preschool age through their primary school age, are continuously developing and growing. during these extremely critical periods of growth, the more that children can immerse themselves in, and engage with, their education, the more they will be motivated and take pride in all that they learn (goodwin university [gu], 2019). this is where handson learning truly comes into play. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 research method the study was designed to investigate the impact of hands-on activities on students’ academic achievement in science and technical education in college of education, ikereekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. this study adopted a descriptive survey design. the population of the study consisted of all science subject combinations and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. the sample size of one hundred (100) science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti. a simple random sampling technique was used to select the sample. four (4) hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. the instruments that were used for the purpose of this study was self-structured questionnaire. the instrument (questionnaire) was divided into two sections (section a and b). section a was used to elicit information on the personal data of the respondents which include name of school, age, gender, subject combination/course of study. while section b was made up of the variables on the research question raised for the study. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism by the experts. the questionnaire was administered on science subject combinations and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. the administration was conducted by the researchers with the aid of one (1) trained research assistant. in analyzing the collected data, the researchers used descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentage to analyse respondents’ demographic data, to answer the research questions while inferential statistics of pearson correlation was used to test the formulated hypotheses. results hypothesis 1: there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on lecture room concentration of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. table 1: correlation analysis of hands-on activities and classroom concentration hands-on activities classroom concentration spearman’s rho hands-on activities correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 100 0.687* 0.043 100 classroom concentration correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.687* 0.043 100 1.000 100 * = significant at the 0.05 level. the result in table 1 shows the correlation analysis between hands-on activities and classroom concentration of science and technical education of college of education students. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between handson activities and classroom concentration of science and technical education of college of education students (r = 0.687, n = 100, p < 0.05). hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 2: there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on knowledge retention of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. . ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 table 2: correlation analysis of hands-on activities and knowledge retention hands-on activities knowledge retention spearman’s rho hands-on activities correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 100 0.634* 0.032 100 knowledge retention correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.634* 0.032 100 1.000 100 * = significant at the 0.05 level. the result in table 2 shows the correlation between hands-on activities and knowledge retention of science and technical education of college of education students. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between hands-on activities and knowledge retention of science and technical education of college of education students (r = 0.634, n = 100, p < 0.05). hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 3: there is no significant impact of hands-on activities on creativity ability of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. . table 3:correlation analysis of hands-on activities and creativity ability hands-on activities creativity ability spearman’s rho hands-on activities correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 100 0.523* 0.052 100 creativity ability correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.523* 0.052 100 1.000 100 * = significant at the 0.05 level. the result in table 3 shows the correlation between hands-on activities and creativity ability of science and technical education of college of education students. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between hands-on activities and creativity ability of science and technical education of college of education students (r = 0.523, n = 100, p < 0.05). hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 4: there is no significant effect of hands-on activities on problem solving skills of science and technical education in college of education, ikere-ekiti. . table 4:correlation analysis of hands-on activities and problem solving skills hands-on activities problem solving skills spearman’s rho hands-on activities correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 1.000 100 0.612* 0.031 100 problem solving skills correlation coefficient sig. (2-tailed) n 0.612* 0.031 100 1.000 100 * = significant at the 0.05 level. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 the result in table 4 shows the correlation between hands-on activities and problem solving skills of science and technical education of college of education students. the table indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between hands-on activities and problem solving skills of science and technical education of college of education students (r = 0.612, n = 100, p < 0.05). hence the null hypothesis was not upheld. conclusions based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: hands-on activities has strong impacts and influence on classroom concentration of science and technical education of college of education students. hands-on activities influenced and catalysed knowledge retention of science and technical education of college of education students. hands-on activities had effects on creativity ability of science and technical education of college of education students. hands-on activities enhanced and improved problem solving skills of science and technical education of college of education students. recommendations based on the findings, the following recommendations were made: 1. colleges of education teachers/lecturers should endeavour to adopt students’ oriented method like hands-on activities in creating conducive classroom environment that will bring about steady and rapid communication skills development of students. 2. the teachers/lecturers should also be encouraged by the management to provide the necessary equipment and materials to actualize this task effectively. 3. teachers/lecturers should select and execute hands-on activities that may enhance students’ interest and understanding in college of education subjects which will eventually result in higher motivation and achievement. 4. teacher/lecturers should always adopt learner’ centred method as the only method of communication, interaction and decision making in the classroom so as to cater for individual difference and ability of students for improving students’ classroom participation. references adane, l. o. 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(2015). flourishing creativity: education in an age of wonder. asia pacific education review, 16, 161-166. the apple tree, (2020). the benefits of hands-on learning for children, https://appletreekindergarten.com/blog/benefits-hands-learning-children. the editorial team, (2017). 5 problem-solving activities for the classroom, https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/5-problem-solving-activities-for-theclassroom. thompson, c. j. (2006). preparation, practice, and performance: an empirical examination of the impact of standards based instruction on secondary students’ math and science achievement. research in education, 81(1), 53-62. tile, m. t. (2013). effect of activity-based on psychomotor skills acquisition of senior secondary 2 in biology. unpublished m.ed dissertation, benue state university, makurdi. trnove, e. (2020). hands-on experiments and creativity, masaryk university, porici 7, 60300 brno, czech republic. tuckman, h. p. (2018). teacher effectiveness and students’ performance. journal of economics and education, 7 (1), 34 – 39. wood, i. (2017). want to develop your pupils’ problem-solving skills? here’s the solution (sponsored), https://www.tes.com/news/want-develop-your-pupils-problem-solvingskills-heres-solution-sponsored. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 https://appletreekindergarten.com/blog/benefits-hands-learning-children crombie, r. m. (2009). the many faces of inductive teaching and learning. journal of college science teaching, 14-20. daniel, f. (2020). what are the advantages and disadvantages of hands-on learning? https://www.teach-nology.com/teachersmethods/theories/handson. html. goodwin university, (2019). how hands-on learning benefits children of all ages, https://www.goodwin.edu/enews/benefits-f-hands-on-learning/ hart, s. (2019). tactile learning: the importance of hands-on activities for children, https://www.southbaycommunityservces.com/tactile-learning-the-importance-of-hands-on-activities-for-children. lamba, s. (2014). impact of teaching time on attention and concentration, osr journal of nursing and health science (ios-jnhs), 3(4), 01-04. martin, l. (2020). the importance of hands-on learning in a child's education, https://blog.friendscentral.org/benefits-f-hands-on-learning. national research council, (2007). inquiry-based learning, https://campusguides. glendale.edu/c.php?g=514597&p=3517021. parkland, p. (2017). hands-on learning: what does it mean and why is it important? http://parklandplayers.com/hands-on-larning-what-does-it-mean-and-why-is-it-important. the apple tree, (2020). the benefits of hands-on learning for children, https://appletreekindergarten.com/blog/benefits-ands-learning-children. thompson, c. j. (2006). preparation, practice, and performance: an empirical examination of the impact of standards base instruction on secondary students’ math and science �achievement. research in education, 81(1), 53-62. wood, i. (2017). want to develop your pupils’ problem-solving skills? here’s the solution (sponsored), https://www.tes.cm/news/want-develop-your-pupils-problem-solving-skills-heres-solution-sponsored. the extent of centrifugal underdevelopment in bekwara: a household descriptive survey omang, thomas achoda department of sociology university of calabar, nigeria omangta@gmail.com abstract this study aims to examine the extent of centrifugal underdevelopment in bekwara: a household descriptive survey. adopting the descriptive quantitative research method, data were collected from 384 households in bekwara local government area of cross river state, nigeria using a self-developed semi-structured questionnaire. data collected from the field were analyses using descriptive statistics. from the analysis, result revealed that 75. 35 per cent of the household in bekwara earn a maximum of 40,000 naira monthly. 96.61 per cent of the households' survey reported that income generated by the household head is not enough to take care of the household. 97.13 per cent of the surveyed household reported that they can hardly afford the most basic necessities. 64.84 per cent of the household surveyed reported difficulty in feeding properly. result also revealed that 76.3 per cent of the participants use over the counter drugs or use traditional remedies when a member of the household is sick. 94.27 per cent reported that the health centres in the communities are ill-equipped and that there are not enough well-trained medical workers. 100.00 per cent reported that there is no constant supply of electricity in the study area. 57.81 per cent of the participant reported that they do not have portable drinking water. 77.34 per cent reported that there are no good roads in their community and that mobile network connectivity is very poor. the study thereby calls for policy change to address the problem of underdevelopment in bekwara. keywords: centrifugal, underdevelopment, household, bekwara introduction the distance between nigeria and economic catastrophe, civil unrest and social disaster is a thin line. the country referred to as the giant the african continent is blessed with numerous human and natural resource but suffers from high rate of youth unemployment and underemployment, civil strife, corruption and inept governance. the country continues to fall behind its peers in the sphere of development. the country has a complete dysfunctional sociopolitical structure, unproductive economy and entrenched economy (akinyetu, 2016; ojong, iji, & angioha, 2019). even with the decline in global poverty, nigeria's contribution to this statistic is very disappointing, with the country now statistically known as the poverty capital of the world (aliyu & amadu, 2017; adeyanju, tubeuf, & ensor, 2017; usaid, 2020). according to the national bureau of statistics (2019), national living survey, the number of nigerians living in abject poverty is estimated to be 82.9 million. the report covering 2019 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 64 estimates that 40.1 per cent of nigerians are cl figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current national exchange rate is less than a dollar a day (adesoji, 2020; ussaid, 2020). poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the national bureau of statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. according to the report, 51.1 per cent poor live in abject poverty, living on less than 1 dollar a day. source: nbc (2019) nigerian living standards survey (nlss) the country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about usaid (2020), the country has the second maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. the united nation (2019) revealed that death occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this period. the country accounts for third of the global malaria death. usaid population have malaria. all these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system. the country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 nigerians visit india every year for medical emergencies (tumba, 2019). in the national budget of 2020, only 4.5 per cent of the further breakdown reveals that just 2136. current population of 200 million is considered (aworinde, 2020; tumba, 2020). the health sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly a year that health workers do not st 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 so ko to ta ra b a ji ga w a eb o n yi a d am aw a za m fa ra yo b e n ig er g o m b e 8 7 .7 8 7 .7 8 7 .7 7 9 .8 7 5 .4 7 4 7 2 .3 6 6 .1 6 2 .3a xi s ti tl e poverty count by states in nigeria, 2019 (%) estimates that 40.1 per cent of nigerians are classified as poor. a further breakdown of this figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current rate is less than a dollar a day (adesoji, 2020; ussaid, 2020). poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the national bureau of statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. according to the report, 51.1 per cent poor live in abject poverty, living on less than 1 dollar a day. nigerian living standards survey (nlss) the country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about as the second-highest hiv/aids prevalence globally. the country's maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. the united nation (2019) revealed that between 2005 and 2015, more than 600,000 maternal related h occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this accounts for 13 per cent of global child death under the ages of 5 and one third of the global malaria death. usaid (2020) states that more than 42 per cent of the nation's population have malaria. all these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system. the country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 visit india every year for medical emergencies (tumba, 2019). in the national budget of 2020, only 4.5 per cent of the total budget allocation is allocated to the healthcare system. a breakdown reveals that just 2136.5 naira is allotted to each nigerian for the year when the current population of 200 million is considered (aworinde, 2020; tumba, 2020). the health sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly a year that health workers do not strike (welcome, 2011; enukoha& angioha, 2019 g o m b e b au ch i en u gu n as ar aw a k at si n a k an o p la te au k eb b i k ad u n a fc t c ro ss r iv er b en u e a b ia im o k o gi ek it i a kw a ib o m r iv er s b ay el sa k w ar a a n am b ra 6 2 .3 6 1 .5 5 8 .1 5 7 .3 5 6 .4 5 5 .1 5 5 5 0 .2 4 3 .5 3 8 .7 3 6 .3 3 2 .9 3 0 .7 2 8 .9 2 8 .5 2 8 2 6 .8 2 3 .9 2 2 .6 2 0 .4 1 4 .8 axis title poverty count by states in nigeria, 2019 (%) assified as poor. a further breakdown of this figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current rate is less than a dollar a day (adesoji, 2020; ussaid, 2020). the country's poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the national bureau of statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. according to the report, 51.1 per cent of these rural the country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about. according to highest hiv/aids prevalence globally. the country's maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. the between 2005 and 2015, more than 600,000 maternal related h occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this 13 per cent of global child death under the ages of 5 and oneper cent of the nation's population have malaria. all these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system. the country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 visit india every year for medical emergencies (tumba, 2019). in the national budget budget allocation is allocated to the healthcare system. a gerian for the year when the current population of 200 million is considered (aworinde, 2020; tumba, 2020). the health sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly 2019). a n am b ra o n d o ed o o yo o gu n o su n d e lt a la go s 1 4 .8 1 2 .5 1 2 9 .8 9 .3 8 .5 6 4 .5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 65 nigeria's agriculture sector which was the main source of income before the discovery of oil has been neglected. nigerian, which use to be known as the food basket of west africa is now a net exporter of agriculture products such as sugar, fish and even toothpick (inegbedion, obadiaru, obasaju, asaleye, & lawal, 2018; omang, liu, & eneji, 2013: ofem& omang, 2018; omang, liu, eneji, & eneji, 2012;iji, ojong & angioha, 2018; angioha, nwagboso, ironbar, & ishie, 2018). the level of public infrastructure in rural areas in the country is very poor. there is lack of any good road network and this is has caused high transportation fares to, reduced the chances of having adequate access to input and access to the local market to sell their agricultural products, as well as assess other social infrastructures such as education and healthcare (omang, liu, wang, eneji, makundi & eneji, 2011). other social infrastructures such as constant power supply, good drinking water are lacking, especially in rural areas. though considerable attention has been paid to the level of underdevelopment of nigeria over the past two decades, national studies such as the various surveys by the national bureau of statistics and other international and local agencies have looked at the level of underdevelopment. there is a dearth in studies that looked at nigeria's under development at the household level or local level, hence an empirical gap. this study examines the extent of underdevelopment at the centrifugal level. methodology settings bekwara the study setting is one of the 18 local governmental areasin cross river state, nigeria. covering a land area of 304.30 square kilometres and a population of 105,822, according to the 2006 national population commission census (npc, 2006), the local government area lies at the north-eastern part of the state. it is bounded to the north by vandikiya in benue state, to the east, by obudu local government area, ogoja to the south and yala local government area to west. bekwara local government is divided into sixteen clans, made up of two ethnic groups, bekwara and afrike, with bekwara the dominant ethnic group making up more than 70 per cent of the local government area (ochiche, ajake& okpilia, 2013). politically, the study area is divided into ten political wards, with headquarters at abuochiche. the major economic activity of the area is agriculture, which as a rural area engages more than 85 per cent of its population. the area like other rural areas in nigeria lacks major infrastructural facilities. study method the descriptive quantitative research method was adopted for the study. the method allowed the researcher to descriptively analyze data collected from the field using a survey instrument (angioha, enukoha, agba & ikhizamah, 2020). the method allows the researcher to systematically and accurately describe an issue or situation using data collected with the aid of a survey instrument. a self-developed questionnaire was used to collect the needed data for the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 66 study. the instrument was semi-structured, designed to elicit household information on the extent of centrifugal underdevelopment in bekwara. participants 384 household was randomly selected from this study. the number of households used was arrived at using the survey monkey sample size determinant technique at 95 per cent confidence level and a margin of error of 5 per cent. the households were selected using the stratified, purposive and random sampling technique. bekwara was stratified into ten strata, according to the wards that make up the local government area. from the wards, six political wards were selected using the purposive sample technique. the wards were selected because of easy access and terrain. from the selected wards, 64 households were randomly selected. ethical consideration the relevant ethical clearance that allows the research to be carried out in bekwara was obtained. a written letter of approval was sent to the office of the national population commission for approval for the research to be carried out. the researcher also attached a written consent note to the research instrument in addition to the verbal consent was obtained from the participants of the study. all researcher ethics required for successful research was followed. data collection and analysis data collection was a two months process, with the aid of five research assistants who were trained on the ethics and process of distribution and collection of survey instruments in the field. descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data collected from the field. this includes the use of tables, frequencies, counts, percentages and graphical illustration findings and discussion findings data collected for this study was to analyze those centrifugal factors influencing the underdevelopment of bekwara local government area of cross river state, nigeria. data collected was to analyze those internal factors (centrifugal) contributing to the underdevelopment variables such as corruption, household income, family size, healthcare of the study area. the results were analyzed descriptively. household demographic data were analysed using frequency distribution, simple percentage and table. data on the distribution of household according to family size, 25.52 per cent (98) of the households studied was made up of between 1 and 4 members, 56.51 per cent (217) pf the household had between 4 and 7 members, 9.90 per cent (38) of the household had between 8 and 11 members and 8.07 per cent (31) of the household had between 12 and above members. the distribution of households according to the number of children revealed that, out of the 384 households surveyed, 48.70 per cent (187) of the households have between 1 and 3 children, 41.41 per cent (159) have between 4 and 6 children, 5.21 per cent (20) of the households have 6 and above children and 0.26 per cent (1) of the household have just one child. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 67 the distribution of households according to the level of income revealed that 25.52 per cent (98) of the households make a maximum of 10,000 naira monthly, 45.83 per cent (176) of the household surveyed make between 10,001 and 40,000 nigerian naira monthly, 18.75 per cent (72) of the households survey make between 40,001 and 70,000 naira monthly and 9.90 per cent (38) of the household surveyed make 70,0001 naira and above. the distribution of households according to the occupation of the household head revealed that 13.80 per cent (54) of the household heads are civil servants, 55.47 per cent (213) of the household heads are farmers, 17.45 per cent (67) of the household heads are traders, 8.33 per cent (32) are employed in the public sector and 7.29 per cent (28) are unemployed. table 1: household demographic data’ demographic data variable category n per cent (%) household size less than 4 98 25.52 4 to 7 217 56.51 8 to 11 38 9.90 12 and above 31 8.07 total 384 100 number of children 1-3 187 48.70 4 6 159 41.41 6 and above 20 5.21 none 1 0.26 total 384 100 level of income of the household less than 10,000 (#) 98 25.52 10,001 (#) and 40,000 (#) 176 45.83 40,001 (#) to 70,000 (3) 72 18.75 70,000 (#) and above 38 9.90 total 384 100 occupation of the household head civil servant 54 13.80 farmer 213 55.47 trader 67 17.45 public sector 32 8.33 unemployed 28 7.29 total 384 100 source: field survey, 2020 level of poverty table 2 response on household type s/n item mud bricked moulded block wooden 1 house type 113 265 (69.01%) 6 (1.56%) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 68 source: field survey, 2020 graphical illustration of participants household type source: field survey, 2020 table 3 response on household roofing type s/n item 2 roofing type source: field survey, 2020 graphical illustration of participants source: field survey, 2020 table 4 response on how household built 500 mud (29.43%) figure 1: graphical illustration of participants household type roofing type thatched aluminium 28 (7.29%) 353 (91.92%) figure 2: graphical illustration of participants roofing type builttheir houses mud molded block 0 500 house type 113 0 265 6 participants household type mud bricked molded block wooden 28 353 30 roofing type thatched aluminum stone coated aluminium stonecoated (91.92%) 3 (0.78%) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 69 s/n item savings mortgage bank loan employee loan community effort inheritance 3 how did you build your house 152 (39.58%) 3 (0.78%) 28 (7.29%) 68(17.71%) 133 (34%) source: field survey, 2020 figure 3: graphical illustration of how household built their houses source: field survey, 2020 table 4 response to poverty level s/n item yes no not sure 4 the family depends on the income of the breadwinner 224 (58.33%) 160 (41.64%) 5 the income of the household is enough for the wellbeing of the family 5 (1.30%) 371 (96.61%) 13 (3.39%) 6 my household afford the necessities of life 7 (1.82%) 373 (97.13%) 4 (1.04%) 7 my household affords three square meal a day 89 (23.18%) 249 (64.84%) 46 (11.98%) 8 all children in my household attend school or are educated 247 (64.32%) 137 (35.68) 0 9 the children in the household attend public schools 367 (95.57%) 17 (4.43%) 0 source: field survey, 2020 152 0 3 28 68 113 0 50 100 150 200 savings employee loan how did you build your house how did you build your house ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 70 graphical illustration of source: field survey, 2020 data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 (1.56%) households reported wooden house. on roofing type; 28 (7.29%) house thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 (0.78%) households reported bank loans, 28 (7.29%) reported employe reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. on the family depends on the income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported no. on the income of the household is enough for the wellbeing of th reported yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported no and 13 (3.39%) reported not sure. on my household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported yes, 373 (97.13%) reported no and 4 (1.04%) reported not sure. 89 (23.18%) households reported yes, 249 (64.84%) reported no and 46 (11.98%) reported not sure. on all children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households reported yes and137 (35.68) reported no. on the children in the household attend public schools; 367 (95.57%) households reported yes and 17 (4.43%). the family depends on the income of the the income of the household is enough my household afford the necessities of life my household affords three square meal all children in my household attend the children in the household attend a xi s ti tl e figure 4: graphical illustration of how household built their houses data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 (1.56%) households reported wooden house. on roofing type; 28 (7.29%) house thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 (0.78%) households reported bank loans, 28 (7.29%) reported employee loans, 68(17.71%) reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. on the family depends on the income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported no. on the income of the household is enough for the wellbeing of the family; 5 (1.30%) households reported yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported no and 13 (3.39%) reported not sure. on my household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported yes, 373 (97.13%) reported no and 4 (1.04%) reported not sure. on my household affords three square meal a day; 89 (23.18%) households reported yes, 249 (64.84%) reported no and 46 (11.98%) reported not sure. on all children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households .68) reported no. on the children in the household attend public schools; 367 (95.57%) households reported yes and 17 (4.43%). 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 the family depends on the income of the … the income of the household is enough … my household afford the necessities of life my household affords three square meal … all children in my household attend … the children in the household attend … 224 5 7 89 247 367 160 249 137 17 0 13 4 46 0 0 axis title response on poverty level not sure no yes data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 (1.56%) households reported wooden house. on roofing type; 28 (7.29%) households reported thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 e loans, 68(17.71%) reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. on the family depends on the income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported no. on the e family; 5 (1.30%) households reported yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported no and 13 (3.39%) reported not sure. on my household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported yes, 373 (97.13%) on my household affords three square meal a day; 89 (23.18%) households reported yes, 249 (64.84%) reported no and 46 (11.98%) reported not sure. on all children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households .68) reported no. on the children in the household attend public 400 367 371 373 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 71 level of access to healthcare table 5 response on type of health facility s/n item 1 type of health facility in your community source: field survey, 2020 graphical illustration of source: field survey, 2020 table 6 response on distance of health facility to you home s/n item a walking distance 2 the distance of health facility to you home 75 (19.53%) source: field survey, 2020 health post health center secondary health facilities tertiary health facilities type of health facility in your type of health facility in the community health post health centre secondary health facilities tertiary health facilities type of health facility in 134 (34.90) 147 (38.28) 61 (15.89) figure 5: graphical illustration of type of health facility in the community distance of health facility to you home walking distance not up to two kilometres away 3 to 5 kilometres away local government headquarters (19.53%) 148 (38.54%) 126 (32.81%) 35 (9.11%) 0 50 100 150 health post health center secondary health facilities tertiary health facilities none type of health facility in your community tertiary health facilities none 60 (15.63) the community government headquarters another local government area 35 (9.11%) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 72 figure 6 graphical illustration of distance of health facility to you home source: field survey, 2020 table 7 response on treating a household member s/n item visit the hospital use mostly tradition remedy buy over the counter unprescribed drugs or self-medicate 3 when a member of the household is sick, how do you treat the 91 (23.70%) 138 (35.94%) 155 (40.36%) source: field survey, 2020 figure 7 graphical illustration of treating a household member source: field survey, 2020 a walking distance not up to two kilometers away 3 to 5 kilometers away local government head quarters another local government area 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 distance of health facility to you home distance of health facility to you home 91 138 155 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 visit the hospital use mostly tradition remedy buy over the counter unprescribed … when a member of the household is sick, how do you treat the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 73 table 8 response on reasons for not using healthcare facilities s/n item hospitals are too expensive no money don’t trust the hospital hospital is too far 4 for families who do not use the hospital, why 89 (30.38%) 95 (32.42%) 55 (18.77%) 54 (18.43%) source: field survey, 2020 figure 8 graphical illustration of reasons for not using healthcare facilities source: field survey, 2020 table 9 response to health s/n item true not true uncertain 5 people do not have easy access to medical care in my community 192 (50.00%) 123 (32.03%) 68 (17.71%) 6 the health centre in my community do not have the facilities to treat ill people 362 (94.27%) 18 (4.69%) 4 (1.04%) 7 there are no enough medical workers 371 (96.61%) 13 (3.39%) 8 the medical workers are not well trained 357 (92.97%) 16 (4.17%) 11 (2.86%) source: field survey, 2020 89 95 55 54 0 20 40 60 80 100 hospitals are too expensive no money don’t trust the hospital hospital is too far for families who do not use hospital, why ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 74 figure 9 graphical illustration of response to access to healthcare source: field survey, 2020 data analyzed on access to healthcare showed household response pattern as follows; on the type of health facility in your community; 134 (34.90) reported health post, 147 (38.28) reported health centre, 61 (15.89) households reported secondary health facilities and 60 (15.63) reported that there was no health care facility in their community. on the distance of health facility to you home; 75 (19.53%) households reported a walking distance, 148 (38.54%) reported not up to two kilometres, 126 (32.81%) household reported 3 to 5 kilometres away and 35 (9.11%) reported local government headquarters. on when a member of the household is sick, how do you treat the: 91 (23.70%) households reported visit the hospital, 138 (35.94%) household reported using mostly tradition remedy and 155 (40.36%) reported buy over the counter unprescribed drugs or self-medicate. on for families who do not use the hospital, why; 89 (30.38%) household reported hospitals are too expensive, 95 (32.42%) reported no money, 55 (18.77%) household reported don't trust the hospital and 54 (18.43%) households reported the hospitals are too far. on people do not have easy access to medical care in my community; 192 (50.00%) households reported true, 123 (32.03%) households reported not true and 68 (17.71%) reported uncertain. on the health centre in my community do not have the facilities to treat ill people; 362 (94.27%) households reported true, 18 (4.69%) reported not true and 4 (1.04%) reported uncertain. on my household affords three square meal a day; 89 (23.18%) households reported yes, 249 (64.84%) reported no and 46 (11.98%) reported not sure. on there are not enough medical workers; 371 (96.61%) households reported true and 13 (3.39%) reported not true. on the medical workers are not well trained; 357 (92.97%) households reported true, 16 (4.17%) household reported not true and 11 (2.86%) reported uncertain 192 123 68 362 18 4 371 13 357 16 11 0 100 200 300 400 true not true uncertain a xi s ti tl e axis title response on healthcare people do not have easy access to medical care in my community the health center in my community do not have the facilities to treat ill people there are no enough medical workers the medical workers are not well trained ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 75 infrastructural facilities table 10 response on infrastructural facilities s/n item yes no uncertain 1 my community has electricity 384 (100.00%) 2 each community have an electricity transformer 384 (100.00%) 3 the electricity is constant and stable 384 (384.00%) 4 the community has portable and safe drinking water 222 (57.81%) 136 (35.42%) 25 (6.51%) source: field survey, 2020 figure 10 graphical illustration of response on infrastructural facilities source: field survey, 2020 table 11 response on source of drinking water s/n item village stream government built borehole borehole at my house buy drinking water 5 source of drinking water for the household 127 (33.07%) 73 (19.01%) 62 (16.15%) 121 (31.51%) source: field survey, 2020 0 100 200 300 400 500 yes no uncertain response on infrastructural facilities my community has electricity each community have electricity transformer the electricity is constant and stable the community has portable and safe drinking water ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 76 figure 11 graphical illustration of response on source of drinking water source: field survey, 2020 table 12 response on infrastructural facilities s/n item yes no not sure 6 the good road leading to my family home 87 (22.66%) 297 (77.34%) 7 motorable roads in the community 65 (16.93%) 319 (83.07%) 8 my community have good mobile technology network 132 (34.38%) 202 (52.60%) 50 (13.02%) source: field survey, 2020 figure 12 graphical illustration of response on infrastructural facilities source: field survey, 2020 127 7362 121 0 source of drinking water for the household village stream government built borehole borehole in my house buy drinking water 87 65 132 297 319 202 0 0 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 good road leading to my family home motorable roads in the community my community sound mobile technology network chart title not sure no yes ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 77 data analyzed on access to on infrastructural facilities showed household response pattern as follows; on my community has electricity; 134 (34.90) reported my community has electricity. on each community have electricity transformer; 384 (100.00%) households reported no. on the electricity is constant and stable: 384 (384.00%) households reportedno. on the community has portable and safe drinking water; 222 (57.81%) household reported yes, 136 (35.42%) household reported no and (25 (6.51%) household reported uncertain. on the source of drinking water for the household; 127 (33.07%) households reported village stream, 73 (19.01%) households reported government built borehole, 62 (16.15%) household reported borehole in my house and 121 (31.51%) reported buying drinking water. on good road leading to my family home; 87 (22.66%) households reported yes, 297 (77.34%) reported no. on motorable roads in the community; 65 (16.93%) households reported yes, 319 (83.07%) reported no. on my community have good mobile technology network; 132 (34.38%) household reported yes, 202 (52.60%) household reported no and 50 (13.02%) household reported not sure. discussion of findings data for this study were analyzed using descriptive analysis. underdevelopment which is the main issue understudy was checked using three main variables. household poverty level, access to healthcare and infrastructural facilities. the analysis was done using frequency distribution, tables, simple percentages and graphical illustration. level of poverty the result from the descriptive analyses revealed that 75. 35 per cent of the household in bekwara earn a maximum of 40,000 naira monthly. also, it was discovered that 55.47 per cent of the household surveyed. head were farmers, 17.45 per cent were traders, while the rest were either civil servants, working in the private sector or are unemployed. this is true because bekwara local government area is a rural community. most of its inhabitants engage in mostly subsistent agriculture for survival. there are hardly any industries in the area, with the little small-scale businesses existing belonging to the government or a very privileged few. in this area farm activities and the non-farm activities are complimentary. for example, most rural people in the areas buy lands for agriculture. the world bank (2014) asserts that in nigeria, the agricultural sector employs 60 per cent of the rural population. the analyzed result revealed that most of the household, 73.58 per cent built their house either through savings or inheritance. 58.33 per cent of the households surveyed point out theta the household depends on the income generated by the breadwinner of the households alone and 96.61 per cent of the households' survey reported that income generated by the household head is not enough to take care of the household. 97.13 per cent of the surveyed household reported that they can hardly afford the most basic necessities. 64.84 per cent of the household surveyed reported difficulty in feeding properly. result also revealed that most of the children in the household survey attend public schools that the learning environment is inadequate, with poor teaching staff and inadequate teaching equipment. this finding is supported by the work of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 78 world bank (1996), who describes the poverty situation in nigeria as a paradox. omonona (2017), who asserts that 54.4 per cent of nigerians in rural areas are poor. level of access to healthcare result from the analysis of data on the level of access to healthcare, result revealed that most of the study area does not have well-equipped healthcare facility. this is according to the response of the participants who reported that their communities only have health post or health centres (73.18 per cent) and 16.63 reported that their community did not have any. result also showed 71.35 per cent of the participants revealed that the closest health centre to their community as 2 to 5 kilometres away. findings also revealed that most of the participants, 76.3 per cent of the participants use over the counter drugs or use traditional remedies when a member of the household is sick, while only 23.70 per cent use health facilities. the reasons for this is according to the response of 62.8 participants are lack of financial resource for visiting the hospital and being poor. the result from the analysis of data also revealed that most respondents (50.00 per cent) feel that the government does not make healthcare accessible to them. most of the participants, 94.27 per cent also feel that the health centres in the communities are ill-equipped and that there are not enough well-trained medical workers. the works of titus, adebisola and adeniji(2015) supports the findings of this work. they assessed healthcare and utilization in rural areas in southern nigeria. the result from the analysis of data revealed that most of the respondents (40.5%) travel a distance of 5-9 km before accessing health care facilities. accessibility indices reveal unequal access to modern health facilities in the study area. availability of infrastructure from the analysis of data, result revealed that most of the communities’ studied electricity connection, butall the participants reported that not all communities have electricity transformers that supply power to each community. all the participant, 100.00 per cent reported that there is no constant supply of electricity in the study area. 57.81 per cent of the participant reported that they do not have portable drinking water. 33.07 per cent of the participants reported that they get their drinking water from the stream, 31.51 per cent reported that they buy water to drink, 19.01 per cent get their drinking water from a government built borehole, while 16.15 per cent get drinking water from a borehole in their home. most of the participants, 77.34 per cent reported that there are no good roads in their community and that mobile network connectivity is very poor. gaal and afrah (2017) reported that most people in rural community are poor and live in areas where public infrastructure especially roadsseems low. the inadequate roads and poor road access put high cost of transportation; reduce the ability to use access high-quality inputs; limit the uses of local markets to the sales of their products, the purchase of consumer goods and opportunities for off-farm employment. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 79 conclusion and policy implication this study has descriptively revealed the extent of centrifugal household poverty in bekwara, cross river state, nigeria. hence, there is need for government at both local, state and federal level to formulate an all-inclusive policy that will help developed bekwara and other rural areas in the state and the country. the government and other financial institutions should provide low-interest loan for the rural people that will help them expand their farm holding or start a business. the federal government need to increase the budget allocation to the health sector, increase the number healthcare centres in rural areas and well as send well equipped and trained, medical personnel to rural areas plan more infrastructural facilities should also be providedfor the rural people especially in terms of good road, electricity, and storage facilities etc., all these will contribute to their development reference adesoji, b. s. 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(2012).cash cropping as an effective strategy for rural poverty reduction in nigeria: the case of cocoa farming in etung, cross river state. journal of agriculture, biotechnology and ecology.5 (3) pp.83-93. omang, t. a., liu, y. & eneji, r. i. (2013). profitability of cocoa production in etung local government area of cross river state, nigeria. journal of agriculture, biotechnology and ecology 5 (3) pp.64-73. titus, o.b., adebisola, o.a. & adeniji, a.o. (2015). health-care access and utilization among rural households in nigeria. journal of development and agricultural economics, 7, 195 203. tumba, s. (2019). addressing health challenges in nigeria. https://www.minervastrategies.com/blog/addressing-health-challenges-in-nigeria/ usaid (2020). country development cooperation strategy2015-2017. the document was produced for review by the united states agency for international development nigeria (usaid/nigeria).https://20122017.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/nigeria_cdcs_2015-2020.pdf welcome, m. o. (2011). the nigerian health care system: need forintegrating adequate medical intelligence and surveillancesystems. j pharm bioallied sci; 3(4): 470-478. world bank. (2014). nigeria agriculture and rural poverty: a policy note. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19324 license: cc by 3.0 igo.” ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 3| issue 12| december | 2020 http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 82 https://www.minervastrategies.com/blog/addressing-health-challenges-in-nigeria/ https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/nigeria_cdcs_2015-2020.pdf https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/nigeria_cdcs_2015-2020.pdf the dynamics of socio-political conflict and national disintegration in sudan mohammed a. n. a. imam (ph.d.) department of sociology, yobe state university, nigeria email: abusakin55@gmail.com abstract: sociopolitical conflict in sudan have been prevalent for long time. most parts of the country have experienced the conflict at different ways, forms and times. these conflicts have arisen primarily as a result of sudanese political elite’s misuse of political power, country diversity andhas been the former’s continuous economic, political and cultural marginalization. the paper examines the dynamics of sociopolitical conflict on national integration in sudan. the methodology adopted for this study involved qualitative data that were gathered from secondary sources, such as books, journals, websites and content exploratory. the results of the study revealed that national integration, unity, stability and peaceful coexistence cannot be achieved in an environment where some groups believes that they are different and even they super from others. also the findings of the study explore the major dynamics that promote the conflict includes politicization of ethnicity and tribalism, political communalism, inequality in a national resources distribution, cultural distinctions as well as some national institutions contributed to national disintegration of the country since independence up to date. based on the major findings, the paper recommended that sudanese political leaders and elites including military officers should carefully adopt the process of citizenship instead of focuson sociopolitical and economic exploitation. there is need for introducing comprehensive and proper economic developmentstrategy to reduce marginalization and periphery areas tensions, as well as a faire wealth and resources sharing among sudanese equally. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 key words: conflict, dynamics. disintegration, ethnicity, sociopolitical, sudan introduction the republic of sudan has gained its independence on first january, 1956 and considered as one of the earliest african countries free of european colonialism. instead of building national state by reflecting sudanese diversity in terms of ethnic and tribal groups, religious, environment and other social entities, the country witnessed long history of instability and national disintegration. widespread concern at present with social disintegration can be seen as a call to analyses the reasons behind the breakdown of certain institutions (such as states, religious organizations, agent of family or even economic structure) or moral codes and to understand the kinds of social relations which are gaining prominence instead(unrisd, 1994). feelings of marginality and the disruption of existing forms of local solidarity are two elements exacerbating ethnic and religious conflict, and encouraging participation in illicit and illegal activities in many settings around the world today. political instability linked to a long period of civil war between north and south which led to separation of south sudan as independent state on 2011.also continuation of conflicts between armed opposition groups and central government in darfur region since 2003 except juba peace agreement signatories in 2020, in south kordufan and blue nile states are still warning. the conflict in south kordufan state has been controlled by sudanese peoples liberation movement (splm) north and still anti-government, while the case conflict in blue nile is leading by splm, north but has singed peace agreement in juba capital of south sudan onoctober,2020 among front revolution groups including most of darfur armed movement’s. both two groups of splm are initially part splm of south sudan before the separation on 2011. in addition to the several ethnic and tribal conflicts took place in these states, such as recent ethnic conflict in blue nile state started on may, 2022 between hausa people against hamaj, funj, el brta and angasana tribe, and similar ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ethnic conflicts are going on in west, south and north darfur (mainly between non-arab ethnic groups via arab tribal groups as well as the same in south kordufan state between nuba and coalition of masiria and hawazma. all the ethnic conflicts has their different root causes, but all are hindering the national integration of the country. the deadly current war (august, 2023) which started on 15 april, 2023 between two military leaders abdul fatah elburhan and mohammed hamdan doglo chief of sudan armed forces(saf) and pre-military rapid support forces (rsf) respectively. the conflict between two sides has started deadly and tough violent even against civilian but it has deep political motivations and ambitions for both of military leaders. generally, national disintegration may be caused by poverty, cultural invasion, economic imperialism or social breakdown within the country, and the results of disintegration may be ethnic conflict, violence or apathy, exploitation, and forced assimilation (young, 2002). in case of sudan there are several factors led to the national disintegration including the absence of consciousness for sudanese nationalism and identity, failure of political elites and legacy of british colonialism as well as national division in terms of inter-ethnic conflict and struggle over power. iom (2011) reported that sudan problem has been complicated by deep roots of national division planted by british colonialism and nourished by changing governments in khartoum by global powers which have used the country for their own ends. unfortunately, the picture that was drown by colonial regime has been continued after independence and up-to-date. moreover, the level of political instability followed by deadly civil wars and ethnic/tribal conflicts as well as national divisions are major features of contemporary sudanese state.the struggle for national integration in the huge and underdevelopment of sudan is very difficult, with ethnic and geographical factors weighing heavily (iom,2011).this paper concentrate deeply on inter communal conflicts as a mirror of struggle over social conflict, as well as ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 political conflict over political power and wealth are most significant mechanisms hindering national integration and unity in sudan. methodology the methodology adopted for this study involved qualitative data that were gathered from secondary sources, such as books, journals and internet websites. content exploratory and analysis was carried out to review existent literature and evaluate the study’s originality. conceptual framework: 1 socio-political conflict: conflict and struggle are part and parcel of everyday social and political relations, and it can be good when it leads to more equal redistribution of resources and power, but also conflict can be harmful when it involves loss of people’s lives, destroyed properties, violence or other forms of mental and physical abuse. conflict occurs when at least two groups interact with each other and there are differences in objectives, these groups will try to influence or control others by using violence (alao, 2007: 19). conflict is a type of behavior among individuals, groups, or even nations that transcends the regular dispute that underlies much of the everyday social, economic, and competitive activity of society (burton, 1990).boege and turner (2006) defined as an activity which takes place when conscious beings (individuals or groups) wish to carry out mutually inconsistent acts concerning their needs or obligations. socio-political context refers to laws, regulations, practices, values, and beliefs within a community in terms of social and political life. in other words, its interaction and linkage between a political system and its social environment. for instance, the structural socio-political ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 factors include, security, poverty, national wealth, income inequality, social integration and political conflict (marchal, 2007).socio-political issues exist when ideological differences approach social issues from different perspectives and will open to political or even ideological interpretation. 2ethnicity and tribalism ethnic group is a set of social group having a common national or cultural tradition, people belonging to one ethnic group can live in several geographical locations. also ethnic group define as social group which, within a larger cultural and social system, claims or is accorded special status in terms of a complex of traits (ethnic traits) which it exhibits or is believed to exhibit ( young, 2017). ethnic membership tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, dialect, religion, mythology, folklore, ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, and physical appearance. ethnicity and ethnic group belonging matters for politics when it becomes the basis for political mobilization, competition, and conflict (musa, 2022).ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, perspectives and distinction that set a part one group of people from another. in this context there are many groups considered as ethnic groups in darfur, south kordofan and blue nile states. the word tribeis a group of people who share the same customs and language as well as they believe from the same common ancestor and they leave under one chief authority. while term tribalismis a look after people from their tribes and give them preferences in allocation of rights and privileges. tribe is a social division consisting of families or communities linked by blood ties with a common culture and dialect, having a recognized leader people belonging to a tribe usually live together (fearon, 2003).today, tribalism is often seen as putting one's ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 own group above every other consideration, including kindness or justice. tribalism can lead to bigotry and racism and, when taken to extremes, even war. tribalism implies the possession of a strong cultural or ethnic identity that separates one member of a group from the members of another group. in discussions of african politics and culture, young, ( 2002) explained that, tribalism usually appears as the opposite of nationalism, devotion to the interests and culture of one's entire country, the state of living in a tribe is tribalism as well asthis word is also used to describe situations where people are overly loyal to their own group. considering young’s view of tribe and tribalism, the case of sudan especially study areas the term has been abused and it’s become a center of sociopolitical exploitation by political elites. 3national integration: national integration is the awareness of a common identity amongst the citizens of a country. it means that though the individuals belong to different communities, castes, religions, cultures and regions and speak different languages, all of them recognize the fact that they are one. national integration is a process of creating a sense of national consciousness, uniqueness of identity and loyalty among people with different socio-cultural identities (racial, ethnic, language, religion, etc.) into a single territorial political society. despite the differences in culture, caste, language, and main livelihood, the national integration keeps the entire country tote and strong. the objective of national integration is to unite every section of society and to provide equal opportunities to every citizen and a common platform in terms of cultural, social, and economic development. national integration reduces discrimination, promotes brotherhood, supports national growth and development, and decreases crime on a larger level. national integration as a comprehensive affair ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 has several dimensions like political, social, economic, cultural, ethical and psychological dimensions. the current reality of sudanese societies is showing that structural defect and deficiency of political and economic programs contributed to national disintegration of the country (mohammed, 2023). 4national disintegration the process of losing cohesion or strength and social disintegration leads to the process of coming to pieces. state disintegration is the collapse of a country into two or more smaller independent countries, as a case of southern sudan. the integration brings things or people together, while disintegration means things are coming apart. one of the biggest threats to national integration is the narrow mindset that prevails over different political groups, social entities and identities. people in sudan are primarily held captive by various traditional political groups and what so called native administration system due to politicization of all organizations and institutions. even several states and local governments were created based on political locality. sudan is a very diverse country, with many different ethnic and tribal groups, dialects, and religions. on the basis of all these characteristics, different populations in sudan are distinct from one another. ethnic and tribal are further divided into clans, languages are further divided into dialects, and religions are further divided into sub-religions in some parts of the country. review of related literature sudan has experienced prolong history of multidimensional conflicts since independence up to date. for purposes of this research it can be categorized in to two types of conflict, first conflict between central sudanese government and regional opposition groups including south sudan before separation in 2011, darfur, south kordofan, blue nile and east sudan, this type of conflict reflecting the dilemma of center via marginalized areas, ongoing conflict (august, 2023) which started on 15 april, 2023 is a part of this type. second ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 https://www.google.com/search?sa=x&biw=1366&bih=625&sxsrf=ab5stbi__xx8xc5ilzm0-uap2n29pyv68q:1690058939113&q=cohesion&si=acfman-fuhizynqzewn5dhrvbvht36x0f4crxlng110ua7iea6jin9tsauaxleel_k6aoad3fpukuwqkmkm7mrkcg9ddz5soww%3d%3d&expnd=1 type of conflict is inter-communal conflicts based on tribal and ethnic loyalty, this type reflecting the politicization of native administration system and polarization of tribal diversity. such of this conflict also continuing in all of three areas despite of the first type. johan (2008) argued that sudan is characterized by a persistent domination of the center over the marginalized peripheral areas leading to extreme regional imbalances. this periphery-center dimension has been stressed in the armed conflicts within sudan. various rebel groups have demanded increased share of resources and political influence for marginalized areas. since the conflicts in sudan have this periphery-center dimension, arguably, a solution to these conflicts requires change in the center and policies been adopted since the independence. subsequently, the consciousness of marginalization in periphery areas increased during 1960s where demanding regional organizations emerged such as darfur resistance front, 1960 later it becomes sooni and red frame, nuba mountains union, 1965 in south kordofan and bija conference, 1965 in east sudan. the primary demands of all these organizations are lack of political representation, economic imbalance and providing more development resources to these areas. international crisis group (2013)exposed that conflict in south kordofan , darfur and blue nile has returned sudan to square one. it is part of a spreading war zone, often called the “new south”, extending from the border with chad in the west to that with ethiopia in the east. its roots are in the failure of multiple local peace agreements to end chronic warfare: the 2005 comprehensive peace agreement (cpa), cairo agreement, east sudan peace agreement, darfur peace agreement, and doha document for peace in darfur. in addition to wars between the peripheries and the center has been the former’s continuous economic, political and cultural marginalization. the main argument is the periphery center conflict which reflecting struggle over political power and wealth sharing, and intercommunal conflict which reflecting societal ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 conflict are the main mechanisms of conflict affecting sudanese national integration. aconflict in darfur region the current conflict in darfur between some armed opposition groups and sudanese government started on february, 2003 when the two main armed groups namely the sudan liberation movement (slm, and the other was the justice and equality movement (jem) took arms against sudan government by claiming prominent economic and political marginalization of darfur. on the other hand inter-communal conflicts in darfur has a long history, mostly known as farmers-animal herders conflicts ( over natural resources) and it has rooted and effective local mechanisms of conflict resolution called reconciliation conferences headed by native administration leaders. but since end of 1980s and earlier of 1990s this type of conflict become more complicated and deadly due to politicization of native administration system and tribal entities by the central government and darfur political elites. the conflict in darfur is the product of a complex set of factors, including disputes over access to and control of natural resources; the inequitable distribution of economic and political power; the absence of strong, just governance; militarization; and the proliferation of small arms(julie, 2010).violence has continued in darfur since the transitional government took power, and despite the sudanese peace agreement which was signed in 2020. the ongoing attacks have included unlawful killings, beatings, sexual violence, lootings, and the burning of villages. adam azzain (2007) a leading darfur scholar, argues that the current disaster in darfur is a result of interlinked communal conflicts, conflicts between different regional elites and periphery-center conflicts. the involvement of ruling parties political leaders, military regime officers are fully engaged in conflict over political power and wealth sharing, while native administration and community leaders are a part of inter communal conflict. on the other hand both types of conflicts undermining national and social integration of the country. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/06/22/sudan-new-deadly-attacks-west-darfur bconflict in south kordofan sudan’s south kordofan state has been the center of armed conflict between the government of sudan and opposition groups in the past decades. the region has struggle with poverty, lack of basic services and influx of a large number of internally displaced persons (idps). despite reduced violence and absence of active conflict since 2016, the situation remains volatile in terms of security and humanitarian needs (untf, 2017).the current conflict in south kordofan is a renewal of the years-long conflict centered in the nuba mountains during the second sudanese civil war 1983–2005 (shsba, 2012). initially conflict over political power and wealth sharing in the sudanese southern states of south kordofan and blue nile is manly between the sudanese armed forces (saf) and sudan people's liberation movement-north (splm-n), a northern affiliate of the sudan people's liberation movement (splm) in south sudan. since sudan’s independence in 1956, the nuba have faced aggressive policies from the central government, such as land-grabbing by investors in commercial farming, and attempts to supplant local cultures with the arab-african culture of the northern nile valley. beside current political conflict between sudan armed forces and sudan people’s liberation movement north, there are inter communal conflicts between nuba ethnic group and other tribal groups such as hawzma and messyria since end of 1980s, these local conflicts parties are supported by splmn and saf respectively. as a part of peripheral areas conflict the tribal conflicts in south kordofan mobilizes and drive by central government, south kordofan political elites and splm-n leaders for political ambitious cconflict in blue nile the sudanese conflict in blue nile was an armed conflict in the sudanese southern states including south kordofan between the sudanese armed forces (saf) and sudan people's liberation movement-north (splm-n), a northern ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 affiliate of the sudan people's liberation movement (splm) in south sudan. the blue nile experienced the hardships of civil war that broke out in 1985. recently the conflict escalated again between the two signatory-groups of the government of sudan and the blue nile’s sudan people’s liberation army/movement ( mey, 2013) according to el-sheikh’s (2005) classification, the blue nile tribes are divided in to indigenous groups: funj and ingessana tribes this comprise of al hamaj. alberta, alrqaiqe and wataweet. the northern tribes: they come from northern, eastern and western sudan and include tribes such as gala’an, nubian, shaiyia, kennana, rufa’a al-hoi, shukriya, zaghawi and fur. arabic nomads: the groups mainly form the rafaa, kennana tribes. they have a long relationship with the indigenous blue nile tribes. west african tribes: falata umbroro (the transhumance pastoralists) and the hausa tribes, who originally came from western africa, settled in the blue nile in the beginning of the 1950s and were permitted by the indigenous tribes to use the natural resources. the mixed people: these are outcomes of intermarriages between northern and other tribes with indigenous funj groups. thus they are mixed people called wataweet as well as other sub tribe. from the 1950s onwards, blue nile became the destination of successive waves of settlers, including different ethnic groups from the north as well as the fulani pastoralist groups of west african origin. grazing land drew pastoralist groups, while the possibility of developing large-scale agricultural schemes attracted investments from non-indigenous elites and, in more recent times, other countries (claudio, 2013).the conflict in blue nile state till earlier 2020 was purely political conflict between sudan armed forces and sudan people’s liberation movement-north (splm-n). conflict dramatically changed to inter communal conflict when splmn signed juba peace agreement among sudanese revolutionary group with sudan government. splm-n become a part of local conflict by supporting hausa tribes against indigenous groups. this quite evidence that most inter communal conflict created and supported by struggle over political conflict ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 parties for their own interest and this applicable to most of peripheral areas including darfur and south kordofan.. earlier of 2023 the blue nilestate witnessed prolong tribal conflicts which indicates grate correlation between conflict over political power and social conflict represented by ethnic and tribal conflicts. the inter-communal clashes erupted in blue nile state due to the indigenous tribe’s rejection to establish a tribal chiefdom for the hausa. this structure, which would be sanctioned by the regional authority, would enable them to have their own territory in the region and enhance their economic and political influence. dpolitical conflict of april 2023 following former president al-bashir’s deposition in 2019, a power-sharing compromise between military and civilian leaders led to the formation of a transitional government. in december 2022, civilian leaders and the military signed a ‘framework agreement’ to create a new two-year civilian transitional authority. the agreement establishes accountability for crimes under international law as a general principle, and tasks the transitional authority to launch a new process aimed at providing justice to victims and holding perpetrators of serious crimes to account. sudanese authorities must also ensure that those responsible for these crimes cannot benefit from immunities, nor amnesties. as the escalation in violence between the sudan armed forces (saf) and the rapid support forces (rsf) spreads throughout sudan, civilians in darfur continue to suffer due to the country’s authority’s failure to provide security, and their inability to deliver justice and accountability for war crimes and other violations 20 years after the darfur conflict began, amnesty international said today. in recent days, civilians have again been killed due to heavy weapons being used in densely-populated areas. it is shocking that 20 years after the darfur conflict began, similarly continues conflicts in south kordofan and blue ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 niles states, the sudanese authorities are still failing to protect civilians or to investigate and prosecute those allegedly responsible for crimes committed during the conflict. civilians in sudan are caught in unending cycles of indiscriminate armed attacks, as well as other serious crimes and abuses (amnesty international, 2022). subsequently, the deadly war between sudan armed forces and rapid support forces has a serious implications on the unity of sudanese as one nation in one country, not only national integration. dynamics of conflict affecting national integration 1political communalism: one of the biggest threats to national integration is the narrow mind-set that prevails over old political identities. sudanese are primarily held captive by various political communal identities due to politics such as traditional ideological political parties, ethnic and tribal affiliation and native administration system. even at administration level, several of states and localities were created based on political loyalties. the distinctions between people on the basis of political ideology, ethnicity and tribalism stimulate community based tension and leadto inter-communal confrontations break out as well as feeding national disintegration process. 2politicization of ethnic and tribal diversity: sudan is made up of numerous varied ethnic and tribal groups, and as a result, the country’s variety offers a hidden threat to its unity. ethnic and tribal diversity, cultural and language divisions in sudanese society have existed for a very long time. these were used by british colony administered and controlled the country, but later after independence the national political elites miss-used the sudanese multi-dimensional diversity, and this consider one of the numerous dynamics driving sociopolitical conflict. 3inequality in a national resources distribution: economic inequality coexists with social diversity in sudan. the majority of the poor are finding it more and harder to make ends meet, while the few wealthy ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 people are getting richer. while the concept of redistribution of resources which reflect the dilemma of imbalance development programs as well as social injustice and deprivation which contributed negatively on raising and continuation of marginalization and conflicts in many parts of sudan since earlier of 1960s and upto-date ( mohammed, 2023). there is growing hostility between the rich and the poor as a result of this wealth disparity. the feelings of national integration cannot flourish in the absence of all this fraternity and harmony. 4cultural distinctions: cultural differences can occasionally significantly impede national integration. it is already evident in the divisions between the northern and southern sudan, which frequently lead to interpersonal conflict and hostility since earlier of independence and finally separation of south sudan as independent country in 2011. that is clear evidence that cultural diversity was miss-used causing unrest and cultural dominants. the debate of cultural exclusion and deprivation by some northern and central dominants cultural has raised earlier among political elites and regional movements with the line of political and economic marginalization discourse. ferguson, 2008). considering ferguson’s(2008) explanation of promoting social integration requirements, mohammed (2023) described in case of sudan, that many ethnic and tribal groups complained that cultural dominance by few entities in different ways. cultural devaluation leads to discrimination and inequality when negative ideas about groups become institutionalized, or embedded in accepted social, political and economic norms, official practices, policies and legislation. these institutionalized systems of rules and norms, or rights regimes, allocate different and unequal rights to particular social groups (moser and norton 2001). conclusion the paper concluded that sudan has witnessed prolong history of civil wars, struggle over political power and inter communal conflicts. these conflicts are ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 interlinked with the dilemma of marginalization and center via peripheral areas conflict. darfur region, south kordofan and blue nile states are most affected peripheral areas by sociopolitical conflicts. the national integration, unity, stability and peaceful coexistence cannot be achieved in an environment where some groups believes that they are different and even they super from others in terms of ethnicity, tribalism, social and cultural dominance. the major dynamics that promote the conflict and undermine national integration includes politicization of ethnicity and tribalism, political communalism, inequality in a national resources distribution, cultural distinctions as well as some national institutions contributed to national disintegration of the country since independence up to date. the unfair relationship between the states of the sudanese periphery such as ( south kordofan, blue nile, darfur)and the ‘center’ has been evident in terms of development and wealth-sharing as well as in the central government’s attempt to impose a unique sudanese identity and the ruling elites unwillingness to recognize and peacefully manage diversity. these factors persuaded the splm to cross the boundary from southern sudan into blue nile (claudio, 2013). the socio-economic, political, and cultural roots of the conflicts are among the most apparent commonalities, with respect to not only south kordofan and blue nile, but also other sudanese peripheral states. arising tribal and ethnic violence and increasing menace to people, mainly scared violence in darfur, blue nile and south kordofan led to death of many people as well coercive internally displaced people. the evidence on ground indicating that, the temporary solutions will not be sustained, unless effective resolve of root causes of conflicts been addressed. with the same line abdulgadir (2015) noted that poverty prevalence is high in conflict-affected states, bringing the national average of people living below the poverty line to 46.6%. 2 conflict-ridden states are considered the poorest in sudan, where the percentages of people living below the poverty line are 69.5% in north darfur, 56.6% in blue nile, 61.2% in south darfur, 55.6% in west darfur and 60% in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 south kordofan. conflicts in sudan cause losses of cohesion and integration of society, affect people’s interrelationships and ignites tribal conflicts. conflicts have also created hatred, stimulated revenge and caused a lot of misery to people in darfur. conflicts have also affected economic development as they have destroyed infrastructure and natural resources, prevented investments and interrupted trade. therefore, solving one or two of these conflicts will not be sufficient to solve other peripheral areas problems. references -+musa, a.m. (2022), ethnic politics in sudan: dynamics of instability. african journal of economics, politics and social studies (1/2022). doi: https//doi.org/10.15804/ajepss.2022.1.06 abdulgadir t. (2015), social protection and safety nets in sudan, united nationsworld food programe, from the centre for social protection at ids. alao, a., 2007. natural resources and conflict in africa. first ed. rochester: university of rochester press. amnesty international’s (2022), annual report update. sudan report, 2022, sudan. http:www.amnesty.org/en/location/ africa boege v and turner m. (2006) conflict prevention and access to freshwater in subsaharan africa: in conflict prevention, management and reduction in africa. ministry of foreign affairs of finland, development policy information unit burton, j. (1990). conflict resolution and prevention: hound mills. macmillan press. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/east-africa-the-horn-and-great-lakes/sudan/report-sudan/ claudio g. (2013) at an impasse: the conflict in blue nile, small arms survey graduate institute of international and development studies 47 avenue blanc, 1202 geneva, switzerland elsheikh( 2005), cited in mey e. ahmed, ( 2013), blue nile: national and indigenous conflict managementcompeting or comlimentary system ? fearon, j (2003) "ethnic and cultural diversity by country. “journal of economic growth, vol. 8, no. 2 (jun., 2003) ferguson, c., (2008),promoting social integration. report commissioned by the united nations department of economic and social affairs (undesa) for the expert group meeting on promoting social integration, helsinki, finland, 8-10 july 2008. international crisis group (2006) “getting theun into darfur” http:// www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/africa/horn of africa/b043 getting the unintodarfur.pdf iom (2011) migration in sudan: a country profile, international organization for migration, khartoum, sudan. johan brosche, (2008), darfur – dimensions and dilemmas of a complex situations, uppsala university, department of peace and conflict research, ucdp paper no.2, 2008. julie flint, (2010), the other war: interarab conflict in darfur. small arms survey, geneva institute of international and development studies, geneva, 2010. marchal r (2007) “the unseen regional implications of the crises in darfur” in de waal (ed.) war in darfur and the search for peace, global equity initiative, harvard university, justice africa mey e. ahmed, (2013), blue nile: national and indigenous conflict managementcompeting or comlimentary system? ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/africa/horn of africa/b043 mohamed a.azzain (2007) “evaluating the darfur peace agreement – a call for an alternative approach to crises management”, conference paper presented at the peace agreement programme african review workshop 7-9 november 200 mohammed a. n. a. imam, ( 2023), reforming social order to enhance social integration in sudan: conceptual analysis and the way forward, iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), volume 28, issue 2, series 1 (february, 2023) 28-32, e-issn: 2279-0837, p-issn: 2279-0845. www.iosrjournals.org moser, c. and norton a.,( 2001), with time conway, clare ferguson and polly vizard. to claim our rights. livelihood security, human rights and sustainable development. odi, london. sudan human security baseline assessment, shsba, (2012) small arms survey , 47 avenue blanc , 1202 geneva , switzerland http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org. undesa (2006). social justice in an open world. the role of the united nations. united nations publications. new york united nations trust fund for human security, untf, ( 2017), recovery from conflict: integrated support for most vulnerable communities in south kordofan. south kordofan strategic plane report, 2017. unrisd (1994), united nations research institute for social development, geneva, unrisd 1994 young c, (2017), ethnicity and politics in africa, critical themes in african studies, boston university african studies center. http:// archive.org/details/ethnicitypolitics. young, c, (2002), ethnicity and politics in africa, boston university, african studies center, https: // hdl. handle.net/2144/23137. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/ sustainable economic development: a survey of textile merchandizing advertizing in akure city markets olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d) department of entrepreneurial arts, school of vocational and entrepreneurial studies, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. phone no: +2348037208162 abstract bearing in mind that sustainable economic development will help the growth of a nation, a survey of textile merchandizing activities in akure markets is chosen as one of the tools to drive the wheels of progress in this direction. therefore, the paper seeks to highlight the importance of these markets to the economic growth of akure and environments with a view to sensitize and sustain their purchasing power in using meager available resources to buy good quality fabrics. the sources and destinations of these fabric goods and other relevant but related structures in textile marketing and advertising are discussed in the paper. keywords: sustainable economy, textile, merchandizing, advertizing. introduction the use of textile materials as body covering and as utilitarian materials cannot be disputed through the ages. attempts to define textiles will be repetitions of previous works of scholars who had written extensively on the subject. although the early popularity of varieties of textile material (fabrics and garments) was noted to have served as trade values for cloth sellers, who chose to serve either as wholesalers or retailers, consumers also find solace on the trade partnership that existed between manufacturers ad representatives (ojo, 2003). textile merchandizing and advertising is a relatively new area of study. in a real sense, merchandizing involves buying and selling of goods by individuals or marketing companies, while advertising draws the attention to goods for sale or services to offer. advertising is encouraged through newspaper advertisements, bill boards, shops, kiosks, complex malls, roadside stores, market stalls and mobile shops. the paper seeks to reveal some merchandizing and advertising strategies of textile materials with a view to create awareness for consumers on their market values, location, types and styles. this is intended to promote patronage and entrepreneurial engagements. it is believed that the informed consumer with the basic knowledge of textile products is skillful shopper who can also judge values and quality of fabrics in order to conserve money. fabrics that are available and affordable are not easily located in cities where many textile markets exist. this peculiarity alone is sufficient reason to make survey of this type as akure city is a non-fabric production center. as a non-production city, the area of production to points of sales is one of the reasons for profiteering. the absence of textile warehouses in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 1 akure as a state capital town also promoted over pricing of goods, since many manufacturers in lagos and other producing states had played down on the activities of major marketers. (ojo & akinrujomu, 2007). in the late 1970s, major fabric marketers who served as wholesalers to textile industries were issued permit cards (license) to distribute and redistribute within subwholesalers and retailers in major cities of nigeria. such manufacturer's representatives were the g. b. ollivant and the leventis stores who operated under the united african company (uac). major distribution centres were gbagi market in ibadan, “gota" balogun market in lagos, benin market in edo state and kano central markets (ojo & akinrujomu, 2007). the lack of these major distribution and re-distribution organizations has encouraged inefficiency in the marketing network of fabric merchandizing in akure and other cities. this study thus becomes relevant. some issues on textile merchandising textiles serve the social and cultural needs of the people as they are often referred to as second human basic need next to agriculture (diogu, 2000 and onyekezini, 2004). however, it is logical to aggregate the importance of the merchandizing of textile goods to the profile of the people of akure as part of the mainstay of their economic activities. on the other hand, concerns about the impact and development of full textile markets in akure city was necessitated by the machine textile industries which had multiplied production of fabrics in thousands consumption. the seeming competitive markets and the development of garment styles in vogue are some important factors in the buying and selling business. textile merchandising is a dynamic social and economic activity in nigeria. in many cities of nigeria, government procedures for quality control of fabrics, environmental impact assessment tax and registrations of market stalls and shops are making the prospects of textile marketing a "no-go" area for businessmen and women. musa (1994) ming (1993) and bamgbola (2009) presented a gory picture of a crippled textile market situation in nigeria and concluded that political and economic uncertainties have hampered textile merchandising. added to this is the penetrable nature of guild of cloth sellers which makes fabric sales a "tom-and-dick affair. textile consumer's interest is a major strategy in buying and selling of fabrics. mbedi (2010) opines that the patronage pattern of african printed fabrics (ankara) is dictated by its cheaper and varied yards for local and international attractive motifs which are commonly found in our markets. the nigerian markets here unchecked influx of the milled textile products. at the same time, the nigeria borders are porous to illegitimate trades in textile business. the "okrika" or "bosikona" types of clothing that are sold in our markets are examples of this. although the sales of illegitimate foreign fabrics are noticeable in akure markets like all other town and village markets across nigeria, it has traders who do not have money for nigerian textile factory fabric bulk purchases. nevertheless the machine textile industry provides most of the products displayed on akure market stalls (akinrujomu, 2002). organs of textile merchandizing and advertising ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 2 textile merchandizing has been described as a business revolving around and turning around for the benefit of end-users (kriger, 1993). kriger (1993) also notes that merchandizing involves various process of planning and executing the concept of price, promotion and distributing ideas, goods and services for a satisfactory exchange between the consumer and the seller. in the same vein, textile advertising promoted the business initiated by the merchandiser, enlightenment and promotion of goods to a large mass of audience. fabric retailing is a major activity in akure and other nigerian markets. as an organ of merchandizing it involves display and presentation of goods in markets. unlike what obtains in advanced countries, retailing of fabrics is done through specialty stores and mail order houses where pamphlets and catalogues of textile items are produced and sent to customers every manufacturing season. in recent times, the internet is another faster source of retailing and advertising of fabrics. textile merchandizing in akure markets there are no noticeable special markets for textile products in akure city, but fabrics are sold in all the markets dotting the geographical areas in the city. as a non-fabric producing town, the circulation of textile goods is dependent on traders who purchased fabrics from lagos, onitsha and ibadan general markets. specifically, textile industries in lagos state are generally patronized for bulk purchases of fabrics by akure cloth traders. below is a list of some sources of fabric goods in lagos and other states: state name of textile location year of product established lagos the nigeria textile oba akran 1960 plain fabric mill plc avenue, ikeja for ankara yarns printing not involved bhojsons industries ilupeju industrial 1971 lace, synthetic plc estate fabrics, yarns (for textile mills) emcast works ltd. 11, ajumobi 1987 screen printed olorunoje works. crescent, off acme road, agidingbi, ikeja united nigerian ibeshe road, 1971 nchemtex textiles plc ikorodu. ankara (nichemtex) african wax lace materials atlantic textile ilupeju industrial 1965 ankara fabrics mfg co. ltd. estate woolen and ikeja wools chiffons synthetic textile manufacturing ltd. afriprint nigeria oshodi apapa january afriprint ankara ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 3 plc expressway 1985 aswani textile mill aswani, isolo ankara fabrics delta asaba textile mill asaba 1964 super print kaduna united nigerian plot ‘o’ industrial may 1964 veritable unit textile plc estate plc, wax, super print, classic wax diamond wax, hollander wax other country gahna akosombo textile volta region, 1964 ankara fabrics limited (atl) akosombo (african print fabrics) source: authors fieldwork conducted for proposed ph.d work (2011) suffice it to say that akure textile merchants serve as middlemen between companies and consumers; the duty of a wholesaler for a smaller city like akure has been eroded. the flow of textile goods from markets in idumota, balogun, oshodi, aswani and gota in lagos: gbagi, kingsway road and onitsha constitute major outlets for the manufacturing industries where akure cloth traders do not have due access. traders in the above mentioned popular markets also constituted themselves as general wholesaler merchants who assist in the retailing processes. akure fabric market traders are not exceptions. fabric traders from all over nigeria converge to do business at any point during the week. as a profit making business, textile markets in akure also enjoy seasonal sales. some specific materials such as lace, organza, guinea brocade and others are patronized during christmas, new year celebration and other notable joyful seasons. african print fabrics (ankara) and other cheaper fabric stuffs are not left out as "aso-ebi (a general uniform for identifying with a specific celebration among the family members). there are also fabrics made in hidden areas of the country which penetrate into the sales of imported textile materials receive special markets without control. attention from selective buyers with big income earnings. fabrics such as lace met are bought in small quantities by patrons. fieldwork and market surveys reveal that sales of traditional fabrics are net prominent as a very minimal market stalls display fabrics like adire, aso-oke band woven cloths and other native materials. factory made imported fabrics like chiffons satins, crepes, silks are exclusive preserves of special stores in oja-oba market in akure. indeed, there are reports of low patronage of these fabrics. many fabric sellers work as retailers and wholesalers thereby eroding the activities of middlemen in the sales process. interactions with fabric sellers and sellers chairpersons reveal that distribution of fabrics in akure are also encouraged by the co-operative and thrift system whereby registered members are given money on loan to activate fabric trading. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 4 the display pattern of textile materials in akure markets follows the methods in other nigerian cities except that the akure shops have now worn new looks due to facelifting of market stalls by the government of ondo state. earlier than now, fabric stalls were subjected to unkempt environment, where buyers and sellers often purchased fabric at the middle of the dual carriage roads along oba adesida. other fabric sellers are also found displaying their goods on bare road-space available at the entrances of the markets. as a fabric-consumer city, akure markets attract a larger patronage with varieties of bargaining antics. such antics as discount pricing and payment on credit terms (which may be short or long term) open another discussions on the desperate nature of fabric buyers. as fabric consumers enjoy higher incomes, they have also become mole fashionable and bound to replace old fabric stuff with new ones. for example, ankara fabrics life span is short, so a replacement from time to time is often desirable, so the patronage pattern increases as replacements take place. fabric distribution network fabrics are bought directly as explained earlier in this paper from markets in familiarity in business circles. it is not a new thing that minor/petty traders will have to neighboring states. interactions with fabric sellers reveal that not every fabric seller in akure could travel to buy goods for lack of finance. so the distribution network hinges on the financial capability of the retailer. oftentimes, retailers of fabrics in akure got fabrics from major shop owners on credit basis, resell for their own profits, and then return the cost price to the original owner. the arrangement is often based on trusts and lean on major distributors for their existence. by this arrangement fabric are distributed without hindrances. the unsuspecting customers purchase fabrics without the detail knowledge of these transactions. well organized metropolitan markets, trusts are based on legality of the trade. for instance, retailers are registered with permit cards "license" to take credit from wholesalers who represent the manufacturers. ojo & akinrujomu (2007) reveal how wholesalers purchase larger quantity of fabrics from manufacturers or merchandizing stores little capital base. the absence of this legal pattern in akure textile market distribution and re-distribution tend to abuse trusts and retard the flow of distribution networking. location of akure city market a market is a regular gathering place where delivery of goods, exchange offerings (buy and sell) and customer sellers relationship foster (easey, 1995). market creates avenue for the promotion of economic activities among eager and anticipating customers. the sustainable economic development as regards buy and sell is dependent on its market points: in some towns and villages, market days are observed as special days of reaping the gains of labor. this perhaps explains the reason why the convergence of varieties of traders of wider range of goods becomes a recurrent affair in market places. the city of akure is not an exemption in this regard. as a prominent state capital city of ondo state located in south-western nigeria, many markets for commercial activities are ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 5 found in the nooks and crannies of the city. the main market oja-oba also nicknamed erekesan is located at the centre of the city very close to the oba's palace. the market was rebuilt by the agagu administration with textile stores dominating the main entrance. the market houses different textile materials for sale to customers, and extended towards arakale road on the eastern side. the textile material section dominates the ultra modern market with the services of tailors, seamstresses and embroidery makers. also houses mostly imported textile materials with few local textiles on sale (now the market is under renovation) nepa market in akure is classified as the most expensive and least patronized for clothing materials. other lock up shops and open textile stalls that are found around "nepa" market these special stores which enjoy minimum patronage. probably due to the renovation that has recently taken place. special stalls are not available for aso-oke woven fabrics or to her traditional cloths in akure market. unlike in ondo and owo towns where special stalls are created for ofi ondo and other native stuffs, the markets in akure are dominated but imported and machine made fabrics. fieldwork conducted reveals that the importance of apprenticeship system in the trade of buy and sell of fabrics cannot be over-emphasized. apprentices learn how merchandizing business goes from day-to-day, apparently graduating to start their own textile shops. this is a multiplying effect of textile merchandizing among traders in akure city. pricing and prices of ankara fabrics in akure markets fluctuate from time to time the table below shows a tentative price list of fabrics as at the time of the field tentative prices of ankara fabrics in akure markets types of ankara quantity of fabrics rate elegance london wax six yards 3000 hi-target bloc six yards 2500 hi-target ordinary six yards 1500 veritable hi track block wax six yards 3500 java gold opulen six yards 800 ghana wax (printed fabric) six yards 2, 5000 wooden wax six yards 7000 nigeria wax (printed fabric) six yards 2200 hollywood wax block six yards 1000/1500 conclusion market places act as valuers and "disposing" grounds for locally and imported textile materials. the distribution patterns and networking have become the concerns observers in academics. the paper focuses on akure markets because of the absence of contemporary researches as regards merchandising in the area. as the textile markets expand, parking spaces and accessibility to market facilities and public transportation becomes very important. only recently the state government created a mini parking space for motorists traders and buyers in erekesan market for easy accessibility and shopping. other renovated markets in akure are also built with car-parking spaces. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 6 the manufacturing textile industries should device a monitoring network for their products to reach points of sales as at when required. this will encourage small practices in the textile merchandising process are cogs in the trade. for example consumers complain of shortage in yards of fabrics sold to them after purchase. some ripped-out holes are found in the folds of the fabrics which perhaps is partly a machine fault from the industry, or a wrong storage process by the retailer. the standard organization of nigeria (s.o.n.) is expected to deploy monitoring team to reduce complaints of fabric consumers to consumer complaints commission (ccc) if ever the organization exists. references ajayi, t. (2002). textile as tools for national development published in 'design history in nigeria (ed. j.t. agberia), port-harcourt pp. 269-278. akinrujomu, o. s. (2002). from hand-made to machine an overview of yoruba textiles. in design history. (ed. j. t. agberia) port-harcourt. pp. 222. bamgbola o. t. (2009). fashion design theory in globalize world in journal of fashion and marketing management, 3(1), 413-414. diogu, g. o. (2002): patterns of creative growth in contemporary nigerian textiles: a survey. journal of creative arts, port-harcourt, nigeria. 251-260. easey, m. (1995). fashion marketing. oxford. osney mead publishers. kriger, c. (1993). textile production and gender in the sokoto caliphate: in journal of african art history, 3, 361. mbedi information centre (2010). textile and clothing in nigeria overview in proceedings of the investment conference, india internet document accessed 25-02-2010. ming, c. c. (1993). chairman's statement in united nigeria textile plc. annual report and account for the year ended 1993. musa, s. a. (1994). chairman's statement: in r.t. briscoe (nigeria) plc. annual report and accounts for the year ended in 1994.236. ojo, e. b. (2003). advancing technology in creativity: a situation report of design studios in some selected textile industries in nigeria. in perspectives on culture and creativity in nigerian art (ed, e.o. filani) pp.45. oio, e. b. & akinrujomu, o. s. (2007). judging values in the nigerian market. an evaluation of textile merchandizing and advertising: in art, design technology in the 21 century. a publication of culture qnd creative arts forum, lagos (ed.e. o. kilani) pp. 81-89. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 7 | july 2021 http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh 7 community involvement strategy and sustainable educational development in south western nigeria omowunmi joshua olusegun department of politics and international relations, leadcity university, ibadan nigeria. omowunmijoshua7@gmail.com abstract this study investigated the influence of community involvement strategy on sustainable educational developments in southwest nigeria. survey research design was adopted in order to achieve set objectives. structured questionnaire was administered to a sample size of 9,215 participants within the 6 states that formed the south-west states using the krejcie and morgan sample size calculatorfrom an estimated population size of 46,706,662. a remarkable response rate of 7,815 (84.8%) duly filled and returned questionnaire. graphical representation, descriptive statistics and analysis of variance through a simple linear regression was employed to achieve set aim as the findings revealed a positive and significant influence of community involvement strategy on sustainable educational development. the high response rate highlights the level of engagement and interest from community members in the educational process. hence, active participation of community members in educational initiative positively affects various aspects of educational development, including student learning, engagement and achievement in southwest nigeria. keywords: community involvement strategy, sustainable educational development, regression, southwest nigeria. 1.0 introduction community involvement plays a crucial role in promoting educational development and improving learning outcomes. it encompasses a range of strategies that engage various stakeholders, including parents, teachers, students, community leaders, and local organizations, in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of educational initiatives. when communities actively participate in educational processes, it fosters collaboration, increases accountability, and ensures the relevance of programs to the unique needs and aspirations of learners (khemani, 2004). numerous studies have shown that community involvement contributes to enhanced educational outcomes and student achievement. for example, research conducted in disadvantaged communities has found that effective community involvement strategies can positively impact student motivation, engagement, and academic performance (epstein, 2001; henderson & mapp, 2002). furthermore, community involvement in education has been associated with reduced dropout rates, improved school attendance, and increased graduation rates (center for mental health in schools, 2008). community involvement strategies in educational development encompass a range of activities and approaches. these include parent-teacher associations, school advisory committees, volunteer programs, community outreach initiatives, and collaborations with local businesses and organizations. by involving parents and community members in decision-making processes, such as curriculum development and school governance, it affirms their active role as partners in education (deslandes, 2016). a key component of effective community involvement strategies in educational development is building strong partnerships between schools, families, and the community at large. collaboration and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 shared decision-making ensure that educational initiatives align with the community's aspirations and cultural values, thus enhancing their relevance and effectiveness (hill & tyson, 2009). moreover, community involvement provides valuable resources and expertise that can support schools in addressing complex challenges, such as improving school infrastructure, providing mentorship programs, or creating opportunities for experiential learning (kruk, kujawa-myles, & angrist, 2017). community involvement also serves as a catalyst for educational equity and social justice. by actively engaging marginalized or disadvantaged communities, it helps address disparities in access to quality education, ensures representation of diverse perspectives, and empowers individuals to advocate for their rights (byrne-jimenez & lee, 2020; manzon, 2008). community involvement strategies create a platform for dialogue and collaboration, enabling community members to voice their concerns, suggest improvements, and actively shape policies that impact educational opportunities (foster & wennmann, 2000). the motivation arising from this paper is to critically fine-tune the impact community involvement strategy has on educational development in southwest nigeria. to make a statistical inference on the set aim, below claim is stated using null hypothesis: h0: community involvement as a strategy has no significant effect on educational development in southwest nigeria 2.0 literature review 2.1 empirical review empirical studies have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of community involvement strategies on educational development and student outcomes. researchers have explored various aspects of community involvement, including its effects on academic achievement, student engagement, and school improvement initiatives. this empirical review highlights key findings from relevant studies on the relationship between community involvement strategies and educational development. multiple studies have found a significant positive association between community involvement and academic achievement. a study by fan and chen (2001) examined the impact of family and community involvement on student achievement in a sample of chinese middle schools. the findings revealed that higher levels of community involvement were associated with improved academic performance, particularly in mathematics and language arts. similarly, research conducted by jeynes (2005) synthesized data from 51 studies and found that community involvement positively influenced student achievement in diverse populations and varied educational settings. a study by mcneal jr. (1999) examined the influence of parental involvement on student engagement in secondary schools. the results demonstrated that students whose parents were actively involved in their education were more likely to be engaged in school activities, such as attending class regularly, completing assignments, and participating in extracurricular programs. similarly, a meta-analysis conducted by wang and holcombe (2010) found a positive correlation between community involvement and student engagement across multiple studies. bryk and schneider (2002) investigated the impact of community involvement on school reforms in chicago. the researchers found that schools with more extensive community involvement experienced greater improvements in student achievement, attendance, and discipline. another study by miron and mooney (2016) examined the influence of community involvement in school decision-making processes. the findings indicated that schools with strong community involvement had higher levels of student success indicators, including graduation rates and college enrollment. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 an empirical review by bolivar (2005) explored the impact of community involvement on educational equity in urban schools. the study found that community involvement strategies helped address disparities in access to educational resources, fostered inclusive practices, and empowered marginalized communities. furthermore, research by souto-manning, swick, & jones (2016) indicated that community involvement facilitated dialogue and collaboration among diverse stakeholders, leading to more equitable educational policies and practices. 2.2 theoretical review this paper adopted thecivic engagement theory. this theory focuses on the active participation and involvement of individuals in their communities and society (verba et al., 1995). in the realm of education, community involvement is viewed as a form of civic engagement that goes beyond traditional parent-school relations and includes broader community members (checkoway & aldanabeceril, 2006). engaging in educational development initiatives builds individuals' sense of civic responsibility, democratic values, and social identities (kahne & westheimer, 2003). by participating in collaborative decision-making processes, community members develop a shared ownership of educational outcomes, leading to improved educational programs and policies (stewart-wells & maurrasse, 2000). this theory emphasizes the transformative power of community involvement in shaping educational development by fostering active citizenship and promoting democratic education practices. 3.0 methodology we adopted survey research method in this paper. this was done through the use of questionnaires as the research instrument to elicit responses from participants of the study. the target participants are dwellers of the identified areas/local governments selected for inclusion in the sample. the data collected through the use of questionnaire was quantified in order to provide the researchers with numerical data that can be explored statistically. south-west nigeria was selected as the study area. this was as a result of its high literacy level of participants in this geo-political zone as compared to other five (5) zones in nigeria. this zones consists of six states namely: ekiti, lagos, ogun, ondo, osun and oyo. the target population of this research consists of all dwellers in the six (6) states that are made up of south-western nigeria. the total population of the southwest geopolitical zone is estimated to be around 46,706,662 people (nbs, 2021). these states are divided into three (3) senatorial districts each, making a total of eighteen (18) senatorial districts altogether. this senatorial districts was made up of one hundred and thirty seven (137) local governments the research adopted a multi-stage sampling procedure. adopting multi-stage sampling made the sample selection in this study to be in three stages. the multi-stage sampling method is commonly used when the population is scattered over a wide area. multistage sampling usually introduces a complex dependence in the selection of the final units, which makes asymptotic results quite difficult to prove. the first stage is based on the selection of the local government areas partaking in the study per each of the senatorial districts, the second stage is based on the selection of communities within the selected local government areas while the third stage is on the selection of the respondents. 137 local government areas make up the six (6) southwest states. out of these, convenient sampling procedure was used to select 23%(31) of the entire local government for inclusion in the sample.proportional allocation procedure was adopted in selecting thirty-one (31) local government areas for inclusion within the state per senatorial districts out of which the population of the conveniently selected local government areas is based upon for selection of total respondents. a total of 9,216 community members was randomly selected across the 31 lgas using the krejcie and morgan (1970) sample size calculator (288 sample members estimated from each local government area). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 closed-ended questionnaire was administered to the sample community members where 84.8% of the research instrument was duly filled and returned. table 3.1: reliability statistics variables items no. cronbach’s alpha community involvement strategy 8 0.868 educational development 8 0.697 source: researchers’ self-computation from table 3.1, results indicated that the research instrument used in the collection of data is reliability as the reliability statistics for each of the examined variables are within 0.697 to 0.868. this implies that the questions raised through the research instrument is valid and measures what it is purported to measure in gaining insight from the research objectives. descriptive and inferential methods of data analyses was employed on the data collected. the descriptive part consists of graphical representation of socio-demographic characteristics of participants, frequency, percentage and mean response score while the inferential method is not limited to analysis of variance via simple linear regression analysis.the simple linear regression model fitted is expressed in equation (1) as: ���� = �� + ������ + �� (1) where edt represent average response on educational development; cis represent the average response on community involvement strategy; �� and �� are parameters to be estimated while �� is the error term. 4.0 results and discussion 4.1 demographic data analysis fig. 1: distribution of respondents by southwest states. distribution of the respondents by states can be depicted in fig. 1. result showed that 15.9% of the respondents were domiciled in lagos, 22.5% were from ogun, while 19.7% were from ondo. other states such as osun, oyo and ekiti were represented by 16.6%, 17.1% and 8.3% respondents respectively. this implies that ogun state has the highest number of participants in the survey, which might be due to the respondents’ high compliance in filling the research instruments compared to other southwestern states. the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. fig. 2: distribution of respondents by gender ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 fig. 2 above shows the gender distributions of the respondents who participated in the study, where 54.04% of the respondents are male, while 45.96% of the respondents are female. this implies that majority of the respondents used in this study as selected from the respective southwestern states are male. fig. 3 shows the distribution of the respondents based on their highest educational qualification, where 17.3% has primary/secondary education as their qualification, 47.5% has hnd/b.sc, 27.01% has ma/mba/msc while 8.19% has other qualifications. this implies that majority of the respondents are hnd/b.sc. degree holder. however, irrespective of the educational qualification of the respondents, their respective highest level of education may not vary their perceptions on the community involvement as an enhancer to sustainable developments. on the religion of the respondents, result of fig. 4 indicated that 52.5% of them are christians, 41.56% practices islam while 5.92% practices other religion. this implies that majority of the respondents practice christianity as a religion. from fig. 5 showing the distribution of the respondents by marital status, result showed that 24.2% of them are single, 46.7% are married, 22.4% are divorced/separated while 6.8% are widow/widower. this implies that majority of the respondents participating in the survey are married. taking the occupation of the respondents into consideration, result indicated that 32.45% of them are civil servant, 29.47% are trader, 21.91% are students while 16.17% are entrepreneurs. this implies that majority of the respondents who participated in this study are majority civil servants. the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. fig. 3: distribution of respondents by highest educational qualification fig. 4: distribution of respondents by religion the image cannot be display ed. your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. restart y our computer, and then open the file again. if the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again. fig. 5: distribution of respondents by marital status fig. 6: distribution of respondents by occupation ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 4.2 descriptive statistics table 1: perceptions of respondents on community involvement strategy s/n community involvement strategy sda da ns a sa total mean/ sd 1 community involvement has helped to reduce the rate of poverty in southwest, nigeria. f 1880 1232 1887 1327 1488 7815 2.91 % 24.0 16.0 24.0 17.0 19.0 100.0 [1.43] 2 community involvement has helped to ensure gender equality in southwest, nigeria. f 1072 1048 840 2871 1984 7815 3.74 % 14.0 13.0 10.7 36.7 25.0 100.0 [1.35] 3 community involvement has helped to achieve clean water and sanitation in southwest, nigeria. f 1240 1096 1040 1559 2880 7815 4.02 % 16.0 14.0 13.3 20.0 36.9 100.0 [1.374] 4 community involvement has helped to promote good health and wellbeing in southwest, nigeria. f 1192 936 1751 1760 2176 7815 3.36 % 15.0 12.0 22.0 23.0 28.0 100.0 [1.393] 5 community involvement has helped to fasttrack economic growth in southwest, nigeria. f 1728 1015 872 1624 2576 7815 4.04 % 22.0 13.0 11.0 21.0 33.0 100.0 [1.424] 6 community involvement has helped to foster peace, justice and strong institutions in southwest, nigeria. f 1143 1064 1001 2337 2272 7815 4.39 % 15.0 14.0 12.8 29.9 29.0 100.0 [1.404] 7 community involvement strategy has made southwest, nigeria to witness growth in the areas of industry, innovation and infrastructures. f 1304 1064 912 1911 2624 7815 4.19 % 17.0 14.0 11.7 24.0 33.6 100.0 [0.358] 8 community involvement strategy has ensured inclusiveness and access to equitable education in southwest, nigeria. f 1208 984 984 1855 2784 7815 3.86 % 15.0 13.0 12.6 24.0 35.6 100.0 [1.352] grand mean/standard deviation 3.81 [1.261] sa = strongly agree; a=agree; ns = not sure; d=disagree; sda=strongly disagree; figures in [ ] represents standard deviations source: field survey, 2022 table 1 above shows the responses of the respondents in relation to community involvement strategy in southwest nigeria. analysis made on the reduction of poverty showed that 1488(19.0%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to reduce the rate of poverty in southwest nigeria, 1327(17%) agreed, 1887(24%) were not sure, 1232(16%) disagreed, while 1880(24%) strongly disagree. a mean value of 2.91 implies that majority of the respondents were not sure that community involvement has helped to reduce the rate of poverty in southwest nigeria. analysis of item 2 of the table showed that about 1984(25%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to ensure gender equality in southwest nigeria, 2871(36.7%) agreed, 840(10.7%) were not sure, 1048(13%) disagreed while 1072(14%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 3.74 implies that majority of the respondents agreed that community involvement has helped to ensure gender equality in southwest nigeria. from item 3 of the table, result showed that 2880(36.9%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to achieve clean water and sanitation in southwest nigeria, 1559(20%) agreed, 1040(13.3%) were not sure, 1096(14%) disagreed while 1240(16%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 4.02 implies that majority of the respondents were not sure if community involvement has helped in in achieving clean water and sanitation in the region. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 analysis of item 4 of the table indicated that 2176(28%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to promote good health and wellbeing in southwest nigeria, 1760(23%) agreed, 1751(22%) were not sure, 936(12%) disagreed while 1192(15%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 3.36 implies that majority of the respondents were not sure if community involvement has helped to promote good health and wellbeing in southwest nigeria. on the analysis of item 5 of the table, result indicated that 2576(33%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to fast-track economic growth in southwest nigeria; 1624(21%) agreed, 872(11%) were not sure, 1015(13%) disagreed while 1728(22%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 4.39 implies that majority of the respondents agreed that community involvement has helped to fast-track economic growth in southwest nigeria. analysis of item 6 of the table showed that about 2272(29%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement has helped to foster peace, justice and strong institutions in southwest nigeria; 2337(29.9%) agreed, 1001(12.8%) were not sure, 1064(14%) disagreed while 1143(15%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 3.39 implies that majority of the respondents agreed on the opinion that community involvement has helped to peace, justice and strong institutions in southwest nigeria has been fostered through community involvement. from analysis of item 7 of the table, result indicated that 2624(33.6%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement strategy has made southwest nigeria to witness growth in the areas of industry, innovations and infrastructures; 1911(24%) agreed, 912(11.7%) were not sure, 1064(14%) disagreed while 1304(17%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 4.19 implies that majority of the respondents agreed on the opinion that community involvement strategy has made southwest, nigeria to witness growth in the areas of industry, innovation and infrastructures. on the analysis of item 8 of the table, result showed that 2784(35.6%) of the respondents strongly agreed that community involvement strategy has ensured inclusiveness and access to equitable education in southwest, nigeria; 1855(24%) agreed, 984(13%) were not sure, 984(13%) disagreed while 1208(15%) of them strongly disagreed. a mean response score of 3.86 implies that majority of the respondents agreed that there is inclusiveness and access to equitable education in southwest, nigeria via community involvement strategy. from the responses above, it can be deduced that community involvement strategy in the southwest, nigeria is high, as a grand mean of 3.81 was recorded which is above the acceptable mean of 3.49. the respondents opined that community involvement has neither helped in reducing the rate of poverty in the region nor promote good health and wellbeing, but ensure gender equality, achievement of clean water and sanitation, economic growth fast-tracking and access to equitable education. it was also found that majority of the respondents understands what community involvement entails as shown from their perceptions. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 table 2: perceptions of respondents on educational development s/n educational development sda da ns a sa total mean/sd 1 education in southwest, nigeria is now inclusive because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development f 736 1039 776 2712 2552 7815 3.68 % 9.4 13.3 9.9 34.7 32.7 100.0 [1.42] 2 there is equity in the education sector of southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development. f 648 755 816 3028 2568 7815 3.78 % 8.3 9.8 10.4 38.7 32.9 100.0 [1.415] 3 there is a lifelong learning opportunity in the education sector of southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development. f 1027 864 896 2052 2976 7815 3.65 % 13.1 11.1 11.5 26.3 38.1 100.0 [1.395] 4 all girls and boys complete free education in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development. f 1327 1016 1832 1840 1800 7815 2.23 % 17.0 13.0 23.4 23.5 23.0 100.0 [1.384] 5 there are remarkable learning outcomes in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. f 1767 1472 1552 1648 1376 7815 2.92 % 22.6 18.8 19.9 21.1 17.6 100.0 [1.415] 6 education is easily accessible in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. f 1303 1056 544 1648 3264 7815 3.58 % 16.7 13.5 7.0 21.1 41.8 100.0 [1.438] 7 education centres are well secured and safe in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. f 1696 1304 1752 1560 1503 7815 2.98 % 21.7 16.7 22.4 20.0 19.2 100.0 [1.416] 8 students in southwest, nigeria have access to world class education resources because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. f 1000 1256 1528 1864 2167 7815 2.38 % 12.8 16.1 19.6 23.9 27.7 100.0 1.771 grand mean/standard deviation 3.15 [1.457] sa = strongly agree; a=agree; ns = not sure; d=disagree; sda=strongly disagree; figures in [ ] represents standard deviations source: field survey, 2022 taking educational development in southwest nigeria into consideration, result of table 2 showed from item 1 that 2552(32.7%) of the respondents strongly agreed that education in southwest, nigeria is now inclusive because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development; 2712(34.2%) agreed, 776(9.9%) not sure, 1039(13.3%) disagreed while 736(9.4%) strongly disagreed. the mean response score of 3.68 implies that majority of the respondents were of the opinion (agreed) that education in southwest nigeria is now inclusive due to its community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. item 2 showing responses based on equity showed that 2568(32.9%) of the respondents strongly agreed that there is equity in the education sector of southwest nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development, 3028(38.7%) agreed, 816(10.4%) not sure, 755(9.8%) disagreed while 648(8.3%) strongly disagreed. it cannot be overemphasized from the mean response score of 3.78 that majority of the respondents agreed that community involvement strategy creates equity in education sector for sustainable development. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 result of item 3 of the table above showed that 2976(38.1%) of the respondents strongly agreed that there is a lifelong learning opportunity in the education sector of southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development, 2052(26.3%) agreed, 896(11.5%) not sure, 864(11.1%) disagreed, while 1027(13.1%) strongly disagree. a mean response value of 3.65 implies that majority of the respondents agreed on the opinion that education sector in the southwest zone has lifelong opportunity because of the community strategy applied towards its sustainable development. on the area of free education via community involvement, result of item 4 of the table showed that 1800(23%) strongly agreed that all girls and boys complete free education in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development, 1840(23.5%) agreed, 1832(23.4%) not sure, 1016(13%) disagreed while 1327(17%) strongly disagreed. mean response of 2.23 implies that majority of the respondents disagreed on the opinion that boys and girls complete their education freely in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied towards its sustainable development. taking item 5 into cognizance, result indicated from the table that 1376(17.6%) strongly agreed that there are remarkable learning outcomes in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development, 1648(21.1%) agreed, 1552(19.9%) not sure, 1472(18.8%) disagreed while 1767(22%) strongly disagreed. result from the mean response score of 2.92 implies that majority of the respondents neither agree nor disagreed that there are remarkable learning outcomes in southwest nigeria taking community involvement strategy into consideration. on the accessibility of education in the southwest nigeria zone, result depicted in item 6 showed that 3264(21.1%) of the respondents strongly agreed that education is easily accessible in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development, 1648(21.1%) agreed, 544(7%) not sure, 1056(13.5%) disagreed while 1303(%16.7%) strongly disagreed. from the mean response score of 3.58 of the item, it implies that majority of the respondents agreed on the accessibility of education due to the community involvement strategy put in place. on item 7 portraying the security of education centres in the southwest nigeria, result indicated that 1503(19.2%) of the respondents strongly agreed that education centres are well secured and safe in southwest, nigeria because of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development, 1560(20%) agreed, 1752(22.4%) were not sure, 1304(16.7%) disagreed while 1696(21.7%) strongly disagreed. buttressing the result from the mean response score of 2.98 implies that majority of the respondents could neither agree nor disagree that there is safety and security of education centres in southwest nigeria as a result of the community involvement strategy applied to sustainable development. on the analysis of item 8, result showed that 2167(27.7%) of the target respondents strongly agreed that students in southwest, nigeria have access to world class education resources because of the community involvement applied to sustainable development, 1864(23.9%) agreed, 1528(19.6%) were not sure, 1256(16.1%) disagreed while 1000(12.8%) strongly disagreed. a mean response value of 2.38 implies that majority of the respondents disagreed and that students in the southwest, nigeria do not have access to world class education resources for sustainable development to thrive while taking community involvement into cognizance. from the responses above, it can be deduced from the grand mean of 3.15 which is below the acceptable mean of 3.5 that community involvement on the educational development in southwest nigeria is neither effective or not. the respondents’ opinion on educational development via cis is not effective in terms of gender parity in completing their education, remarkable learning outcomes, security and safety of education and having access to world class education resources. hence, communities do not participate fully in educational development of their local areas, possibly as a ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 perception that government should be only one to provide for the needed amenities that will enhance education in the southwest zone. however, the local communities see education as being inclusive, its equity and lifelong learning opportunity in the sector, thereby creating sustainable development. 4.3 regression analysis and test of model significance h0: community involvement as a strategy has no significant effect on educational development in southwest nigeria; table 3: regression analysis of community involvement and educational development in southwest nigeria variables parameters estimates std. error t-statistics p-value constant �� 2.907 .034 85.246 .000 cis �� .078 .010 7.481 .000 f-statistic = 55.971 (p-value 0.000); r = 0.084; r-squared = 0.007; adj. r-squared = 0.007 table 3 shows estimates of linear relationship existing between community involvement strategy (cis) and its associated perceived educational developments (edt) in southwest nigeria. correlation (r) coefficient of 0.084 implied a low positive relationship between perceived cis and edt. the r-square coefficient of 0.007 showed that 0.7% variation in cis can be explained by variation in edt taking southwest nigeria into consideration. the adjusted r-square of 0.007 implies that adding other predictors of educational developments into the model do not improve the model due to non-variation of the adjusted r-square to its r-squared value. more so coefficients of the adjusted r-square showed that there may be other variables not mentioned in study that may influence educational development of south west nigeria. in addition, the f-statistic of 55.971 with associated p-value 0.000 < = 0.05 confirms the adequacy of the model in adjudging that educational development in southwest nigeria is significantly influenced by community involvement strategy taking the scope of study into consideration. estimate of the constant term of 2.907 implies that educational developments in southwest nigeria has far been in existence ab-initio, positive and statistically significant (p-value < 0.05) without community involvement strategy.additively,estimate of the predictor variable parameter indicates that a unit increase in cis significantly increases edt by 0.078. however, significance of the perceptions of respondents on community involvement strategy and educational developments can be evidenced from the t-statistic of 7.481 with associated p-value of 0.000 < 0.05 level of significance. hence, the rejection of h02 and thereby conclude that community involvement strategy has significant influence on educational development in southwest nigeria. 4.4 discussion of findings the result corroborates with 160 where mental ownership and participation for innovation and environmental education and education sustainable development delves into issues connecting observations on current theoretical views on 'ownership of participation' with practical experience on educational development projects in a variety of nations such as thailand, namibia, and denmark. their findings indicated that while the process of developing mental ownership' is a neglected aspect of successful participatory approaches in development efforts as well as in education, there is good reason to consider the hypothesis that the level of mental ownership that a participatory initiative is capable of generating among participants corresponds with the experienced quality of the participatory approach. community participation in education is a process that facilitates the realization of improving educational quality and the promotion of democracy in the society. this will be strengthened if adult and non-formal education is utilized in awakening the consciousness of various communities which the schools are meant for. this is because adult and non-formal education adopts strategies through which both the community and the school should intensify efforts in realizing the set objectives. the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 partnership will also engender the expected standard of education in nigeria (ewelum & mbara, 2016). the findings of hamid et al. (2013), sharma et al. (2014) and kumar (2021) corroborate the findings of this study as most of the educationists are realizing the significance and benefits of community participation in school education and also recognized community participation as one of the ways to improve educational access and quality. community participation is significantly correlated to school community relation (hamid et al., 2013). report community-based approaches to educational development have the potential to enhance ownership, accountability, and efficiency. community involvement in education facilitates the identification of community-specific education issues and informs the development of strategies to remove barriers to access and quality in education within a given community as the overall effect of community participation in school was positive (kumar, 2021). 5.0 conclusion and recommendations in conclusion, community involvement is a powerful strategy for educational development that emphasizes collaboration, engagement, and equity. when communities actively participate in education initiatives, it enhances the relevance and effectiveness of programs, promotes student achievement, and addresses systemic disparities. by fostering strong partnerships and harnessing community resources, educational institutions can create inclusive learning environments that reflect the unique needs and aspirations of their learners.community involvement/participation should be given more priority as it has been perceived to be sacrosanct when carrying out development projects within the southwest region of the country. references bolivar, j. m. (2005). towards a framework for critical community involvement in urban schooling. educational review, 57(4), 435-449. bryk, a. s., & schneider, b. l. (2002). trust in schools: a core resource for improvement. russell sage foundation. byrne-jimenez, a., & lee, d. (2020). community engagement, dialogue, and transformation: the role of community in addressing disparities in education. journal of educational change, 21(3), 363386. center for mental health in schools. (2008). community involvement in schools: what can make it work? ucla center for mental health in schools. deslandes, r. (2016). school and community partnerships in education. springer. epstein, j. l. (2001). school, family, and community partnerships: preparing educators and improving schools. westview press. ewelum j.n & mbara k.u (2016). community involvement/participation in nigerian educational system: the role of adult and non-formal education. the international journal of social sciences and humanities invention, 3(6), 2284-2291 fan, x., & chen, m. (2001). parental involvement and students' academic achievement: a metaanalysis. educational psychology review, 13(1), 1-22. foster, p., & wennmann, a. (2000). tackling exclusion through community and education: challenges for future practice. institute for public policy research. hamid, et al. (2013). effect of community participation and school community relations, middle east journal of scientific research 16 (3):378-382. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 henderson, a. t., & mapp, k. l. (2002). a new wave of evidence: the impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. national center for family and community connections with schools. hill, n. e., & tyson, d. f. (2009). parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. developmental psychology, 45(3), 740-763. jeynes, w. h. (2005). a meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. urban education, 40(3), 237-269. khemani, s. (2004). taking stock of the local institutional landscape: an inventory of the prerequisites for effective decentralization [policy research working paper no. 3243]. world bank. kruk, m. e., kujawa-myles, s., & angrist, n. (2017). building better health systems: community voices on improving health service delivery in rural rwanda. oxfam america. kumar m. (2021). community participation in school education. international journal of science and research (ijsr). 10(1), 1245-1252 manzon, m. (2008). inclusion and community development: umbrella project for secondand thirdchance education. canadian journal of education, 31(2), 415-437. mcneal jr., r. b. (1999). parental involvement as social capital: differential effectiveness on science achievement, truancy, and dropping out. social forces, 78(1), 117-144. miron, g., & mooney, m. (2016). the impact of community involvement on schools: a meta-analytic review. review of educational research, 86(3), 602-634. sharma, s., burnette, d., bhattacharya, a., & nath, s. (2014).community participation in primary education. model districts education project columbia global centers, south asia, mumbai.retrieved on 14/04/16 http://globalcenters.columbia.edu/mumbai/mumbai/files/globalcenters_mumbi/13. souto-manning, m., swick, k. j., & jones, m. s. (2016). understanding community involvement in education and its consequences for justice. theory into practice, 55(2), 99-108. wang, m. t., & holcombe, r. (2010). adolescents' perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. american educational research journal, 47(3), 633-662. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 10 | october 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 climate organization and work load the effect of work stress and intention to leave employees bank mandiri taspen in bali ni made ary yunharmini 1 wayan gede supartha 2 1.2 faculty of economics and business, udayana university, bali, indonesia e-mail: nimadearyyunharmini@gmail.com abstract organizations optimizing resources have done it by restructuring the organization, as an effort to restore public trust, strengthen and increase competitiveness. organizational employees or human resources (hr) are the key success factors to win the competition in the era of globalization coupled with the implementation of free trade. stress exists in every organization both large and small workplaces and the organization becomes so complex because of the stress of the workplace it exists. this research will be carried out at melati bank denpasar branch office as the object ofresearch is motivated by institutional restructuring due to changes in name and share ownership. the sampling method used in this study is the saturated or census sample method. the sample used is the entire population used as a sample so that the number of samples in this study were 125 people. data analysis techniques in this study used descriptive statistical analysis and inferential statistical analysis, namely the classic assumption test and the path analysis method. the results of this study suggest that workload and organizational climate have a positive and significant effect on work stress, and work stress has a positive and significant effect on intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen. the results also showed that work stress mediated the effect of workload and organizational climate on intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen. keywords: organizational climate, work load, work stress, intention to leave introduction some organizations optimize resources by doing organizational restructuring, as an effort to restore public trust, strengthen and increase competitiveness. restructuring is an activity to change the structure of the company, in an increasingly bigger or increasingly lean position (business downsizing). that is, restructuring can mean the efforts made by the organization in order to enlarge its organizational structure, including through acquisitions. acquisition (holding company) is an effort to merge an organization with the aim of owning shares in one or more other organizations or regulating one or more other organizations. examples of organizations conducting holding companies are: bank sinar harapan bali became bank mandiri taspen (bank mantap). the banking restructuring was carried out as an effort to restore public confidence, the recapitalization program, the credit restructuring program, the improvement of banking regulations, and the improvement of the bank supervision function. likewise, the establishment of bank mandiri taspen (bank mantap) aims to be the best and most trusted partner in empowering and prospering. restoring public confidence in the banking sector is carried out by prioritizing the bank mantap mission, which is creating business growth and prosperity through the best financial products and services and focusing on the needs of msmes and retirees (mandiri taspen, 2017). the impact of the acquisition process for banks that join, is indicated internally and externally by the bank. banks that berganbung certainly experience many changes in terms of organizational management, such as the change in incompetent management or the operating strategy such as employee reduction (with early retirement), reduction of bank branches, and others. whereas regarding managerial roles, it certainly produces professional employees, because the new bank will choose employees from the merged bank. according to kristina (2008) organizational restructuring will lead to potential uncertainties that may accompany these changes, where the changes affect ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 1 communication, decision making, clarification of the role and welfare of the organization's employees. as explained earlier, restructuring will have an impact on employee welfare. the perceived impact of employees who are still active in the organization (ie; employees who are not subject to early retirement, not terminating contracts and others), among others, in the form of excessive workload due to the dismissal of some employees as an organization's efforts to improve efficiency. workload charged to employees refers to the amount of work allocated to be done by employees. jobs or excess work that is beyond a person's ability can negatively impact the psychological well-being of employees, their blood pressure and heart health, the stability of their family relationships, and their safety at work. all of these negative effects can fluctuate daily based on employees' perceptions of the amount of work they have to do. a number of researchers show support for a positive relationship between workload and stress (glaseret, et al ., 1999; diane , et al ., 2007; muhammad, 2013). even the researchers' findings also state that there is a significant relationship between stress and intention to leave the organization and stress also plays a mediation between workload and intention to leave the organization. stress exists in every organization both large and small workplaces and the organization becomes so complex due to the stress of the workplace it exists. many studies provide empirical evidence that employees think about leaving work, when they are overburdened with excessive work and workplace stress has a significant effect on employee work performance. therefore, the management of the organization always tries to overcome these problems with a variety of scenarios, and the forms of action taken include; with a rational workload that provides a win-win situation solution for the organization. by interpreting the above review, it can be stated that organizational climate and workload are two variables that are predictors of work stress variables, and work stress is a predictor of intention to leave variables . the problem seems not much different from what happened at pt. bank mandiri taspen (persero) or bank mantap. the problems experienced by pt bank mantap can be seen from two sides, namely: (1) there are many changes in the bank mantap including changes in the work system, changes in organizational structure, changes in strategy and other changes that impact on employee behavior and the potential to cause stress for employees. (2) related to the employee turnover rate which is quite high which is almost equal to the average banking turnover rate, which is in the range of 10-11 percent. data shows that from 2017 to 2018 there were 20 employees stating their resignation as seen in table 1.1. this amount is classified as large since the organizational change at bank mantap. table 1 data on the number of employees, employees entering and exiting the bank melati kcp 2017 until 2018 no. information year 2017 2018 1 2 3 number of employees recruitment turnover 145 10 9 125 15 11 source: mandiri taspen, 2018 based on table 1 study of the intention to leave employees at pt. bank mantap is a very necessary thing to do to find out how much organizational climate factors, workload affect work stress, and intention to move employees. literature review workload ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 2 workloads are considered multidimensional and multiple interpretations. workload is generated from the aggregation of various demands and is difficult to define uniquely. workloads (excessive and or deficient) are stressors. workloads are further divided into excessive / too little quantitative, and qualitative workloads. workload measured quantitatively arises as a result of tasks that are too much / too little given to the workforce to be completed within a certain time. workload is measured qualitatively arising as a result of a person feeling unable to perform the given task, or the assignment does not use the skills and / or potential of the workforce. in addition, excessive quantitative and qualitative workloads can lead to the need for a very large number of hours to be worked on, thus increasing stress . the conclusions that can be drawn from several definitions can be summarized in the statement, as follows; that workload illustrates how much employee capacity is needed to complete assigned tasks, which can be indicated from; the amount of work to be done, the availability of time / time limit of employees in completing tasks, as well as the individual's own subjective views of the work carried. workload measurements are carried out in order to obtain information about the level of effectiveness and efficiency of the organization's work, based on the amount of work that must be completed in a one year period. in addition, the measurement of workload is also useful for obtaining information about the level of effectiveness and efficiency of the work of the organization, measuring the workload even done to determine the number of hours worked and the number of people needed in order to complete a particular job. workload measurement can be done in a variety of procedures (o "donnell and eggemeir, 1986) namely, subjective measurements, performance measurements and psychological measurements that measure the level of workload through several aspects of employees' piscological responses, when they complete a particular task or job. the usual measurements are for pupillary reflexes , eye movements, muscle activity and other body responses. workload measurement techniques that are suitable for the purposes of this study are time based performance measurement techniques because the workload measurement techniques based on time measurement can be used to obtain measurements about workload and performance that apply in a work system in a banking organization. organizational climate davis and newstrom (2008) argue that the organizational climate is an organization that is distinguished from other organizations, and this description leads to the perception of each member, especially in looking at the organization. thus, the organizational climate is a set of descriptions of the characteristics of an organization that distinguishes the organization with other organizations and this description leads to the perceptions of each member in viewing his organization. gibson , et al . ( 2012 ) defines organizational climate as a characteristic that distinguishes an organization from other organizations, and these characteristics can influence the behavior of everyone in the organization. bueno and kneer (1990) looked at organizational climate from six dimensions, namely flexibility conformity , responsibility , standards , reward , clarity , and theme commitment . job stress gibson , et al. (1993) conceptualize stress from several points of view, namely stress as a stimulus, stress as a response, and stress as a stumulus-response. stress as a stimulus is an approach that focuses on the environment. define stimulus by viewing stress as a force, even pressing individuals to respond to stressors. this approach views stress as a consequence of interactions between environmental stimuli and individual responses. the stimulus-response approach defines stress as a consequence of the interaction between environmental stimulus and individual response. stress is seen not merely as a stimulus or response, but rather is the result of a unique interaction between the conditions of environmental stimulus and the tendency of individuals to ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 3 respond. in line with the opinion of avey, et al. (2009) defines stress as a response in adjustment that is influenced by individual differences and psychological processes, as a consequence of an action. thus it can be concluded that work stress arises due to environmental demands and the response of each individual in dealing with the stressful environment can be different. the problem of work stress is an important symptom observed in corporate organizations, since demands for work efficiency are raised. some consequences of work stress can be stated here, namely; people become nervous, feel chronic anxiety, increase tension in emotions, thinking processes and individual physical conditions. in addition, the symptoms of work stress on employees can also threaten and interfere with work performance, such as: irritability and aggression, unable to relax, emotional instability, unwillingness to cooperate, feelings of being unable to get involved, and difficulty in sleeping problems. intention to leave the intention to leave is defined as the tendency or intention of employees to quit their jobs voluntarily according to their own choice. the desire to get out of work is influenced, among others, by high job sires and job stressors as one of the causes. firth, 2004). in the sense of intention to leave explained about the desire of individuals to leave and quit the organization where they work. in many studies, these variables are used in a broad scope covering the whole action of withdrawal (withdrawl cognitions) committed by employees (abelson, 1990). according to mellor et. al. (2004) intention is a function of three basic determinants, namely; firstly individual attitudes toward behavior, secondly individual perceptions of social pressure to do or not do the behavior in question, and thirdly aspects of behavioral control. zeffane et al. (1995) defines intention is the desire arising from individuals to do something. intention is also interpreted as; intention or desire that arises in individuals to do something, or employee's tendency to stop working from work according to his own choice (kurniasari, 2004). intention is interpreted as a psychological process that is followed by the individual when the employee considers alternative work, at which time there is dissatisfaction with his current job. this intention to leave is a response from employees' dissatisfaction with their work. an employee who is satisfied with his work will reduce the intention to leave. so the intention to leave is a reluctance to change workplaces or work from an employee that is preceded by a dissatisfaction with the current work or work place but has not yet been realized in a concrete action. figure 1 research conceptual framework h1: workload is a positive and significant effect on work stress. h2: organizational climate has a positive and significant effect on work stress. workload (x1) organization climate (x2) intention to leave (y2) h1 job stres (y1) h2 h3 h4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 4 h3: work stress has a positive and significant effect on intention to leave h4: work stress positively and significantly mediates the effect of workload on intention to leave h5: work stress positively and significantly mediates the effect of organizational climate on intention to leave research method this study uses explanatory research (explanatory research) which explains a relationship between variables through hypothesis testing (ghozali, 2011). this research will be carried out at melati bank denpasar branch office as the object of research is motivated by institutional restructuring due to changes in name and share ownership. the bank, formerly known as bank sinar harapan bali, which operates locally in bali, has now penetrated the national arena with everincreasing business capital. this change requires a changing workload. this condition often creates great pressure for employees. that is why the scope this research is limited to four main variables namely, workload, organizational climate, work stress and intention to leave bank mantap employees. the sample used is the entire population used as a sample so that the number of samples in this study were 125 people. table 2 number of respondents based on kcp no kcp number of respondents 1 kcp melati 20 2 kcp kuta 12 3 teuku umar kcp 22 4 kcp sempidi 8 5 kartini kcp 12 6 kerobokan barat kcp 11 7 kcp sukawati 12 8 kcp gunung agung 8 9 kcp sesetan 8 10 kcp gwk 12 amount 125 source: mandiri taspen, 2017 data collection methods used in this study were questionnaires, surveys, and library studies. in collecting data through surveys aids are used namely questionnaire (questionnaire ). the analysis technique used in this study of the technique of path analysis (path analysis) as well as descriptive statistics and inferential statistical analysis. as for testing hypotheses using the sobel test results and discussion testing data or data analysis techniques in this study using the path analysis technique ( path analysis ), which is an extension of multiple linear regression analysis that tests the causality relationship between 2 or more variables. the results of testing the data using the path analysis method in this study are as follows: 1) path diagram of the research model based on the path diagram of the research model, the results of the final path diagram model validation are presented as follows: ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 5 figure 2 validation of the final pathway model based on the path diagram in figure 2 , the magnitude of direct and indirect effects and the total effect between variables can be obtained. the calculation of influence between variables is summarized in the following table 3 and table 4 below: table 3 direct effect of workload (x1), organizational climate (x2), on intention to leave (y2) through work stress (y1) influence of variables direct effect x1 y1 0,418 x2 y1 0,734 y1 y2 0,270 x1 y2 0,518 x2 y2 0,411 source: data processed, 2019 table 4 indirect effects of workload (x1), organizational climate (x2), on intention to leave (y2) through work stress (y1) influence of variables indirect effect x1 y1 y2 0,11 x2 y1 y2 0,20 job stres (y1) organization climate (x2) intention to leave (y2) ��= 0,856 �� =0,270 �� = 0,518 �� = 0,743 workload (x1) �� = 0,555 �� = 0,418 �� = 0,411 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 6 source: data processed, 2019 2) building structural equations structural equations can be obtained from the calculation of the path coefficient which is done by regression analysis through spss 17.0 for windows software. the calculation results obtained are shown in table 5 and table 6 below: table 5 results of analysis of path regression equations 1 model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 7.665 3.325 2.305 .025 workload .551 .163 .418 3.384 .001 organization climate .470 .031 .743 15.169 .000 r2 : 0,268 f statistik : 21,232 sig. f : 0,000 source: data processed, 2019 table 6 results of analysis of path regression equations 2 model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.324 3.485 .667 .508 beban kerja .639 .139 .518 4.608 .000 iklim organisasi .040 .102 .411 .397 .003 stres kerja .288 .132 .270 2.185 .003 r2 : 0,364 f statistik : 16,311 sig. f : 0,000 source: data processed, 2019 based on the results of the calculation of the error variable above (pei), the results of the calculation of the standard error value (pe1) of 0.856, and the results of the calculation of the standard error value (pe2) of 0.780. based on the calculation results obtained a large value of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 7 total determination coefficient of 0.534, meaning that the intention to leave variable at bank mandiri taspen is influenced by the variable workload, organizational climate and work stress by 53.4 percent, while the rest is influenced by other factors not included in the model by 46.6 percent. based on the results of the analysis of the influence of the workload on work stress, the sig.t value of 0.001 was obtained with a beta coefficient of 0.418. the conclusion is the sig.t value of 0.001 <0.05 indicates that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, which means that workload has a positive effect on work stress at bank mandiri taspen. based on the analysis of the influence of organizational climate on work stress, the sig.t value is 0,000 with a beta coefficient of 0.743. the conclusion is the sig.t value of 0,000 <0.05 indicates that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, which means that the organizational climate has a positive effect on job stress at bank mandiri taspen based on the results of the analysis of the influence of job stress on intention to leave, the sig.t value of 0.003 was obtained with a beta coefficient of 0.270. the conclusion is the sig.t value of 0.033 <0.05 indicates that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, which means that job stress has a positive effect on intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen. based on the results of the analysis of the influence of the workload on intention to leave, the sig.t value of 0,000 was obtained with a beta coefficient of 0.518. the conclusion is the sig.t value of 0,000 <0.05 indicates that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, which means that workload has a positive effect on intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen. based on the analysis of the influence of organizational climate on intention to leave, the sig.t value of 0.003 was obtained with a beta coefficient of 0.411. the conclusion is the sig.t value of 0.003 <0.05 indicates that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, which means that the organizational climate has a positive effect on intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen hypothesis test (sobel test) sobel test is used by testing the strength of the indirect effect of the workload variable (x1) on intention to leave (y2) through work stress variables (y1) and testing the strength of the indirect effect of organizational climate variables (x2) on intention to leave (y2) through variables work stress (y1). based on calculation results obtained arithmetic comparison of the value of z and z table is ( 2,56 > 1,96) so that it can be concluded that h 0 is rejected and h 1 accepted, meaning that the role of work stress in a positive way to mediate the effect of workload on the intention to leave. based on calculation results obtained arithmetic comparison of the value of z and z table is ( 2,21 > 1,96) so that it can be concluded that h 0 is rejected and h 1 accepted, meaning that the role of work stress in a positive way to mediate the effect of workload on the intention to leave. effect of workload on ring work stress the results of data analysis statistically prove that workload has a positive and significant effect on work stress . this means that the higher the workload that is given to the employee, the job stress of employees will be higher. conversely the lower the workload , the employee work stress for the perceived lower. the results of this study confirm some of the results of previous studies such as research conducted by cox and angie (2006) proving that workload is too much or too little can cause employees to experience work stress. there are several studies related to the effect of workload on work stress. in a study conducted by wibowo (2012), the results showed that there was a positive and significant effect between workload and work stress. haryanti, et al (2013) get the results that there is a relationship between workload with nurses work stress in semarang district hospital. ha ѕі l penel і t і an d і done by a ѕ ter (2018) show that the workload of influential ѕі gn і f і right and po ѕі t і f against ѕ tre ѕ work, things і n і show apab і la workload on employees decreased then ѕ tre ѕ employee will ѕ emak і n decreased as well and can terjad і ѕ ebal і knya. research shah et ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 8 al., (2011) states that workload has a negative and significant effect on employee performance. most people have a high workload because it will create a work environment that leads to lower levels of productivity. a sudden decrease (high to medium) or an increase (low to medium) workload can also result in a decrease in performance. while research perry et al., (2006) states that the workload / tasks provided by the company does not affect the conditions of employees and does not affect performance effects of organizational climate on work stress based on the results of data analysis statistically prove that organizational climate has a positive and significant effect on work stress . this means that the higher the organizational climate at bank mandiri taspen , the higher work stress felt by employees . conversely the lower the organizational climate at bank mandiri taspen , the work stress felt by employees will be lower. the results of this study confirm some of the results of previous studies such as research conducted by putra et al. (2014), and aghar (2008) and the results of their research explain that organizational climate has an influence on work stress. sert et al . (2014) further found that organizational climate had a negative effect on employee work stress. this indicates that the healthier the climate of an organization, the lower the level of employee work stress, on the contrary the more unhealthy organizational climate, the higher the level of work stress. florencia and ika (2016) her research shows the results that the hypothesis put forward by researchers that is, there is a negative relationship between organizational climate and work stress can be accepted. the more positive the climate of the organization owned by the satlantas polrestabes semarang, the lower the work stress experienced by police members. conflicting results were conveyed through research from aizzat et al . (2006); priyanka (2013) where they found that organizational climate does not affect work stress . effect of job stress against intention to leave based on the results of data analysis statistically prove that work stress has a positive and significant effect on intention to leave . this means that the higher the job stress felt by employees, it is the intention to leave the employee will be increasingly high . conversely the lower the stress of work, the intention to leave the employee is getting low . the results of this study confirm some of the results of previous studies such as research conducted by amelia (2010), ghayyur and jamal (2012), and ngadiman et al. (2014) mentions the positive influence between workload on the intention to stop working, that is; the heavier the workload felt by employees, the higher the desire of employees to leave the company. the research results of the researcher also stated, that the workload variable did not have a significant direct effect with the intention to stop working, but had an indirect effect through work stress. the link between overwork and leaving the organization is proven by ahuja, et al . (2007). workload has a positive and strong influence on work fatigue. work fatigue is found as a significant predictor of intention to leave the organization. these findings support the results of moore's research (2000), regarding his studies that were assembled with technology professionals. moore found that workload felt by employees was the strongest predictor of work fatigue and exhausted workers intended to leave their organization more than others. salman (2014), lanny (2015) also shows that work stress has a significant effect on the intention to stop working . the role of job stress mediation in the effect of workload on intention to leave based on the results of data analysis statistically prove that work stress is able to mediate positively and significantly the effect of workload on intention to leave . the results of this study confirm the results of previous studies such as research conducted by jensen et al in 2011 found that there is a relationship between workloads with the desire to leave. violations of psychological contracts that are mutually agreed upon, as well as granting workload that exceeds individual abilities, will increase employee stress at work, where high work stress is also understood as one of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 9 antecedents of a strong employee's desire to leave the company (ven, 2012; rehman, 2010; fawzy, 2012). the above studies also implicitly show the role of work stress as a variable that can mediate the effect of psychological contracts and workload on employee desire to leave. the results of research from sri mahaiswari (2016), this study aims to examine the role of work stress in mediating the effect of workload on employees' desire to leave the organization to find out whether it is influential. this research was conducted on doc_ignga beauty clinic employees who have four branches namely, two branches in denpasar, tabanan, and gianyar. qureshi et al., (2013) in his research found that workload is one of the factors that causes an increase in the desire of employees to leave the company. the role of job stress mediation in the effect of organizational climate on intention to leave based on the results of statistical data analysis, it is proven that work stress is able to mediate positively and significantly the influence of organizational climate on intention to leave . the results of this study confirm the results of previous studies such as research conducted by martoyo (2000) stating that unresolved stress can affect employee performance and make employees lose enthusiasm for work resulting in the intention to leave the organization. aamodt (2007) states that the intention to leave the organization by employees is low, if the company pays more attention to its employees, and to improve employee performance by providing routine training to each employee. nurashikin (2013) states that teachers in private tertiary institutions feel that the workload is quite heavy and the organizational climate is inadequate, so that the two variables show a negative relationship with intention to leave the organization. based on these results it is recommended that management think about the factors that contribute to pressure at work, namely by better understanding the influence of work pressure and intention to leave the organization. muhammad, et al. (2016) presents the results of his research, by showing that organizational climate significantly influences work stress. in addition, the results also show that the influence of the organizational climate on employee performance has a significant indirect effect through work stress. farah and uzma (2013) in their research conclusions stated that; if workload increases the employee will try to get away from work in any way, so does work stress that significantly mediates the relationship between job satisfaction and intention to quit. research implications the results of the study stated that workload, organizational climate and work stress have a positive effect on intention to leave . work stress is able to mediate the effect of workload on intention to leave and work stress is able to mediate the influence of organizational climate on intention to leave . the results of this study are expected to be empirical evidence related to workload, organizational climate and work stress positively affect intention to leave, especially in the banking sector. the findings in this study explain the indicators of lack of time in completing work, have a bad experience in doing work that is being worked on now and are often involved in activities that conflict with work normally can increase work stress factors in the environment of bank mandiri taspen. this is because there are too many tasks to be carried out, when facing stress problems, direct superiors cannot provide solutions, lack adequate responsibilities, unclear roles (role ambiguity) that are carried out, differences in values (life principles) with the company where they work, frustration with a lot of work and not being able to complete, often experiencing changes in the type of work (especially if it is not common / unusual) and often experience role conflict (work one is in conflict with other work). bank mandiri taspen has provided the freedom of action for employees to adjust themselves to the assigned tasks. the condition of bank mandiri taspen is endeavored to remain healthy, in which management pays close attention to the implementation of duties and objectives that have been determined but does not reduce the desire of bank mandiri taspen employees to leave work. although the current job is felt a lot where the workload exceeds the current work capacity and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 10 the possibility of a desire to find another job in another organization, bank mandiri taspen employees can still be given coaching to consider the intention to leave . research limitations this study uses respondents in the banking services industry, so it is important for future research to complement and enrich empirical studies related to this topic by conducting research in other service or manufacturing companies. this research is only conducted in one location so the results of this study may not be applicable in other locations that have the same problem or the results of this study cannot be generalized to similar service sector companies or other sectors. the scope of research is limited to the denpasar city area, so the results of this study cannot be generalized to research outside the denpasar city area. conclusions and suggestion workload is a positive influence and significance of the work stress , which means the higher the workload that is given to the employee, it can menyebab right high job stress of employees perceived . this indicates that the workload will increase work stress on employees . i claim the organization has positive influence and significance of the work stress which means higher i claim perceived employee organization, it can be menyebab right high job stress of employees perceived. this signifies that i claim the organization will increase work stress on employees . work stress influence positively and significantly to the intention to leave which means higher work stress perceived employee, it can menyebab right height intention to leave to employees . this indicates that work stress will increase the intention to leave the employee . work stress is able to mediate the effect of workload on employee intention to leave . the role of work stress has a positive effect in mediating the effect of workload on employee intention to leave . a positive influence can be interpreted that the higher the workload provided, the higher the work stress that occurs which will increase the intention to leave employees. work stress is able to mediate the influence of organizational climate on employee intention to leave . the role of work stress has a positive effect in mediating the effect of organizational climate on employee intention to leave . a positive influence can be interpreted that the higher the organizational climate applied, the higher the work stress that occurs which will increase the intention to leave employees. there is a real need for continuous efforts to reduce the level of work stress at bank mandiri taspen by ensuring sufficient number of employees to handle various jobs, maintaining good relationships and work patterns between employees, ensuring there is two-way communication and good cooperation between employees and superiors , ensuring there is sufficient information for employees to support the completion of their work and other efforts that can reduce employee stress levels. bank mandiri taspen needs to evaluate good policies in order to create a healthy, conducive and acceptable organizational climate for employees. fostering mutual trust between fellow employees, mutual support between employees, healthy communication within bank mandiri taspen, a conducive environment of bank mandiri taspen is a measure that must be continuously fostered by all stakeholders of bank mandiri taspen in order to achieve a healthy organizational climate and good to reduce the level of intention to leave at bank mandiri taspen. p enelitian further recommended ensuring that the findings of the study to investigate the role of other variables as variable pemediasi. in addition this study only uses path analysis techniques ( path analysis ) , so it is recommended for further research using different analysis techniques, for example by using pls . in the research location, researchers only examine in banking located in denpasar, so it is recommended for further research to expand research orientation within the scope of a larger organization or wider population or conduct research on banking in other areas such as in bali or indonesia, so the findings of this study may differ from research sites in i reference ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 11 aamodt, mg 2007. industrial organizational psychology: an applied approach. 5 th ed. belmount: thomson learning inc. abelson, greed. 1990. the turnover and work attiude. 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employing hospitals and in the profession: effects of job preferences, unpaid overtime, importance of earnings and stress. journal of health policy, 79 (1), 57-72. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research volume 03 |issue 04 | april 2020 www.ijojournals.com 16 e-mail: nimadearyyunharmini@gmail.com word bookmarks _goback ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development mohammed a. n. a. imam (ph.d.) department of sociology, yobe state university, damaturu, nigeria abstract the aim of this paper is to conceptualize development and under development and discuss them based on the theories of development and their perspectives. the paper argued that development is a multi dimensional concept conceived as any significant change that involves economic, socio-cultural, political and even environmental aspects of a country. issues of gender and economic wellbeing and equality, political inclusion or participation, social justice, and peace and stability are all important when it comes to the subject of development. under development, on the other hand, is the antithesis of development represented with backward indicators, such as low per capita income/gdp, low level of literacy, and low level of technology, weak economic and political institutions, political instability and fragile statehood. the terms have been evaluated using modernization and dependency theories. the former theories see development as synonymous with the western models. the latter theories argued that the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries is an outcome global economic inequality and exploitation. in view of this, the paper concludes that development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. keywords: dependency theories; development; modernization theory; third world theories; under development. 1.0 introduction development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. during the period following the first world war a massive scalestruggle for national liberation began to spread widely among the colonialand semi-colonial areas. in a number of places, these nationalist struggles led to the emergence of independent political units during theinterwar period. for the most part, however, the colonial areas havebeen decolonized since the second world war; becoming independent countrieslargely on the basis of their colonial heritage –without regardto ethnicity, language, or other aspects of cultural homogeneity (kim, 1975). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development since the second world war, the newly independent countries haveconsciously tried to construct some basis for national autonomy and eliminatethe legacy of imperialist domination. while some of these newstates took to the path of socialist reconstruction, others have been shapingtheir economies and social structures on the basis of “free market economies”. these newly independent countries are described popularly as the “third world” (horowitz, 1966; worsley, 1964, as cited in kim, 1975: 1), or simply as the “new states” (shils, 1966). they are also characterized as “underdeveloped countries” and have been recently, in a more diplomatic sense, called “developing countries” or “less developed countries” (myrdal, 1968:i, as cited in kim, 1975: 1). according to w. w. rostow’s thesis, in hiswidely read book the stages of economic growth,economic underdevelopmentis only a stage that nations pass through on their way to becoming rich.but the data we have at hand tell a different story.the income gap between rich and poor countries has grown dramaticallysince world war ii and shows few signs of shrinking (seligson, 2014).for this period, then, there is clear evidence to support the oldadage that “the rich get richer.” it is not true, however, that the poor get poorer,not literally anyway, but this would be a perverse way of looking at the situation (seligson, 2014). whatever the case, there is the division of the world countries into developed and underdeveloped. kim (1975) described these underdeveloped countries with certain characteristics whichdistinguish them from developed countries. these characteristics, asdescribed by a number of scholars, are: (1) technologically having a predominanceof human and animal power over inanimate power (such as steampower, electricity, or other sources) as a means of production; (2) ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development economically having low levels of labor productivity and per capitaincome, a predominance of the primary sector over the manufacturingsector and relatively low development of organized large-scale machinebased industry; (3) ecologically having a low level of urbanization; (4) sociodemographically having low levels of living standard for the mass ofpeople as is manifested in specific deficiencies (insufficient food-intake,bad housing conditions. inadequate public and private provisions forhygiene and medical care, and inefficient educational and cultural facilities,massive illiteracy, low level of health and nutrition, and rapidpopulation growth due to high fertility rates); (5)socio-culturally and psychologically, there is a prevalence of low levels ofwork discipline, a lack of punctuality and orderliness, superstitious beliefs and irrational attitudes, and fatalism (kim, 1975). in view of this background, this paper will conceptualizedevelopment and underdevelopment and discuss them based on the theories of development and its perspective. 2.0 development and underdevelopment 2.1 the concept of development: development is a concept that went through various interpretations over time. according to rodney (1972: 9), development refers to expansion of the economic capacity of a country and of the state of society andits institutions as whole. in simple terms, development signifies progress in human well-being, used to be equated with economic growth, but it is now widely acknowledged that this is a very inadequate characterisation. as long noted, average per capita incomes are one important means to achieve such progress, but not the only one.not only does average income fail to capture distribution across households, but ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development it also may not be a good indicator of many important aspects of human well-being, such as people’s health, education or their security (stewart, as cited in jamri, 2017). one of the earliest development indices that provide alternative to the above definition is the pqli (physical quality of life index). sen has suggested that the development objective should be the enhancement of people’s capabilities, or the opportunities open to people of being and doing a variety of things. undp’s human development report defined the objective succinctly as enlarging people’s choices in a way which enables them to lead longer, healthier and fuller lives (stewart, as cited in jamri, 2017). the undp developed the concept of ‘human security’ to encompass not just the achievement of minimal levels of material needs, but also the absence of severe threats to them of an economic or political kind: ‘job security, income security, health security, environmental security, security from crime – these are the emerging concerns of security all over the world’ (stewart, as cited in jamri, 2017). in a seminar paper, dudley seers (as cited in augustine, 2018: 1) conceives of development as notonly involving economic growth but also conditions in which people ina country have adequate food, jobs and the income inequality among them is greatly reduced. according to seers, the questions to askabout a country’s development are threefold: • what has been happening to poverty? • what has been happening to inequality? • what has been happening to unemployment? ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development seers noted that if these three aspects: poverty, unemployment and inequality have witnessed significant decline, then there had beenfundamental development for the country involved. in a post-thesisreview eight years later in 1977, seers asserted that he had left anessential element which must now be added: ‘self-reliance’ (augustine, 2018: 1). in a nutshell, development is any significant change that involves economic, socio-cultural, political and even environmental aspects of a country. issues of gender and economic well being and equality, political inclusion or participation, social justice, and peace and stability are all important when it comes to the topic of development. in brief, mukhtar&abdullahi (2022) mentioned that development is a concept that goes through gradual process of expansion over time. in simple terms, development signifies progress in human wellbeing,used to be equated with economic growth, but it is now widely acknowledged thatthis is a very inadequate characterization. as long noted, average per capita incomes are oneimportant means to achieve such progress, but not the only one. not only does averageincome fail to capture distribution across households, but it also may not be a good indicatorof many important aspects of human well-being, such as people’s health, education or theirsecurity. 2.2 the concept of under-development: underdevelopment, according to rodney (1972), isa term only meaningful in comparison to levels of development;when one group appears to become wealthier, it happens with a contrasting outcome. anothercrucial component of underdevelopment is a dimension of exploitation of one country byanother (p 21).acheoah (2018) conceptualizes underdevelopment as the antithesis ofdevelopment manifestly in backward ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development indicators: low per capitaincome/gdp; the preponderance of rural and agricultural populations;low literacy levels; the predominance of inferior technology; weakeconomic and political institution; underdeveloped political culture;the prevalence of a ruling class that stresses and rationalizes values thatare incompatible with socio-economic and political development as well as fragile statehood (acheoah, 2018). characteristics of underdevelopment include extremepoverty; disparity in delivery of social services includingformalized education systems, medical facilities, and safedrinking water; poor or lacking infrastructure and governancecapacity; and an environment of physical insecurity.all of these factors can collectively lead to a poverty trap, inwhich poverty is widespread, cyclical, and intractable. thecombination of these challenges contributes to a vicious circleof underdevelopment and fragility, which can overwhelma state’s operational capacity to deliver services and hinderlong-term economic growth (international peace institute, 2009). over the past two decades, global economic integration andgrowth have contributed to poverty alleviation and higherliving standards around the world. trade, capital flows,foreign aid, technological improvements, and idea-sharingacross international borders have enhanced humandevelopment and economic prospects in many developingcountries. yet, too many countries continue to suffer fromwidespread poverty and underdevelopment. progress towardsreaching the globally endorsed millennium development goals (mdgs) has been uneven. with notable exceptionslike china, most countries are predicted to fall short ofmeeting most mdgs by the target date of 2015, withfragile states lagging furthest behind.at the regional ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development level,sub-saharan africa is behind on all eight goals, while southasia is struggling to meet the mdgs that concern humandevelopment (international peace institute, 2009). in a nutshell, the basic assumption is that there is a dialectical relationship between development andunderdevelopment. (frank, 1975: 10) "development and underdevelopment are twodifferent sides of a universal historical process’’. he asserts that what causes underdevelopmentin third world is as a result of what brought about development in europe and america" frank, as cited in alaye, 2019). 3.0 theories of development a litany of theories and perspectives have been propounded andformulated to explain the factors behind the development of some regionsand the underdevelopment of other regions and proffer solutions to addressing the underdevelopment crisisin third world countriesfor which virtually all sub-saharan africa fall into (augustine, 2018). these theories include modernization theory, the dependency school, the thirdworld analysis and the globalization perspectives (augustine, 2018). for the purpose of this paper, the theories of modernization, the third world analysis and the dependency perspectives will be reviewed. 3.1 modernization theory modernization theory presentsthe western models of economic development as the quickest andsurest way of taking underdeveloped countries out of theirunderdevelopment crisis. its postulations interpose the westernsocieties as a ‘mirror’ reflecting before the underdeveloped ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development societies afuture they should aspire (augustine, 2018: 2).modernization theory is amongst the earliest theories of development and remedies to underdevelopment. the theory emerged as a response to growing concern on the subject of development. that is why the origin of modernization theories is usually traced to the aftermath of the second world war (rapley, 2007), yet harrison (2005) believed that, the beginning of modernization theory can be traced to antiquity, when the notion of evolution was first used with reference to human society, however, it was not until the eighteenth century that the evolution of societies was studied in a systematic way (jamri, 2017). intense concern about the subject of development around the world is the main reason why the modernization represents the buzzword of the global agenda from the period immediately following worldwar ii. the post-world war ii was theperiod in which western world began to be confronted with the challenge of rebuildingcountries, especially those that had been shattered by war. to successfully face this challenge, international institutions, such as theinternational bank for reconstruction and development, later called world bank, were established to accomplish the objectives of industrializing backward or less developed and war stricken countries (jamri, 2017). 3.2 third world and dependency theories this section covers the contributions of scholars who havesentiments of the third world and underdeveloped societies largely ofthe latin american origin who emerged as a radical and offeredcounter perspectives to the modernization school. a leading exponentof this school of thought was raul prebisch who enquired into thedialectical growth in wealth between the ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development developed and under-developed, andregunder frank, walter rodney, immanuel wallenstein and samir amin.they argued that the less developed countries (ldcs) coveringsub-saharan africa and elsewhere in asia and latin america did notwitness underdevelopment until their coming into contact with thewestern societies (slave trade and colonialism) this altered theirdevelopment trajectory in their course of nation building, thus, theybegan to experience arrested development (augustine, 2018). they argued thatincorporation of third world economies into the international capitalistsystem orchestrated a structure of inequality skewed disproportionally against the third world (frank, 1981).they argued that the poor nations provide the resources, cheaplabor and consumer markets for the wealthy nations which ensured thedevelopment of the developed nations. the trajectory of this relationsis that development becomes two sides of the same coin; one sidedevelops, while the other under develops.challenging the linear model of modernization theoristsimmanuel wallenstein in his world system theory argued that notevery nation can develop simultaneously. the world system theoryargues that the development of underdevelopment is a simultaneousphenomenon in a character of one regional development and surplusesproduces it’s under development and deficit counterparts elsewhere inanother region (augustine, 2018). the guyanese marxist historian walter rodney with reference to his magnum opus “how europe underdeveloped africa”, nostalgically asserted that thedecisiveness of the period of colonialism and its negative impacts onafrica sprang from the fact that africa lost power economic andpolitical (rodney, 1972).rodney (1972)argued that when one society is forced to relinquish power entirelyto another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment.prebisch ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development considering the contradiction in the trade relationsbetween developed and underdeveloped nations began to question thenotion that countries can benefit equally and that mutual profitabilityin trade between developed and developing nations. examining therelationship from the standpoint of balance of payment rather thanresource allocation, he asserted that there is a tendency for the terms oftrade to shift against agricultural product and its impact on balance ofpayment far outweighs its benefits with respect to the efficient allocation of resources (thomas, 1994).using this argument as a parameter, prebisch formulated a numberof hypotheses which came to be known as the ‘prebisch doctrine’ (thomas, 1994). inspired by the world economic crisis of the 1930s and hisexperience as ecosoc for latin america and unctad, prebischbecame concerned with two distinct but interrelated issues: • the first deals with the transfer of the benefits of trade from thedeveloping to the developed countries because of the adverse termsof trade being experienced by the former; • the second relates to the balance of payment effect of differencesin the elasticity of demand for agricultural and mineral productsvis-à-vis secondary products and the fluctuating earnings andforeign exchange shortages it induces for developing countries. advancing the arguments, prebisch declared that: international division of labor is governed by an asymmetry inwhich developed nations dominate the dynamic industries fromthe center while the developing countries are impoverishedbecause their exports of agricultural and mineral raw materialsfrom the periphery by extension while these produce of developingcountries are bought at under quoted prices, those of developedcountries of the center are sold and bought at over quoted ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development pricesthereby allowing the latter to take advantage of the differences (quoted in augustine, 2018: 3). according to prebisch, the phenomenon is cyclical in character.corroborating prebisch, notes that not only is the system sustainedby unequal levels of technological acquisition, but also, progress andthe distribution of the benefits accruing from science and technology (augustine, 2018: ). the development of the means of production determines of thestate and patterns of development experienced by any society. 4.0 conclusion the paper has traced the evolutionof the concepts of development and underdevelopment as two sides of the same coin. the key terms: development and underdevelopment have been conceptualized and to address the question, the definitions of both terms (development and underdevelopment) was accompanied with explanations based on the theories of development and their perspectives. these theories are modernization, on the one hand, and third world and dependency theories, on the other hand. the modernization theory argued that the western models of economic development are the ideal models forthe development of underdeveloped countries. third world theories on the other hand, argued thatincorporation of third world economies into the international capitalistsystem has created a structure of inequality, obviouslyin favor of the developed countries and against the economic prospects of the third world. third world theorist argued that the poor nations provide the resources, cheaplabor and consumer markets for the wealthy nations which ensured thedevelopment of the developed nations. the trajectory of this relations has substantiated the claim of this paper that development is two sides of the same coin; one sidedevelops, while the other under develops. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mohammed a. n. a. imam * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || examining development and under development: contrasting theories of development references acheoah, a. o. (2018).the crisis of underdevelopment in sub-saharan africa: a multi dimensional perspective. department of politicalscience, university of lagos, akoka, nigeria. alaye, (2019).dependency and underdevelopment of nigerian economy.global journal of politics and law research,7(1): 9-28 augustine, a. o. (2018). the crisis of underdevelopment in sub-saharan africa: multi dimensionalperspectives. journal of political sciences & public affairs, 6 (4): 1-9. frank, a. g. (1981).crisis in the third world.heinemenn educationalbooks, holmes etmeler. harrison, d. (2005). the sociology of modernization and development. london: routledge. international peace institute.(2009).underdevelopment, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation. ipi blue paper no. 1 www.ipinst.org . jamri, b., j. (2017). modernization perspective: a review of nigerian development. department of sociology, yobe state university, damaturu, yobe state kim, s. (1975). reconsideration of underdevelopment andproblems of development: an application of analternative model of change to the third worldcountries. retrospective theses and dissertations.5487.https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/5487. mukhtar, j. i.&abdullahi, a. s. (2022).security-development nexus: areview of nigeria’s security challenges.contemporary sociological issues,2 (1):18-39. rapley, j. (2006). understanding development: theory and practice in the third world (third edition). boulder: lynne rienner publishers. seligson, m. a. (2014). “the dual gaps: an overviewof theory and research”. in mitchell a. seligson& john t. passé-smith (eds.) development and underdevelopment: the political economy of global inequality. usa. thomas, l. j. (1994). neoclassical development theory and the prebischdoctrine: a synthesis. the american economist 38: 75-81. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 http://www.ipinst.org/ https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/5487 les tagbana, un sous-groupe senoufo du nord de la côte d’ivoire, xive-xixe siecles mamadou bamba, maître-assistant, département d’histoire, ufr : communication, milieu et société (cms) université alassane ouattara (côted’ivoire) kone kiyali, assistant, département d’histoire, université jean lorougnon guédé (côte d’ivoire), résumé peuple formé entre les localités de katiola et tafiré, les tagbana constituent un groupe sénoufo dont les origines et les phases migratoires sont controversées et mal maîtrisées. s’interrogeant sur les origines, la migration et l’implantation des tagbana dans le nord de la côte d’ivoire, cette étude contribue à la connaissance de l’histoire des migrations et de peuplement de la côte d’ivoire. dans une perspective historique, l’examen critique des sources collectées indique que suite à des problèmes politiques et économiques, de nombreuses populations du triangle banfora-bougouni-sikasso entamentune migration de longue durée marquée par des escales dans plusieurs localités dont kong. cette longue marche aboutit à la formation du peuple tagbana en côte d’ivoire entre les xive et xixe siècles. la naissance de ce peuple est le résultat d’un brassage opéré entre les falafala et les mandé-dioula. mots clés : tagbana migration origine formation peuplement abstract a people formed between the localities of katiola and tafiré, the tagbana constitute a senufo group whose origins and migratory phases are controversial and poorly understood. examining the origins, migration and settlement of the tagbana in northern côte d'ivoire, this study contributes to the history of migration and settlement in côte d'ivoire. from a historical perspective, a critical examination of the collected sources indicates that because of political and economic problems, many populations of the banfora-bougouni-sikasso triangle begin a long migration marked by stopovers in several localities including kong. this long walk resulted in the formation of the tagbana people in ivory coast between the 14th and 20th ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 sk computer typewriter kone kiyali sk computer typewriter kone kiyali sk computer typewriter kone kiyali sk computer typewriter kone kiyali sk computer typewriter kone kiyali centuries. the birth of this people is the result of a mixing between the falafala and the mandé-dioula. keywords: tagbana migration origin formation settlement introduction les tagbana constituent l’une des franges importantes du peuple senoufo de la côte d’ivoire. localisés dans le septentrion ivoirien, ils occupent actuellement les sous-préfectures de tafiré, niakaramandougou, tortya, fronan, katiola et timbé.entre les xive et xixe siècles, le peuple tagbana se forme dans son habitat actuel. cependant, les origines attribuées à ce peuple par les chercheurs sont diverses et contradictoires. devant ce constat, koné kiyali (2018, p.70) conclut que les acquis de l’historiographie du monde tagbana ne permettent pas « de répondre à la question de l’origine de ce peuple ainsi que de sa pérégrination d’une manière définitive ». cette situation met au centre,les questions relatives aux origines, à la migration et à la formation des tagbana. alors, comment ce peuple s’est-il constitué dans le nord ivoirien ? par un examen du processus de formation des tagbana dans le nord de la côte d’ivoire, cette réflexion est une contribution à la connaissance de l’histoire des migrations et de peuplement en côte d’ivoire.au xive siècle, sitôt après l’apogée de l’empire du mali, débute l’infiltration des proto-tagbana vers leur habitat actuel. ce mouvement d’expansion qui s’accélère vers le sud, à partir du xvie siècle,est stoppé par les baoulé au xixe siècle.s’appuyant sur les sources orales, les ouvrages et les travaux scientifiques, cette étude analyse les différentes versions liées aux origines des tagbana, retrace leurs différentes étapes migratoires et enfin, montre le processus de formation et d’occupation de leur espace actuel. 1. les tagbana, un peupleaux origines controversées les travaux de recherche attribuent plusieurs origines au tagbana. les thèses en confrontation partent d’une origine mythologique à une origine soudanaise en passant par une thèse d’autochtonie. 1.1.des origines mythologiqueet autochtonique discutables a propos des origines mythologiques, certaines sources orales collectées par koné kiyali (2018, p.71) indiquent que les tagbana proviendraient du ciel par le canal d’une chaîne en or ; et considèrent célikala-liê comme l’ancêtre commun de tous les tagbana. le site qui l’a vu apparaître est considéré comme le point de départ du peuplement de leur actuelhabitat. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 a ce sujet, le traditionniste madou ouattara1 informe que « le village créé et dénommé ‘’célikalakaha’’ existe toujours et fait partie d’un quartier de l’actuelle commune de tafiré. le site, sur lequel l’ancêtre des tagbana est descendu, l’endroit où il a été englouti ainsi que sa première case, bien que détruite en partie, existe toujours et sont des lieux de pactisations. quant à la chaîne en or, les colonisateurs blancs l’ont emportée… ». cette origine mythologique est également soutenue dans la partie méridionale du pays tagbana. en effet, à kanangonon, sounnan coulibaly témoigne que l’ensemble des tagbanaest descendu du ciel à l’aide d’une chaîne en or. et cette chaîne est entreposée dans un bocage qui sert désormais de lieu de culte, de vénération et de pactisations2. si la première tradition a mis l’accent sur l’existence d’un ancêtre commun dénommé « célikala-liê », la seconde n’en fait pas cas. toutefois, elles ont en commun le ciel comme origine du peuple tagbana. a contrario, la monographie du cercle des tagbanaquant à elle stipule « qu’une seule race peuplaitautrefois le pays : et c’était des tribus apparentées les unes aux autres, toutes derace sénoufo, frustres et timides, djimini et tagbana sont les autochtones3 ».ouattara tiona (1999, p.26)et ouattara eugénie (2016, p.6) abondent dans ce sens en soutenant que les tagbana sont autochtones du site qu’ils occupent et ne viennent de nulle part. de ce qui précède, il ressort clairement que les tagbana proviendraient d’une part du ciel et, d’autre part, de nulle part et sont autochtones de leur habitat actuel. si les tagbana ne viennent de nulle part, alors s’agit-il d’un peuple formé ex nihilo ? cette interrogation ouvre la voie à des discussions sur la valeur des mythes dans la formation des sociétés africaines. a l’instar de nombreuses sociétés africaines, les mythes d’origine mis en avant visent à permettre aux tagbana de régenter la présence accomplie et durable des populations immigrées qui vivent dans le même espace géographique qu’eux (nadia belaidi et al., 2016,p. 43-76).dans les études de peuplement, le mythe est utilisé pour montrer l’autochtonie d’un groupe de population sur les autres. dans ce cas, le peuple dit autochtone s’organise politiquement et socialement pour maintenir les nouveaux venus dans la dépendance. il devient ainsi le maître des terres et l’officiant des cultes agraires. c’est pour cette raison que amadou mahtar m’bow (1990, p.9) estime que « les mythes de toutes sortes ont caché au monde l’histoire réelle de l’afrique jusqu’à un passé récent ». 1 entretien réalisé avec madou ouattara, 66 ans, le 10/12/15 à célikalakaha, notable à célikalakaha 2 sounnan coulibaly, entretien du 11/12/2015 à tafiré. 3 monographie du cercle des "tagouana", dabakala le 14 octobre 1916, enregistrement des coutumes indigènes du cercle des tagouana, n°980,1916 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 vu l’obstacle que les mythes engendrent dans la reconstitution de l’histoire des peuples africains en général, et des tagbanaen particulier,il convient de prendre de la distance et privilégier d’autres pistes. 1.2.le triangle banfora-bougouni-sikasso,probable berceau de certains tagbana ne partageant pas les origines célestes et les mythes d’autochtonie qui fondent l’histoire du peuple tagbana, coulibalymadou, un traditionniste affirme sans précision que « les tagbana sont venus du mandé, fuyant l’instabilité qui y régnait, ils se sont installés sur leur site actuel ».a ce sujet, pingué coulibaly (2019, p.20) et louis roussel (1955, p.7)se montrent plus précis en fixantl’aire primitivedes tagbana dans la région de bougouni, dans l’actuel mali (coulibaly pingué, 2019, p.20). a ce sujet, le mémorial de la côte d’ivoire note que « le foyer linguistique et culturel du bloc sénoufo doit se situer dans la région comprise entre banfora-bougouni et sikasso, ce qui correspond à peu près au pays d’origine, le mali qu’évoque la tradition orale » (h. diabaté, 1987, p.74).quant à yves person (1968, p.60), il fait remarquer que les sénoufo du nord occupent le pays minianka et le kénédougou. ce texte fait apparaître qu’en plus de bougouni et koutiala, la localité de kénédougou dans l’extrême sud de l’actuel burkina-faso4 constitue aussi un bastion des sénoufo. interrogé dans le centre du pays tagbana, koné m’bétchin françois, cet autre traditionniste indique que« les tagbana sont venus de koutiala, après plusieurs escales liées à la fatigue du voyage et à la quête d'endroit propice (…)»5. cette version est soutenue par touré n’clo qui soutient que« les tagbana sont quittés à koutiala leur site d’origine à une époque lointaine pour s’établir dans l’espace actuel…»6. attestant cette origine, coulibaly sékou7 précise que les mianka sont les ancêtres des tagbana. il justifie cela par des similitudeset des ressemblanceslinguistiques entre ces deux peuples. selon lui, les différentes modifications intervenues dans le vocabulaire et la langue d’origine sont liées aux différents mouvements migratoires effectués par les tagbana. en effet, au cours de leurs déplacements, les migrants tagbana ont eu des contacts avec d’autres peuples, notamment les malinké et les falafala. ces contacts ont eu une influence sur la langue des tagbana. le traditionniste termine son analyse par une comparaison entre certains éléments des langues mianka et tagbana. « par exemple,le 4 kénédougou est une localité de l’extrême ouest de l’actuel burkina-faso. 5 koné m’bétchin françois, entretien du 16/12/2015 à tortya 6 touré n’clo patrice, entretien du 27/12/2015 à nagnankaha 7 coulibaly sékou, entretien du 18/06/2019 à tortya. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 mot gazelle se prononce "gafa" en tagbana, et se dit "kafa" en mianka ; "tchèlè" en mianka désigne une femme âgée (vieille femme) et se lit en tagbana "tchèlègôhô" »8. les différents lieux cités par les traditionnistes comme origine des tagbana sont bougouni et koutiala. ces deux localités font partie de la grande région de sikasso et de la zone sud du mali. de l’examen du peuplement de la région de sikasso, il ressort que c’est une zone fortement peuplée de sénoufo et de mianka. d’ailleurs, yves person (1970, p.783) ne fait pas de différence entre mianka et sénoufo lorsqu’il écrit que « les minyanka de koutiala sont des sénoufo un peu aberrants et apparaissent enracinés de très longue date dans leur terroir, mais, si notre hypothèse est exacte, ils ont dû venir aussi du sud-est ». de ce qui précède, les mianka font partie du groupe ethnique sénoufo tout comme les tagbana de l’actuel côte d’ivoire. le sud-ouest de l’actuel burkina (kénédougou et banfora, etc.) et le sud de l’actuel mali (bougouni, koutiala et sikasso) pourraient être considérés comme un probable foyer originel des tagbana. mais de ce vaste espace, la partie méridionale de l’actuel mali peut être considérée comme l’origine lointaine et le point de départ d’une frange de mianka vers l’actuelle côte d’ivoire. ce groupe de population mianka aurait constitué un important groupe à partir duquel le peuple tagbana s’est formé dans le nord ivoirien. si cette thèse parait vraisemblable, certaines sources situent l’origine des tagbana dans le royaume de kong que nous nous proposons d’analyser. 1.3.le royaume de kong, un gîte d’étape des tagbana parlant de l’habitat originel des tagbana,le chef canton des tagbana de niakara,koné tebetchin luc affirme que « les tagbana viennent de kpô (kong). lors d’une aventure de chasse, ils découvrent le site de niakara. le sol propice à l’agriculture et la zone très giboyeuse incitent certains à venir s'y installer. alors le déplacement se fit sans détour de kpô au site actuel de niakara »9. sur la même question, koné tièkoura, l’un des traditionnistes de niangbo soutient que les habitants de ce village sont venus de kong10.ces affirmations et témoignages manquent de précisions sur la date de migration et des itinéraires des tagbana. cependant, les sources écrites et les travaux réalisés dans certaines zones du nord de la côte d’ivoire permettent d’examiner la véracité des différentes opinions. de façon générale, l’histoire des tagbana semble être fortement liée à celle du royaume de kong. pour georges niamkey kodjo (1986, p.1016), c’est sous le règne de mori maghari que 8coulibaly sékou, entretien du 18/06/2019 à tortya. 9 koné tebetchin luc, entretien du 19/12/2015 à niakara. 10 koné tièkoura, entretien du 20/12/2015 à niangbo ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 l’empire de kong s’est étendu vers le sud pour atteindre l’actuel espace ethnique et culturel tagbana. d’ailleurs, il qualifie cet espace de «l'une des dépendances dekong ».louis gustave binger s’inscrit dans cette logique car, il rattache les tagbana au falafala11 en indiquant que « le pays était anciennement habité par les falafala se rattachant ethnographiquement aux tagouana » (binger, 1892, p.323). or, les falafala que ces auteurs qualifient d’ancêtre des tagbana ont connu des mouvements dans l’espace voltaïque en fonction des événements qui ont rythmé leur vie à kong. koné kiyali traduit la mobilité de ces populations de kong en ces termes : « accueillants, mais méfiants, les falafalas ont le plus souvent préféré la fuite à la résistance. c’est donc sous la poussée des myoro qu’ils émigrent vers les environs immédiats de la ville actuelle de kong. une partie d’entre eux s’oriente dans le pays djimini et vers ferkessédougou, annonçant ainsi le peuplement de l’espace voltaïque »(k. kiyali, 2018, p.80). m’brah désiré (2014, p.76-77) estime que des militaires sénoufo, partis de kong,ont conduit leurs familles et leurs groupes dans les régions actuelles de korhogo, sinématiali, ferkessédougou, ouangolodougou, boundiali, tafiré, koumbala, napié,katiola, etc. de cette thèse, on remarque que tafiré et katiola représentent respectivement les limites nord et sud du pays tagbana. a partir de 1710, les éléments venus de kong ont essaimé tout l’espace culturel tagbanaactuel (d. k. m’brah, 2014, p.75). constitués de falafala, de myoro, de gbin et de nabé, ces éléments avaient été en grande majorité, phagocyté par les dioula à kong (g. n. kodjo, 1986, p.172). la présence des populations venues de kong pour s’installer dans le pays tagbana est incontestable.contrairement au sud-mali (koutiala et bougouni) qui constitue l’origine lointaine des tagbana, le royaume de kong apparaît comme l’origine proche des tagbana. 2. migrations et itinéraires des proto-tagbana (xive-xviiie siècles) les sénoufo qui occupent actuellement l’aire culturelle tagbana ont essaimé dans leur habitat actuel par des vagues migratoiresponctuées d’escales dans divers endroits. il s’agit de mettre en évidence les différents mouvements migratoires importants des tagbana ainsi que les principaux itinéraires qu’ils ont suivis pour atteindre leur zone d’occupation actuelle. 11 les falafala sont considérés comme un peuple autochtone du royaume de kong et l’ancêtre de l’ensemble des sénoufo de côte d’ivoire. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 2.1.du pays mianka à kong(fin xive siècles) selon henriette diabaté (1988, p.71), plusieurs auteurs indiquent que l’espace géographique des sénoufo s’étend de la volta noire au pays baoulé. pour sa part, salverte-marmier (1964, p.17) révèle que cette aire culturelle a subi une diminution spatiale au fil du temps, car elle « a dû à un moment donné s'étendre de mankono à bondoukou, de tiébissou à banfora et même au-delà vers le nord de la haute-volta ».c’est du triangle banfora-bougouni-sikasso que les ancêtres des tagbanadescendentprogressivement vers le sud. c’est à travers un lent glissement qu’ils parviennent à s’établir dans l’espace compris entre tafiré et katiola.cette lenteur s’explique par le fait que ces migrants« ne s’installent jamais au-delà d’une journée de leur lieu de départ, afin de pouvoir informer très rapidement leurs parents des éventuelles difficultés rencontrées » (henriette diabaté, 1988, p.71). c’est par cette méthode empreinte de prudence que les sénoufo se dispersent par vagues successives dans « une région dont les limites sont grossièrement marquées par les localités actuelles d’odienné, de touba, de séguéla, de mankono, de bouaké, de prikro et de bouna » (henriette diabaté, 1988, p.71).quant à louis roussel (1965, p.31), il note que pendant leur migration, « les uns auraient colonisé la région de tingrela-boundiala, d’autres, fodonons et tangas, auraient occupé le kiembara, d’autres enfin auraient gagné les anciennes subdivisions de kong, de dabakala, de katiola. leur marche aurait été bloquée par la rencontre du rameau le plus septentrional du groupe akan ». ces différentes versions sur la migration des sénoufo en direction de l’actuelle côte d’ivoire ne précisent aucun itinéraire avec des escales précises. mais trois axes majeurs se dégagent. de ces principaux axes, retenons celui qui se dirige vers kong. ce choix s’explique par le fait que la plupart des sous-groupes sénoufo, notamment les tagbana se sont constitués à partir de la migration que les chefs guerriers sénoufo ont entamé à partir de la métropole de kong. concernant le périple des sénoufo vers kong, georges niamkey kodjo constate sans indication précise que la vallée du fleuve comoé a servi de voie de passage à la plupart des populations dites autochtones de la région de kong (g. n. kodjo, p.161). fondé à la même période que djenné (1043-1044), kong a connu des mouvements peu importants de populations avant le déferlement de la première vague des mandé au xive siècle (l. g. binger, 1892, p.323). dès sa création, des relations commerciales ont été établies entre kong et d’autres régions septentrionales, notamment le pays minianka. cela a favorisé la circulation des commerçants entre ces deux régions. de ce fait, kénédougou devient un passage pour les commerçants venant de kong en direction de ségou (y. person, 1968, 110 α 128). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 il est donc probable que les premiers mouvements des populations sénoufo aient suivi ces voies commerciales. il est certain que ces premiers mouvements étaient moins importants que les autres. même si toutes les questions concernant la migration des sénoufo de leur habitat originel en direction de kong n’ont pas été élucidées, notons que ce mouvement reste un pan important de l’histoire des migrations du peuple sénoufo en général et tagbana en particulier. alors, comment s’est déroulé le déplacement de ces populations de kong vers leur habitat actuel ? 2.2.de kong à nanguinkaha (xviiie siècle) vers la fin néolithique, certains falafala quitte le village ténégéra, près du royaume de kong, pour s’installer dans l’actuel espace culturel tagbana sous la pression des myoro. au xviiie siècle,un second groupe de migrants conduit par nanguin soroquitte kong pour se diriger vers leur habitat actuel(g. n. kodjo, 1986, p.797).suite à une incompréhension entremori maghari, roi de kong et nanguin soro, guerrier sénoufo intrépide, que de nombreux sénoufo décident de partir de kong avec les membres de leurs familles, comme l’indique henriette diabaté (1987, p.87)en ces termes : sous le règne de mori maghari, deuxième successeur de sékou ouattara, entre 1770 et 1800, il met le cap sur le nord à la tête d’un millier de migrants composés de sénoufo tiébaga, niarafolo et takpin et de mandés intégrés aux familles sénoufo. il est secondé par les chefs militaires bégako sékongo, fanga silué, layèhè soro, kpo yéo,gnèkèrè silué, tradia soro, kolo yéo, kenguélé yéo, sikolo yéo, niaha soro et nama yéo. les migrants dirigés par nanguin soro ne constituent pas un groupe homogène. en effet, c’est de ce groupe que la plupart des sous-groupes sénoufo de côte d’ivoire voit le jour. cependant, d’autres auteurs comme désiré m’brah estiment que tous les sous-groupes sénoufo ne sont pas partis de kong au même moment que nanguin soro. d’après lui, nanguinsoro a quitté kong qu’avec les membres de sa famille "tiembara". ce guerrier a été suivi peu après par les niarafolo qui empruntent le même itinéraire que lui (d. m’brah,2014, p.74-75).dans les études de ouattara tiona, il apparaît aussi que lestagbana de tafiré ont quitté le royaume de kong après le départ de nanguin soro de cette métropole (t. ouattara, 1991, p.388-389). de ces différentes versions sur le départ des migrants sénoufo de kong, il ressort que nanguin soro est le premier sénoufo à amorcer un mouvement de masse en direction du pays sénoufo ivoirien actuel. la migration qui est un phénomène continu dans le temps et dans l’espace ne s’arrête donc pas à celle de ce guerrier. d’autres vagues migratoires ont eu lieu après celle dirigée par nanguin soro. mais, nous ne nous intéressons qu’à l’itinéraire de nanguin soro. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 sous la direction de nanguin soro, les migrants sénoufo envisageaient de retourner dans leur pays d’origine. pour ce faire, ils empruntent la piste caravanière longeant le fleuve léraba et menant à dienné par bobo-dioulasso. après plusieurs jours de marche lente, ils parviennent à kawara12 et tombent sous le charme de cette zone. une fois dans cette localité, les migrants manifestent leur désir de s’y établir. eu égard aux relations amicales entre les populations de cette région et l’empire de kong, les chefs de kawara leur accordent l’hospitalité, en autorisant leur installation au sud de kawara. d’après henriette diabaté (1987, p.87) « chaque chef militaire obtient une parcelle de terre pour sa famille et tous ceux qui l’accompagnent. la vie sédentaire reprend ses droits. la population s’adonne à la culture de la terre et les chefs militaires à la chasse et au commerce de chevaux ». cette organisation économique essentiellement basée sur l’agriculture et le commerce permet aux migrants de s’affirmer de plus en plus dans leur nouvel espace de vie.s’inquiétant de cette situation qui risque de mettre à mal leur autorité et la stabilité dans leur région, les chefs de kawara demandent à nanguin soro de quitter leur terre avec ses hommes.obligé de quitter cette région, le groupe de nanguin soro connait pour la première fois une scission. le premier groupe, sous la houlette d’un certain bégako sékongo et sa famille, s’oriente vers le nord. quant au reste des migrants toujours dirigé par nanguin soro qui constitue le second groupe, ils partent vers le sud en suivant la piste caravanière qui mène vers le worodogou (k. koné, 2018, p.86). c’est dans ce groupe conduit par nanguin soro que se trouve le fondateur du groupe tagbana ou tapkin, objet de notre réflexion. henriette diabaté (1987, p.87) décrit cette nouvelle aventure du groupe de nanguin soro en ces termes : les derniers traversent le bandama au gué de nifiniaragba et mettent le cap sur diédana qu’ils atteignent après une journée de marche. ils y passent quelques jours, puis reprennent leur route vers boron. ils séjournent à lamèhèkaha, puis à kadioha, arrivent à boron et demandent l’hospitalité aux parents de sékou ouattara de kong. connaissant la force militaire de nanguin soro, les rois dioula de boron refusent de les accueillir. a partir de boron, nanguin soro et ses hommes décident de rebrousser chemin. ils reprennent alors la route par laquelle ils sont venus. sur le chemin du retour, ils découvrent au nord de lamèhèkaha et au sud de diédana, une colline et deux villages. wakatiennin, l’un des deux villages est situé au sud de la colline ; et l’autre nangounkaha se trouve au nord, sur les bords de la rivière nangouholo.dans ces villages, les migrants sont accueillis chaleureusement par 12 kawara ou kaouara est une localité du nord situé de la côte d’ivoire, dans l’actuel département de ouangolodougou. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 les populations falafala qui y avaient probablement émigré sous la poussée des myoro, à la fin du néolithique. ils sont donc autorisés à s’installer au sud de wakatiennin et à l’est de nangounkaha, où ils fondent leur village. en reconnaissance à leur guide, les migrants baptisent cet espace qu’il occupe désormais nanguinkaha, c’est-à-dire le « village de nanguin » (h. diabaté, 1987, p.87). de cette localité, les migrants s’organisent politiquement et économiquement pour asseoir leur hégémonie sur les mandé de la région. cette domination s’accentue avec la création de plusieurs autres villages par les migrants. c’est à travers cette politique expansionniste que débute le périple des takpin sous la houlette de gnèkère silué. cette migration aboutit à la naissance du pays tagbana peu avant l’incursion des baoulé dans le centre de l’actuelle côte d’ivoire. comment gnèkèrè silué mène-t-il les tagbana à leur site actuel ? 2.3.de nanguinkaha à la fondation de gnèkèrèkaha et de katiola(débutxixe siècle) après le regroupement des villages indépendants dans la région tanga, les grands chefs sénoufo et leurs arméesse dispersent dans toute la région pour trouver des terres et créer de nouveaux villages (h. diabaté, 1987, p.88). a la tête d’un groupe important constitué de chefs militaires tels que tradia soro, kolo yéo, kenguélé yéo, sikolo yéo, layèhè soro et kpo yéo, gnèkèrè silué quitte à son tour nanguinkaha et entame une nouvelle aventure. moins périlleuse que celle vécu avec nanguin soro, l’aventure de ce groupe de migrants débute par une escale à lamèhèkaha. se dirigeant vers le sud-est, ils traversent au gué de longo et parvient au sud la colline du village niangbo où il fonde gnèkèrèkaha (village de gnèkèrè)13. lorsque gnèkèrè silué se fixe dans son nouveau village, plusieurs de ses compagnons décident de pousser leur migration plus loin. ainsi, certains d’entre eux se dirigent vers le nord et d’autres prennent la direction du sud. le groupe qui nous intéresse dans cette étude est celui qui s’est orienté vers le sud et dirigé par le guerrier kolo yéo.selon ouattara tiona, les compagnons de gnèkèrè silué qui ont poursuivi leur exode vers le sud, ont été bien accueillis par les fohobélé qu’ils ont rencontré en chemin.après avoir passé quelques temps dans le premier village fondé par les fohobélé, les migrants s’éparpillent dans la région en occupant les zones environnantes,comme le stipule le texte ci-dessous : peu après, ndana horo, sourou horo, offien thio, tradia horo, tien horo et kolo yè décidèrent de quitter la région du premier village construit par les fohobélé. ainsi, ndana, en compagnie de ses hommes, se dirigea vers le sud-est et s’installa dans la région actuelle du village qui porte son nom. offien thio, sourou horo, tradia horo et tien horo se dirigèrent vers 13 nièkèrèkaha ou gnèkèrèkaha est appelé aujourd’hui niakaramandougou. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 l’ouest et s’installèrent respectivement dans les régions de nangbotokaha, souroukaha, daracolondougou et niénankaha. kolo yè, avec ses hommes, se dirigea vers le sud et alla s’installer dans la région de katio ou katiola. quant à kagouna hili, il demeura dans le premier village des fohobélé, appelé alors finhinlin ou fimèlè. ce texte montre clairement que la partie méridionale du pays tagbana était déjà occupé par les fohobélé avant l’intrusion des guerriers sénoufo venus de kong. même si cette version peut paraître vraisemblable, il est certain que l’éclosion d’une identité du peuple tagbana s’est fait à partir de l’installation de ces guerriers sénoufo. ces migrations constituent donc un pan essentiel de l’histoire des sénoufo en général et des tagbana en particulier. en réalité, l’histoire de cette partie ne saurait s’écrire en ignorant le rôle des guerriers sénoufo venus de kong. en effet, en abandonnant son chef guerrier gnèkèrè silué, kolo yéo pousse sa migration vers le sud et occupe la région de la colline hambol. dans cette région, il crée un village qu’il baptise katjrolo. signifiant « passage étroit entre deux forêt », katjrolo a été déformé par l’administration coloniale française en « katiola ». en outre, kapo thio, fondateur de kabolo serait aussi venu degnèkèrèkaha. ayant réussi à regrouper tous les campements et habitats isolés en un village pour lutter contre les agressions extérieures, les populations portent le nom de diedana. de ce qui précède, il ressort que le tagbana centre et le tagbana sud ont vu le jour au terme du périple débuté sous nanguin soro et conclut par ses compagnons gnèkèrè silué et kolo yéo. quant à sa partie septentrionale, elle doit sa création et son peuplement à des vagues de migrations distinctes de cellessus-mentionnées. pour les traditionnistes de cette partie du tagbana, la migration de leurs ancêtres serait partie de kong pour aboutir directement à tafiré sans escale majeure. pour eux, cette vague a été conduite par dounakangnimin, un chasseur, originaire de kong. a ce sujet, sounan coulibaly soutient que « ce peuple n’a pas fait d’escale mais à plutôt emprunté des pistes en passant par n’golodou pour arriver en un seul jour à tafiré »14. a l’issue de ces importants mouvements, les migrants s’implantent dans leur espace géographique actuel et s’organisent pour s’affirmer culturellement dans la partie méridionale du pays sénoufo de la côte d’ivoire. 3. peuplement et structuration de l’espace tagbana (fin xixe siècles). l’épopée des guerriers venus de kong et les péripéties des migrants mandé-dioula favorisent le peuplement de l’actuelle aire culturelle tagbana. comment ces populations ont-elles occupéleur nouveau cadre de vie ? 14 sounan coulibaly, entretien du 11/12/2015 à tafiré ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 3.1.le peuplement ancien du pays tagbana a l’instar de toutes les régions de la côte d’ivoire, le nord a été habité avant l’arrivée des populations que nous connaissons actuellement. en effet, de nombreuses informations géologiques, archéologiques et historiques attestent que l’occupation de ce pays de façon générale remonte à l’époque néolithique voire à l’ère paléolithique. s’appuyant sur les résultats des fouilles archéologiques effectuées par diabaté victor sur le site de ténégéra dans la région de kong, georges niamkey kodjo révèle que les falafala, ancêtres du peuple sénoufo, ont habité la région vers la fin du néolithique avant l’arrivée des myoro. c’est sous la poussée des myoro que les falafala émigrent vers le sud-ouest (djimini) et dans les environs immédiats de la ville actuelle de kong (g. n. kodjo, 1986, p.164) a propos du peuplement ancien de la partie nord de la côte d’ivoire, jean noël loucou note qu’il existait dans les régions de niakaramandougou et ferkessédougou des boules de pierre et des poteries minuscules. se basant sur ces données archéologiques, l’auteur conclut que les sites de korhogo et kong ont été habités continuellement de la période du néolithique jusqu’à nos jours (j. n. loucou, 1984, p.13-14). par ailleurs, désiré m’brah (2010, p.103)note que « des traces de véritables ateliers géants où les outils étaient fabriqués en grand nombre, ont été découvertes près de ferkessédougou. egalement, des boules de pierre et des tessons de poterie y ont été découverts ». tous ces éléments démontrent qu’il y a eu des habitants dans le pays tagbana avant l’ère préhistorique. mais qui sont ces peuples qui ont précédé les tagbana sur leur site actuel ? d’où viennent-ils ? pour georges niamkey kodjo, le peuplement du nord et du nord-est de l’actuelle côte d’ivoire par les proto-sénoufo aurait débuté probablement vers la fin du néolithique avec les falafala et s’est poursuivi vers le premier millénaire de notre ère avec les nabé. la mise en place de ces populations est donc très ancienne. il estime que ces proto-sénoufo que sontles falafala, myoro et gbin ont certainement contribué à la création des langues senoufo actuelles du nord et du nord-est de la côte d’ivoire. (g. n. kodjo, 1986, p.172). a ce stade de la réflexion, notons que les sources qui abordent la question des origines du peuple tagbana n’évoquent pas la présence d’une quelconque population qui les auraient devancées sur leur habitat actuel. d’ailleurs, ouattara tiona relève que les traditionnistes considèrent que les migrations des guerriers sénoufo en provenance de kong ont constitué les premiers mouvements du pays sénoufo en général et de l’espace géographique tagbana en particulier (t. ouattara, 1999, p.44). cette réalité montre clairement que les autres migrations effectuées dans la région n’ont pas marqué la conscience collective des tagbana parce ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 qu’elles ont été certainement de moindre ampleur. aussi n’ont-elles pas engendré d’importants bouleversements institutionnels et des modifications spatio-démographiques. une légende tagbana révèle qu’avant toutes les vagues migratoires qui se sont superposées aux anciens peuples autochtones au cours decette longue période comprise entre lexive siècle et la fin du xviiiesiècle, le pays était déjà peuplé par les mandébélé.communément appelés pygmée, les mandébélé sont des petits hommes aux pieds retournés. ces derniers étaient les propriétaires des terres avant l’intrusion des migrants dans la zone, mais vivaient de la chasse et de la cueillette. a l’arrivée des premiers migrants, les mandébélé enseignent le tiga aux enfants de ceux-ci, mais ils leur interdisent l’accès aux cérémonies initiatiques (h. diabaté, 1988, p.73). cette clause est rompue car, voulant satisfaire leur curiosité, les enfants des migrants désobéissent aux prescriptions en violant le secret du rite initiatique. a côté de cet incident, ces migrants perturbaient la quiétude de leur hôte car, ils disposaient d’instruments de fer pour la chasse. face à ces menaces que constituent les nouveaux venus, les mandébélé décident de se retrancher dans les arbres et se rendent invisibles à une partie des migrants. ceux qui avaient la possibilité de les voir étaient les chasseurs et les enfants qu’ils avaient initiés. c’est dans ce contexte que les mandébélé laissent le champ libre aux migrants, qui deviennent de ce fait, maîtres des terres de la région et mettent en place leurs institutions initiatiques. c’est ce processus que henriette diabaté a appelé « la dépossession des mandébélé par les sénoufo » (h. diabaté, 1988, p.73). même si ouattara tiona estime que la pénétration des mandé-dioula en pays tagbana a eu lieu bien avant le second millénaire de notre ère, et qu’elle s’est amplifiée après la décadence de l’empire du mali, notamment aux xvie et xviiie siècles, notons que c’est la grande migration des guerriers sénoufo venus de kong qui aboutit à la naissance du peuple tagbana et à l’émergence de son identité. 3.2.les falafala et les mandé-dioula à la base de la formation du peuple tagbana la constitution du peuple tagbana est l’aboutissement d’un long et périlleux processus migratoire en direction de l’espace voltaïque ivoirien. les migrants qui forment l’ossature du peuple tagbana ont quitté leur habitat originel pour diverses raisons. certains fuyaient les crises politiques et les catastrophes naturelles ; et d’autres cherchaient des terres cultivables et de nouveaux partenaires commerciaux (k. koné, 2018, p.88). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 tous ces facteurs motivent l’essaimage des populations d’origines diverses dans les régions actuelles du pays tagbana. en effet, le déferlement des proto tagbana dans la zone engendre la disparition des mandébélé ou pygmées. les éléments qui y étaient présents avant l’arrivée des groupes venus de kong ou du soudan sont les falafala.a la suite des falafala, les mandédioula s’infiltrent en suivant la piste caravanière sikasso-bobo-banfora-ouangolodougoutafiré-kanangonon. ces derniers ont dû atteindre daracolondougou et sa région. selon ouattara tiona, ces mandé-dioula ont fréquenté le marché florissant de katiola à la fin du xviiie siècle. comme indiqué plus haut, les mouvements de ces peuples se sont intensifiés entre les xvie et xviiie siècles. les mandé-dioula n’ont pas créé de nouveaux villages et de quartiers à cette période dans le pays tagbana, ils n’avaient que des gites d’étapes, où ils laissaient des représentants (t. ouattara, 1999, p.33-34). a la fin du xviiie siècle, les guerriers senoufo de kong arrivent dans la région et créent de nombreux campements et villages. dans la partie méridionale, les villages de takala, tafolo sont créés au sud-est du site primitif de kanagonon. a l’ouest et au sud-ouest de cette localité, offienkaha, tradiakaha, souroukaha et tienkaha voient le jour. au centre du territoire tagbana, en plus de gnèkèrèkaha, de nombreux villages sont créés. ainsi, au nord, on a les localités de pétonkaha et longo ; au nord-est, nangoniékaha, pégbonhaha, pédjangmankaha, kanawolo, fononkaha et badiokaha ; au sud et sud-est, folofonkaha, kiohan, angolokaha etc. dans la partie nord de cette aire culturelle, on assiste à la création de sélikalakaha, kafiné, kanakaha, n’golokaha etc. de cette occupation spatiale, naissent de nombreux sous-groupes tagbana notamment les tafilé ou tafir, des takpinlin, des babaala ou fohobélé, des trafolo et les tchédanlan (k. koné, 2018, p.16). l’arrivée et l’installation des guerriers venus de kongimpulsent une nouvelle dynamique aux migrations en direction de cette région. le peuplement qui s’ensuit prend un caractère hétérogène avec des populations comme les mangoro, longô, les noumou, peuhls et d’autres colonies de mandé-dioula. la présence de tous ces éléments favorise un brassage culturel dans leur nouvelle zone d’occupation. d’ailleurs,georges kodjo niamkey souligne que le brassage des proto-tagbana a débuté depuis le royaume de kong. à ce sujet, il note : « nous ne dirons rien des autochtones zazéré, komono, pakhala, etc. ; ils sont tellement noyés dans l'élément dioula dont ils ont pris la coutume, la langue et les mœurs qu'il est bien difficile de noter ce qu'ils offrent de particulier. ils ont été absorbés comme le seront les autres peuples voisins » (g. n. kodjo, 1986, 160-161). henriette diabaté (1988, p.75) atteste cette réalité en indiquant que les mandé-dioula et autres éléments étrangers dans le nord de la côte d’ivoire, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 se sont intégrés assez rapidement aux voltaïques. de ce fait, ils parlent le sénari15 et leur formation obéît aux normes initiatiques senoufo. en clair, la genèse de l’identité culturelle des tagbana résulte d’un premier brassage ethnoculturel principalement entre les falafala et les mandé-dioula. ce brassage s’est accentué parl’installation des baoulé dans la région de bouaké et par les conquêtes de samory touré et mori touré,entre les xixe et xxe siècles. 3.3.l’occupation et la structuration du cadre de vie des tagbana lorsque les migrants arrivent dans leur habitat actuel, ils se regroupent par lignages« himm » et clans pour créer des villages appelés kaha. généralement, les villagestagbana portent les noms des personnes qui les ont créées16. de ces villages, les nouveaux arrivants se dispersent dans la région pour y fonder des campements afin d’exercer leurs activités agricoles. ce modèle d’occupation de l’espace par lignages constitue l’un des traits généraux des sociétés organisées de l’afrique occidentale (y. person, 1968, p.54). en pays tagbana, la création des campements obéissait en premier lieu à des besoins vitaux de ces populations. avant de bâtir un campement dans une zone donnée, le tagbana s’assure de sa richesse en gibier, de l’existence de cours d’eau et de la fertilité de son sol. une fois installé, il bâtit son habitat et crée son champ à proximité de cette bâtisse. l’espace de production est destiné à la pratique de l’agriculture et de la chasse. les produits de ces activités permettent aux occupants d’assurer leur subsistance et d’être en contact avec le monde extérieur à travers la vente du surplus. le cadre de vie est alors aménagé selon la culture de l’occupant et les conditions climatiques du milieu habité. naturellement, cet espace abrite des concessions. cela montre que le tagbana organise son milieu en cadre de vie et en espace de production. a partir des villages mères, de nombreux campements sont nés en pays tagbana. ces agglomérations minuscules avec des habitats sémi-dispersés deviennent au fil du temps d’importantes agglomérations avec des habitats groupés. dès lors, il apparait clairement que les circonstances historiques influencent la forme de l’habitat. ainsi, en plus des déterminismes géographiques et culturels, l’habitat est désormais lié aux conditions politiques. 15 c’est la langue parlée par les sénoufo. 16 il s’agit de la personne ayant découvert le nouveau site ou celle ayant conduit la migration en direction du nouveau. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 les villages tagbana sont constitués dequartiers appelés dara. chaque quartier est subdivisé en plusieurs sous-quartiers. chaque sous-quartier est formé de plusieurs concessions. la concession est l’unité résidentielle d’un même groupement familial.du point de vue architectural, l’aire culturelle tagbana regorge deux types d’habitats. il s’agit des habitats de types rectangulaire et circulaire. mais, l’on constate une prédominance de case ronde à toit conique ou gou. parmi ces nombreuses cases rondes, on distingue la case des femmes « tchotchingin » de la case des hommes « djêssèhè ». la différence entre ces cases réside au niveau de la taille et de la toiture comme l’explique koné kiyali en ces termes : au-delà de la grosseur qui marquait la différence entre les deux concessions, la toiture de la femme présentait un bout arrondi tandis que celle de l’homme était pointue. de plus, la maison de la femme présentait deux portes, une entrée principale et une sortie qui donnaient sur son petit maraîcher et sa douche. l’homme quant à lui ajoutait souvent à sa maison une véranda où il partageait les repas avec ses enfants et amis. cette véranda servait également d’entrepôt aux fétiches familiaux, censés briser tout enchantement et ombrager contre toutes sortes de graves maladies (k. koné, 2019, p.111). cette description montre le caractère traditionnel de l’habitat chez les tagbana. la case tagbana n’est donc pas une maison au sens européen du terme, chacune d’elle représente une pièce de maison et joue un rôle précis. en effet, le chef de lignage construit une case en fonction de ses besoins. chez les tagbana, l’habitat n’a connu une évolution notable qu’avec la colonisation française à partir de 1898. au total, le peuple tagbana a organisé et structuré son espace de vie en fonction de ses traits culturels, des déterminismes géographiques, des conditions politiques et des circonstances historiques. avec les intrusionsdes conquérants touré et du colonisateur français, l’habitat dans l’aire culturelle tagbana connait une évolution. conclusion malgré les écuelles liées à la chronologie des faits, cette étude montre qu’après la chute de l’empire du mali,vers la fin du xive siècle, d’importants mouvements migratoires se sont orchestrés en direction du sud, notamment vers l’actuelle côte d’ivoire. ainsi, le sud-ouest de l’actuel burkina (kénédougou et banfora, etc.) et le sud de l’actuel mali (bougouni, koutiala et sikasso) apparaissentcomme le foyer originel des tagbana. il s’agit là, des origines lointaines des tagbana. le royaume de kong se présente alors comme un foyer originel proche, car il a été un important gîte d’étape dans la progression des migrants tagbana vers leur zone d’occupation actuelle. cette distinction est nécessaire pour mieux comprendre les migrations de longue durée comme celle des tagbana. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 il est certes difficile de reconstituer avec exactitude les déplacements des proto-tagbana de leur foyer originel en direction du royaume de kong, mais il est bon d’indiquer que les mouvements des populations dans l’espace voltaïque ont été un phénomène continu du fait de l’invasion des guerriers mandé de cet espace entre les xve et xvie siècles.au xviiie siècle, une crise politique dans le royaume de kong provoque le déferlement d’une importante colonie de guerriers vers le pays senoufo actuel. c’est cette migration qui aboutit à la formation du peuple tagbana. ce peuple est le résultat d’un brassage opéré entre plusieurs peuples notamment falafala, mandé-dioula, longô, noumou, gbin etc. dans leurespace culturel, les tagbana ont créé de nombreux kaha. fortement hiérarchisée, la société tagbana est régie par la règle de succession matrilinéaire et par l’initiation au pôhôr. mais, avec les hégémonies étrangères, l’équilibre social et politique des tagbana connait un profond bouleversement. sources et bibliographie sources orales n° nom et prénoms de l’informateur statut social et profession date et lieu de l’entretien thèmes abordés 01 kolo touré innocent chef canton de katiola 28/12/ 2015 à à nagnankaha. origine et migration des tagbana 02 coulibaly sékou, (environ 60 ans) chasseur 18/06/2019 à tortya. origine et migration des tagbana 03 kone m’bétchin françois, né 01-01-1950 à tortya agriculteur 16/12/2015 à tortya, peuplement et structuration du pays tagbana 04 kone tebetchin luc né en 1913 à niakara chef du canton de niakara 19/12/2015 à niakara, origine et migration des tagbana ; 05 kone tièkoura, (environ 80 ans) sage 20-12-2015 à niangbo origine et migration des tagbana 06 koné tiékoro, (environ 83ans ) chef à tiengala 24-12-2015 à tiengala peuplement et structuration du pays tagbana 07 madou coulibaly, (environ 80 ans) sage 29/12/15 à darakolondougou, origine et migration des tagbana 08 sounnan coulibaly, (environ 90 ans) chef de noumousso 11-12-15 à tafiré origine et peuplement 09 toure n’clo patrice (environ 55 ans) notable à nangnankaha 27-12-2015 à nagnankaha peuplement et structuration du pays tagbana 10 pié ouattara, (environ 68 ans ) chef du village de celikalakaha 09-12-15 à célikalakaha peuplement et structuration du pays tagbana bibliographie belaidi nadia et al., 2016, « autochtonie(s) et sociétés contemporaines. la diversité culturelle, entre division et cohésion sociale » droit et culture, p.43-76. binger louis gustave, 1982, du niger au golfe de guinée par le pays de kong et le mossi, 1887-1889, paris, librairie hachette et compagnie, 416 p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 coulibaly pingué sara edith, 2019, histoire des tagbana de tafire, des origines à l’installation des mandé-dioula, mémoire de master, université alassane ouattara, bouaké, 82p. diabate henriette, 1987, « les fondements de nation ivoirienne », mémorial de la côte d’ivoire, tome 1, abidjan, edition ami, 290 p. holas bohumil, 1906, les sénoufo (y compris les minianka), paris, puf, 183 p. kodjo niamkey george, 1986, le royaume de kong : des origines à 1897, aix-en provence, thèse de doctorat d’état, 2 tomes, 703 p. kone kiyali, 2018, l’islam en pays tagbana, xve-xxe siècles, thèse de doctorat d’histoire, université alassane ouattara, bouaké, 492 p. loucou jean-noël, 1984, histoire de la côte d’ivoire, tome 1, la formation des peuples, abidjan, ceda, p.13-14. m’bow mahtar amadou, 1999, « préface », histoire générale de l’afrique : méthodologie et préhistoire africaine, vol.1,unesco, paris, 847 p. m’brah kouakou désiré, 2014, « nouvelle approche historique sur le départ des guerriers sénoufo de kongcôte d’ivoire », sifoe, revue électronique d’histoire, n°2, p.70-78. medeiros de françois, 1990, « les peuples du soudan : mouvements de population », histoire générale de l’afrique : l’afrique du viie au xie siècles, edition unesco, p.143. ouattara eugénie, 2016, église catholique et culture tagbana (1908-1977), université de cocody, thèse de doctorat unique, 412 p. ouattara tiona ferdinand, 1998, côte d’ivoire, katiola des origines à nos jours, nei, abidjan, 222 p. 1999, histoire des fohobélé de côte d’ivoire, une population senoufo, karthala, paris, 274p. person yves, 1968, 1970 et 1975, samori, une révolution dyula, dakar, ifan, 3 tomes (mémoire 80), 2377 p. roussel louis, 1965, étude de développement socio-économique de la région de korhogo, rapport sociologique, paris, 103 p. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 introduction 1. les tagbana, un peupleaux origines controversées 1.1. des origines mythologiqueet autochtonique discutables 1.2. le triangle banfora-bougouni-sikasso,probable berceau de certains tagbana 1.3. le royaume de kong, un gîte d’étape des tagbana 2. migrations et itinéraires des proto-tagbana (xive-xviiie siècles) 2.1. du pays mianka à kong(fin xive siècles) 2.2. de kong à nanguinkaha (xviiie siècle) 2.3. de nanguinkaha à la fondation de gnèkèrèkaha et de katiola(débutxixe siècle) 3. peuplement et structuration de l’espace tagbana (fin xixe siècles). 3.1. le peuplement ancien du pays tagbana 3.2. les falafala et les mandé-dioula à la base de la formation du peuple tagbana 3.3. l’occupation et la structuration du cadre de vie des tagbana conclusion sources et bibliographie sources orales bibliographie ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || educational implication of folktales on nigerian children educational implication of folktales on nigerian children olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d) department of design and fine arts, college of technology, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere -ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. abstract teaching and learning have been undertaken sometimes in the absences of visual materials. teaching of morals, values and virtues in children can best be achieved with printmaking illustrations while using folktales as sources of influence. folktales have been described in this paper as veritable tool for teaching sociological and cosmological issues. the paper suggests some educational implication of folktales as it specifically affects children. keywords: folktales, folklore, educational implication, nigerian children. introduction folktale is rooted in tradition and culture of a particular people and was originally passed on by the words of mouth from one generation to another. kondi (2019) declares kershenblatt-gimblette refers to folklore as the study of a cultural production with focus on oral tradition. this has existed with man as oral literature. fayose (1995) explains that social anthropologists can see folktale as “cement of society” and psychoanalyst say, “folk stories are symbols of emotional fantasies which all people experience”. kathleen kagan (2023) postulates that every individual in every culture have the ability to tell tales and understand it without any formality. the functional role of tales was of great importance as described by noss (1987). whether for revealing sociological and cosmological aspects of a culture or for providing a practical means of pedagogy. folklore like folktale is the study of the traditional believes of the society, the two are knotted since they contain stories that can reshape and transform the life of the children. it is the accumulated wisdom of simple everyday folk or a society’s common knowledge. fayose (1995). while no strong line of demarcation can be drawn on the differences in folktales and folklore, ogundipe (1972) attempts to distinguish the terms for different verbal forms in folklore and other related terms when he wrote: 1. “folktales” (stories that require chorus from listeners) 2. “myth and legends”(stories about cosmology and cosmogony) 3. “proverbs” 4. “songs” 5. “curses” ogundipe’s analysis clearly corroborates abimbola (1977) that folklore and folktales connote the same interpretations. the period when folktales are narrated to children is noteworthy in their development and growth in nigeria. this is what makes stories and narratives accepted without questioning or investigating the sources. the grown-ups, usually parents and elderly people seize the opportunity of the naivety and innocence of the child to illustrate educative tales which embody societal values and satisfy the needs of security and social values. children listened to stories, riddles and jokes, parables, and proverbs, which develop them socially and ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || educational implication of folktales on nigerian children morally to live a full contented life, stories of achievement and success give self-confidence and encouragement to the children. educational implications of folktale folktale is an instrument of traditional education because some of them reveal the true source of tradition and superstitious beliefs and indeed explains some religious background to certain prevailing customs. the activities that happen in folktales indicate human values. in most times, families are constituted to show father, mother, child (ren), sometimes stewards and servants. fayose (1995) declares that even the animals operate within a physical or supernatural world including a home. she said further that this home and family are naturally essential to the security and the well-being of the children.oratory power is needed and valued in the folktale as one of the art of narrations also give panacea to problem of speech making. most of these stories teach children what the society requires of them. it serves as an eye opener for future occurrences. yo & sato (2019) argued that folktales have pedagogical function of disseminating information about the environs. folktales are relevant to everyday living as the moral of the stories are attached to the lives of every individual. to extol virtues and condemn vices, folktales also function as wisdom-lore of the elders. nwoga (1981) suggests that most of the lessons a person learns are based on how he lives and interacts successfully and meaningfully with other individuals. it was based on this assertion that hoffman (1957) posited that folktales are expressions of “popularly sanctioned attitudes towards human character, class structure and man’s reaction to nature”. folktales transcend the non-literate societies. just as the rural area urbanizes, folktales have been maintained as effective devices for passing on the knowledge and wisdom of ancestors. tsuji, yu & manidoc (2022) remark that folktales purposely develop, sustain, and preserve indigenous culture for improved future. the satiric function of folktales in human society transcends mere story illustration. apart from the fact morals are positively drawn from the tales and lores, confident judgements are made, excepts for the assertion of ebewo (1987) which postulates that the african trickster tales are responsible for the vices in the economic, social, and political activities in africa. although ebewo (1987) assert that folktales are also meant for entertainment and for educating the child, however, he agrees with arohunmolase (1988) who states that folktales are a useful tool for socialisation, although children and adults may not be able to accept them as scientific truths, they are satires that serve as weapon used for reforms in african societies. apart from the tales of valour and lesson from knowledge of life and mundane experiences, folktales also provide stylistic forms for fun and amusement. the leisure is spent usefully at any given time when there is readiness on the part of the audience. folktales are made under the shade of trees, at bonfires in starry nights and moonlights (akinrujomu, 2004). folktales cannot be ignored in the society. they served as psychological release from tension and problems arising from socio-human existence. folktale as a veritable tool in children’s preparation teaching the use of various techniques in printmaking arts such as serigraphy, relief e.g. wood or linocut to visualize folktale would help to activate the memory of the child towards the ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || educational implication of folktales on nigerian children lesson learnt in a particular folktale. in the age where foreign movies and imported visual works for the documentation of folktales become exigent. rendering folktale in visual forms would improve moral standard in schools, valdez & moyano (2021) opines that there is always an overt lesson in every folktale to learn. there is tendency for children to remember physical object that would remain permanent in their memory and the lessons taught would not be forgotten. they are important educational tools used in non-literate and literate societies of the preparatory and the primary schools as well as supplement for informal and formal education. for example, the following story illustration best describes folktale as an instrument of learning and teaching: folktale illustration a yoruba folktale once asserted that long ago all animals in the bush lived happily together. sometimes after all the day’s work, they gathered to amuse themselves. at one of these gatherings “lolo” the elephant invited the tortoise for a race, all the animals were astonished and laughed. lolo laughed loudest of all boasting he was the strongest animal. they later settled for the race after much amusement. “let us do the race now,” said lolo. no, “tomorrow” said the tortoise. as they all dispersed, the tortoise sought the opinion of some older animals on what to do to win the race. some suggestions were made which the tortoise followed strictly. later that night, the tortoise went to the arena of the race. he knotted some grasses from right and left of the road as a trap for “lolo” and then covered it with sand to make it hidden, near a resting pole. on the following morning, all animals came to watch, the tortoise had hardly moved a few yards, but lolo was so far ahead. soon lolo could not be seen any longer. disaster struck as he got near the resting pole, lolofell and was unable to get up immediately. as he was struggling to get up, a cool breeze blew on him, this made him fall into a deep and peaceful slumber. tortoise saw lolo on the way sleeping, he ran past lolo straight to the winning pole where other animals were waiting without having a rest at the pole. he told other animals to permit him rest on a nearby tree. when lolo woke up, he managed to get up and ran like a mad dog to the winning pole. lolo thought he had won at last despite the sleepover, but other animals quickly pointed to tortoise on the tree as a winner of the race. lolo was ashamed and henceforth stopped boasting as the strongest of all animals. lesson and morals from folktales this story is full of suspense and actions that is finally satisfying. the elephant was confident of his racing ability especially against the tortoise who was small and slow in action. lolo boasted because of its size and power to put tortoise to shame but the humiliation fell backto him. in real sense, this story reveals that the society frowns on the use of might which is not always right but cherishes humility, obedience, and virtues. econ (2021) opines that communities that punish offenders and have low tolerance towards anti-social behaviours that also give punishment to tricksters are trustworthy and prosperous. lolo trusted in his powers and might, but the tortoise humbled himself by seeking advice from elders. it taught the lesson that the small, the weak and the poor can as well get the best out of their opponent, the big, the strong, and the wealthy. the story gives succour to children who are small, weak, and poor in the society. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) olujoke stella akinrujomu (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || educational implication of folktales on nigerian children conclusion the paper concludes that teachers should make use of folktales to teach morals, obedience, humility, virtues, etc in their lessons bearing in mind of its educational implication that have been discussed so far. it would help in solving psychological and emotional problems encountered by the child when growing up, such problems as jealousy and rivalry, fear and uncertainties, peer recognition and acceptance, threat, and other social predicaments. stories of competence and successful heroesand heroines who refuse to accept defeat help children when growing up. teachers should also apply the method of “learning by seeing” which seems to have gained recognition by nigerian children. they remember what they see than the abstract. there is no doubt that positive implication of folktales would help researchers and learners achieve a better result in educational goals and aspiration. reference abimbola, w. (1977). the study of yoruba literature; an inaugural series, university of ife press, 5-15. akinrujomu, o.s. (2004). “yoruba folktale: a study of childhood experiences in contemporary printmaking” unpublished mfa thesis, university of benin, benin city, 8. arohunmolase, o. (1988). “heroes in african folktales: agents of contemporary corruption” a critique seminar paper presented at the obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife,.1-10. ebewo, p. (1987). heroes in african folktales: agents of contemporary corruption. paper presented at the nigerian folklore society, sokoto, june 25, 27, pp. 6-9. econ, o.j. (2021). “folklore” do: 10.101093/qje/qjab003.pmid:34658674 fayose, p.o. (1995). nigerian children’s literature in english ibadan aenl educational publishers, 18-30. hoffman, d.o. (1975). “folklore in literature: a symposium.” journal of american folklore, 21-32. kathleen, kagan (2023). “gender of multicultural sample of published folktales collected from storytellers, 23(2). kondi, b. (2019). “the sage international encyclopaedia of music and culture.” noss, c.a. (1987). in ernest, j. gaines (ed) “the problem of black manhood giving positive models. black cultures and black consciousness in literature, 155-167. nwoga, d.i. (1981). “igbo poet and satire” in abalogu u. et al (ed. oral) poetry in nigeria, nigerian magazine, 230. ogundipe, a. (1972). yoruba tongue twisters in richard dorsons african folklore. bloomington: indiana university press, 219. tsuji, t., yu, a.l., & manidoc, e.m. (2022). south eastern philippines journal of research and development, 47(2). valdez, p.g. & moyano m.a. (2021). “tracking ethnicity: the quest for the undocumented folktales legends and myths of san jose city, nueva ecija, philippines.” global education & social science journal, 1(1). yo, n. & sato, k. (2019). “systematic qualitative analysis reveal the folk. zoological knowledge embedded in folktales. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 importance of the msmes to the economy: challenges and measures by dr.t.vinila assistant professor of commerce smt.n.p.savitramma govt degree college(g) chittoor. email : vinila_thadipalli@rediffmail.com international journal of social science and humanities research ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 52 importance of the msmes to the economy: challenges and measures dr. t.vinila, assistant professor of commerce, smt.n.p.savitramma govt degree college(g) chittoor. __________________________________________________________________________ introduction the micro, small and medium enterprises (msme) sector has emerged as a highly vibrant and dynamic sector of the indian economy over the last five decades. it contributes significantly in the economic and social development of the country by fostering entrepreneurship and generating large employment opportunities at comparatively lower capital cost, next only to agriculture. msmes are complementary to large industries as ancillary units and this sector contributes significantly in the inclusive industrial development of the country. the msmes are widening their domain across sectors of the economy, producing diverse range of products and services to meet demands of domestic as well as global markets. in a country like india with a population size of about 1.3 billion, the micro, small and medium enterprises (msme) sector has a vital role in the economy. it fosters entrepreneurship and generates large employment opportunities. as msmes absorb the surplus agricultural labour, they help reduce the problem of disguised unemployment in rural areas. msmes are also complementary to large industries as ancillary units and also play an important role in the whole eco-system of the secondary and tertiary sector. the msme sector is passing through a challenging phase. a micro enterprise is an enterprise whose investment in plant, machinery and equipment does not exceed rs. 1 crore, and turnover does not exceed rs. 5 crore. a small enterprise is an enterprise whose investment in plant, machinery and equipment does not exceed rs. 10 crore, and turnover does not exceed rs. earlier industries that manufactured goods and provided services on a small scale or microscale basis were granted small scale industries (ssi) registration by the ministry of small scale industries. however, after the government passed the msme (micro, small and medium enterprises) act in 2006, the small and micro-scale industries came under the msme act. on 9 may 2007, subsequent to the amendment of the government of india (allocation of business) rules, 1961, the ministry of small scale industries and the ministry of agro and rural industries were merged to form the ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises. thus, the ssis are included under the ministry of msme. currently, the ssis are classified as small or micro-scale industries based on the turnover and investment limits provided under the msme act and they need to obtain msme registration. the government ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 53 provides many benefits to the small scale industries having msme registration at present. this paper underlining the importance of the msmes to the economy and challenges faced by them and measures undertaken by the reserve bank. keywords: economy,msmes objectives : the present paper focused on the following objectives:  to enlighten the importance of msmes to the economy  to highlight the challenges faced by msmes  to discuss various measures taken by rbi methodology: the data and information is gathered from secondary source collected from various books reports authentic websites, journals and e-contents relating to msmes. need for the study:  to highlight the importance of msmes in the indian economy  to make aware that msmes are playing a major role in employment and development of the economy  to inform the public about the initiatives and reforms taken by the government is taking, necessary measures for development of msmes. importance to the economy: the msme sector contributes in a significant way to the growth of the indian economy with a vast network of about 6.3 crore units and a share of around 30 per cent in nominal gdp in 2016-171. the share of the sector in total manufacturing output was even higher at 45 per cent2. taking cognisance of the wider set of benefits that the sector offers to the rest of the economy, the government has envisioned to increase its contribution to gdp to over 50 per cent in next few years as the country aspires for a 5 trillion economy. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 54 https://rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_speechesview.aspx?id=1095 https://rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_speechesview.aspx?id=1095 as per the 73rd round of national sample survey (nss) conducted during the period 201516, the estimated employment in msme sector was around 11 crore. within msme sector, each of the three sub-sectors, namely, trade, manufacturing and other services accounted for about a third of total employment. around 50 per cent of the total msmes operate in rural areas and provide 45 per cent of total employment. interestingly, the micro enterprises account for 97 per cent of total employment in msme sector4. this relates to the problem of what is called the missing middle5, which suggests that micro firms have failed to grow into smaller and medium firms and so on over time. this seems to have kept the micro sector bereft of enjoying economies of scale, investment into fixed assets, adoption of technology and innovation. the share of msme sector in india’s merchandise exports stood at around 48 per cent in 2018-196. this signifies that indian msmes are becoming globally competitive and their products/services are being accepted overseas. in this background, special attention needs to be given to improve the competitiveness and technology up-gradation endeavours. various schemes and programmes of the government, therefore, should be continued and effectively implemented. challenges in the msme sector: despite the msme sector contributing significantly to the economy, it continues to face several challenges. the major challenges include physical infrastructure bottlenecks; absence of formalisation; inertia to technology adoption; capacity building; backward and forward linkages; lack of access to credit and risk capital; and the perennial problem of delayed payments, among others. let me now elaborate on some of these issues.  infrastructure bottlenecks and competition: notwithstanding various efforts to upgrade the infrastructure, the msme clusters, particularly the micro enterprises, are inadequately equipped with necessary support systems which not only impede their day-to-day business operations but also their future growth prospects. while infrastructure constraint is only one side of the story, i believe that msmes also need to do their bit to improve competitiveness. they need to shed their inhibition to adopt new technologies; accept e-payments; and foster in-house innovation which will help them manage their businesses digitally and compete globally. given the current scenario of global trade, the age-old methods of operating business with low levels of technology adoption deprives them of potential economies of scale. lack of expertise in product development, designing, packaging and marketing strategy due to their small size add up to ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 55 https://rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_speechesview.aspx?id=1095 https://rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_speechesview.aspx?id=1095 https://rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_speechesview.aspx?id=1095 the pressure of adapting to the changing environment around them. the strategy for msmes should be to gradually expand in size and reduce the dependence on the incentive structure provided by the government. their aim should be eventually to compete on a global scale.  employment: considered to be the engine of economies around the world, the msme segment in india alone is estimated to have 6.3 crore units, which employs over 11.10 crore people. the sector accounts for 27% of gdp and is crucial to the functioning of the economy, including in terms of employment generation, exports, and lending opportunities.  access to credit and formalisation: credit plays a vital role in development of msme sector as funds at a reasonable cost can increase their competitiveness. credit disbursal to this sector has, however, remained sluggish in recent periods. at an aggregate level, the total credit outstanding from banks and nbfcs to the msme sector was approximately 16.6 lakh crore as at end of september, 2019. scheduled commercial banks account for 90 per cent of the share of total credit outstanding. as many msmes mainly operate in the informal space, assessing their creditworthiness can be difficult due to information asymmetry, particularly with respect to the financial performance of their businesses. in the absence of collateral, under-writing the customer often entails higher operating cost. furthermore, due to their small-scale operations, msmes are not able to raise risk capital. they are also unable to take advantage of most of the government schemes which are mostly based on digital infrastructure and require beneficiaries to have some form of digital identify and presence. with the implementation of structural reforms like gst and jam trinity, the informal units are, however, getting integrated with the mainstream in recent years.  delayed payments : a large number of msmes are ancillary units catering to the needs of large industries, both in the public and private sector. they often face the problem of delayed payments, affecting their cash flow and working capital availability. most of the time, delay in realisation of such receivables increases their operating cycle and reduces their ability to procure new orders or fulfil the existing ones. a primary survey conducted by reserve bank in december 2019 showed that 44 per cent of msmes engaged in manufacturing activities faced delay in payments. the ones not receiving timely payment mainly belonged to basic metal and metal products, engineering, construction and infrastructure related industries. on the other hand, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 56 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/msme delay in payments was lower at 27 per cent for services sector. here transport operators mostly faced such situations. although micro, small and medium enterprises development (msmed) act, 2006 contains provisions related to penalty in case of delayed payments by the buyers, weak bargaining power and the fear of losing the business prevents msmes to invoke this provision. expert committee on msmes: in order to understand the structural bottlenecks and factors affecting the performance of the msmes, rbi had set up an expert committee on msmes under the chairmanship of shri u.k sinha in january 2019. the committee has undertaken comprehensive review of the sector and given several recommendations for the economic and financial sustainability of the msme sector. these recommendations are wide-ranging and broadly relate to legislative changes; infrastructure development; capacity building; technological upgradation; improving backward and forward linkages; improving financial support from formal sources; newer technological interventions for robust underwriting practices; and credit delivery, among others. while some of the recommendations of the committee have already been implemented, others are under consideration by the authorities concerned. measures undertaken by rbi measures to improve the credit flow :  the reserve bank has taken several measures in the recent period to improve the flow of credit to the msme sector. banks form the predominant source of formal credit to msmes with all such loans by banks qualifying for priority sector lending classification. in august 2019, we have further incentivised banks to lend to msmes through the nbfc sector. consequently, bank credit to registered nbfcs (other than micro finance institutions) for on-lending to micro and small enterprises up to 20 lakh per borrower are eligible for classification as priority sector lending.  a scheme of one-time restructuring without an asset classification downgrade was permitted to gst registered msme accounts that were in default but standard as on january 1, 2019. as the process of formalisation of the msme sector has a positive impact on financial ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 57 stability and this process is still underway, the scheme has been extended to accounts that are standard but in default as on january 1, 2020 and restructuring, wherever eligible, has to be implemented latest by december 31, 2020. this will enhance the scope of the scheme by benefitting the eligible msme entities which could not be restructured under the provisions of the circular dated january 1, 2019 as also the msme entities which have become stressed thereafter. so far, banks have restructured 6 lakh accounts out of 15 lakh eligible accounts under the scheme. our primary survey suggested lack of awareness about the scheme among the msmes. incremental loans to msmes along with retail loans for automobiles and residential housing will be exempted from crr from fortnight ending january 31, 2020 up to fortnight ending july 31, 2020.  subsequent to the introduction of an external benchmark system in october 2019, the monetary policy transmission has improved where new floating rate loans to the micro and small entrepreneurs were linked to the external benchmark. with a view to further strengthening monetary policy transmission, all new floating rate loans to medium enterprises extended by banks from april 01, 2020 will also be linked to the external benchmarks.  delayed payments: the reserve bank introduced the trade receivables discounting system (treds) in 2014. treds is an electronic platform where receivables of msmes drawn against buyers (large corporates, psus, government departments) are financed through multiple financiers at competitive rates. this is done through an auction-based mechanism. to widen the scope of treds and to incentivise more players to be part of this platform, banks’ exposure through this platform were brought under priority sector lending in 2016. presently, three entities [viz., receivables exchange of india ltd. (rxil), a. treds, and mynd solutions] licensed by the reserve bank are operating the platform for more than two years. further, the reserve bank recently allowed ‘on tap’ authorization to entities desirous to provide platforms for treds. hence, in coming years, competition in receivables discounting space is bound to increase with the entry of new players. this requires the corporates, both in the public and private sector, to join the treds platform and make the system more efficient.  in 2018, the government made it mandatory for all companies with a turnover greater than 500 crores to register with treds. as on february 2020, while 8211 msme sellers were registered while only 1530 buyers were participating on the platforms. i would appeal to the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 58 assocham to encourage and handhold all its members to participate in the treds platform.  in the union budget 2020-21, the government has announced app-based invoice financing products to obviate the problem of delayed payments of msme. the mechanism may prove complementary to the treds platform and would further alleviate the problem of delayed payments.  as the msme sector holds immense potential, the need is to have a right set of policies and enabling framework which guide and support msmes to effectively handle their existing problems and venture into new areas. while both the government and the rbi have introduced a plethora of measures for improving access to finance and to promote growth of the sector, the small size of individual units and informal nature of the sector continue to pose challenges.  the traditional bank lending system by banks is based on financial statements and collateral of the borrower. with increased availability of data from several sources, including gstn, income tax, credit bureaus, etc., it is now possible to appraise the msme loan proposals expeditiously by doing due diligence online. further, with the help of account aggregators (aa), lenders will have access to potential borrower’s financial information at a single point, of course, with his/her consent. furthermore, emergence of fintech companies has made it possible to assess credit worthiness of msmes by utilising unexplored data sources such as digital transaction trails, data generated through e-commerce sites, etc. some lenders are collaborating with fintech companies to take advantage of such surrogate data for speedier credit underwriting for extending loans to msme sector. these new architectures would expand the reach of credit.  while the new models are beneficial for those units which are digitally active, a large segment of msme units access credit through traditional lending models. while micro enterprises act as a starting stage of entrepreneurship that requires low investment in technology, units graduating to small and medium enterprises have to enhance their technical capacity and explore newer markets in order to stay competitive for sustainable growth. recent policy efforts will provide an enabling environment and facilitate the msme sector seize the new emerging opportunities. i must add that as a regulator, we in rbi have to safeguard financial stability while ensuring wider access to finance. banks and other players on their part have to ensure prudent lending. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 59  besides, we in rbi have started launching cohorts under the regulatory sandbox. first such cohort was launched in november 2019 with the theme of ‘retail payments’ to spur innovation in digital payments space to design and test newer payment services for the unserved and underserved segments. in due course, we propose to run a regulatory sandbox for cohorts focussed on lending. this would promote innovation in msme lending segment. the project on public credit registry (pcr) will fundamentally address the information asymmetry that impedes access to credit for micro and small entrepreneurs. the pcr has been envisaged as a database of core credit information. the registry would play crucial role in reducing credit gap in the segment.  given the fact that the msme sector contributes significantly to exports, it is essential that they should be integrated with global value chains (gvc) to remain competitive as it offers unique opportunity to become technologically and digitally empowered. being part of gvc would enable msmes to produce quality goods and services which will have greater acceptability in the global market. the major challenges for the sector to connect to the gvc are lack of information, knowledge of markets and quality standards. conclusion: lauding the large part played by the medium, small, and micro enterprises (msmes) in india’s economic rebound, the latest assocham-crisil joint study adds that the sector is expected to achieve mid-teen growth in fiscal 2022 with the pick-up of economic activities. crediting msmes for putting the country on the firm path of economic recovery in 2022 after having had it tough in 2021, bhushan parekh, director, crisil sme solution, elaborated in the report, “a raft of measures by the government under its aatmanirbhar bharat banner has provided reprieve to msme segment in recent months. these include rs 20,000 crore subordinate debt for stressed msmes, rs 50,000 crore equity infusion through msme fund of funds (sri fund), 3-lakh crore emergency credit line guarantee scheme (eclgs) for businesses, including msmes (which was subsequently increased to rs 5-lakh crore in union budget 2022-23), change in definition of what constitutes an msme, and no global tenders for government procurement up to rs 200 crore.” the report also notes that if msme lending by banking and non-banking finance companies (nbfcs) in fiscal 2021 rose to 7% on-year, then the credit is expected to grow by 7-9% (around rs 18-lakh crore) on-year in fiscal 2022 supported by favourable government measures as well as rise in demand. while the banks continue to dominate around 80% of the msme-lending book, it is, however, expected to reverse in the future. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 60 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/fiscal https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/eclgs https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/nbfcs one of the factors driving the change is the digitalization of the msme sector. the digital footprint of msmes expanded in 2021, according to the crisil survey of over 500 msmes. this has not only helped in providing enhanced customer experience, operational efficiency and workforce enhancement, but also facilitates access to financial services. msme also has 50% share in exports since the past five years. the report states that exports-linked msme sectors have been on the path to recovery and will continue to do so in the next fiscal. “in the long term as well, the segment will continue to offer attractive opportunities for financiers as the global economy recovers and adoption of china-plus-one strategy by large players to diversify their supply chains provides a boost to export-linked msmes. references: 1 annual report, ministry of msme 2018-19,2019-20,2020-21. 2 report of the expert committee on micro, small and medium enterprises (chairman: u.k. sinha), june 25, 2019. 3 ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises, government of india, september 24, 2019. 4 annual report ministry of msme 2018-19 5 krueger, a. o. (2013). the missing middle. economic reform in india: challenges, prospects, and lessons, 299. 6 ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises, government of india, july 2019. annual report, coir board . (2011–2019). government of india. http://coirboard.gov.in/?page_id=199 (accessed on 2nd february, 2020) behera, h., wahi, g. (2017). how have msme sector credit and exports fared? (mint street memo no. 13), 1– https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/mintstreetmemos/13msmn17082018.pdf berger, a. n., udell, g. f. (1998). the economics of small business finance: the roles of private equity and debt markets in the financial growth cycle. journal of banking and finance, 22(6&8), 613–673. ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises . (2007). annual report 2006– 2007. government of india. https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/ssi-ar-eng-2006-07.pdf ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 61 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/msme-sector http://coirboard.gov.in/?page_id=199 https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/mintstreetmemos/13msmn17082018.pdf https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/ssi-ar-eng-2006-07.pdf ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises . (2008). annual report 2007– 2008. governmen of india. https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/msme%20annual%20report%20200708_english.pdf ************************ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 62 https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/msme annual report 2007-08_english.pdf https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/msme annual report 2007-08_english.pdf ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state abstract the study's overarching goal is to use empirical evidence to draw conclusions on the connections between supply chain agility, organisational performance, and manufacturing firms in the state of rivers. researchers conducted a study using statistical analysis to test all proposed ideas, after collecting numerical data through a survey. the study included all officially registered manufacturing companies in rivers state, as most businesses were situated there. rivers state has 29 legally registered manufacturing businesses. six delegates were sent to each company, one from each of the six departments that comprised the organisation: purchasing, manufacturing, marketing, research and development, and customer service. the sample size for the quantitative study was 144 individuals. researchers evaluated the internal reliability using the cronbach's alpha method. each item needed to score above 0.7 on the likert scale for this method to be applied. all hypotheses were confirmed as the data table showed strong positive connections (0.921, 0.874, 0.872, and 0.886) between the variables. the data indicated a positive relationship between all aspects of supply chain agility and the performance of manufacturing businesses in rivers state. researchers in rivers state discovered that the performance of industrial enterprises would enhance if managers maintained professional relationships with their colleagues. keywords: network integration, virtual integration, efficiency, profitability ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka department of management, faculty of management sciences, university of port harcourt, choba, rivers state oloda oluwatayo felix department of business administration federal university otuoke, bayelsa state ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state introduction due to the intensely competitive environment, supply chain agility (sca) is now at a crucial point (golgeci, bouguerra, & rofcanin, 2019). information systems play a crucial role in the supply chain by facilitating supply chain agility, as highlighted by gunasekaran, yusuf, adeleye, papadopoulos, kovvuri, & geyi (2019). according to gunasekaran et al. (2019) and wei, ke, liu & wei (2020), supply chain integration is a strategic approach that enables seamless integration and enhances the operational efficiency of the firm. improving operational efficiency to enhance customer satisfaction is now crucial in today's competitive industry, as highlighted by stock & seliger (2016) and xu & liu (2017). haidar (2019) reported that in nigeria, the manufacturing industry plays a significant role, accounting for approximately 8% of the country's gdp. adekoya (2019) claims that it is one of nigeria's largest economies and contributes to the growth of the national economy. levinson (2018) asserts that it creates jobs and improves the standard of living for residents. among the highly concentrated sub-industries in this sector are cement, textile and apparel, chemicals, metal, computer and electronic goods, furniture and wood products, coal products, petroleum, etc. due to fierce competition and a lack of regulation, enterprises within the industry are facing challenges in sustaining their operations. despite being a concentrated sub-industry, the sector is experiencing a decline in predicted production, profit margin, and its contribution to the gdp, as noted by adekoya (2019) and haidar (2019). ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state in light of the competitive business environment of today, organisations need to devise strategies for preserving their competitive edge, increasing profitability, and upholding corporate performance. cho & dansereau (2010) define organisational performance as a company's performance in reference to its aims and objectives. the total of actual results or organisational outcomes that are contrasted with anticipated outcomes is what daniel & kevin (2015) define as organisational performance. the performance of organisations greatly influences the interest that individuals have in management courses. the organisation puts a high priority on continuous implementation as it believes that it can grow by improving performance (gavrea, corina, ilies, liviu & stegerean, 2011). a range of business factors, such as work processes, relationships within teams and groups, business culture and policy image, leadership and climate, all contribute to organisational performance and foster innovation, according to cho, park, kim, park, moon, chong, sung, kim, jeong, lee, choi, woo, kim & kim (2011). the ability to respond promptly to customer needs is vital for success in the present economic landscape, as highlighted by feizabadi, gligor & alibakhshi (2019). when discussing agility, it essentially comes down to enabling and prioritizing responsiveness. this suggests that for attaining supply chain agility, supply networks should prioritize customer needs over forecasts, as indicated by afshan & motwani (2021) and gunasekaran et al. (2019). technology utilisation is critical to a company's success. strategic sc management has been shown to aid improve ssc performance (khan, waheed, farrukh & ashfaq, 2019; afshan & motwani, 2021). to further ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state address uncertainties and changes, sca aims to reconfigure all resources, including customer sensitivity, process integration, network integration, and virtual integration, as fast as possible (hsu & chang, 2021). previous research on supply chains has concentrated on different sectors (shah & motwani, 2021; manzoor, baig, hashim, sami, rehman & sajjad, 2022; chae, olson, & sheu, 2014; rafique, kai, & waheed, 2018; gunasekaran et al., 2019). hence, it is crucial for this study to investigate the organizational performance and supply chain agility of industrial companies operating in rivers state. statement of the problem adekoya (2019) reports that the manufacturing sector is experiencing a decline. this is attributed to a number of problems, including high exchange rates, poor infrastructure, power outages, multiple taxes, an increase in imported goods, a scarcity and high cost of raw materials, and, most recently, challenges in managing the reverse flows of input and output. operations, which involve integrating and efficiently managing essential value-adding tasks, form the basis of supply chain management in the manufacturing industry. effective supply chain management will enhance both the company's performance and the delivery chain for products to consumers (sillanpaa, 2012 & al-madi, 2017). it has been observed that the manufacturing sector has not managed to decrease its dependence on locally produced and manufactured raw materials. instead, it has experienced a sharp decline in productivity, high manufacturing costs, slow responsiveness to customer demands, lack of action on consumer complaints and returns, limited understanding of warranties, poor distribution and production quality, and ineffective supply ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state chain management. the high rate of import tariffs imposed by the government and the uncertainty surrounding the import of raw materials with respect to marine safety and security seem to have alarmed the manufacturers association of nigeria. these concerns contribute to the uneven supply chain cooperation in the industrial sector. several inefficiencies have had an impact on the sector and reduced the output's quality. aim and objectives of the study the aim of this study is to ascertain empirically the relationship between supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state. the specific objectives are to: i. determine the relationship between network integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. ii. ascertain the relationship between network integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. iii. investigate the relationship between virtual integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. iv. examine the relationship between virtual integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state research questions this study seeks answers to the following research questions: i. how significant is the relationship between network integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state? ii. what is the relationship between network integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state? iii. what is the nexus between virtual integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state? iv. how does virtual integration relate to goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state? research hypotheses h01: there is no significant relationship between network integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. h02: there is no significant relationship between network integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. h03: there is no significant relationship between virtual integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state h04: there is no significant relationship between virtual integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. review of related literature theoretical foundation: the supply chain's alignment, agility, and flexibility are explained by the resource-based view (rbv) (barney, 2001). resource-based thinking (rbv) places a strong emphasis on resource heterogeneity, allocation, independence, utilisation, and replication in order to get a competitive advantage. a group of elements that together comprise the resource are owned or under the control of a company (bromiley and rau, 2016). they suggested integrating resources that provide a company a competitive advantage into cross-firm linkages. competitive advantages may also come from relationships with outside resources (bell-hassan, 2019). this hypothesis explains why organisations extend beyond their planned destination and has implications for corporate management (studycorgi, 2020). a key theoretical framework in the modern manufacturing and processing sector is the resource-based approach (eike & chutter, 2009). this research, which is grounded on rbv theory, uses an integrated theoretical approach to create a conceptual model that aims to identify the essential elements of supply chain agility and verify the criterion variable role of organisational performance. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state conceptual framework figure 1conceptual framework of supply chain agility andorganizational performance source: researchers’ conceptualization. concept of supply chain agility(sca) according to golgeci et al. (2019), inman and green (2021), and wu (2019), supply chain agility refers to an organization's capacity to control costs and promptly address customer needs. currently, many prominent companies prioritize building agile supply chains to enhance their responsiveness and efficiency. manufacturing businesses may need to participate in the process of developing an agile supply chain, which includes raw material suppliers, manufacturers, and retailers. sanders (2007) states that successful companies work closely with their partners to share real-time information and coordinate inventory management. to stay competitive, network integration operational efficiency organizational performance virtual integration supply chain agility goal attainment ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state businesses have been experimenting with new technologies and business models. this experimentation includes strategies such as supply chain agility. in an effort to meet market demands with improved quality and flexibility, businesses are also striving to establish stronger connections with suppliers and consumers (tse, zhang, akhtar & macbryde, 2016). businesses and their suppliers will rely more on the supply chain than typical in sectors like the automotive industry, where product manufacturing is complicated and largely reliant on supply networks. jose and shanmugam (2019) assert that supply networks are replacing individual enterprises as the unit of competition. network integration: instead of long-term partnerships, van hoek et al. (2001) explain network integration as collaborating through flexible groups of network associates. according to barve (2011), coordinating supply and demand, maintaining reasonable prices, and leveraging partner strengths are crucial for gaining a lasting competitive edge in today's markets. it is recommended that suppliers participate in firm activities like joint product development, cooperative planning, inventory management, and shared systems (moeen and agarwal, 2017; kumar et al., 2019). virtual integration: the term "virtual integration" refers to the use of supply chain data. it highlights the importance of information, particularly in exchanging and sharing knowledge (van hoek, harrison, & christopher, 2001). virtual integration allows for independent, real-time planning and execution between different companies in supply networks (maheswari & kalyan, 2020; saleheen, habib & hanafi, 2018). businesses gather and manage large amounts of data to collaborate with supply chain partners, leveraging the impact of information (vickery, jayaram, ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state droge & calantone, 2003). enterprise resource planning (erp) is a widely adopted technology by manufacturing companies to oversee supply chain operations (wagura, 2015). this change in the way supply chains operate also influences inventory levels. traditional logistic systems, such as those described by boone, drake, bohler & craighead (2007), rely heavily on inventories. organizational performance organisational performance, according to daft (2009), is the ability of an organisation to accomplish its goals by making effective and efficient use of its resources. similar to daft (2009), richardo and wade (2010) suggested that the ability of an organisation to achieve its goals determines how well it performs. apart from problems related to definition, conceptual problems have also adversely affected the functioning of organisations. hefferman and flood (2006) claim that conceptual clarity problems plagued organisational performance as a concept in modern management across many areas. workers at companies carry out a range of duties in order to fulfil their job. therefore, it is imperative that organisations perform better because staff dedication increases the bar for individual employee success. a dedicated employee is very useful to the business as they can do assigned responsibilities with little to no supervision (brown, mchardy, mcnabb, & taylor, 2011). john & elyse (2010) contend that in today's competitive business environment, no organisation can achieve peak performance unless it maximises the utilisation of its personnel. devoted employees stay with the organisation, saving it money on recruiting, onboarding, and training new personnel (brown, mchardy, mcnabb, & taylor, 2011). ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state goal attainment: goal attainment is the process of organising people and additional resources to meet collective objectives and goals. within a social structure, political action serves as a means of goal accomplishment, while the development and use of power facilitates mobilisation. the accomplishment of objectives in the manufacturing sector may also be linked to an organization's ability to identify and implement relevant strategies within the constraints of the goals it seeks to maintain its favourable image (eneh & abel, 2021). a manufacturing firm, for example, may want to be the best in its field, maintain its position as a profitable niche player, or even be the most successful in reaching the goals it has set for itself. operational efficiency(op): espejel, fandos, and flavián (2011) assert that there is a tight relationship between an organization's total efficiency and its performance. efficiency in operations is associated with making the best use of an organization's resources. to succeed, businesses must effectively create their product from their input. according to wong & sohal (2015), organisations worldwide use operational efficiency, which is also known as operational effectiveness or operational productivity. it determines the output of a business from each unit of input. "output" refers to the good or service that is being delivered, while "input" refers to the capital, labour, time, and resources utilised in the creation of products and services. "operational efficiency" describes the strategies that are used to optimise an organization's processes so that it can provide dependable, superior services. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state empirical review in 2020, nazempour, yang, and waheed conducted research on the impact of supply chain agility on the operational performance of organisations. primary data was collected using questionnaires, which were sent to 500 sc managers from different tiers of iranian smes. next, spss and structure equation modelling (sem) were used to test the ideas. the results demonstrated a favourable association between sca and op in addition to positive correlations for each sca characteristic (such as alertness, decisiveness, adaptability, accessibility, and swiftness). this essay assures that emphasising sca may improve organisational op in the present competitive scenario. macclever, annan, and boahen (2017) investigated firm performance, agility, and supply chain adaptability. seventy-seven manufacturing and service businesses operating in the kumasi metropolitan region made up the sample. the sample consisted of both non-management and key management individuals from the businesses. surveys were used as a data collection method. the findings showed that there was a favourable correlation (p<0.01/0.05) between firm performance and sc agility and sc flexibility. moreover, regulating sc agility had a favourable effect on sc flexibility, although this effect was small, indicating that sc agility did not substantially reduce the beneficial influence that sc flexibility has on firm performance. more precisely, sc flexibility predicts firm performance by employing sc agility as a moderator instead of a moderator itself. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state the effect of an agile supply chain on the financial performance of an organisation was studied by rafique, kai, and waheed (2018). primary data were gathered using surveys, which were sent to 400 sc managers between december 2016 and may 2017. sem was performed using ibmamos and spss (21.0) to test study hypotheses. the results demonstrated a favourable association between sc agility and financial success as well as a substantial correlation between each sub-dimension—alertness, flexibility, accessibility, decisiveness, and swiftness—and financial performance. nevertheless, the report makes recommendations for future scholarly and professional research and practice areas. manzoor, baig, hashim, sami, rehman, and sajjad (2022) looked at the effects of lean methods and supply chain agility on operational performance from two different points of view: a resource-based one and a dynamic capabilities one. two rounds of two-source questionnaires with a two-month interval between each round were used to collect data from general managers, supply chain managers, and operational managers. two data collecting rounds were conducted in order to reduce bias resulting from common methods. the likert scale (1–5) was used in the questionnaire's design. smart pls 3 and spss 23 were used for data analysis. it was shown that sca had a positive and direct effect on op. lp had a positive effect on op as well. moreover, ca acted as a complete mediator in the interaction between sca, lp, and op. this research suggests that managers of manufacturing organisations should adjust their supply chains (scs) and lp to become more flexible in order to boost their op and prosper in the market. this will allow them to adapt to changing market conditions and stay competitive. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state methodology quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire, and all submitted hypotheses were validated after an empirical analysis utilising the cross-sectional multiple regression framework. since the present research concentrated on manufacturing enterprises in rivers state, all registered manufacturing firms in the state made up the sample population. rivers state now has 29 manufacturing enterprises registered, per documents that can be seen at https://www.finelib.com/ (14-08-2019). the census statistics were utilised in this research due of the limited population. the sample for the quantitative study consisted of all 29 of the firms in the population. specifically, the data was collected from the agents of these businesses. the random sampling technique was used. owing to their suitable subject-matter expertise and relevant experiences, the respondents were employed as senior managers and supervisors. each firm received six delegates, one from each of the six divisions that made up the organisation: quality assurance, buying, manufacturing, marketing, research and development, and customer service. the sample size for the quantitative study consisted of 174 individuals. the cronbach alpha technique was used to determine the internal dependability. this method followed the likert measurement scale, where each item had a threshold value of 0.7. therefore, if an instrument's reliability coefficient is 0.7 or above, it is deemed dependable. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state statistical analyses using spearman ranking correlation network integration and organizational performance h01: there is no significant relationship between network integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. h02: there is no significant relationship between network integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. table 1: correlation of network integration and organizational performance network integration operational efficiency goal attainment spearman's rho network integration correlation coefficient 1.000 .921** .874** sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .000 n 174 174 174 operational efficiency correlation coefficient . 921** 1.000 .883** sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000 n 174 174 174 goal attainment correlation coefficient . 874** . 883** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 . n 174 174 174 the findings indicate that, at a rho = 0.874 and a p-value of 0.000, network integration positively and significantly correlates with operational efficiency. it also significantly and positively correlates with goal attainment at a rho = 0. 883 and a p-value of 0.000. according to the findings, network integration significantly and favourably affects the two organisational performance metrics used by industrial companies in rivers state. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state consequently, because the p-value (0.000) ˂0.05 threshold of significance, we reject the first and second null hypotheses on network integration and organisational performance. virtual integration and organizational performance h03: there is no significant relationship between virtual integration and operational efficiency of manufacturing firms in rivers state. h04: there is no significant relationship between virtual integration and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in rivers state. table 2: correlation of virtual integration and organizational performance virtual integration operational efficiency goal attainment spearman's rho virtual integration correlation coefficient 1.000 .872** .886** sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .000 n 174 174 174 operational efficiency correlation coefficient . 872** 1.000 . 896** sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000 n 174 174 174 goal attainment correlation coefficient . 886** . 896** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 . n 174 174 174 the findings indicate that goal attainment further contributes strongly and positively to career resilience at a rho = 0.886 and a p-value = 0.000. visual integration also has a strong significant relationship and positively correlates with operational efficiency. according to the results, visual integration considerably and favourably affects the two organisational performance metrics, ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state which benefits industrial companies in rivers state. as a result, we reject the first and second null hypotheses for visual integration, operational effectiveness, and goal achievement since the p-value (0.000) ˂0.05 threshold of significance. discussions of findings the spss table confirmed the validity of all hypotheses by revealing significant positive correlations (*0.921, 0.874, 0.872, and *0.886) among the research variables. all aspects of supply chain integration were positively correlated with the organisational performance of manufacturing businesses in rivers state, according to the data. both the first and second hypotheses, suggesting a positive linear relationship between network integration and organizational performance, are supported by a direct positive association moving in the same direction (p-value = 0.000 <0.05). the third and fourth hypotheses indicate a positive correlation between virtual integration and organizational success, demonstrated by a clear linear relationship with p-values below 0.05 (p-value = 0.000 <0.05). previous studies, including those conducted in 2018 by rafique, kai, and waheed; 2022 by manzoor, baig, hashim, sami, rehman, and sajjad; 2020 by nazempour, yang, and waheed; 2021 by afshan and motwani; 2014 by chae et al.; and 2019 by gunasekaran et al., have confirmed the positive correlation. they found that when companies integrate their supply chains, it makes them more effective. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state conclusion in conclusion, the integration of supply chains in the areas of network integration and virtual integration is essential for the organisational performance of manufacturing enterprises in rivers state, nigeria, in order to adapt to the changing environment. recommendations given the findings of the study and its conclusions, the following suggestions are made: i. managers should keep working together through groupings of network associates as this will help improve the organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state. ii. in order to improve the operational efficiency of manufacturing companies in rivers state, managers of manufacturing firms should promote the regular use of enterprise resource planning (erp) as a technology. references afshan, n. & motwani, j. (2021). an investigation of antecedents and consequences of supplier integration: a study in indian context, measuring business excellence, 25(2), doi: 10.1108/mbe08-2019-0083. barney, j. b. (2001). is the resource-based ‘view’ a useful perspective for strategic management research? yes, academy of management review barve, a. 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(2011). diagnostic performance of t-spot.tb for extrapulmonary tuberculosis according to the site of infection. journal of infection, 63(5), 362–369. daft, r. (2009). organization theory and design (11thed),south-western college publishing.usa: thomson learning. daniel r. t. & kevin j. j. (2015). a comparison of core competencies of women and men leaders in the manufacturing industry. the coastal business journal, 14(1), 13–25. eike & chu¨tter (2009). the resource-based view and transaction cost economics in managerial decision-making: a sequential approach. eneh, e. o., & abel, u. f. (2021). corporate social responsibility and goal attainment of manufacturing firms in south east, nigeria. advance journal of financial innovation and reporting, 5(1). espejel, j., fandos, c., & flavián, c., (2011). antecedents of consumer buyer supplier commitment to a pdo wine: an empirical analysis of spanish consumers. journal of wine res, 22, 205-225. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state feizabadi, j., gligor, d. & alibakhshi motlagh, s. (2019). the triple-as supply chain competitive advantage, benchmarking: an international journal, 26(7), 2286-2317. gavrea, corina; ilies, liviu; & stegerean, r. (2011). determinants of organizational performance: the case of romania. management & marketing challenges for the knowledge society, 6(2), 285–300. golgeci, i., bouguerra, a. & rofcanin, y. (2019). the human impact on the emergence of firm supply chain agility: a multilevel framework, personnel review, 1-39. gunasekaran, a., yusuf, y.y., adeleye, e.o., papadopoulos, t., kovvuri, d. & geyi, d.g. (2019). agile manufacturing: an evolutionary review of practices, international journal of production research, 57(15/16), 5154-5174. haidar, j. i. (2019). trading economics, nigeria gdp from manufacturing, sectors contributions to gdp remain static, retreived from https://allafrica.com. hefferman, m. m., & flood, p. c. (2006). an exploration of the relationship between managerial competencies, organizational, characteristics; and performance in irish organizations. journal of european industrial training, 23(11), 241-251. hsu, y.-t. & chang, k.-c. (2021). a study on top managers from a resource-based perspective, measuring business excellence, 25(1), 58-77. inman, r.a. & green, k.w. (2021). environmental uncertainty and supply chain performance: the effect of agility, journal of manufacturing technology management, doi: 10.1108/jmtm-03-2021-0097. john, p. m., & elyse r, m. (2010). employee commitment and well-being: a critical review, theoretical. journal of vocational behaviour, 4(2), 123-134. jose, a. & shanmugam, p.v. (2019), “supply chain issues in sme food sector: a systematic review, journal of advances in management research, 17(1). khan, m.s., waheed, a., farrukh, m. & ashfaq, m. (2019). analysing the impact of agile supply chain on firms’ sales performance with moderating effect of technologicalintegration, international journal of applied decision sciences, 12(4), 402-423. kumar, m., garg, d. & agarwal, a. (2019). cause and effect analysis of inventory management in leagile supply chain, journal of management information and decision science, 22. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state macclever, a., annan, j., & boahen, s. (2017). supply chain flexibility, agility and firm performance. european journal of logistics, purchasing and supply chain management, 5(3), 13-40. maheswari, y. & kalyan, n.b. (2020). inventory management pattern of steel industry in india, ssrn electronic journal, doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3563991. manzoor, u., baig, s. a., hashim, m., sami, a., rehman, h. u., & sajjad, i. (2022). the effect of supply chain agility and lean practices on operational performance: a resource-based view and dynamic capabilities perspective. the tqm journal, 34(5), 1273-1297. moeen, m. & agarwal, r. (2017). incubation of an industry: heterogeneous knowledge bases and modes of value capture, strategic management journal, 38(3), 566-587. nazempour, r., yang, j., & waheed, a. (2020). an empirical study to understand the effect of supply chain agility on organizational operational performance: sc agility and organizational performance. in supply chain and logistics management: concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1608-1630). igi global. rafique, k., kai, l., & waheed, a. (2018). understanding the impact of agile supply chain on organizational financial performance. in proceedings of the 2018 2nd international conference on management engineering, software engineering and service sciences pp. 28-32. richardo, r, & wade, d. (2010). corporate performance management: how to build a better organisation through measurement driven strategies alignment. austria: butterworth heinemann publishers. saleheen, f., habib, m.m. & hanafi, z. (2018). supply chain performance measurement model: & literature review, international journal of supply chain management, 7(3), 70-78. sanders, n.r. (2007). an empirical study of the impact of e-business technologies on organizational collaboration and performance, journal of operations management, 25(6), 1332-1347. stock, t. & seliger, g. (2016). opportunities of sustainable manufacturing in industry 4.0”, procedia cirp, 40, 536-541. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || supply chain agility and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in rivers state studycorgi (2020). transaction cost economies and resource-based view j free essay example”, studycorgi, available at: https://studycorgi.com/transaction-cost-economies-andresource-based-view/ (accessed 4 october 2021). tse, y.k., zhang, m., akhtar, p. & macbryde, j. (2016). embracing supply chain agility: an investigation in the electronics industry”, supply chain management: an international journal, 21(1), doi: 10.1108/scm-06-2015-0237. van hoek, r.i., harrison, a. & christopher, m. (2001). measuring agile capabilities in the supply chain”, international journal of operations & production management, 21 1/2, 126-147. vickery, s. k., jayaram, j., droge, c. & calantone, r. (2003). the effects of an integrative supply chain strategy on customer service and financial performance: an analysis of direct versus indirect relationships, journal of operations management, 21(5), 523-539. wagura, w.s. (2015). inventory management and supply chain performance of, no. august. wei, s., ke, w., liu, h. & wei, k.k. (2020). supply chain information integration and firm performance: are explorative and exploitative it capabilities complementary or substitutive?, decision sciences, 51(3), 464-499. wong, a. & sohal, a. (2015). an examination of the relationship between trust, commitment and relationship quality. international journal of retail and distributing management, 30, 34-50. wu, y. (2019). achieving supply chain agility, achieving supply chain agility, springer nature switzerland ag, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-98440-7. xu, x. & liu, y. (2017). customer satisfaction of the third-party logistics enterprise based on ahp: a case study, international journal of information systems and supply chain management, 10(1), 68-81. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 49 appraisal of the petroleum sector natural resource governance in nigeria* abstract the work seeks to appraise the nigerian petroleum sector and the issue of natural resource governance. this issue aggregate to create a situation hereafter referred to as “resource curse”, which provides the rational basis for understanding the prevalence of poverty in many resource rich countries. it also seeks to interrogates how law, corporate governance and institutional restructuring can help reform the nigeria petroleum sector to actualize the ideals of sustainable industry. the nigeria petroleum sector remains an enclave that provides a tiny proportion of the overall employment and has relatively few direct linkages with the rest of the economy. this to a large extent includes the challenge of transparency and accountability in revenue management. a doctrinal methodology, combining primary and secondary sources of information was adopted in this work. the key legislations are the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria 1999 as (altered), the petroleum industry act 2021, petroleum profit tax act 2007, audit act 1956, fiscal responsibility act 2007, public procurement act 2007, and nigerian extractive transparency initiative (neiti). the work finds that nigeria’s unwholesome reliance on petroleum and rent seeking has created structural imbalances and socio-economic maladies in the economy. and identifies the challenges in nigeria’s quest to institutionalize natural resource governance and has made policy recommendations with a view to reforming and institutionalizing the practices of natural resource governance within the nigeria context. the works concludes that good natural resource governance that embodies corporate governance is essential to the realization of the laudable objective of the petroleum industry act, without which the exploitation of the petroleum resources in nigeria will not attain its desired objective of impacting positively on the other sectors of the economy. ____________ *anthony ndudi mekwunyell.b (hons) ll.m, m.phil bl, legal practitioner, anthonymekwunye@gmail.com introduction the nigerian petroleum sector is plagued by high incidence of lack of transparency and accountability, this menace is so evident that nigeria is unable to account for the volumes of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 mailto:anthonymekwunye@gmail.com crude oil produced, exported and the receipts of the proceeds of sale.1 for instance, it was reported that a total of $27,361,347,275 was reportedly lost from the period of january to december 20172.this colossal loss has been attributed to a number of factors such as discretionary deductions by the nigerian national petroleum corporation (nnpc) from its earnings and misappropriation of such funds, improper tax deductions, unpaid niger delta development commission (nddc) contributions and discretionary award of oil block.3 the opaque operation of the sector has made it difficult for the nigerian extractive transparency initiative (neiti) to effectively track how transparent the operations of the sector have been over the years. it appears therefore that the extant governance structure has not been able to adequately mainstream issues of transparency and accountability. nigeria continues to face the daunting task of restructuring the petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through corruption and mismanagement4. the national assembly recently passed the petroleum industry act (pia).5 important issues have been raised concerning the quality of the pia framework and its ability to serve as a catalyst for the country’s economic development. does it, for instance embody key natural resource governance precepts aimed at re-structuring and positioning the petroleum industry to better serve as a catalyst for the country’s economic development. does it, for instance embody key natural resource governance precepts aimed at restructuring and positioning the petroleum industry to better serve the development needs of the country? this is more so when nigeria is compared with jurisdictions such as norway and brazil that have through strong governance frameworks been able to derive benefits from the exploitation of their natural resources while _____________________ 2 also, nigeria lost about $64 million between the second quarter of 2015 and the first quarter of 2017 due to unmetered oil wells. see akintayo, o. (2018) nigeria lost over $27bn oil revenue in 3years' sweet crude reports. vol 4(55) pp 1-4.see also katsouris, c. and sayne, a. (2013) nigeria's criminal crude: international options to combat the export of stolen oil (chatham house) available at https://chathamhouse.org/publications/ papers/view/194254 accessed 5th may 2021. where the authors indicate that “nigerian crude oil is being stolen on an industrial scale. nigeria losses at least 100'000 barrels of oil per day, around 5% of total output, in the first quarter of 2013 to theft from its onshore and swamp operations alone… nigeria’s dynamic, overcrowded political economy drives competition for looted resources. poor governance has encouraged violent opportunism around oil and opened doors for organized crime. “see also eboh, m. “how petroleum sector drove nigeria into economic recession “the vanguard news available at https://www.vanguard news available at https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/01/ petroleum-sector-drove-nigeria-economic-recession/amp/accessed; 29th april, 2021. 3ibid 11see okpanachi, e. “confronting the governance challenges of developing countries p. 26; see also saches, j. & warner, a (1995). natural resource abundance and economic growth (development discussion paper no. 517). cambridge, m.a: harvard institute for international development; ross, m. (1999). the political economy of the resource curse. world politics vol. 51(2), 297-322; ross, m. (2001) does oil hinder democracy? world politics vol. 53, 325361. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 https://chathamhouse.org/publications/ https://www.vanguard/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/01/ petroleum 4 mcpherson, h.m. (2009) governance and hyper-corruption in resource-rich african countries third world quarterly vol' 30(8), 1542. 5 act to provide for the governance and institutional framework for the petroleum industry and other related matters.” limiting its negative impacts on the people and environment6. similarly, to what extent has the extant legal and institutional framework which include the petroleum act, 19697, (the principal legislation) the nigerian national petroleum corporation act8been able to mainstream good natural resource governance practices in the petroleum sector? this is premised on the concept that certain technocratic reforms of governance institutions can unlock the development potential of the so-called ‘resource dependent states such as nigeria. thus, governance is constituted and legitimized by institutions.9 although, the pia contain laudable objectives, however, addressing the seeming lack of political will to mainstream and enforce natural resource governance precepts in the petroleum sector and the accompanying institutional competencies is key to realization of the ideals of the pia. nigeria continues to grapple with the transparent management of revenues from the petroleum sector. revenue that accrues from petroleum resources appear to have been captured by special interest’s groups, bureaucrats and politicians for their personal benefit as against the benefit of the citizenry. this sad state of affairs is attributable to the inability of the government to adequately mainstream natural resource governance in the sector. though the industry is plagued with a plethora of issues, thus this paper seeks to focus on three core problems bedeviling the sector, due to its particular relevance to socio-economic development and sustainability. these problems centre on the legal and regulatory framework which have overtime become obsolete and does not adequately mainstream good governance practices; secondly, the institutional structures which are inherently weak are unable to enforce good governance practices and lastly, the pervading culture of lack of transparency and accountability in revenue management has predisposed the sector to corruption. the inability of a legal regime to adequately mainstream transparency and accountability is indicative of the governance deficits in the management of nigeria’s natural resource wealth. these manifest in form of undue reliance on obsolete laws and regulations, lack of objectivity in decision making, poor public access to information, non-disclosure of oil revenues, delays ____________ 6since 1972 norway has separated policy, regulatory, and commercial functions in the governments administration of petroleum development. this approach particularly its requirement that the national oil company (noc) only carry out commercial activities, has inspired admiration and imitation as the "canonical model', of good bureaucratic design for the hydrocarbon sector. see thurber, m'c and heller, p.r.p (2011) exporting the "norwegian model” the effect of administrative design on oil sector performance' energy policy vol 39(9) 5366-5378. however, it is pertinent to inquire ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 whether adopting a blanket approach to the governance of natural resource similar to what obtains in a developed country might do more harm than good. 7cap p10 lfn 2004 8 cap. p123 lfn 2004 9 paavola, j. “institutions and environmental governance: a reconceptualization, ecological economics” (2007) vol. 63(1) 93103 occasioned by multiplicity of approvals and approving agencies at various levels of government, poor enforcement, lack of independence and oversight within the relevant agencies, inter-agency rivalry and tax evasion on the part of international oil companies (iocs). the extant frameworks which include the petroleum act,10(the principal legislation), and by extension the petroleum profit tax11, the audit act12, the fiscal responsibility act, 2007 and the public procurement act, 2007 which border on the fiscal regulatory environment of the petroleum sector have struggled over the years to properly manage and monitor revenue returns from the industry. thus, the gaps and conflicts existing within these extant laws has fostered a culture that lacks administrative and fiscal guidelines, a poor enforcement regime and lack of independence and uncertainty. thus, obstructing transparent and accountable resource revenue management. secondly, the question of enforcement of accountability measures is a subset of the broader question of quality of institutions. transparency programmes alone no matter how well designed and implemented cannot bring the desired change in the country. improvements in institutions are critically important to lifting the natural ‘resource curse’. it is further argued that the extant institutions and management structures within the nigerian petroleum industry are weak and lack the requisite independent oversight which are in most cases subjected to executive control. also, these agencies lack the capacity to manage such a complex and dynamic industry and do not incorporate adequate international standards of transparency and accountability in its framework to allow for sufficient release of information or any means of auditing how the funds are utilized. thus, the current industry structure and patterns of regulation are deficit, hence, the challenge, with the management of the nigerian petroleum industry (npi) is how to adequately establish independent and capable administrative agencies manned by persons of integrity who work within a proper legal framework. this requires institutionalizing the highest standards of transparency and accountability in the management process for sustainable development of the country. for the purpose of this paper, discussion will focus mainly on the role of the national assembly, the ministry of finance, fiscal responsibility commission, (frc) revenue mobilization allocation and fiscal commission (rmafc); the auditor general of the federation (augf); bureau of public procurement (bpp); nigerian national petroleum corporation (nnpc), and the department of petroleum resources (dpr) to enthrone ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 resource governance especially in the coordination of crude oil revenue collection. however, it will be ____________________ 10 1969 cap p10 lfn 2004 11 cap. p13 lfn 2004 12 ordinance act of 1956, cap 17 lfn, 1990 discerned that these regulatory institutions have become deputized in relevance in favour of the nnpc arising from the nnpcs fund generating power for the government. conceptual framework understanding the concept of the “resource curse” and its effect on the economy. the resource curse thesis affirms the widely held view that countries endowed with natural resources, such as minerals, oil and gas, has been less able to develop their economies than less endowed natural resource countries. existing literature on natural resource in africa has made significant contributions towards the understanding of key challenges and prospects of the sector, especially with regard to governance-related matters. the “resource curse” therefore provides conceptual basis for understanding the correlation or linkage between natural resource and poor economic performance. the ‘curse’ is an aspect commonly attributed to the governance of natural resource exploitation process and the management of the resource rents. auty13in his seminal workstates that the inability to unlock mineral wealth for the benefit of the citizenry in developing countries is a phenomenon that has become known as “resource curse” or “paradox of plenty”. flowing from this premise, sala-i-martin et al in their empirical work provides ample evidence that indicates that natural resource revenue is more likely to lead to rent-seeking and corruption in countries that have not developed sufficient quality of governance before the natural resource discovery.14bedeeb et al15opined that the ‘oil curse’ has been attributed to countries whose economies are reliant on oil production as opposed to other natural resources. however, the success stories of some natural resource-abundant countries, such as norway and brazil, suggest that the abundance of natural resources is not a curse per se, but the inability of the government to manage natural resource wealth is responsible for the emergence of the ‘resource curse’ in many resource-rich countries such as nigeria.it is important to distinguish between two key measures of countries natural resources, these are: "resource dependence" and "resource abundance". brunnschweileret al16 define "resource dependence" to refer to the degree to which a country actually relies on resource revenues and "resource abundance" on the other hand refers to a country's estimated finite endowment of subsoil wealth or deposits of minerals, oil and gas. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 __________________ 13 auty, r. m. sustaining development in mineral economies: the resource curse thesis, london; new york, routledge, 1993 14 sala-imartin, x and subramanian, a. (2003) addressing the natural resource curse: an illustration from nigeria nbr working paper series 9804 cambridge. massachusetts: national bureau of economic research. available at <http.www.nber.orglpapers/w9804> accessed 8th march 2021. 15 badeeb, r.m., lean, h.h. clark, j. (2017) the evolution of the natural resource curse thesis: a critical literature survey. research policy vol. 51 pp 123. 16 brunnschweiler, c.n. bulte, e.h. (2008) 'the resource curse revisited and revised: a tale of paradoxes, and red herrings. journal of environ. econ. management. vol. 55(3) pp.258 -264 however, it is important to investigate the mechanisms that link resource dependence to poor economic performance. two approaches have evolved as mechanisms to address the link: political and economic. the former being traced to rent-seeking weak institutions and corruption and the latter traced to the 'dutch disease', volatility of oil prices and failures of economic policies. these economic and political factors are not unique to resource rich economies as they are also endemic to poor resource countries in general. however, di john17holds the predominant view that natural resource economies experience higher levels of such factors than non-resource economies. flowing from the above assertions, it can be said that the possession of natural resources is not sufficient to confer economic success. however, to incorporate exceptions to the general theories of the resource curse, several countries have successfully harnessed their resource for the benefit of their citizenry and thereby escaping the "resource curse". gerelmaa et al18 investigate these theories and states that resource poor countries such as south korea, taiwan, hong kong and singapore were among the fastest growing economies, while resource rich countries such as congo, sierra leone, venezuela and nigeria and some middle eastern countries exhibited the poorest economic growth. in essence, it can be argued that the possession of mineral wealth is not an automatic sentence to the 'curse' as a properly instituted governance structures can eliminate to a large extent the resource 'curse'. to understand the curse' humphreys at al19made a distinction as to how resource wealth differs from other types of wealth' the authors indicate that, unlike other resources, natural resources (i.e., oil, gas and. minerals) do not need to be produced, but only extracted and the second key difference of natural resource wealth stems from the fact that they are nonrenewable. karl20 follows the distinction by indicating that oil and gas occurs relatively independently of other economic processes and does little to create employment. to him, oil and gas is capital intensive and the skills required for these jobs usually do not fit the profile of a country's unemployed. similarly, ross21 indicates that authoritarian regimes in resource rich states can rely more on resource rents than tax revenues, which correspondingly weaken ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 public demand for democratic accountability, thus the ease of appropriation of resource rents by those in power mediates the ________________________ 17 di john, j. ‘is there really a resource curse? a critical survey of theory and evidence (2011) glob.gov, vol.17(2) pp. 167184. 18 19 humphreys, m. sachs, j. stiglitz, j.e. escaping the resource curse, (columbia university press, new york, 2007) page?. 20 karl, t.l. (2005) understanding the resource curse in covering oil: a reporters guide to energy and development, in: tsalik, s. schiffrin, a. (ed) open society institute, new york pp 2l-27; karl, t.l. (2007) oil -led development: social political and economic consequences. encycl. energy vol. 4 pp. 661 672. 21ross, m. (2001) does oil hinder democracy? world politics vol.53 (3)pp.325-361;ross,m.(2007)how mineral rich states can reduce inequality in escaping the resource curse, in: humphreys m, jefferery, s.d and stiglitz, e.j (eds) columbia university press, n.y. pp 236-255. resource dependency relationship. this implies that countries with an abundance of minerals or hydrocarbons can exhibit comparatively high levels of poverty and inequality and economic under-development as a result of its enclave nature which is highly situated in the hands of experts, mostly international oil companies (iocs). in addition, deteriorating environmental quality, institutionalized corruption, the increased frequency of conflict and war, child malnutrition and adult illiteracy are vulnerabilities that most resource rich countries face.22 natural resource governance the meaning of good governance has never really been clearly articulated. however, according to doornbos,the concept of 'good governance' became prominent in the early 1990s and substituted the structural adjustment term as the ideal concept for aid conditionality23. he further indicates that though by extension it signifies sound administration and management, in another logic it allowed the "depoliticization of the development process, turning fundamentally political issues into objective judgement on what is good and bad"24. similarly, mkandawire suggests that the concept has been devoid of politics or purely administrative at all but rather "good governance has often been used as a signifier for the same macroeconomic policies as those previously termed structural adjustment and an instrument for ensuring the implementation of adjusted programmes.25bourgouin et al indicates that the extensive literature on the resource curse extensively adopts the framework of good governance often linking political science with institutional economics which highlights mechanisms to link resource curse. accordinglyokoli et al suggest that: governance is arguably, the most crucial challenge of government and politics in contemporary states. "it refers to the capacity of the state to develop and leverage civic synergies to enable her effectively oversee its jurisdiction, enforce its values, implement its policies, control its population, as well as harness and exploit its resources for the advancement of the common good.27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 __________________ 22 though the literature is voluminous, the seminal works are auty, r.m. sustaining development in mineral economies: the resource curse thesis' new york oxford university press, 1993; karl, t.l. the paradox of plenty: oil booms and petro states berkeley: university of california press, 2001; ross, m.l. does oil hinder democracy? world politics 53(3); ross, m.l. the oil curse: how petroleum wealth shapes the development of nations @princeton: princeton university press, 20 1 2). 23 boschini, a. peterson, j, &roine, j. (2013) the resource curse and its potential reversal. world development vol. 43. pp 19-41. 24 ibid. 25mkandawire, t, (2007) good governance: the itinerary of an idea. development in practice. vol 17 (4-5) p. 253-276 outcomes to poor institutions, mostly concerning rent-seeking behaviour by political elites. 26bourgouin, f. et al (2013) from good governance to the contextual politics of extractive regime change. in: jewellord n.s. et al (ed) resource governance and developmental states: critical international political economy perspectives. macmillan distribution, england. p 87 104. 27 okoli, a.l. and uhembe, c. a. (2015) 'crisis of natural resource governance in nigeria's extractive industry: examining the phenomenon of artisanal mining/quarrying' global journal of human-social science. vol l5 (5). similarly, roba et aldefinegovernance as a system of engendering control and regulation in any public domain to encompasses governmental and non-governmental measures geared towards ensuring guided and regulated life in governmental, civil and corporate practices.28 the european commission define good governance as going beyond tackling corruption; it includes such things as "access to health, education and justice, pluralism in the media, the functioning of parliament and the management of public accounts and natural resources".29 oviedo, in his articlecontextualizes governance in the extractives, where he indicates that without adequate governance mechanisms, conflicts over natural resources are often accentuated, as different sets of actors seek to utilize resources based on their specific needs or priorities.30 flowing from this, roba et al define natural resource governance as the rules and regulations that determine (or govern) natural resourceuse and the way these rules and regulations are developed andenforced. it is thus about relationships and who has the power andresponsibility to make and implement decisions.31 the authors also indicate that natural resource governance refers to the application of the governance concept and principlesin determining how natural resources are exploited and utilized byrelevant stakeholders. it encompasses norms, rules, institutionsand mechanisms that regulate the decisions and conducts ofgovernments, organizations and individual stakeholders in relationto natural resource access, control, allocation, exploitation anduse.32 however, grant et al in their article titled new approaches to the governance of africa's natural resources' takes a narrower approach to natural resource governance and indicates that rather than focus the governance of natural resources with actors (state and nonstate) involved in the process, it should be more aligned to the fundamental rules that guide themanagement of natural resources. the authors indicate that policy prescriptions should not focus on a change in actor behaviour but towards improving resource governance.33 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ___________________________ 28 roba, g. gibbons, s.s. and mahadi, y.y. (2013 'booklet l: strengthening natural resource governance in garba tula' international union for the conservation of nature (iucn) <http://www.fao.org/fileadmir/ user_upload/drought/docs/ handbook% 201%20strenglhening%20 natural%0202resource%20governance% 20in%20garbatula.pdf> accessed 10 may 2021. 29 the european commission (2006) 'governance in the consensus on development' <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/en/txt/?uri: urlserv%3ar13012>. accessed 10th may 2021. 30 oviedo, g. "improving governance of protected areas for conservation and equity." cited in surkin, j. natural resource governance, empowerment and poverty reduction (iucn gland, 2011) <https://cmsdata.iucn.org /download vdfid governance_lessons_final.pdf). accessed 20 th may 2021. 31 roba, g. gibbons, s.s. and mahadi, y. y. (2013) 'booklet l: strengthening natural resources governance in garba tula" international union for the conservation of nature (iucn) http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user upload/drought/dice/ handbook & 201%20 strengthening %20 natural %20resource%20governance%20in%20 garba tula.pdf^ accessed 24th november 2021. 32 ibid. 33 grant, a.j. et al (2015) new approaches to the governance of africa's natural resources. in: grant, j.a. (ed) in new approaches to the governance of natural resources: insights from africa. macmillan distribution, england. pp.4. cambell in her book gives a more contextualized approach to the notion of 'governance' and posits that many approaches to governance are problematic as they "presuppose the existence of a presumed consensus concerning the choice of good administrative procedures which draw in management techniques"34 the author further asserts that governance has been based upon criteria that has become universally accepted, which now serve as the basis upon which various governments are to conform to reform their institutions. building support on campbell's theory, it is opined that a criterion for governance that adopts a neo-liberal strategy as the universal as opposed to a homogenous approach to governance can be detrimental. it is posited that the criterion for a system governance should take into consideration the problems reminiscent in the nigerian petroleum industry npi) given the highly volatile and historical resource landscape by mainstreaming and situating a more contextualized approach to nrg in nigeria. does the existing legal regime governing the petroleum sector mainstreamnatural resource governance? the ambition to develop oil and gas activities continues to determine what policy instruments governments formulate in the process, thus the legal framework represents the most basic and fundamental of institutions for managing natural resources. legal regulations establish the government's authority over the resources on its territory35determine the rules on how those resources will be extracted and produced, and who can reap benefits from resource use and who must bear and mitigate the costs. they also establish the bureaucratic agencies that are responsible for implementing and enforcing the rules on resource use, guarantee property rights, create accountability mechanisms and prevent corruption in resource management. an assessment of the extant legal framework ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 the promulgation of the petroleum act of 1969 was a landmark in the history of petroleum legislation in nigeria. its importance, amongst others, like its predecessor is that it provides that the entire ownership and control of all petroleum in nigeria is vested in the federal government of nigeria. it also revised all the terms and conditions under which pre-1969 concessions were granted and repealed the minerals oil ordinance of 1914. the act wasorganized into five parts: oil exploration licenses (oel), oil prospecting licenses (opl) and oil mining licenses (oml); rights of pre-emption; repeals, transitional and savings provisions. ______________ 34campbell. b.k (2013) modes of governance and revenues flows in african mining. in: campbell. b'k "(ed) modes of governance and revenue flows in african mining. macmillan, england. p 3. 35see s.40(3) of the 1979 constitution; s. i of the petroleum acl,1969 cap p10 lfn 2004. the position of the federal government as the owner and controller of oil in nigeria is further enshrined in both 1979 and 1999 constitutions.36 in a bid to manage the oil industry, the federal government of nigeria established the nnpc in april 1977 to succeed its predecessor the nigerian national oil company (nnoc). the nnpc has the mandate to manage the operational aspects of the oil industry in nigeria, and in 1988 was decentralized into twelve strategic business units covering the entire spectrum of the corporation's operations: exploration and production, gas development, refining, distribution, petrochemicals, engineering, and commercial investments. between 1978 and 1989, the nnpc constructed refineries in warri, kaduna and port harcourt, these downstream operations of the nnpc cover oil/gas conversion into refined and petrochemical products and took over the 35,000barrel shell refinery established in port harcourt in 1965.37 over the years, the operations and activities of the nnpc have centred around coping with challenges of dealing with developments in the oil industry, particularly with regards to its operations and products. however, the extant legislation still governs new developments that have metamorphosed since the discovery of oil in 1956. the dissatisfaction with the performance of nnpc, symptomized by corruption, decaying infrastructure and inadequate refining capacity, has fueled the debate on the theoretical and holistic overhaul of the oil and gas sector, particularly the legal framework which has become obsolete. this calls to question how a law that was promulgated in 1969 can effectively cater to the vagaries of a dynamic and complex industry and ensure good governance and better management of nigeria's resources. akinrele in his article38indicates that the extant policy structures which may have been suitable at the time, have failed to extract maximum benefits for the country and has fueled corruption and helpederode institutional integrity. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 the author further indicates what has led to a wide variety of well-documented failures including: the waste of natural gas resources through routine flaring; an inflexible tax regime which has led to the need for extra-legislative memorandum of understandings (mous); inefficiencies and lack of clarity in the downstream petroleum products sector; and an unsustainable joint venture funding model, amongst other issues.39 ________________ 36 see second schedule, exclusive legislative list, item 39,1999 constitution.; a significant milestone in the history of ownership of oil and gas in nigeria was reached in 2002 when the supreme court held that the seaward limit of littoral states was the low-water mark of the land surface, and therefore, littoral states could not derive revenues from natural resources (including oil and gas) located beyond the low-water mark. attorney general of the federation v attorney general of abia state (2002) 6 n.w.l.r (part 764) 542. 37 ibid 38 akinrele, a. a. (2014) transparency in the nigerian oil and gas industry journal of world energy law and business vol. 7(3) p.220-235. pp233 39 ibid the campaign for the deregulation of the oil sector presents a contextual review and a good starting point of the enormous challenges facing the sector, as the downstream sector constitutes a key source of energy to consumers and incidentally where enormous corruption in the sector has been revealed.40as pointed out by akinola et al41 the nigerian downstream oil sector has been characterized by crises ranging from ineffectiveness, to fuel scarcity, corruption and maladministration. thurber et al42observed that the deregulation policy suffers mostly from the wide resentment from majority of nigerian’s especially as it bothers on the removal of subsidy, which is an essential requirement of the deregulation policy. similarly, gilles43 opines that the licenses for exporting crude oil and importing refined products is opaque and highly discretionary. similarly, bello44 alleges that nnpc officials in collaboration with politicians distribute such licenses both for individual gain and to buy support for politicians in the legislature. thurber et al states that if regulation is limited to oversight and supervisory functions, aimed at guaranteeing quality of products and preventing consumer exploitation, then the process of deregulation could help achieve greater cost effectiveness.45 the author further indicates that to achieve an appropriate deregulation policy, nigeria's resources need transparent and accountable management, thus government commitment to accountability, corporate governance and responsibility are core values in rebuilding the trust of nigerians in deregulation and subsequent reforms.46it is opined that the petroleum act does not engender accountability and the prevention of corruption in resource management as it is largely ineffective and inefficient to foster integrity, openness and accountability. thus, though the review reveals the clamour for deregulation, it is submitted that deregulation without a structured policy and an appropriate law in place will only make the exercise futile and open ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 to corruption. the passage of the petroleum industry bill (pib) is therefore expected to help revise, update and consolidate extant petroleum related legislations. the commencement of the petroleum industry act, 2021 provides legal, governance, regulatory and fiscal ___________________________ 40 the downstream sector of the oil and gas is currently partially deregulated making it difficult for prices for petroleum products to be market determined. the sector was regulated with government maintaining a monopoly of supply of petroleum products and few oil majors dominate it. the dominance of these firms in the market has made the petroleum market industry in nigeria an oligopolistic one. 41 akinola, o.a and wissink, h. (2017) public sector performance in the nigerian downstream oil sector a critical reflection. journal of asian and african studies. vol. 53(3) , 476 490. 42 thurber, m.c. oil and governance: stateowned enterprises and the world energy supply. (cambridge university press, 2011) ,737. 43 gilles, a. (2009) "reforming corruption out of nigerian oil? part one: mapping corruption risks in oil sector governance cmi u4 brief. cited in thurber, m.c. (n 42) ,737. 44 bello, o. political patronage dashes bid to reduce diesel price. business day. 6 october 2008. cited in thurber, m.c. ibid p.737. 45 ibid. 46 ibid. framework for the nigerian petroleum industry, and the development of host communities. it also provides for the establishment of the nigerian upstream regulatory commission to deal with technical and commercial regulatory functions of the commission.the objective of the commission is to deal with the upstream petroleum operations, promote healthy, safe, efficient and effective conduct of upstream petroleum operations in an environmentally accepted and sustainable manner. it also set, define and enforce approved standards and regulations for design, construction, fabrication, operation and maintenance of plants, installations and facilities used or to be used in upstream petroleum operations. the act also established the nigerian midstream and downstream petroleum operations, including technical, operational and commercial activities and ensure implantation of environmental policies, laws and regulations for midstream and downstream petroleum operations. the effectiveness of these bodies is yet to be seem as what the law did was to separate the functions and personals of the department of petroleum resources into these bodies for effective implementation of government policies. the lack of independence and the requisite capacity in the existing institutional structures within the nigerian petroleum sector. another set of arguments for the resource curse focuses on institutional quality. several studies have investigated the role of institutional quality and found that natural resource curse can be avoided if institutional quality is sufficiently high. north47defines institutions as a set of formal rules and informal conventions -that provide the framework for human interactions and shape the incentives of members of society. hodler48 indicates that resource rents are thought to bring not only conflict but also corruption and downward pressures on institutional quality. similarly, auzer explains that in petro-states, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 government institutions may either be the main contributing factor to a 'resource curse', or a 'blessing'49 in the same vein, torner et al50 consider weak institutions responsible for the slow growth experienced in nigeria, mexico and venezuela after oil was discovered in these countries. similarly, sala-i-martin et al51 found that corruption that emerged after the discovery of oil was responsible for the slow growth experienced by nigeria and natural resources exert a negative ______________________ 47 north, d. (1991), institutions" journal of economic perspectives vol.(l) pp.97-112 48 hodler, r. (2006) the curse of natural resources in fractionalized countries eur. econ rev vol 50(6) p' 1367 1386. 49 auzer. k.a (n. a\p.22. 50 tomell, a. and lane, p.r. (1999) the voracity effect' am' eon' rev vol' 89 p 2246' 51 sala i martin et al (n 38). and nonlinear impact on growth via their negative impact on institutional quality. alexeev et al52 treat institutions as endogenous and show that previously found negative effects of natural resources wealth on the quality of institutions are likely to be spurious because of the positive link between gdp and natural resources. mehlum at al53 argue that institutions are decisive for determining whether resource revenues bring a curse or a blessing. thus, the quality of government institutions can determine the impact of resource revenues on the economic performance of resource abundant countries. they suggest that a 'grabber friendly institution' may lead to economic stagnation and in turn low growth. in effect, auzer, states that the quality of pre-existing institutions may have an adverse effect on the impact of natural resources on growth, whilst resource abundance may also have an effect on institutional quality, leading to ineffective governance through rent seeking corruption and patronage.54 osahuee55 states that decades of elite corruption, misrule and lack of enforced regulations have successfully crippled this giant and potentially debarred the potential benefits of its natural resource wealth from trickling meaningfully to the vast majority of its suffering masses. thurber et al aptly describe the nnpc thus: ...despite its formal organization as a vertically integrated oil company, nnpc is neither a real commercial entity nor a meaningful oil operator. it lacks control over the revenue it generates and thus is unable to set its own strategy. it relies on other firms to perform essentially all the most complex functions that are hallmarks of operating oil companies. yet unlike some nocs it also fails to fit the profile of a government agency: its portfolio of activities is too diverse, incoherent, and beyond ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 the reach of government control for it to function as a government policy making instrument. similarly, nwokeji56has described the role assigned to the nnpc as at one time or another included managing the interests of the federal republic of nigeria in the oil and gas industry, making input into industry policy, performing regulatory functions and driving nigeria's economic, industrial and technological development. however, the author also states that what ___________________ 52 alexeev, m and conrad, r. (2009) the elusive curse of oil. the review of economics and statistics. vol 91 (3) p. 586-598; alexeev el at (1otl) the natural resource curse and economic transition' economic systems vol. 35(4) p 445-461. 53 mehlum, h. moene, k. torvik, k. (2006) institutions and the resource curse econ. journal vol. 116 (508) p.120. cited in auzer, k. k. (n.48) 54 auzer (n 48) p. 23. 55 mark c. thurber et al, nnpc and nigeria’s oil patronage ecosystem in david g victor et al (eds) oil and governance: state owned enterprises and the world energy supply (cambridge university press, 2010) ,701. 56 nwokeji. g.u. the nigerian national petroleum corporation and the development of the nigerian oil and gas industry: history, strategies and current directions. the james a. baker litr institute for public policy and japan petroleum energy center, 2007. behoves the corporation is marked by a struggle over what the corporation controls and who owns what.57 flowing from the above, studies have shown that states involvement in petroleum production in oil producing countries through national oil companies to be a determining factor for increased corruption among officials related to the oil and gas sector. arezki et al58 indicate that the ownership structure of oil and petroleum industries plays a major role in the existence of corruption in the resources sector. whilst, cameron et al59 emphasize that an understanding of the kinds of organizational structures that are typical in the oil and gas are imperative and without sound knowledge of standard approaches to oil and gas governance, governments efforts to make the sector work and to achieve social and economic benefits may have limited outcomes. to emphasize what obtains within the nps, nwokeji identifies that the dpr is backward compared to the nnpc and instead of strengthening the regulator it has been placed under the administrative control of the national oil company (noc).60nwokeji further noted that the dpr had been in place before the noc in 1971, whilst the noc was formed in 1972 as a requirement for nigeria joining opec, in effect the regulator was a nigerian initiative, while the noc came on stream as an externally instigated element.61 this was also well reiterated by onuoha where he stated that in practice, the nnpc is still in charge of producing oil and simultaneously regulating the industry.62 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 the nnpc's capacity can be measured by the quality of the extant legislative framework, thus, the petroleum act and its ability to serve as a catalyst for the country's economic development may run counter productive in promoting good natural resource governance, going by the assertions of thurber, nwokeji and onuoha as the extant framework does not make provisions for the nnpc as a regulator. it can be fair to assert that a law meant to create accountability and prevent corruption in resource management is largely ineffective and inefficient and does not foster integrity, openness and accountability. within the nigerian oil and gas sector, various divisions and subsidiaries overlap in terms of responsibilities and a lack of clarity of roles exist. nwokeji63 identifies this overlap in ___________________ 57ibid. 58 arezki . r. bruckner, m. (201l) oil rents, corruption and state stability: evidence from panel transgressions. eur. econ rev vol. 55. p955-963. 59 cameron, p.d and stanley, m.c. oil, gas and mining: a sourcebook for understanding the extractive industries. international bank for reconstruction and development, 2017. 60 nwokeji, u.g. (n 56) p.27 61 ibid 62 onuoha, a. (2005) from conflict to collaboration: building peace in nigeria's oil producing communities. london: adonis & abbey publishers. cited in perouse de monclos, m.a. (2014) the politics and crisis of the petroleum industry bill in nigeria. journal of modern african studies vol. 52(3) pp.403 -424. 63nwokeji, u.g (n 56) p.27. responsibilities, when he states that the integrated data services (ids), duplicates the work of national engineering & technical company (netco) by offering petroleum engineering services, the national petroleum investment management services (napims) impinges on the core of exploration and production functions of nigerian petroleum development company (npdc) and thereby stretches the napims technical manpower too thin. this comes with the anomaly of combining regulatory, commercial and operational functions into a single body. also, akinola et al notes the lack of clarity between the regulatory roles of the department of petroleum resources (dpr) and the petroleum products pricing regulatory authority (pppra).64 similarity, nwokeji indicates that splitting of qualified personnel into various agencies duplicating one another's regulatory function, with none maintaining a critical mass is a factor of nnpcs under performance in regulation.65 thuberet al make some principal observations of the nnpcs and the nigerian oil sector, the authors indicate that the company is a sector manager and quasi regulator, using the approval authority of national petroleum investment management services (napims) to assert control over iocs. secondly, thurber asserts that the nnpc is a buyer and seller of oil and refined petroleum products and plays an operational role in upstream, downstream and gas ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 transport activities and a service provider to the nigerian oil sector, without been effective in any of the various oil sector jobs66nwokejifurther states that the historical lack of success in establishing an independent regulator despite outward efforts is part of a pattern of lurching reform that does nothing to substantially alter the functioning of the petroleum sector. incidentally, initiatives to reform nnpc and the oil sector have been put forward by many nigerian presidents, mainly focusing on organizational forms, leaving intact basic power dynamics, institutional dysfunctions anddeficiencies in human capacity that support the status quo...the nnpc is a struggling corporation, constrained by internal weakness, such as institutional frailties and corruption and externally imposed burdens, such as interventions by political leaders and sundry socio-political obstacles...the noc has lagged behind its counterparts in other countries, such brazil, venezuela, malaysia, and indonesia, even lagging behind with its african counterpart angola's sonangol which is being justifiably celebrated. there is now a clear recognition of the structural weakness of the nigerian oil and gas industry and the corresponding weaknesses of nnpc'.67 _____________________________ 64 akinola et al (n 41) p.477 65 nwokeji, u.g. (n56). 66 thurber, m.c. oil and governance: stateowned enterprises and the world energy supply. (cambridge university press, 2011) ,737. 67 nwokeji u.g (n. 65) p 88. finally, thurber indicates that the nnpc has become an instrument of patronage as a result of its being unsuccessful in developing its capability in oil.68 the author further states that ... this in not unconnected to the complexity and bureaucracy of nnpc processes which provide ample opportunity for distribution of favours, with each approval step representing a transaction process that benefits a network of associates and more worrisome is that top jobs in the nnpc are dispensed to politically favoured individuals with the rotation of nnpc board members based on regional basis in line with regional structure of nigeria's patronage network and consequently making it difficult to effect sustained positive change within the organization especially when the gmd changes with each presidential election".69 from the aforementioned reviews, it is observed that various authors have limited the discussion of institutional quality in the petroleum sector to the role of the nnpc. however, it is posited that several institutions that go beyond the nnpc have the collective responsibility to ensure transparency and accountability in the governance of the petroleum revenue. institutions such as the federal inland revenue service, fiscal responsibility commission, revenue mobilization and fiscal allocation commission (rmfac) public ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 procurement commission, the national assembly, ministry of finance, department of petroleum resources are institutions that have contributed to the failure of petroleum revenue governance. these institutions lack poor institutional governance and have become moribund due to weak enforcement of laws, obsoleteness and lacking in the requisite capacity and have not been able to adequately monitor revenue from the npi. however, the writer supports the view that the nnpc has failed to screen out its operational autonomy to avoid political capture. thus, rather than limiting the scope of this work to the nnpc, the paper rather prefers to take a broader approach by reviewing other institutions which have a collective responsibility to ensure transparency and accountability in petroleum revenue management within the nigerian petroleum industry. (npi) the observance of good natural resource governance practices as a catalyst in enhancing transparency and accountability in petroleum revenue management most relevant to this discourse are twin concepts of 'transparency' and 'accountability' which have become an integral part of the global governance agenda. acosta70 notes the existence of global initiatives such as the publish what you pay (pwyp) coalition and the 'extractive industry transparency initiative (eiti) which were formed to promote improved accountable systems for the management of natural resources revenue and to promote greater transparency _____________ 68 thurber, m.c. oil and governance: stateowned enterprises and the world energy supply. (cambridge university press, 2011) ,737. 69 ibid. 70 acosta, a.m. (2013) the impact and effectiveness of accountability and transparency initiatives: the governance of natural resources. development policy review vol. 31 (sl): s89-s105. pp.94. and timely disclosure of government information through the creation of multi stakeholder monitoring bodies and civil society actors, amongst others. the objectives of transparency and accountability forms the pillars of good corporate governance in any sector. however, poor mainstreaming on the part of the government particularly in the nigerian oil and gas sector has come as a result of high rentierism that has further encouraged the sector to remain opaque thus fueling the incessant degree of corruption. thus, the opaque relationship between the federal government and the nigerian national petroleum corporation has created transparency and accountability concerns with incessant accusations of mismanagement and corruption in the sector. the importance of transparency was established by kolstad et al where the authors categorically state that transparency reduces the possibilities of rent-seeking activities and increases the accountability of the government.71 to address nigeria's efforts in curbing corruption and enforcing transparency in the sector and if implementation has been able to curb the tide of corruption, idemudia72 observes that institutions and new laws have been established to address the resource curse and fight corruption. these include the independent ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 corrupt practices and other related (icpc) in 2000, economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) in 2002 and the fiscal responsibility act in 2007. however, the author opines that notwithstanding these initiatives to curb corruption, corruption still remains prevalent in the sector.73 it is posited that fighting the 'resource curse' or corruption within the nigerian petroleum sector goes beyond the implementation of anti-corruption laws, such as the efcc and the icpc but rather what is imperative is the reform of existing laws to make it more compliant to the dynamics of the sector, such as the audit act and the petroleum act. notwithstanding, idemudia et al in another article74 also attributes the limited success of these initiatives to the problem of "structural formalism" or the idea that since these agencies and laws are managed and implemented by government officials that benefit from corruption, their implementation is often uneven and subject to governmental interest andcapture. this perhaps adequately captures the lack of pro-activeness in implementing laws as opposed to just promulgation. again, akinrele also states that nigeria has in the last 15 years introduced a plethora of new legislation, guidelines and policies aimed at promoting higher standards of ________________ 71 kolstad, i. and wiig, a. (2009) is transparency the key to reducing corruption in resourcerich countries. world development vol.37 (3) 521 -532. pp. 524. 72idemudia, u. (2012) the resource curse and the decentralization of oil revenue: the case of nigeria" journal of cleaner production vol. 35 p. 183 -193. pp. 185. 73 ibid 74 idemudia, u. cragg, w. best, b. (2010) the challenges and opportunities of implementing the integrity pact as a strategy for combating corruption in nigeria's oil rich niger delta region. public administration and development vol. 30 (4),277-290. governance and accountability in the business sector of which the petroleum sector forms the substantial subset.75in addition, he states that the freedom of information act 2011, nigerian extractive industries transparency initiative act 2007, code of conduct bureau and tribunal act l99l, the 1999 nigerian constitution, advanced fee fraud and other related offences act 2006, money laundering (prohibition) act 2011 and the public procurement act 2007 are all legislation that promote accountability. however, he posits that there remains the challenge of implementation and enforcement, such as political interference and an inefficient judiciary which present obstacles to proper enforcement. olayinka76 states that the non passage of the pib has not only stalled the needed reform of the nnpc, but has contributed to the unwillingness of international oil companies (iocs) to invest in the sector because of the prevailing high level of uncertainty for future investment. similarly, ilueziogbaudu77state that it behoves on the federal government in a bid to ensure an enabling environment for investment to look into the position of the law as of today and consider same against its effect ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 on investment in the sector and make necessary reforms as soon as possible. the author further asserts that petroleum act has not undergone any major reforms since its enactment. nwokeji78 also addresses the same issue where he observes that the oil industry administration is largely done on an ad-hoc basis and the principal law governing the nigerian industry is outdated. transparency international, a global coalition against corruption has ranked nigeria 148 out of 180 countries with a paltry score of 27 out 100 in its 2017 corruption perception index.79 thus, the petroleum act and its ability to serve as a catalyst for the country's economic development has run counter productive for the objective of good natural resource governance. agbiboa80posits that 'nigeria remains a cesspit of corruption and exacerbated by the discovery of oil.’ as pointed out by the author81corruption and ineptitude of nigeria's first republic were the two often-cited reasons used by the military to carry out coups. adelegan on his part recommends that for oil and gas reforms to have any implications on economic development, ____________________ 75 olayinka, c. nnpc audit report and need for autonomy. the guardian 22 february 2015 available at <http:/l4mp/slguardian. nglfeatures /focus/nnpc-audit-report-and-need-for-autonomy/ amp> accessed 25th may 2021. 76 iluezi, o. e. oil and gas regulation in nigeria: assignment of rights in the upstream sector. available at<http:// www.lawyard.ngloil-and-gas-regulation-in-nigeria-assgnment-of-rights-in-the-upstream-sector-by-iluezi-ogbauduefemena/>. accessed 25 th may 2021 77nwokeji, u.g. (n56). 78 see transparency international available at <https://www.transparency.orglcountrya.iga> accessed 24 th may 2018. 79agbiboa, d.e. (2013) corruption and economic crimes in nigeria: social and economic perspectives african security review yol.22(l): 47-66. cited in agbiboa d.e. (2014) underdevelopment in practice: nigeria and the enduring problem of corruption. development in practice yol.24 (3) pp. 390-404. 80 ibid. 81adelegan, a.e. (2017) oil and gas sectoral law reform and its implications for economic development in nigeria. international journal of development and economic sustainability vol. (5) 3 pp.24-31. transparency, accountability and ethical conduct should be deepened. what exists in nigeria is endemic corruption and poor governance structures which have existed prior to the discovery of oil and possibly due to the existence of authoritarian regimes. the current approach and legal framework for the governance of petroleum resources revenue lacks transparency and no mechanisms for ensuring that those who manage the revenues are accountable to the people on both the exploitation of the resource and the manner in which the revenues are applied. thus, adopting the right policies and building transparent and accountable and capable institutions, nigeria's resource wealth can be used to lift its people out of poverty. conclusion ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 a vibrant regulation and an equitable framework for the transparent and accountable distribution of petroleum revenues are important to effectively manage the nigerian petroleum industry. but the attainment of these factors is often dependent on other factors which may extend beyond the province of law to bring about a holistic approach to reform. for instance, a vibrant law would often depend on the human capacity from which it can source professional employees, these issues were identified under the discussion of the ppta where staff of the firs are limited in capacity to understand therudiments of transfer pricing or financial reports of the iocs. there is a need to strengthen tax rules and develop competent manpower to carry out transfer audits. thus, no matter how laudable the pia is, supporting legislations which are obsolete or lacking in enforcement capacity will continue to lag the sector in bringing about the needful changes that is long overdue. similarly, an industry cannot itself operate where there is unbridled corruption, in such a situation poverty is at its highest as revenues are not equitably distributed due to political and elite capture. revenue authorities as well as anti-corruption institutions should endeavour to develop integrated data to aid information sharing. thus, institutional cooperation between the federal inland revenue service (firs), bureau of public procurement, fiscal responsibility commission, cooperate affairs commission (cac) the securities and exchange commission (sec) and anticorruption agencies, the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) and the independent corrupt practices commission (icpc)) which were created specifically to tackle corruption in nigeria. with cooperation amongst these agencies, this can detect the flow of funds, however, what exists is interagency rivalry and lack of cooperation. it is pertinent to note that tax evasion and tax avoidance are a global problem and nigeria must be part of the global tax agenda, such as the multilateral competent authority agreement 2019 and the global transparency forum on access to information and the african peer review mechanism. thus, except nigeria belongs to these global bodies, the country will continue to be shut from contemporary initiatives to fight tax crimes and further "race to the bottom". strict accountability mechanisms are required to address corruption, thus, to attemptan isolated reform may thwart the overall objective. it is important that several factors through legal and extra-legal means are embedded to ensure sustainability in the sector. the attainment of that fine balance between developed legal institutional frameworks that are managed by capable individuals on the one hand, while on the other hand are regulating ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 without being unduly burdensome on operators is the hallmark of effective petroleum industry regulation. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 08 | august 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 the relevance of ict in the teaching of mother tongue olayinka omolayo aturamu(phd) department of languages & linguistics, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria phone no: +2347030594409 ; email: aturamuolayinka@bouesti.edu.ng abstract we are in the days or increasing technology. new ideas systems and ways of doing things emerge every day. the usefulness of information and communication technology as a facilitator or effective teaching of indigenous language or mother tongue cordially be overemphasized. scientific thinking and learning requires an adequate command of languages for the effectives use and understanding of concepts. hence this summation is making relevant suggestions and recommendations that will enhance optimum of modern instructional technology in the teaching of mother tongues in nigeria. keywords: relevance, ict, teaching, mother tongue. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 03 | march 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 introduction the place of mother tongues in learning can never be under estimated. learning in the mother tongue is very important in the early years of pupils’ learning. mother tongue is the very first language the child comes in contact with, in early years. language (mother tongue) is so important that it leads to all round development of the child. it is not only useful in accelerating learning but in all areas of one’s life. it is a vehicle with which the learner can carry out the functions of life effectively. mother tongue is so important that the federal government has realized its roles by including it in the national policy on education (npe). according to the policy, a child must learn at least one other nigerian language apart from his or her mother tongue. in addition to appreciating the importance of language in the educational process and as a means of preserving the people’s culture, the government considers it to be in the interest of national unity that each child be encourage to learn language other than his own mother tongue. researches have shown that a child learns fasters when taught in his/her mother tongue rather than a foreign language (chumbow, 1998 & bamgbose, 1992). experiments in philippines, mexico and nigeria have proved this to be true. ‘in nigeria the ife project showed clearly that children taught in yoruba while learning as a second language perform very well. they presented themselves in english, which they learned as a second language and they were significantly better than those children who learned directly in english (chumbow, 1998). thus, as far as education is concerned, empirical arguments favour the need for our children to start their education in their mother tongue and move up with the language as far as possible in the developmental process because psychologically, we will be maximizing the intellectual potentials of the child. in addition to appreciating the importance or information communication technology in the educational process, computer literacy is uplifted in almost all nigeria educational institutions to serve as a means of enhancing or promoting education in the country. information means discovery about knowledge while information technology is the study or use of electronic equipment e.g. computers for storing, analyzing and distributing information of the kinds including words, numbers and pictures. according to asimiyu (1999) educational technology can be seen as the application revolution that led to the production and use of quite a range of electronic information it carries. ‘in other perspective is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning according to specific objectivity based on research for more effectivity based on research for more effective instruction’. mother tongue is the first language of a child. relevance of information and communication technology to the teaching of indigenous/mother tongue language teaching is highly necessary as a tool for the emerging technologies. the present technology with all that is associated with is from the western world and since ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 03 | march 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 everything is coded in its (western world) language we need to teach indigenous languages to be able to interpret technology in our mother tongue (yoruba). this is important for a certain number of reasons, some of which are as follows: instructional manuals attached to some of the modern equipment that are written in the language of the manufacturers and only those who understand this language can successfully operate or manipulate them. there are in fact seven synthetic forms or english in these manuals. showing carelessness a disregard for safety of life and property. what is more disturbing is that attempt is made to communicate whereas many of these companies employ experts and professionals to write manuals for them for similar products going to other countries. this is very necessary especially in nigerian language that are still undergoing structural and grammatical development. the marginalization of nigerian language is highly visible in air travel where there is no local language content in airline information and safety packages. airline flying into nigeria address nigerians in foreign languages, nigerians airports are not friendly to local people; although at least 54% of travelers are bound to fall statistically within the bracket of those who can neither read nor write, nor understand english or other european languages. if safety is communicated in a language one understands, they won’t risk their lives. first, he must help the students to find meaning and gain experience in indigenous language by developing an appreciation for the indigenous language. then he must help his students to relate to life and finally to understand the rudiments of the language. in more specific terms, the first thing an indigenous language teacher should bear in mind when teaching is that the subject is a personification of life. it is not that often –dreaded subject which is thought to be remote from the reality of life, it is relevant to everyday life. hence, it should be animated, contextualized and therefore made exciting to students. there is no room for the theory of ‘arts for arts’ sake’’ in the subject once the teacher is ready to put life in the subject and draw analogies between it and life’s everyday events a good start has been made and the students will be highly motivated to read the passages. making use of technology in teaching mother tongue/indigenous languages will arouse the students’ interest as it does expand the possible modalities of teaching. it also aids some measure of reality to learning and measures the view of reasoning of the learners. the teacher while making use of the new technology will be provided with more reflective materials for instruction improvement. in fact, the teaching will not be subjected to difficulty in record keeping and evaluation. `` the relationship between information communication technology and language is symbiotic. both mutually reinforce each other. language is the medium through which the collective knowledge of every culture is stored and transmitted. on the other hand, in order to protect the unique elements of various indigenous knowledge systems, the supporting language of the cultures that developed these knowledge systems must be made available to information technology in all forms and at all levels. this is particularly important because human civilization is fast tending toward the knowledge age in which human interaction will be heavily mediated by information technology in all forms and at all levels. this is particularly important because human civilization is fast tending towards the knowledge age in which human interaction will be heavily mediated by information technologies. as we ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 03 | march 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 proceed into the knowledge era, it becomes imperative that african languages be made relevant to developments in information technology by the development of human language technology for these languages. application of ict to the teaching of mother tongue/indigenous language in this era of continuous changes, language teaching is highly necessary and helps in the moral upbringing of both the students and the teachers themselves since teachers are the first role models for students and later students meet and interact with the way teachers help shape their future. any misuse of words either by error or omission or commission is believed to be the right use of such words proper training in the use of language could save the teacher from the use of language could save the teacher from the wrong use of phrases or words that have more than one meaning. the relevance and effectiveness of information and communication technology to the teaching of three components or indigenous languages are language, literature and culture. video conference and interaction radio are chosen for their characteristics. these characteristics suit teaching and learning of mother tongue/indigenous languages literature. interactive radio is a technology that makes one way communication of teaching and learning interactive. it is this interaction that makes interactive radio suitable for teaching and learning indigenous language literature. conclusion and recommendations having gone through all the above; it is obvious that indigenous language teaching (mother tongue) occupied a central place in the life of a nation especially in its educational sector in this jet age. the advantages which cannot be exhaustively discussed here include moulding the society, directing and developing it. relevance of information and communication technology to the teaching of indigenous languages (mother tongue) cannot be over-emphasized. teachers of indigenous language at all levels of our educational system should endeavor to use information communication technology in teaching indigenous languages to students. this will make the subject attractive, appealing and interesting to the learners. nigeria as a nation should give ict a priority so that every individual is motivated towards the technology. the government should provide both materials and manpower aid computer training. more so, we recommend the adoption of voice based technology which integrate well with our historical path of morality as a strategy for information documentation and transmission. we need to invest in research and development in nigeria languages in order to eliminate the illiteracy barrier. such a center will not only facilitate research but also engage in advocacy. the center will initiate the addition of local content to ict, engage in modernization of nigeria languages through the development and dissemination of terminologies. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 03 | march 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 references bamgbose, ayo (1992). speaking in tongues: implications of multilingualism for language, policy in nigeria, kaduna. nigerian national merit award, award winner’s lecture. bamgbose ayo, funso akere & noel ihebuzor (1992), (eds). implementation strategies for the language provisions of the national policy on education, abuja, language development center. fafunwa, a.b., macaulay, j.i. and j.a funso sokoya(eds) (1989). education in mother tongue, ibadan: ibadan university press. national policy on education (revised) federal ministry of education lagos (1987) 3rdedition. shanty senadyera (1987). national language policy for australia. a report prepared by plan committee. january 1983 on sindala. schools in msw. simiyu, a.m. (1999). new and emerging technologies in teaching and learning on higher education. lead presentation at the regional workshop on teaching and learning in higher education moi university kenya. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 03 | march 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 covid 19 pandemic: challenges and opportunities on teaching and learning in nigeria olufunke oluwatoyin boris (ph.d) department of science education, bamidle olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. e-mail: funkeboris2016@gmail.com, phone number: +2348135503457 abstract: the covid 19 pandemic known as corona virus is a health crisis that was declared pandemic by the world health organization by early march, 2020. covid-19 pandemic was reported to first arrived in egypt on 14th february, 2020 involving a chinese national. the first confirmed case in subsaharan africa was reported to have been in nigeria on 27th february, 2020, involving an italian citizen. there was a continuous transmission in the country, spreading across the state become quote worrisome. on march 20th 2020, the federal government of nigeria ordered the closure of educational institutions. there were challenges faced in teaching and learning during and after the lock down, which were discussed in this article, besides rural and urban dwellers in nigeria definitely had different experiences of coping with the situation for instance disparity in learning factors and opportunity associated with uneven distribution of amenities affected one area than the other. every challenge has opportunities, the article looked into the opportunities found in covid-19 pandemic one of which led to the driving force of education and teaching reform, building a new education and teaching mode. however, ability of many school to quickly spring-board into a digital teaching model most especially in the rural areas were discussed in this article, however if online teaching becomes part of daily teaching, it then means there will be a great reform in colleges and universities. recommendations were suggested for future occurrence. keywords: covid-19, teaching, learning, urban, rural, teaching reform, learning reform. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:funkeboris2016@gmail.com introduction covid-19 pandemic emerged as global crisis. it is also known as corona virus pandemic. it is a new disease that spread from person to person through several different modes especially when people are in close range to one another, it can spread very easily with one infected person infecting between two, three and other people. the corona virus disease (covid-19) caused by corona virus that manifest in various symptoms such as fever, breathing difficulty, sore throat, sneezing, dry or productive cough, general weakness, pain and other mild respiratory diseases in human who 2020. corona virus disease 2019 (covid 19) emerged at the end of december 2019 in wuhan, china. in december 2019, some patients with pneumonia – like symptom of unknown origin were linked to a local huanan south china seafood market in wuhan, hubei province, china. in order to conduct an epidemiological investigation and to determine the etiological agent, the chinese center for disease control and prevention (china cdc) the initial outbreak of covid-19 in wuhan spread rapidly, affecting some other parts of china, the wuhan government took in precedence steps and lock down the city on january 23, 2020 to lower the risk of further disease transmission within few weeks, cases of covid-19 had been detected in several other countries and soon became a global threat the virus had spread to 193 countries and infected many people resulting in more death of so many people dispatched a team, team of its health authorities to respond to the outbreak. a closure notice was served to the market and a day after the market was shut down and fumigated (china cdc) however, no specific animal was linked to the outbreak. adhikari et al (2020) reported that the spread of the virus throughout china during the chinese new year was attributed to a high level of human movement among chinese people during that festive period. demographics of the pandemic seem to be associated with age, biological sex, and other underlying health conditions that may serve as catalyst to the corona virus disease. mclead (2020) by early march, 2020 (13) covid-19 was declared pandemic (public health emergency to international concern) by the world health organization. two months later 212 countries and territories had been affected globally including nigeria. as a result of community transmission on daily basis most of these countries have witnessed plateau of the pandemic cases. corona virus disease (covid-19) pandemic in nigeria the index case of the corona virus disease (covid-19) was reported in nigeria. table 1: outbreak according to the world health organization in the affected countries from 31 december to 7 may, 2020 between 6:00 and 10:00 cet. continent total number of cases total number of death seven countries reporting most cases five countries reporting the most death african 51,239 2006 south african 7,808 algeria 476 egypt 7,580 egypt 469 morocco 5,408 morocco 182 algeria 4,997 south african 153 nigeria 3,145 cameron 108 ghana 2,719 nigeria 108 cameroon 2,265 source: ecdpc, situation update worldwide as of 7 may, 2020. in nigeria, with 1.3 billion people (about 16% of the world population) the covid-19 pandemic was reported to first arrived in egypt on 14th february 202 involving a chinese ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 national and the first confirmed case in sub-saharen africa was reported to have been in nigeria on 27th february 202, involving an italian citizen. this is a clear indication of the continent contribution to the growing global evidence to understand the virus behaviour outside china. to cub the spread of the disease, the nigerian government announced a travel ban on it 13 countries considered to be of high risk for covid-19 with over 1000 confirmed cases on the 18th of march 2020. these countries include china, italy, usa, iran, germany, span, south korea, japan, uk, france, the netherlands, switzerland and norway. also the closure of land and sea and air borders was not effected until over three weeks of the recorded index case on the 27th of february to nigeria coupled with intercity movement led to continuous transmission in the country spreading across the state became worrisome (40) most especially in cities like abuja, lagos etc. recent increase in the number of positive covid-19 cases in nigeria can be attributed to increase in the number of testing laboratories which rose from just 4 laboratories in february when the first index case was reported to 18 laboraties as at may 9, 2020 effort as made to increase this to all the 36 states of the federation. as the community spread of the pandemic became a major concern in nigeria, nigeria government announced the total lockdown of three states lagos, ogun and the federal capital territory for 5 weeks between march 23rd and may 4, 2020. in order to continue to curb interstate transfer of the covid -19 pandemic, the nigeria governor’s forum announced interstate lockdown, as part of curbing the spread of the pandemic the government declare closure of primary, secondary schools and tertiary institutions and reduced number of individuals at different gatherings to not more than 50 persons and later reduced to 20 to 10 persons. the gathering includes places of worships, open markets, clubs, gym, saloon, while civil servants on levels 1 to 15 specifically in lagos state were asked to stay at home, other states follow such. however some palliatives that was put in place along the line for the less privilege was poorly coordinated and mismanaged. the revolts attracted by this situation led to the announcement of relaxation or ease of location by the federal government from monday the 4th of may. before the announcement of the lockdown on the 30th of march, the country has only recorded 131 confirmed cases and 2 deaths as of the 4th of may 2020 when the lockdown was eased the number of confirmed cases has risen to 2558 with 87 deaths and by may 9 2020, the first case fatality was reported on the 23rd of march 2020 (43). as of 9 of may, nigeria has recorded 4151 confirmed cases from 25, 951 sample tested, 745 (18%) recovered and discharged cases and 128 deaths revealing a case fatality rate (cfr) of 3% across 34 of 36 states including federal capital territory. the demographics of the corona virus disease in nigeria as reported by ncdc revealed that of 4151 confirmed cases 2828 (68%) were male and 1323 (32%) were female subjects. the most affected age group is between 31-40years (24%), total number of people of interest are 9305 within 9291 (99.8% exceeded follow up). the number of people with travel history – 210 (55), contacts – 947 (23%), without epidemiologic link2618 (63%), incomplete information – 376 (9%) (44). the 63% of the total confirmed cases without epidemiological link recorded is an indication of community spread of covid-19 across the country. the federal ministry of health and the nigerian centre for disease control put in place some other identified measures immediate by government on covid-19 which include, washing of hands with soap, use of alcohol base sanitize, no touch of nose, eyes and mouth with unwashed hands social distance use of face mask, physical distancing interstate, temperature checkup, no large gathering, restriction of interstate travel etc. some of the factors that militated against the control of covid-19 by the nigerians are – unbelieve, deprived of freedom to worship, believe that covid-19 is meant for the rich and not the poor, ignorance of transmission most especially in the rural areas, distrust of nigerian ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 citizen towards government, money making for government,, there are isolation centres with no facilities and equipments, run away victims e.t.c all of these factors could not help the total control of the pandemic in nigeria with all of these more than 94% of the worlds student population has been affected by closures of school (primary, secondary and tertiary: many measures of the government has led to changes in all aspects of lives and many factors have actually contributed significantly to education practices in nigeria. hence there was confusion and partial collapse of every sector in nigeria. the learning theories of the traditional educational philosopher such as behaviorism construction and congitirism are considered as the foundation of teaching and learning. this theories do not applied directly to the 21st century learner. hearing at 21st century has undergone profound changes due to the influence in mobile tools and new technologies we are in the age where theories, practice and real life experiments at a convergence are meeting the learners directly in the classroom (entwistle et al , 2003). the success of online education depend on factors including good internet connections learning software, digital skills, availability and access to technology. educators and students can optimize these technologies to supplement classroom teachings and to improve their digital skills in line with emerging trends on education. in addition knowledge of technology increases teachers and students interest, competence, confidence creativity etc. statement of the problem teachers and students in our institution faced a different life during covid-19 pandemic, educational system was most at a collapse as a result of the pandemic, there was a total lockdown and so many other measures were put in place that restricted the nigerian citizen from the normal life. this research was carried out to find out these challenges and opportunities in covid-19 pandemic from the perspective of the teachers and the students of our tertiary institutions. research questions (1) what are the challenges faced during covid-19 pandemic? (2) what are the opportunities encountered during the pandemic? methodology the study adopted quantitative survey research design. four university were used, two from ekiti state, nigeria and two from ondo state. 25 respondents (teachers) each were also sampled. data was collected using selfdesign questionnaire, validated by three senior colleagues. data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 results and discussion research question 1: what are the challenges faced during covid-19 pandemic? teacher’s questionnaire s/n item sa (%) a (%) sd (%) d (%) 1 my school could not continue with face to face teaching 98 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 20 2 2 online teaching was introduced 70 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 99 10 3 my school could not finish the syllabus (0.0) 95 (0.0) 5 4 i have never done online teaching before the pandemic (0.0) 80 ( 0.0) 15 ( 0.0) 5 5 my digital skills has been enhanced ( 0.0) 50 (0.0) 45 ( 0.0) 5 6 i do not have tools to design quality online teaching (0.0) 20 (0.0) 75 (0.0) 5 7 i like online teaching (0.0) 80 (0.0) 20 8 i preferred face to face teaching 9 student teacher relationship (0.0) 65 (0.0) 15 (0.0) 20 10 i like face to face and online teaching be combined (0.0) 70 (0.0) 15 (0.0) 15 11 light is a problem to my use of internet (0.0) 25 (0.0) 15 12 property are given to some subject then others during the pandemic (0.0) 50 (0.0) 40 (0.0) 10 13 there is poor internet collection in my house (0.0) 90 (0.0) 10 14 student assessments were carried out online with trial and error. (0.0) 70 (0.0) 25 (0.0) 5 15 there is internet connection in my school (20) (80) students questionnaire s/n item sa (%) a (%) sd (%) d (%) 1 my parent supported my learning during the pandemic. (60) (10) (30) 2 i do not always have data (60) (15) (35) 3 i could not afford smart phones (45) (50) (5) 4 i do not have access to digital devices (33) (67) 5 there is poor internet collection in my house (10) (25) (65) 6 online teaching don’t allow me to have interaction with my teachers (60) (30) (10) 7 i like online teaching (70) (5) (35) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 8 i want face to face and online teaching be combined (80) (100 (10) 9 online learning had he help me to organize my work better (70) (20) 10 i am not familiar with operation of whatsapp, facebook e.t.c. (20) (80) (20) 11 i prefer face to face teaching (40) (60) 12 i do not have electrical gadget in my house (5) (25) (70) 13 online teaching improves my critical thinking (50) (30) (20) 14 independent learning was encouraged through online learning (75) (5) (15) 15 my digital skills has been enhanced (83) (2) (15) challenges to teaching and learning the outbreak of covid-19 has caused a significant consequence on the education system of nigeria and a great challenge social distancing, restrict of movement policies, has disturbed traditional education policies. repouring of schools even after relaxation of restriction is another challenge with new standard of operation procedures in place. accessibility to funds and food became limited and psychologically there was depression, anxiety about news of death been heard, also there was lack of self esteem among the students. closure of schools, colleges and universities also coincides with a key assessment period and many exams were postponed or cancelled hence child progress could not be measured. therefore students are among the most strongly affected by covid-19 because of uncertainty regarding academic success, future carriers and social life, other psychological challenges faced by nigeria students are decrease family income and even future employment, anxiety and a compromised willingness to learn, traumatized experience about news of death and the sudden change. on the part of the institutions, they were at a loss on how to proceed with teaching and learning as universities colleges and other institution in nigeria use mainly the didactic lecturing model as the lockdown proposed, it became imperative to the institutions to set up e-learning media for continued instructions of students while some institutions came to a standstill and this has caused a loss of valuable time and a change in the calendar of the school year, most schools reported that what they ought to have finished during covid-19 period is what they are just starting to do. according to luberman (2020) remote learning most often consisted of fully online instruction using video conferencing platforms such as zoom or goggle meets and learning management systems such as goggle classroom canvas or see saw to post assignment and video lectures. many teachers (80%) had never taught online and had never used the platforms and systems necessary to teach online successful, researchers outside nigeria even conference this that remote learning presented many new challenges for teachers and presented unique challenges for different content areas of grade levels herold (2020) and mupinga (2005) and that remote instructions is not often used with younger students or to teach some topics dammers (2012) tallop (2019) (45) of the teachers responded that they still lack the require knowledge, skills and tools to design quality online learning material. apart from teachers embracing digital tools audio, video etc) teachers also demanded for training in the basic principles of how to effectively use these tools for students engagement and learning. this opinion is supported by adeleye (2021) which recognizes the need for ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 technology in education particularly in time of emergencies. this is also in line with onyema (2019) that integration of emerging technologies in education is no longer a choice but necessary for educators considering the changing learning environment demands for flexibility in methodology and the need to enhance creativity and innovations is learning. face to face teaching though offers opportunities for students –teachers interaction that are difficult to replicate at a distance especially where there is inadequate training for distance education e-learning has really served to replicate face to face teaching with greater or lesser degree of efficacy, however some of the students and teacher (35%) advocate for face to face teaching while (65%) still advocate for digital learning and (90%) advocate for combination of the two, even though this entails some challenges. these challenges can affect various aspects of education, including the student teacher relationship that is so crucial for students success (25%) this in support of adeyanju & efunwole (2018) that said learning that is limited to the classrooms, student found it monotonous and boring. the further said that student growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to a variety of media. therefore it is difficult to educate this generation of young one using the traditional face to face mode so also in line with adekomi (2019) who called for adoption and enhancement of new approaches to teaching and learning in schools of respondents under challenges said, asking student to set and watch videos, read document online through presentations is really dull and that the worst form of learning is to sit passively and listen without doing anything interesting. adeleye (2021) confirm that technology can be used to remedy some of the fallots from schools closures but cannot replace the important effect of vitual interactions by students and teachers and many students do not have the necessary access to support technologies which makes it harder to maximize the potentials of learning technology during school closure. teachers had little or no notice about the school closing and shifty to online learning, majority of the respondents (80%) said it was strange finding themselves in new ways to ensure learning continues also with e-learning, protection and safety of the students will be harder to safeguard. use of screen could also cause adverse effect in future and some other parts were highlighted by the respondents. research has shown that there is always a disparity between rural and urban centres dwellers, boris (2021) also in line with this study owoeye & yara (2011) who find out that student in urban areas had better academic achievement then their rural counterpart also in line with osokoya & akuche (2000) who showed that school location had a significant main effect on student congnitive attainment in practice skills. for instance school closures widen the equity gap during the pandemic, progress had been made in the number of students who have access to devices and connectivity, while the rural dwellers could not be reached, because they do not have access to digital devices or internet connectivity, this limitation according to them, said they could not afford it, said there was no money available for data purphate rather thy use available money for survival (food) of the rural dwells responded that they are not even familiar with how to operate whatsapp, facebook etc. educational programme were launched by the government of these state but were only accessible to those with internet access and those that have availability of light. some students continued their education many were deprived of adequate opportunities to do so because of lack of essential services and tools such as technology equipment or learning support services hence some of this schools had to establish specific priorities and emphasized some subjects more than others in school curricular. this research is in line with adeleye (2021) that corona virus pandemic created multiple problem for education sector leading to decrease education opportunities for poor student and those in rural areas. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 also most parent from rural dwellers could not support children at mom about (25%) respondent from rural dwellers confirmed this, most of them said their parents are not educated, and do not have knowledge of e-learning, the kind of handset that is found among these people are the one with no e-learning facilities while in the urban centre only (60%) parents could really support them children majority of learners are from rural village where parents are mostly illiterate farmers therefore students engaged in assisting parents in farm activities majority of the students (25%) do not have access to smart phones on television at home in addition to poor internet connectivity. learning can also expose to potentially harmful and violet condent as well as greater risk of cyber bulging. the level of academic performance of the student dropped for the classes held for both year end examination (internal) due to reduced contact hour for the learners and lack of consultation with teachers where facing difficulties in learning/understanding. this is because in some schools the students assessments are carried out online with a lot of trial and error, incerlanly and confusion among teachers, students and parent while in some schools examinations were postponed /rescheduled respondents (55%) also complaint of restriction of interactions between teachers and students which to them is important. research question 2: what are the opportunities encountered during the pandemic? this research demonstrate that outside the classroom initiatives and outdoor learning provided added value to the classroom learning experience particularly when these two learning environments are used in a complementary way; for instance. the advantages include a more student own initiatives, both of which faster student engagement and in-dept learning since student are more likely to internalize what they experience. this fostering learning transfer. respondents stated that e-learning had supported their independent learning many student have been able to continue their education during the school closure period and maintain their social connection with school through telephone, radio, television, e-mail and video conferencing. students are able to get their goals and exercise self discipline as well as by given them some control over the choice of methods and tools used to carry out task, respondent said independent learning had help them to organize them work better, more initiative, critical thinking more involved, responsible and accountable and motivated. most of the teachers from urban centres and partly from rural concluded that elearning had enhance their digital skills. the home schooling has forged a strong connection between teachers and parents supported their learning academically and economically. agreed that covid-19 pandemic provided us with an opportunity to pave the way for introducing digital learning. on the part of the teachers, 48 of them reported that they were actively collaborating with one another at their level to improve online teaching methods and the same was applicable with students and even the parent. hence there is cooperation and willingness to learn from others. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 conclusion the use of online teaching had turned the adverse effect of the covid-19 epidemic into the driving force of education and teaching reform that is ready to build a new education and teaching mode that will enhance supply of teaching services and implement accurate management of education and teaching. these new changes brought by large scale online teaching during the epidemic prevention and control period confirm the positive growth of education in nigeria. however, the situation in our rural areas need special attention so that there will not be disparity in teaching and learning between students in centers and the rural centers, something has to be done about this. also teachers and lecturers in our higher constitutions should be trained in digital teaching and student in digital learning so that if it becomes our daily teaching it then means there is going to be a great reform in our tertiary institutions. this must start from the secondary education. recommendations the following are recommended for the research: face to face learning, to some people is better than online learning we can reliance the combination to be blended learning, this will create a better learning experience then one hundred period face to face learning. teachers would have started to innovate and experiment with these online tools and may want to continue online pedagogies. resources for digital learning should be made available in all the schools both rural and urban school. teacher collaboration will grow if digital teaching learning is encourage and this will helps to improve learning because teachers can do it draw on what other are doing. experience of covid-19 pandemic has provided a lot of lessons for decision makers at all levels. it is the view of the researcher that nigerians had emerged from this crisis stronger and better prepared for the future and better prepared for the future and be more resilent to similar health emergencies in the future. connectivity should be made affordable to all nigerian citizen. distance learning should be integrated into education the government should invest in the training of teachers on new ideas to enhance that digital skill communities engagement should be strengthened (parents, caregivers etc) in terms of preparedness, cooperation and willingness in future emergencies use of online platforms such as goggle classroom, zoom, virtual learning environment, social media groups like telegram, messager, whatsapp e. t c can be explored further for additional resources and coaching to the learners. reference adekomi, b. (2019). fundamentals of online education. ondo: concept publishers limited. adeleye, t.m. (2021). corona virus pandemic in nigeria educational sector: impacts and coping strategies. aaua journal of science and technology education, 3 (2), 190195. adhikari, s.p. meng, s, wuy. j, mao y.p, ye r.x, wang q-z, sun c sylvia, s, rozelle s, raat, h & zhau, h. (2020). epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of corona virus diseases (covid-19) during the early outbreak period: a scoping review. infection disease of poverty 9, article no. 29. http://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/track.pdf/10.1186/540249-020-60646-x ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 adeyanju, efunwole, & adekomi, (2019). making them to loose interest. the called for adoption and enhancement of new approaches to teaching and learning in schools. adeyanju, j.l. (2013). principles and practice of teaching in a.a. aladejana & d.b. ojerind (eds). journal of ife education (2nd edition pp 54-63). adeyanju, j.l. & efunwole, g.o. (2017). development and validation of e-workshop instructional packagean intervention to infrastructural defielencies in nigeria junior secondary school basic science and technology. journal of educational media and technology, 21 (2), 179-184. awodun, a.o. & boris, o.o.(2020). effects of outdoor teaching strategy on students’ academic achievement in basic science in secondary school in ekiti state, nigeria. international journal of innovative research and advanced student, 7 (10), 71-76. cdc, (2020). 2019 novel corona virus, wuhan, china https://www.cdc.gov/c oronavirus/2019-ncov/summary.html dammers, r.j. (2012). technologybased music classes in high schools in the united states. bulletin of the council for research in music education, 194, 73-90. gallup, (2019). education technology use in schools http://www.nesschools,org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09galluped-tech-use-inschools-2.pdf. herold, b. (2020, march 27). the scramble to more america’s school online. education week. retrieve from https://www.edweek/ew//articlescrimble-to moveamerica-schoolsonline.html. holm hadulla r.m. & kout soukouargyrial, a (2015). a mental health of students in a globalised belortd. prevalence of complains and disorders, methods and effectively of counseling structure of metal health services for students mental health, prevention. elsenier. 3, 1-4 doc 10. 106 a.mhp 2015. 04.003. lubeman, m. (2020). covid -19 remote learning: how to make it work. between retried from https/www.eduweek.org/ew/issue schools/covid19 remote learning – howto make it html. nugroho, r,b a sari, a, suryaningt yas v.w & cahyono, s.p. (2020). university students perception of online learning in covid-19 pandemic. a case study in translation courses. 2020 international seminar on application for technology of information and communication. semarang, indonesia 225-231. mupinga, d.m. (2005). distance education in high schools benefits, challenges and suggests. the clearing house, 78 (3), 105108. https://doi.org/10.3200/tchs.109 onyema, e.m. (2019). integration of emerging technologies in teaching and learning process i nigeria; the challenges. central asian journal of mathematics theory and computer sciences. 1 (august), 135-39. osokoya e.u & akuche (2000). effect of school location on students learning outcome in practical physics african journal online.www..ajol.info owoeye j.s. & yara p.o. (2011). school location and academic achievement of secondary school in ekiti state nigerian. asian social science, 7(5). question (2014). states that closing of school can affect the quality of teaching and learning and academic achievement. mcleod, v. (2020). covid-19 a history of corona virus lab health and safety. who (2020). corona virus disease 209 (covid-19). situation report – 73 who (2020). novel corona virus – china https://www.who.int/csr/don/20-february 2020 novel-coronavirus-china/en/. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 10 | october 2021 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 https://www.cdc.gov/c oronavirus/2019-ncov/summary.html http://www.nesschools,org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09galluped-tech-use-in-schools-2.pdf http://www.nesschools,org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09galluped-tech-use-in-schools-2.pdf https://www.edweek/ew//articlescrimble-to moveamerica-schoolsonline.html https://www.edweek/ew//articlescrimble-to moveamerica-schoolsonline.html https://doi.org/10.3200/tchs.109 https://www.who.int/csr/don/20-february responsibilities of a substitute in the event the notary who is replaced dies before the leave ends dewi tjandraningsih master of law postgraduate islamic university syekh yusuf, tangerang indonesia email: **** abstract the objectives of this research are a. to find out the legal status of the substitute notary due to death before the leave ends. b. to understand the administrative settlement mechanism for a substitute notary due to death before the leave ends. this research method uses normative juridical and descriptive which is supported by primary data, secondary data, and tertiary data. the research results are based on article 35 paragraph 3 uujn-p, that the legal status of a substitute notary public if the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends, then the duties of the position will be carried out by the substitute notary as a temporary acting notary and there is no need to reappoint him as a substitute notary as an acting while notary. therefore, the temporary notary officer can carry out his authority within 30 days from the date the notary dies and can make a deed in his name and have a notary protocol. substitute notary public within 60 days from the notary's death, all notary protocols must have been prepared and a minute of submission of the notary protocol must be made. then all protocols are handed over to the notary recipient of the protocol. notary, notary receiving the protocol, and regional supervisory council. keywords: responsibility, substitute notary, death 1. introduction if a notary is sick or leaves for hajj or umrah for a certain time and is unable to carry out his duties and obligations, he can apply for leave and this is the notary's right in accordance with article 25 paragraph (1) of law number 2 of 2014, concerning amendments to law number 30 of 2004, concerning the public position of notaries uujn-p, namely that notaries have the right to take leave. and it can be given if the notary has carried out his duties and position for 2 years and if less than 2 years then the notary may not take leave. applications for leave for notaries can be submitted one month in advance, the application also depends on the length of leave for each notary in accordance with article 27 paragraphs (1) and (2) concerning law number 30 of 2004, as well as regarding the position of uujn notary, namely: ( 1). a notary can submit a request for leave in writing and name a replacement notary. (2). application for leave in accordance with paragraph (1), submitted to the appointed official, namely: a. to the supervisory board if the leave period is less than 6 months. b. to the supervisory board if leave exceeds 6 months 1 year. c. to the central supervisory board if the leave exceeds 1 year. when submitting a notary leave application, you must follow the appointment of a substitute notary to carry out his/her duties and position. the notary concerned determines the time for leave and is obliged to appoint a replacement notary. (3). appointing a replacement notary may only be employees who have worked or are interns who are deemed capable of replacing them according to the notary's assessment. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 in reality, when the notary who is on leave dies, it is his replacement notary who notifies the mpd, either in writing, verbally, or via electronic media. the death of the notary who was on leave gave rise to a different legal status for the substitute notary, regarding his duties, responsibilities, and authority in serving the community. in this case, there is a legal vacuum between the substitute notary and the notary who has died before the leave ends, regarding the duties of his/her position in carrying out/transferring the legal actions of the parties into the form of a deed, can they use the name of the substitute notary even though there is no longer a notary to be replaced, or use the name of the notary? temporary officials. therefore, the author is interested in researching and discussing in depth the responsibilities of a substitute notary if the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends. 2. research methods this research uses a normative juridical approach supported by primary data. as well as tertiary data. legal research based on predetermined legal logic. describe an overview of the problems at the research location. this research is about the analysis of regulations and legislation related to the responsibilities of a substitute notary in case of death before the end of leave. 2.1. data collection technique a. primary data primary data is in the form of interviews conducted with sources to obtain direct and in-depth information by asking questions directly to the sources who have been determined. b. secondary data the technique for collecting materials using library research is searching for legal materials by reading, viewing, or via the internet. 2.2. data analysis this research will describe the problem with qualitative descriptive analysis by examining in-depth and comprehensively (broad and complete) the related regulations. the legal material obtained will be sorted and grouped and then analyzed so that it can be described or described what the responsibilities of the substitute notary are if the notary who is replaced dies and what the mechanism for completing the protocol is. 3. results and discussion 3.1. notary rights, obligations, and notary leave notarismempunyaihakuntukmemotongsesuaipasal 25 uujn. notarismemperbolehkanpemotongandanjugatidakmengambilhakpemotongan. sebelumnotaris cut terlebihdahulumengajukanpermohonancuti, danmengajukansertifikatuntukcutikepadakantordirektorat ahu, melalui online yaitusebagaiberikut: a. klikmasukke website ahu b. klik menu ahu, terus login notaris c. tuliskan user dan password padaakunnotaris ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 d. pilihuntukpengajuanpotongan, danpilihsertifikatuntukpotongan e. menulispermohonanuntuksertifikatcuti f. untuktransaksinotaris, dapatdibayarmelaluiisian your all payment g. melakukantransaksidanmenerimanotifikasi h. aturanpenggunaan yap telahditentukan, tanggal 27/12/2017 danditerapkanpadatahun 2018. provisions regarding notary leave are regulated in article 25-32 uujn, where before taking leave a notary has obligations as conditions that must be fulfilled, namely the obligation of a notary to carry out his or her position for 2 consecutive years and effectively. when going on leave, appoint a substitute notary public to replace his/her position duties in serving the community, especially in notarial law. in appointing a substitute notary, on average, they only take employees who have met the requirements by article 33 uujn-p and are deemed capable of making decisions on each deed they will make, applying for a leave certificate first as mentioned above, after the notary has fulfilled his obligations. then the notary can take his leave rights. at the start of the leave, the notary must submit the protocol to the substitute notary by making an official report on the submission of the protocol, and vice versa, this is done 1 (one) day after the leave ends. 3.2. legal status of a substitute notary if the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends. the requirements to become a substitute notary as stated in article 33 uujn-p are: an indonesian citizen who has a law degree and has worked as a notary office employee for at least 2 (two) consecutive years. then the prospective substitute notary must complete supporting documents including: a. photocopy of the minimum law degree certificate approved by the relevant university. b. photocopy of identity card legalized by a notary. c. photocopy of birth certificate authenticated by a notary. d. photocopy of marriage certificate for those who are already married and legalized by a notary. e. certificate of good conduct from the local police. f. health certificate from a government doctor. g. recent color photographs measuring 3x4 = 4 (four) pieces h. curriculum vitae a notary as a public official, whose duties, authority and obligations are related to him, is being able to make authentic deeds. the inherent authority of a temporary substitute notary is as stated in article 33 paragraph (2), regulations and laws on the position of notary, namely: it is already valid that the notary is in accordance with articles 4, 15, 16 and 17. that the temporary substitute notary has been determined that the substitute notary in carrying out his duties, obligations and authority, in accordance with the limitations of the notary's position, is entitled to make authentic deeds, in the name of the substitute notary. based on article 35 paragraph 3 uujn-p, a substitute notary as temporary acting notary has a unified meaning where when the notary on leave dies, his or her position ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 automatically becomes substitute notary as temporary acting notary. head of the regional supervisory council, mr. haryanto, said that the regional office of the ministry of law and human rights, yogyakarta special region 101, had never appointed a temporary notary public officer. in this case, this means that for the sleman regency area, especially regarding the legal status of a substitute notary, there will be no further appointments and the substitute notary will automatically become a temporary acting notary. regarding the legal status of the substitute notary, it remains intact and he/she still has the right to make deeds for 30 days after the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends as stated in article 35 paragraph (3) uujn-p. 3.3. mechanism/order for completing the administration of the substitute notary protocol if the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends. that the regional supervisory board carries out supervision of notaries in accordance with its level of authority, namely district and city, in accordance with the applicable article 70 uujn, namely: a. can hold an examination hearing for violations of the code of ethics in the position and authority of a notary. b. can carry out inspections of notary protocols, routinely and periodically, annually or simultaneously if necessary. done c. can grant permission for leave with a time limit of six months d. can appoint a replacement notary with a recommendation to the notary concerned. e. can determine the storage of the notarial deed, and if at the time it is handed over the notarial deed is twenty-five years old or more. f. can appoint a notary as a temporary office holder who is appointed as a state official in accordance with article 11 paragraph (4). g. can receive public reports regarding alleged violations of the notary's code of ethics and other provisions and regulations. h. can submit and make reports in accordance with letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g to the regional supervisory board. the formed at the district or city level, has the authority as stated in article 70 uujn, one of which is point d, namely: to determine a replacement notary by taking into account the recommendation of the notary concerned. the heirs can nominate a notary holding the protocol and the mpd appoints the notary as the recipient of the protocol or the mpd appoints the notary receiving the protocol for 14 (fourteen) days, the temporary notary. submission of the appointment of another notary as protocol holder by the mpd by attaching the following: a. application letter b. photocopy of the decision to appoint a substitute notary which has been legalized c. photocopy of death certificate/death certificate that has been legalized d. original letter of appointment of another notary as protocol holder and e. photocopy of certificate of heirs and notary or authorized official and has been legalized, if the notary who dies has heirs. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 with information regarding the death of the notary, the mpd will immediately negotiate with its members regarding which notary will be able to accept the protocol from the deceased notary and his replacement notary, taking into account the storage location of the state document archive in a safe place because the notary's deed is one of the state archives. notary protocol in the explanation of article 62 uujn, states that the notary protocol consists of: a. minutes of the deed the minutes of the deed are the original notarial deed, where the minutes of this deed consist of (attached) the personal data of the parties and other documents required to make the deed. every month the deed minutes must always be bound into one book containing no more than 50 deeds. on the cover of each book, the number of minutes of the deed, and the month and year of its creation are recorded. b. deed register book or repertorium in this repertorium, every day the notary records all deeds made by or before him, either in the form of minutes of deeds or originals. c. a book registering private deeds whose signing is carried out before a notary or registered private deeds. d. the book registering names of presenters or klapper notaries are required to make a klapper list which is arranged alphabetically and done every month, where the names of all persons/parties appearing, the nature and number of the deed are included. e. protest register book every month the notary submits a register of protest deeds and if there is none. a notary who dies while on leave will be respectfully dismissed from his/her position and the heir/substitute notary will notify the mpd of the death of the notary being replaced, either manually or electronically, no later than 7 days from the notary's death. notification of the notary's death also includes supporting documents including: a. photocopy of the decree on the appointment of a substitute notary that has been legalized b. photocopy of the death certificate/death certificate that has been legalized c. original letter of proposal to appoint another notary as protocol holder. 4. conclusions and suggestions 4.1. conclusion based on the results obtained and the discussion, several conclusions can be drawn, namely as follows: a. in accordance with article 35 paragraph 3 uujn-p which states that if a notary dies, his/her duties and position can be carried out by a replacement notary within a maximum of thirty working days, starting from the notary's death. so the legal status of a substitute notary public, and if the person being replaced dies before the leave ends, the duties and positions can be carried out by the substitute notary public. temporary notary officials can exercise their authority for 30 days starting from the notary's death, a replacement notary can make an authentic deed in the name of the notary protocol.. b. mechanism/order for completing the administration of the substitute notary protocol if the notary being replaced dies before the leave ends, namely, the substitute notary as temporary acting notary has expired. the regional supervisory council, then within a period of no later than 14 (fourteen) days from the end of the temporary notary ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 official's term of office, is required to appoint a notary as the recipient of the notary's protocol. substitute notary as temporary acting notary public prepares and tidies up all protocols and their places/cupboards as intended in the explanation of article 62 uujn-p. based on article 35 paragraph (4) uujn-p that "a substitute notary as a temporary acting notary has a period for submitting the notary protocol and the substitute notary is no later than 60 days from the notary's death", but in practice this often does not comply with the time limit given due to several factors, one of which is because the number of minutes of the deed is so large, there are still some that have not been bound, there is a lack of signatures from witnesses. 4.2. suggestion based on several conclusions, several recommendations can be given, including the following: a. to ensure legal certainty for the substitute notary public, there should be a reinauguration as a temporary acting notary public. there are different points of view regarding whether or not it is necessary to appoint a substitute notary as a temporary acting notary. according to the view from the academic side, a substitute notary as a temporary acting 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(2022). acquisition of land ownership rights through the auction process. journal of legal preference 3, 551-56. riyanto, a. (2017). responsibilities of notaries in making subrogation agreements with guarantee of land rights in batam city. journal of light of justice 5, 1. sari, i. (2017). land rights in the land law system in indonesia according to the basic agrarian law (uupa). management partners journal 9, 15-33. setyaningsih. (2018). the role of notaries in making deeds of granting mortgage rights (apht) for credit agreements between creditors and debtors with mortgage guarantee in purwokerto. journal of master of notary acts, faculty of law, missoula, 190. s. s., & amalia, r. a. (2021). study of default in contractual relationships. jatiswara 36, 126. santoso, urip, 2016, official land deed maker. jakarta: prenadamedia group sibuea , & romauli, m. a. (2023). notary's civil liability for the deed of sale and purchase agreement which is defective in comparison. journal of legal voices 4, 137-59. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 sinaga, henry, 2018, agrarian law in theory and practice (compilation of writings about the miscarriages of regulation in indonesia), bandung: pt citra aditya bakti supriyanto, e. (2018). study of cessie, subrogation, novation in banking credit. yure humano 2, 70-95. t. a., y. m., & b. a. (2019). legal certainty concerning unregistered mortgage objects that are used as collateral. ocean justice law journal 14, 235-51. takalamingan, h. f., saerang, d., & m. k. 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(2018). legal protection for substitute notaries. legal panorama journal, 105-24. wibawa, kadekcahyasusila, 2019, measuring the authority and responsibilities of land deed making officials (ppat) from the bevoegdheid bestuurs perspective. crepido journal, vol 01, no. 01 wiriya adhy utama, ghansham anand, june 2018, legal protection for substitute notaries in summons related to judicial interests, legal panorama journal, vol. 3 no. 1 yoga satria nugroho, 2018, implementation of transfer of title certificates in land buying and selling (case study of notary office in surakarta), journal of science, faculty of law, muhammadiyah university of surakarta ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || abstract social media plays an important role among the masses and students all over the world. in this study, an important objective is to explore the impact of social media on english language learners. the study examines the available social networking sites such as facebook, twitter, youtubeand blogs. teachers of languages stay connected with their colleagues around the world and update about their work through social media tools. the sudden advent of the internet and the rise of social networking have changed the way we communicate. due to technology, a more systematic expansion of language learning has become possible. this has a significant impact on the motivation of students given the opportunity to explore technological advances. it is important that teachers stay abreast of technological developments and recognize the need to leverage and develop technology to engage learners and improve their english skills. teachers are now adhering to innovative practices in the teaching and learning process, transforming their role into 'facilitators'. the teacher's role requires encouraging more group assignments and a stress-free learning environment. so far, social media has had a far-reaching impact on how people communicate in english. due to the changing nature of communication on social networking platforms, we see many changes in the way people write and speak english. one of the biggest impacts of social media on spoken and written english is vocabulary acquisition. another notable impact of social media is the introduction of new vocabulary to english communication. social media plays a major role in learning english as it provides learners with opportunities to improve their writing and reading as well as reading new texts and phrases to improve their vocabulary. keywordsimpact, technology, adhere, innovative, facilitators, leverage introduction social media is "a group of internet-based applications that build on the theoretical and technological foundations of web 2.0 and allow the creation and exchange of user generated content. according to the definition, social media is frequently viewed as an all-encompassing phrase with numerous sub-genres. kaplan and haenlein define six distinct categories of social media, including blogs (e.g. wordpress), social networking sites (e.g., facebook, myspace), virtual game worlds (e.g., world of warcraft), virtual social worlds (e.g., second life), content communities (e.g., youtube), and collaborative projects (e.g., wikipedia). social media have impacted the lives of educators and learners in recent years. it is because of the multiple ways they enable communication, including blogs, social networks (facebook), microblogs (twitter), wikis (wikipedia), video podcasts, and photo-sharing apps (instagram and snapchat). ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 social media impact in english language learning dr. md salman husain assistant professor department of management management education and research institute new delhi e-mail: salman.husain@meri.edu.in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || applications like facebook, twitter, youtube, and whatsapp have significantly increased social engagement and information sharing in communities of both students and teachers. the human desire for exploration, limitless connection, and the free exchange of ideas and opinions with other users who share similar interests may be the driving force behind this expansion. users of social media platforms can communicate, express themselves, and transcend national boundaries via these platforms (thorne, 2010). it has been progressively influencing how people live their lives from a variety of perspectives, including communication, knowledge sharing, business, and education (bhatti, 2018; bhatti, bano, & rehman, 2019). researchers and academics from different fields are becoming more and more involved with the various web-based social networking sites and other connected stages (bhatti, shaheen, akram, & rehman, 2020). the impact of social media on second language learning and acquisition has been seen by language specialists and teachers in particular. according to recent research, social media websites projected better test scores for english proficiency than the group that received training on an eye-to-eye basis (wamba, 2016). information and communication technology (ict) use for the teaching-learning process has increased over the past ten years, and this is also true of language acquisition. ict has made it possible for those learning english as a second language to collaborate with native english speakers via online platforms like facebook, instagram, and video calling apps like skype and whatsapp, which are among the most widely used ict tools. ict is actually a subset of internet media and came into being as a result of innovation. additionally, it functions like a collection of tools that let people connect with one another.due to its development, most people and learners around the world use web-based media. college students typically use online media in a variety of situations during their daily lives. the integration of technology into the english classroom has completely changed the teaching and learning process. with new technology trends, teachers are using and integrating technology to help students learn languages more effectively. traditional classroom teaching can be replaced with social media networking sites. it offers many creative and practical ideas for creating a learning environment for teachers and students. the internet has been one of the most important influences on the english language in recent years, as it not only repurposes existing vocabulary, but also breathes life into a wealth of new words and phrases. alongside various web-based technologies, social networks have dramatically dominated human life for nearly a decade. social media is a rich platformfor experimenting and creating new words, it gives people the freedom to be innovative and creative, rebelling against traditional english conventions, unfettered by grammatical rules and syntax. social networks are the most effective means of communication due to their userfriendly and easily accessible features. social media such as facebook, chatroom, twitter, skype, we chat and other sites keep you up to date with friends and latest events around the world. the way we communicate has changed dramatically, and social media has spawned many new words. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || literature review various studies have examined the availability of social media and the new horizons it opens up, especially for young people (lin et al., 2016). of these media, twitter is used for microblogging, facebook and linkedin are used for social networking, and wikipedia focuses on the creation of collaborative knowledge, while youtube and flickr are used to share visual materials (balakrishnan & lay, 2016). according to lin et al. (2016), social media such as facebook, twitter, and youtube not only offer users the opportunity to generate information, but also to share it with others around the world. web-based media have changed the way people share and interact with others. paul et al. [31] recommended that online informal organizations could be seen as responsive to educational innovation if more academic staff understood how to link them to the curriculum. allam and elyas have shown that the majority of academic communities firmly supported the academic benefits and advantages of using internet media as a tool for learning english as a second language, but they also created rules that had to be followed in the classroom. according to a research by jurkovic, slovenian students prefer to use english-language resources online to improve their acceptant skills to effective abilities. additionally, several other countries have also researched the use of online media in the teaching-learning of english as a foreign tongue. sakkir et al. conducted research on how college and university students made decisions about using internet media to study english. according to the survey, the majority of the students had inspiring personalities and a desire to use online resources in their writing sessions. in any case, there are a few concerns that might prevent students from using online media, such as an excessive number of classes, a lack of preparation for using the internet, and inadequate facilities.. independent learners can also benefit from social media, as they tend to rely on themselves to get information when they have access to it, such as facebook and youtube. according to umrani-khan and iyer (2009; quoted from balakrishnan and lay, 2016), such learners tend to prefer independent study, independent work, or special projects based on their interests. additionally, the utility and pervasiveness of social media gives you the power to make your own decisions about your study plans. collaborating students are generally extroverts, so anonymity is not important to them. facebook, twitter, and youtube can therefore facilitate collaboration and information sharing by providing a platform for discussion. such websites can therefore be successfully used to enhance collaborative learning. role of social media in enhancing language skills language learning today takes many forms, including email exchanges, chat lines, online projects, and webinars. people all over the world use social networks such as facebook, twitter, whats-app, blogs, web chat and skype to communicate. apart from this, many of them find these websites helpful in developing his/her lsrw skills. you can also offer specific homework assignments on social media. for example, you can ask students to write replies to related online posts. you can also actively use messaging apps like whatsapp and set up social media forums on platforms like facebook to help students practice their language skills online. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || facebook facebook is a highly interactive virtual social communication tool that is growing in popularity on campus. studies show that facebook can be an effective platform for informal learning. facebook is a well-known social networking site launched in the united states in february 2004, and in recent years has become very popular all over the world. many students use facebook, a social networking service, in their daily lives. moderators can use it to share course resources, conduct discussions, foster collaboration, improve student relationships, and integrate various learning tools such as videos, pictures, discussion boards, chat, and private messages. according to facebook newsroom, it has more than 829 million daily users, which makes it possible to stay in touch with people otherwise unreachable, and connects users to more and more people. we are now able to connect more closely. we share common interests and backgrounds, building a social network far beyond anything we could have imagined. so the impact these social media sites and platforms have on our language is a real phenomenon. it transformed our vocabulary, increased the number and speed of our daily communications, and gave us a new sense of responsibility to stay connected to the world at large. twitter twitter is one of the most popular micro blogging applications that allow users to share ideas and information through short texts. twitter is used not only for general communication, but also for various occupations. twitter can be used in classrooms between students and teachers, students and students, and teachers and teachers. it can be used between participants in a class, institution, or geographic area. it is considered one of the best educational and learning activities. the use of twitter has expanded the practice of discussion beyond the classroom. twitter has a limit of 140 characters. students learn to write and read in short sentences. this will help for practicing writing and reading skills on a regular basis. using twitter every day keeps students learning new words and trends. twitter also serves as a backdoor discussion tool. some students ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journa ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index tend to be introverted and shy in class, but are outspoken online. moreover, due to time constraints, not all students are given the opportunity to present their ideas in the classroom. in this situation, twitter is the best way to deal with this issue. twitter can be used to improve your listening, speaki listening •this ability can many tweeted can listen to specific from teachers speaking •speaking skills assigned to students from helpful for students language reading •students can twitter. the theory have different students are better at verbal explanations writing •writing can also be developed through twitter. for this, reading and writing can be integrated. as the students are asked to read written texts and write a similar sort of text and post it. international journal of social science and humanities resea dr. md salman husain https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november tend to be introverted and shy in class, but are outspoken online. moreover, due to time constraints, not all students are given the opportunity to present their ideas in the classroom. in this situation, twitter is to deal with this issue. twitter can be used to improve your listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. can also be incorporated into writing and speaking tweeted videos or audio texts available for this activity specific texts and write summaries. you can then teachers and other students. skills can be improved through twitter. many activities students. students can also interact with english from other countries using live tweets during class. this students with support needs and helps them improve can develop reading habits and practice their reading theory of multiple intelligences suggests that different different intelligences and unique learning abilities. for example, better at learning through illustrations, while others explanations. writing can also be developed through twitter. for this, reading and writing can be integrated. as the students are asked to read written texts and write a similar sort of text and post it. and humanities research dr. md salman husain* november, 2023 || tend to be introverted and shy in class, but are outspoken online. moreover, due to time constraints, not all students are given the opportunity to present their ideas in the classroom. in this situation, twitter is speaking. there are and students get feedback activities can be english-speaking this is especially improve their reading skills on different learners example, some others are better writing can also be developed through twitter. for this, reading and writing can be integrated. as the students are asked to read written texts and write a ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || youtube it is one of the most popular websites and a rich resource for educational content. a teacher can create his/her youtube account and ask each student to record a video blog about his/her hobbies, thoughts and opinions on new stories. a good video can enhance the lesson even more. a visual and fun way to convey the topic you are teaching breaks the monotony of the lecture brings fun to the lesson and keeps students more focused on the topic. to display videos in your classroom, simply search the site to see what videos are already published on the topic you are teaching. some students learn better by watching than by reading, so providing videos instead of reading homework can be very valuable for some students. simply create a playlist as a complement or alternative to other assigned assignments and send the link for students to view. you can record lectures and save them for later viewing. youtube could be the place where we store and share all the lectures we record. blog the word "blog" is a shortened version of "weblog" and is a platform for discussion, exchange, expression of ideas and thoughts on various topics, promotion and expansion of business, etc. the demand for blogs is increasing. it is the most important communication medium and a potential tool for developing creativity. blogs are effective in facilitating language learning by expressing and discussing ideas. blogging also gives learners the satisfaction of uploading their own posts and receiving comments and feedback from peers and teachers. blogs allow learners to express their thoughts and feelings at their own pace and time, and also aid in content creation. content is the only element that grabs the reader's attention. blogs can effectively facilitate language teaching and learning, especially considering the complexity of the language, grammatical correctness, and language proficiency of the learner. blogs also help with clear and concise writing, editing, and proofreading. it also gives insight into the nuances of writing. blogging not only allows us to share our feelings and opinions, but it also opens up avenues for diverse learning. for example, if a learner wants to blog about a topic close to their heart, from sports to lifestyle, they will look up and try to use the correct vocabulary. when learners are encouraged to write for a specific purpose, they find themselves speaking the language fluently and are seen as a potential tool for developing language skills. blogs can also be designed to provide lesson notes, study guidelines, learning materials, and interactive exercises. it also enables forum discussions not only between students but also between students and teachers. blogs can also be used as a tool to enable students to write engaging and inspiring writing on any topic. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || social media as language skills development tools in response to the prevalence of social media, researchers in language teaching and learning are studying how social media facilitates language teaching in relation to different language skills. in particular, it is worth noting that many studies have explored the potential assistive functions of social media in various aspects of writing and reading. in the field of writing, previous research on the development of writing skills with social media use has empirically focused on writing fluency, writing quality, and writing selfefficacy. studies investigating how social media affects language proficiency in language learners are still lacking, but there is a growing body of research using different learning methods. in particular, most of them explore the educational benefits of social media as a forum for output. similarly, listening for listening skill development is considered difficult to learn, especially in the efl context. several studies have therefore attempted to examine whether social media can help promote listening motivation and develop listening skills. social media as intercultural communication platforms to understand language acquisition, hymes proposes the concept of communicative competence, arguing that alongside the rules of language, it is equally important to understand the rules of proper use of language. in other words, language learners need to know when, to whom, and how to say what. in order to improve learners' communication skills, it is essential to develop social language skills and select appropriate language formats according to the situation. in fact, from an ethnographic perspective, each language community has its own culturally and historically constructed rules of speech. proper use of the language requires learners to be familiar with the social norms of the target language. because social media is so important, several studies have investigated the role of social media in facilitating the social pragmatic development of language learners from different perspectives. conclusion this study represents an attempt to summarize the potential impact of social media on language learning based on two main perspectives: social media as a platform for developing language skills and social media as a platform for cross-cultural communication. the empirical studies discussed above suggest that social media effectively and efficiently facilitates the language learning process. the study argues that technology is neutral in nature. to take full advantage of social media, both educators and learners need to be aware of how they behave and use technology on social media. the increasing advances in information technology during this period have a profound impact on all aspects of life. due to immense growth of social media, learning is now accessible to everyone. social media plays a key role in motivating learners to explore technological advances and turn them into exploring new avenues. so social media has definitely changed the way we speak and write english. reference [1] kaplan,a.m.,&haenlein,m.(2010).usersoftheworld, unite! the challenges and opportunities ofsocialmedia.businesshorizons, 53(1),59-68. [2] thorne, s. l. (2010). the intercultural turn and language learning in the crucible of new media. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. md salman husain* https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index volume 06 || issue 11 || november, 2023 || in f. helm & s.guth(eds.),telecollaboration2.0forlanguageandinterculturallearning(pp.139164).bern:peterlang. [3] bhatti, a., bano, t., & rehman, s.-u.-. (2019). social media and consumer satisfaction effect on consumerpurchase intention with the moderating role of trust international journal of business management, 4(2),131-141. [4] wamba,s.f.&carter,l.(2016).socialmediatoolsadoptionandusebysmes:anempiricalstud y.insocialmediaandnetworking:concepts, methodologies, tools,andapplications. [5] balakrishnan, v., & lay, g. (2016). student’s learning style and their effects on the use of social mediatechnologyforlearning.telematicsandinformatics,33,808821.doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.12.004 [6] m. allam and t. elyas, “perceptions of using social media asanelttoolamongeflteachersinthesaudicontext,”englishlanguageteaching,vol.9,no.7,pp.1–9,2016. [7] v. jurkovic, “online informal learning of english throughsmartphones in slovenia,”system, vol.80, 2019. [8] g.sakkir,“interestandwritingskilloftheuniversitystudentson using social media-facebook in writing class,” asian efljournal,vol.20,pp.41–50,2018. [9] balakrishnan, v., & lay, g. (2016). student’s learning style and their effects on the use of social mediatechnologyforlearning.telematicsandinformatics,33,808821.doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.12.004 [10] hymes, d. (1972). on communicative competence.in j. b. pride & j. holmes (eds.), sociolinguistics:selected readings (pp.269–293).penguin. [11] umrani-khan, f., & iyer, s. (2009). elam: a model for acceptance and use of e-learning by teachers andstudents. in proceedings of the international conference one-learning(pp.475-485). mumbai,india:institute oftechnologybombay [12] www.iallt.org/iallt_journal/thechangingroleoftheteacher [13] www.educationalappstore.com [14] https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/blogging-elt [15] https://www.academia.edu/37949235/the_influence_of_social_media_on_efl_learning_a_case_stu dy_of_kurdistan_universities [16] https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=80205 [17] https://esllibrary.com/blog/12-ways-to-use-twitter-with-language-learners [18] gibson,a.(2016).engagingstudentsintolifelonglearningusingsocialmedia. [19] https://www.academia.edu/36098090/variety_explored_the_use_of_english_language_by_the_ people_at_social_media [20] https://www.google.com/search?q=facebook+image&rlz [21] https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=c3a32151f5b6af58&rlz [22] https://www.google.com/search?q=youtube+image [23] https://www.google.com/search?q=blogger+image ijo journals volume 06 | issue 11 | november 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 http://www.iallt.org/iallt_journal/the http://www.educationalappstore.com/ https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/blogging-elt https://www.academia.edu/37949235/the_influence_of_social_media_on_efl_learning_a_case_study_of_kurdistan_universities https://www.academia.edu/37949235/the_influence_of_social_media_on_efl_learning_a_case_study_of_kurdistan_universities https://www.academia.edu/37949235/the_influence_of_social_media_on_efl_learning_a_case_study_of_kurdistan_universities https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=80205 https://esllibrary.com/blog/12-ways-to-use-twitter-with-language-learners https://www.academia.edu/36098090/variety_explored_the_use_of_english_language_by_the_people_at_social_media https://www.academia.edu/36098090/variety_explored_the_use_of_english_language_by_the_people_at_social_media https://www.academia.edu/36098090/variety_explored_the_use_of_english_language_by_the_people_at_social_media https://www.google.com/search?q=facebook+image&rlz https://www.google.com/search?q=youtube+image https://www.google.com/search?q=blogger+image imperatives for good governance and democratic rule in the nigerian fourth republic. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 mustapha ayodele haruna, ph.d. department of social sciences, rufus giwa polytechnics, owo, ondo state,nigeria. akinrolabu dare raphael department of public administration, rufus giwa polytechnic, owo ondo state. introduction contemporary ideas of democratic rule were designed majorly by nations and institutions across the world which aim to define the limits of public power and the relationship between the rulers and the ruled (kuna, 2005:26). the task of consolidating democratic rule is deepening, and sustaining it against the flow of instability in nigeria requires change or restructuring of both democratic institutions and attitudinal behaviours (umar, 2002:120). the general acceptance of democracy (democratic rule) as the preferred form of good governance is incontestable. this is based on the participatory advantage democracy affords the people in the selection and election of their leaders and representatives. they guaranteed some recipes for good governance and the fundamental human rights of all abiding citizens (oke, 2010:32) though democracy has a long tradition, the notions regarding its essence and grounds of its justification have been revised over time. nevertheless, bryce (1921) cited in gauba (2003) finds the justification for democracy in the concept of relativity, by comparing its advantages and disadvantages with other forms of government, which is the welfare of the people (gauba, 2003:423). corresponding email:dareakin2014@gmail.com in nigeria, sustaining the gains of development through consistent democratic rule and good governance remain huge challenges that have brought the nation into a coma ( ozohu – sulaiman, 2016:81). the contradictions which have arisen from the democratic transition and the stages of democratization have brought about much inquiry of the importance in the existing models and institutions of democracy to the reality of contemporary african sociopolitical developments (jega, 2005:2). according to ozohu – sulaiman (2016) that: the third wave of democratization of the late 1980s has ignited an irreversibleprocess of profound social transformation in africa. hitherto, described as a continent of mindless and despotic political leadership, the current socio-political realities of africa suggest that authoritarian rule can no longer be tolerated (ozohu – sulaiman, 2016:80) democracy (democratic rule) means a representative form of government with a participatory decision–making system (being collective), accountability, transparency, and the guarantee of human and civil rights entrenchment if observed adequately. it is a consensual system as its legitimacy emerges from an acceptance of the fairness and transparency of its processes for elections into democratic institutions and the policy-making circle (agagu, 2011:74) the issue of democracy and its institutions as indicators of good governance and development in any nation are so vital and makes for continuous reform in the electoral system in any country very imperative (gberevbie, 2014:148). imperatives for good governance and democratic rule are incentives by which democracy becomes more broadly and profoundly legitimize before the people and they however are likely to break down or collapse its structures. they normalize the expansion of citizens’ access, development of democratic citizenship culture, broadening of leadership entries, training, and other civil society functions (ojo, 2006:8). nigeria runs a democratic system of government that is expected to promote all democratic values including fiscal discipline, due process, freedom for mass media, civil societies amongst others (odo, 2015:7). according to umar (2009): ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 democratic consolidation (rule) is not just about how democratic institutions, structures, and procedures are established and nurtured. it is as well and perhaps, more importantly, about how these democratic values and processes get embedded in the psyche of individuals or groups in society (umar, 2009: 18; umar, 2009:19) in 2004, the united nations general assembly adopted a resolution that, figures out the essential elements of democracy, which include:  separation and balance of powers;  independence of the judiciary;  a pluralistic system of political parties and organizations;  respect for the rule of law  accountability and transparency  free, independent, and pluralistic media  respect for human and political rights (meyer – resende, 2007:2) democracy can therefore not be attained without a system of democratic rule which divides power among three co-equal branches, each with certain prerogatives of power, and where the functions of the courts are to channel power–related conflicts through legal processes which use agreed legal reasoning to interpret and apply pre-existing law (bassiouni, 1998:4) conceptualising good governance and democratic rule. there are enormous pieces of literature on the concepts of good governance and democratic rule offered by theorists, writers policymakers, and analysts of both concepts to their understanding. to ogundiya (2010), good governance can be analyzed as the process that is employed to achieve the noble end of the state. this simply means the art of governing a people within a given territory or a state. it consists of two essential elements of the state and the procedures of the legislative, judicial, and executive and administrative bodies at all the tiers of government (ogundiya, 2010:203). in a similar view, arowolo & aluko (2012) noted that: ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 good governance includes the capacity to formulate and implement sound policies and the respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interaction. it has been closely linked to the extent to which a government is perceived and accepted as legitimate, committed to improving the public welfare and responsive to the needs of its citizens, competent to assure law and order and deliver public services, able to create an enabling policy environment for productive activities and equitable in its conducts (arowolo & aluko, 2012:798) corresponding to the above assertions, asobie (2012) noted that: government is the process of organizing and mobilizing people and resources to achieve a common goal. it is the process of motivating and enrolling people to participate actively in dreaming dreams and seeing the vision of a people's future and then encouraging them to own the vision and use their energies, resources, and contacts to work cooperatively together to realise the visions, dreams, and possibilities… there is good governance that embodies certain standard principles; transparency, accountability, civic participation, achievement of results, and impact (asobie, 2012:7) ladan (2002) noted that good governance is the responsible use of political authority to manage a nation’s affairs (ladan, 2002): 141) while saliu (2012) noted that governance is perceived to be a series of public activities which means the making of choices in the public interest for the betterment of a nation. it has to do with democratic institutions or structures mandatory on decisions, participation, coordination, and the service delivery of efficient needs of the people (saliu, 2012:115). it refers to the process of decision-making and the methods whereby decisions are implemented with the following characteristics:  participating – encouraging wide citizens' participation in the decision-making process;  consensus–oriented –attempting to get decisions based on general agreement;  transparent – being open to criticism/questions in decision-making processes;  responsive –listening and responding to the demands of its people;  effective and efficient –providing social services; and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38  equitable and inclusive –not excluding any sectors of the population, most importantly the vulnerable and challenged ones. (pawley & anderlini, 2004:36) to adetoye & omilusi, (2016), good governance is the process whereby public institutions perform general affairs in public dimensions and oversee publicresources, and safeguards the entrenchment of human right in the domain of the rule of law (adetoye & omilusi, 2016:574) while omotoso views it as the use of political powers to manage a nation’s public affairs and to shape its economic and process in line with the public interest (omotosho 2010:146)democratic rule is the practice whereby the ideas of democratic principles are entrenched in manifestation and implementation through people-centered apparatus. they are all based on the wills of the people as they are best suitable for permitting people to have access to governance, freedom, participation, and choice (asaju, 2014:1). to abdullahi (2014), democratic rule is a process to the institutionalization of democracy for the attainment of political and economic development of the country as from transforming an authoritarian system into a democratic type especially in the exercise of civilian administration (abdullahi, 2014:17). according to ozohu-sulaiman (2016) that: …in democratizing societies, the conceptual vehicle that connects the elements of social change is democratic rule and practices which the political leadership must spread across the institutional landscape of governance. democratic (rule) governance would mean building institutions and rule that are not just efficient but also fair, and that are developed through political voice. foremost among these institutions are: an independentbut dependable electoral system to superintend democratic transition, and the institutionalization of an enduring legislative system to provide the legal framework for democratic good governance capacity building and institutional renewal referring to the comprehensive reform of the public service to provide the required institutional support for democratic (rule)… (ozohu – suleiman, 2016:81) lawal & olukayode (2012) noted that democratic rule entails the presence of civilian authorities where political actors and democratic institutions are sustained views of regular elections, freedom of speech, the entrenchment and observance of the rule of law (lawal & ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 olukayode, 2012: 449), while okoroafor (2010) viewed the democratic rule as the type that is rooted in the consent of the citizens in the belief that people have the right to choose and run their government. it connotes rules regarding principles of open, free, and fair elections, the acceptance of majority decisions while respecting minority’s rights as guaranteed by their constitutions (okoroafor, 2010:174; okeke, 2014: 232) democratic rule is the actual exercise of the principles of democracy, its elements and subsidiaries which are needed towards achieving the goal of democratic ideas (adejumobi & kehinde, 2007:98) importance of good governance i. efficient processes – due to their routine repeats in the process and consistency of tasks, it has brought huge attachment to its relevance to the public sector. ii. visibility of errors – the routines of events and the consistency as it quickens and highlights nonconformities in the process. iii. reduction in costs – it eliminates wastages from scrap, rework, and other non-valueadded processes. iv. smooth running process v. financial sustainability vi. clarity vii. reputation viii. culture (parker, 2017:2) rule of law, institutional and democracy dimension – the rule of law principles are ix. properness and human rights, the democracy-related principle is transparency and participation and the modern value-related principles are effectiveness and accountability (addink, 2017:3). elements of democratic rule. i. choice of people – it allows citizens to choose their representatives through periodic elections. the free choice in picking observed from time to time – the popular sovereignty. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ii. participation of people – they engaged in public affairs, jobs, and politics as the bases for democratic rule where preference is usually given to collective rule and participation either through representative or direct democracy. iii. fundamental human rights– democratic rule is a basic ingredient for the observance of human dignity and the preservation of human honours. rights that are inviolable and inseparable should not be suspended. the rights are incorporated in the supreme law of the state. the liberalism of freedom, equality, and dignity of the individual. iv. rule of law – it refers to the strict adherence to the fundamental workings of the law as stipulated in the constitution. the use of constitutions to limit government by law. v. the organs of government – their strict adherence to the principles of separation of powers among the legislature, executive, and judiciary in the discharge of their constitutional roles in the democratic rule as contained in any federal system of government like nigeria (democracy nd :1; nowak, nd : 3) vi. civil society organization in the strengthening of elements of democratic rule as a new approach. the inclusion of civil societies as another sphere of politics is highly relevant and essential for proving knowledge of democratic performance (castano, 2010:3) vii. democratic political institutions – these are institutions designed to ensure the legitimate or popular authorization of public officials, their steady accountability, and responsiveness to the people. this is usually achieved through regular competitive elections and public opinion (beetham, 1998: 24) viii. the emergence of national democratic conscience that is opposed to anti-democratic nationalism in the area of identity politics and minority political rights of decisions (touraine, 1998:93; halperin, 1993:527) ix. investigative agencies – they must inspire great confidence on the view of the people to instill confidence, quality manpower and the absence of taint in the investigations apparatus. as they should not be tools in the hands of the government in power against her opposition outside power. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 x. spineless bureaucracy committed to their own advancement and impartiality, and focus on a robust based economy of merit, arms–length lending capacities to economic freedom (sibal, 2017:3) xi. political tolerance – democratic societies are politically tolerant of democratic rule. as such, majority and minority existence must be upheld to safeguard their identities, cultures, and political expressions (meher, nd:1) xii. sustainable electoral system – it affects the number of political organisations and parties in the democratic country. the more electoral space, the more it accommodates more representations and many political parties emerge (khalil – zadeh, 2016:3). pluralism which democratic rule values finds expression in elections as an ingredient of popular choice (agbu, 2016:4) xiii. media pluralism – it guarantees the citizens’ fundamental rights to freedom of expression and information. media freedom is a veritable tool in any democratic rule (european federation of journalists, 2017:2) xiv. consensus building and social inclusion. they require wide consultations among all stakeholders. the system must cater to all citizens to improve their general well-being (cunningham, 1987:96) nexus between good governance and democratic rule (symmetrical relationship) the arguments center on theconnection between good governance and democratic rule which represent the availability and sustainability of social structures like participation, responsibility transparency, accountability, effective and efficient social services, equitability, and efficient social services, equitability and all-inclusive sectors side of good governance and the provisions of all elements of democratic rule like rule of law, civil society engagement, the fundamental human rights, political pluralism, periodic elections, people’s choices democratic institutions, political tolerance minority and voting rights, separation of power and sustainable electoral reform/systemon the other hand. it stands as the synergy between the state and the wish of the people. to agara & okonkwo (2019), this nexus representsaffirmation that ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 democratic consolidation breeds citizens’ participation, public trust, and confidence which resultsinthe political, social, and economic development of the political system (agara & okonkwo, 2019:3) as such, there is a strong correlation and affinity between good governance and democratic rule. according tolissac (nd) that; a peacefuland productive society is based on effective state institutions. good governance in this sense means effective and efficient structures which provide optimal support to citizens in leading a safe and productive life in line with their desires and opportunities. essentially, this involves a combination of democracy, the social welfare state, and the rule of law. the promotion of good governance goes beyond the government sector and includes all irrelevant actors from the private sector and society. the aim is to balance interests and focus on common goals, particularly reducing poverty and providing access to state services for all to make administrative structures participative, effective, and solution-oriented (lissac, nd: 2). udeh (2017) noted that good governance thrives better where there are democratic rulesand no exceptions.the success of democratic rule is contingent on strong democratic institutions that produce good governance in any system, especially in nigeria (udeh, 2017:148). the conditions for good governance depend on the availability and consolidation of democratic attributes/elements, it entails the respect and protection of fundamental human rights, abiding by the rule of law, running an inclusive governmentof transparent effective, and efficient service delivery with periodic accountability process or platform before the people (gberevbie, 2014:137). the development of effective democratic and public sector institutions are twodimensional components of any politics. it is through an improved level of good governance that the benefits of democratic rule can have direct impacts on the lives of citizens. in a growing ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 world, democratic rule should become more innovative in adapting to new technology and evolving citizens' aspirations and expectations (ndi, nd:1) since accountability cannot beenforced without transparency and the rule of law, accountability is a key instrument of good governance for democratic rule, to the private sector and civil society organisations, as the society’s well-being rests on ensuring that every citizenfeels that they have a stake in the common project. institutional building and the promotion of good governance demand simultaneous commitment to democratic rule (sharma, 2007:33; adeosun, 2012:6) to ogunniya (2010) good governance forms the philosophical foundation upon which democratic rule and its elements are rested. democratic rule dictates who constitutes the legitimacy from the people and wields power in the state and how they are to exercise such while good governance views or upholds harmony with public good as a democratic rule is subject to moral judgments and moral questioning on public interest (ogunniya 2010:205; omotosho, 2008:6) the presence of good governance depends on the suitability and workability of democratic rule in a country. evolution of democratic rule in the nigerian fourth republic notwithstanding the focus and emphasis of this study which is on the fourth republic of nigeria concerning imperatives of good governance and democratic rule, it is also appropriate to x-ray the historical political system of nigeria in the first republic (1960-1966), second republic (19791983) and the third abortive republic (1991-1998). nigeria had one form of political system to another other over the decades (parliamentary/cabinet and presidential systems of government) in our political journey. various political parties emerged in those republics with ethnic and tribal colouration or sentiments. the collapse of those democratic rules could mainly be traceable to the incursion of the military into power as it was the emergent trend in the 1960s – late 1990s in latin america, asia, middle-eastand africa due to the contagious effects of military adventurism then with short or few years of democratic rule but longer years or reign of interrupted military regimes during those periods. the fourth republic has been an exception due to many factors that have kept the military from governance from 1999 to date. the enduring democracy with good governance has metamorphosed into sustainable ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 democracy through its dividends to the people through the key implementation of sustainable development goals, ingredients of good governance, and the observance of elements of democratic rule, the democracy has now been consolidated, however, with some challenges inherent in social and political change and civilization for human and state developments. aluaigba(2009) noted that the demise of the first, second, and third abortiverepublicswas majorly due to substantial attempts by the political class to prevent their opponents from meaningful political participation on one side, and the refusal of the military to give nigerian a model of freedom of choice of government, democratic taste and consolidation of the existing civilian government to survive and grow (aluaigba, 2009:56) democratic rule in the nigerian fourth republic according to nyewusira & nweke (2012) that; in appraising democratization in nigeria, it is imperative to examine the structural conditions catalyzing or limiting the phenomenon. it is an incontrovertible fact that the military played the role of architects and building blocks of the fourth republic. the military government of general abdulsalami abubakar promulgated decree no. 24, 1999 known as the 1999 constitution. this decree was published less than one month after the inauguration of the civilian government on 29th may. the implication was that the transition from military to civil rule was not based on any democratic constitution (nyewusira & nweke, 2012:4. the above quote implies that the military midwived democracy reluctantly and dio it in a militarized manner. the fourth democratic rule culminated in the nation’s political landscape which started amidst expectations and hope. it has witnessed six (6) general elections: 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, and 2019) with many mixed feelings, and marked with controversies related to electoral violence, political instability,etc. (yagboyaju, 2011:93) it is generally expected that such elections to enhance good governance with the ultimate goal of ensuring the legitimacy of the people and the welfare of nigerians (agbu, 2016:6). despite the stability in the nation and the system, the citizens, are working under severe stains and stresses to ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 adequately and effectively democratize good governance and political participation but being dissected by greed, godfatherism corruption electoral malpractices and other variables (omotoso & kehinde, 2016:14) elections play vital roles in deepening democratic rule as they enable the governed to decide who governs them. credible elections remain a critical indicator of democratic consolidation, peaceful power change and the rule engagement of a multi-party system are all hallmarks in the fourth republic (osaghe, & adamu, nd:50). theoretical framework the study adopted a pluralist theory of democracy as its theoretical framework. the theory believes in the system of political participation of citizens and parties. it recognizes the existence of varied interests of the people and their groups formed for the sake of protesting and promoting their interests as all groups are allowed to take part in the political process. it is a theory in which political power is fragmented among the branches of government, sharing powers between states and a multitude of private and individuals. it ensures more politicization of the people in all spheresand more politicization of the people in all spheres of life under mass participation in political decisions (jahari, 2009:392). it represents a social system that provides for the co-existence of a variety of social customs, cultural traits, and others as they participate in the political process under uniform democratic institutions. attempts to maintain stability and peace in conflict-ridden societies as it emphasizes power, interests of state, leadership, and political culture (gauba, 2003: 265; cunningham, 2002:82) proponents writers, and theorists of the theory include james madison, robert dahl, charles lindblom, david truman, seymour martins lepset, arthur betley, james burnham, h. d. lasswell, harry eckstein, s.t. beer, myron weiner, earl ltham, and others. they agreed in their philosophical thoughts that in the political system, policies are made by mutual consultation and exchange of opinions between variousgroups. the sovereign power of the state should be distributed in a way that the various constituent groups have a share in it. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 the linkage of the theory to the study lies in the fact that good governance and its output are to be derived from the democratic rule where pluralism variations in interests and multidimensional decisions can flourish and hold sway. that is, citizens have varied interests in the state project. the theory however suffers some defects like: i. it undermines the sovereign position of the state by laying much emphasis on social groups, as it ignores the importance of statehood. ii. despite the theory being masses oriented, the elites still have their ways as political leaders and stakeholders in the scheme of things. iii. critics point out that the pluralist theory of democracy only focuses on the decisionmaking process. it overlooks those issues on which no decision could be taken though might be crucial. iv. it doesn’t guarantee internal democracy amongst the various interest or social groups. imperatives of good governance and democratic rule  genuine democracy should be divided and consolidated across the politicalbased on the rule of law and citizens oriented electoral system.  issue-based governance where the attributes and characteristics of it are entrenched accountability and transparency.  focused leadership – political leadership of the political system should ensure dividends of democracy are delivered to the people in terms of the provision of social infrastructures with visionary value.  proper utilisation of human and natural resources for the good of all should be advocated by all well-meaning citizens throughfar-reaching economic policies drive.  government providing enabling polities environment for credible elections to earn a national and international image of good reputation.  imperative that promotes constitutionalism.  imperative for sustainable development that will enhance socio, political and economic investment. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47  imperative of the cooperation of arms of government in a democratic dispensation. it is to be focused on collaborative efforts within their constitutional responsibilities to formulate and implement effective governance laws and policies.  tackling corruption as it remains a big stumbling block to good governance and democratic ride. from party finance, and vote buying to political corruption of the electoral system need to be tackled appropriately.  tackling poverty remains a serious problem for any system. it affects one fundamental human right as one’s vote is being bought over on account of what to eat, and drink” by desperate politicians and political parties.  availability and sustenance of basic democratic institutions, the tendencies in institutions building and strengthening internal democracy  reconstituting and reforming the military. there was a clear consensus that if the constitution is not to live under constant threat then, the capacity of the military to seize power at will had to be removed so as not to endanger the early sustenance of democracy. the military must learn how to be structured under democratic rule.  imperative in decentralization and devolution of powers. this will allow the various leaders of thoughts, opinions, and interest groups in greater public participation in governance and public affair.  imperative of federalism as the best mode of representation based on something more than territorial constituencies.  imperative for civil society organisations to play a vital role in democratic purposes and consolidation of good governance. they are to havea positive impact on governance as they will have the capacity to act as watchdogs to ensure that democratic rule is effective and serves the needs of the public (ogunbiyi, 2020:3; kpundeh, 1992:33; mbaku, 2020: mlambo, zubane & mlambo, 2019:5; rossouw, 2019:2 osaghae & adamu, nd; 4; osinbayo, 2018: 11; kolawole, 2013:131; omotoso, 2010:146; omoworere, 2010:6). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 conclusion according to aluaigba (2009) that; to say that the institutionalization and sustenance of democracy in nigeria (fourth republic) are less significant is to underestimate the best pathway to development given the complex political terrainin nigeria as a country exists. the only sure approach to overcoming the myriad of obstacles confronting nigeria’s efforts at advancement is to ensure that democracy finds a permanent abode in the country (aluagba, 2009:75). the study has been able to establish the efficacy of democratic rule when it utilizes the embodiments of good governance by exhibiting accountability, transparency, participation in service delivery, rule of law, separation of powers, efficient and effective services, equitable and inclusive system, etc. the above rest on sustainability and consolidation of democratic rule where it must allow pluralism, the institutionalisation of democratic processes from a multiparty system, independence of electoral agency, periodicelections, equal participation presence of civil society organizations free media political tolerance, to consensus building, and free and fair elections with the citizens’ free choice of who governs them at one point in time to the other. the sustenance of democratic rule through good governance is one of the pathways to democratic consolidation with its imperatives for good governance in the symmetrical order of power to the people. references abdullahi, m. 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(2009) “corruption and its threat to the consolidation of democracy in nigeria” in jega a.m. wakili, h. & zango i.m. (eds) consolidation of democracy in nigeria: challenges and prospects, kano: aminu kano centre for democratic research and training, mambayya, house, bayero university. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 57 visual culture and militarization: a case of kashmiri women bashrat hassan abstract the paper is an attempt to understand the complex intersection between visual culture and militarization. in order to comprehend this interface between these two delicate terrains, the paper would site two cases which occurred in the context of kashmir in recent past. therefore, the paper would take readers through the comparative analysis of two important events premised on the women bodies and their politics. the two important events allow us to see, how kashmiri women are framed in visual culture, and how media apparatuses reinforce patriarchy on kashmiri women. it also attempts to address, how militarization as a dominant phenomenon challenges the theories of visual culture or helps in theorizing the significant aspects of visual culture, and its discursive significance in the context of kashmir. image verses text has remained a heated debate among the advocates of visual culture. to this end, analysis has been done at two levels a) linguistic analysis. b) visual analysis, so that we can locate kashmiri women both in textual and visual discourses. visual culture before switching to how kashmiri women have been represented in visual culture in aforementioned twin cases. let us try to conceptualize, what visual culture stands for? morra and smith (2006) have already put considerable efforts in their four volume book, visual culture studies, to set the boundaries right between visual culture and visual culture studies. j t mitchel (2002) has also been engaged in pioneering work in order to conceptualize the emerging field of inquiry---visual culture. the applicability of visual culture depends upon sense of author, who might use the phrase ‘visual culture’ in myriad ways simultaneously. interestingly, visual culture has attained interdisciplinary status and is becoming ubiquitous, omnipresent, it also reflects “works or artifacts or spaces from any historical period, geographical location, thematic concern or combination of methodological practices”( morra & smith, 2006:10). visual culture encompasses entire domain of inter texuality, where images, sounds, spatial demarcations are “read on to and through one another, lending ever-accruing layers of meanings and of subjective responses to each encounter we might have with film, tv, advertising, art works, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 buildings or urban environments”( irit rogoff, 2006). it is a critical model of thinking about the world of images. from the very beginning, visual culture has aimed at breaking down the disciplinary boundaries about how and what images should analyze (jones, 2002). for william, visual culture offers an antidote to the dominance of texuality linked with structuralism and post structuralism of 1960’s and 1970’s. visual culture relies on sense perception rather than the sphere of linguistic relations (william american art, 1982). “the visual of visual culture presumes a space that exists between the viewed and viewer, a space that is psychological and physiologically necessary for the process of seeing to occur”1 some brilliant work has been done by menzel (1994), sarah pink (2001), harper (1982, 1987, 2001), becker (1986), collier (1967), ruby (2001), prosser (1990), morris (1999), greenfield (2002). also, berger (1932), roland barthes (1980) and walter benjamin (2008) their writings are important source that has furthered the debate on epistemology, methodology, and the diverse materials that could contribute to the field of visual culture. a story that is presented in the form of visual images, as in painting and sculptures, the visual images do not disappear and is unlike the case of sounds (brilliant, 1984). babra stafford writes in her 1996 publication, “i am arguing that we need to disestablish a view of cognition as dominantly and aggressively linguistic. it is narcissistic tribal compulsion to overemphasize the agency of logos (the word) and annihilates rival imaginaries” (richardson, 2004:62). over the last two centuries west has been dominated by visual rather than the oral or textual media. even the printed world has shifted to colored images by the end of twentieth century, in order to appeal readers and give more meaning to its printed items (sturken & cartwright, 2001). visual image or photograph have been pertinent ever since the technological age dawned a great phase of development, which resulted in transmission of message in principal to innumerable recipients and audiences (evans and hall, 1999). the linguistic and discursive discourses have not necessarily been replaced by pictorial or figural representations but rather infringed by them in complicated ways (brenana & jay, mirzoeff, 1999) feminism and visual culture, both, in a way are driven by political concerns and primarily stresses upon cultural forms as vibrant subjective experience. feminism has long accepted the visuality, visuality stands as one of the important specificities in visual culture (jones, 2003) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 nevertheless, women continue to be in a vulnerable position to challenge and alter established patterns of meaning set up though patriarchy and delivered by visual meanings (gaudelius, 1997) women body has always been a site of contestation, so visual culture lays significant emphasis on political and ideological representation as rightly pointed by magenini , “[t]he body is a rich interesting “object” of social use and political theory upon which individual, ethnic and social values are inscribed to enhance ideological needs. women images produce at various social sites, aim at selling the dominant ideology and normalizing them with identity markers. the politics on the representation of the female body have been, and are still, polemical and a complicated subject to tackle in visual culture” (pro`sobopha, 2006:116) .women, although, are represented in visual culture, but their subjectivity, knowledge, experience and contribution are excluded from the male dominated art history (carson fona, claire, et.al, 2002). the ideological and social spaces related to feminity, female sexuality could not be directly accepted. women artists who had privilege to question the gaze of flaneur, could not because of non – recognition of their work (pollock, 1999) 1. linguistic analysis: a) pragaash in 2013, indian media went frenzy. pragaash, a small three member all-women musical band, decided to stop performing, largely reasoned on the pretext of fatwa issued by the grand mufti (a self-styled controversial religious leader). indian media portrayed a different picture of this altogether, reducing the resistance movement of kashmir as atoned with patriarchal, sexist and misogynistic colors. media depicts women as recipients of pain and suffering, reinforced by hegemonic forces(men) and render them agent less (chety, 2004) the event which was organized by central reserve police force, that is one of the primary contingent of army responsible for besiege of kashmiri population. that way, it was a militarized event that was largely contested by the people, if at all it was contested by the people of kashmir at first place. otherwise, it appears both the fatwa and then the furious condemnation from indian media worked in favor of indian state, and emerged as intelligible tactics employed to use media power against the people of kashmir and more particularly, brought havoc on teenagers. it was a case of particular dispositions and predilections, that is what could be called in the bourdieuian language as doubly determined (sonderling, 1990) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 the kind of linguistic discourse generated by the india media reflects the ideology of the owners of the modes of production and the systematic way in which media was organized to use culture as a site of power against the less powerful and the represented one. it is about altering the balance of power in the relation of culture, it is about changing the dispositions and configurations of cultural power, not getting out of it .as such nothing really changes, it is the system which always remain (hall, 1993). the mainstream indian media vociferously highlighted the fatwa threat and lead to the unprecedented sensationalism. fatwa against kashmir's all-girl, pragaash band leaves music dead, innocent girls muzzled, girls swears to fatwa etc2. the all-women musical band received various death threats, followed by number of abusive comments by the online facebook users. latter the fatwa issued by the religious leader, warranted the threat against the three teenage girls. but what was not bought into the recurrent discourse was the grounded understanding of the dynamics of the fatwa and legitimacy of the grand mufti. the credibility of those facebook users and the authencity of their comments in the light of the fact, that technology could be easily manipulated. technology could be used to lie about the social world we live and connect with. nor there was emphasis on the fact that why certain civil organizations question the legality of grand mufti even within the territorium of kashmir. (india today, 2013) thus the whole event was reduced to few selected words and chosen phrases. words are powerful in literature society (verner, ruby, 1988) and not a-political in nature. such a language metaphorically refers to disciplinary actions to secure the rights of the vulnerable groups and thus paves way for more militarization. metaphors function to highlight shade or obfuscate certain aspects of reality at the expense of others, enabling us to “see” reality in different ways (hook, 1984). although, people from different quarters of life and even some women organizations condemned the way fatwa was overloaded with anti-kashmir and anti –freedom overtures. it aids media to paint the general public as obstructionist and religious jingoists. but such condemnation was deeply invisible in the state narratives constructed by different media organizations and liberal indian intellectuals. what is significant are the political questions who are permitted to speak about what, which collide with intellectuals stands that serve for us all possibility of engaging with text and images and other responses and frameworks, which help in production of territorialized knowledge (ragoff, 1966). 2 as reported by various newspapers like the hindu, times of india, hindustan times etcetra ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 a narrativization of this nature condenses the images of kashmir, invigorated in the form of fatwa, as an intolerant, primitive and non-secular society governed by religious diktats, where woman is ‘an occupied territory’3 of their malemembers. what was completely missing within such rubric descriptions, was the fact how indian media which itself is patriarchal and an apt example of masculine order, could auspice for demystifying the patriarchal structures of kashmir society. mass media is men controlled and attempts to perpetuate social and economic status quo. it controls image production to discredit and influence public opinion against any progressive feminine change. (tuchman, daniel, et al., 1978) the power of the masculine order lies in the fact that it operates with proper justification. the misogynistic vision is woven by the state itself, although it projects itself neutral and don not attempt to identify out in the discourse aimed at legitimating it. the social order works as an imperative ‘symbolic machine’ trying to ratify masculine domination on which it is placed (bourdeiu, 2001). in this paper, i am not supporting the argument that there is no patriarchy in the kashmir society; nowhere am i trying to endorse such a viewpoint. but what i am tying to engage is, how indian media as the producers of those visual images is actually promoting layers of patriarchy through its formulation and depiction of social relationships within the arch of those mediated images. in majority of the commentaries devoted towards gender issues in kashmir, visual images have been subsequently conflated into the patriarchal frameworks of their own men folk. there has been no emphasis on the fact that how visual images of kashmiri women actually emerge from misogynistic lens of indian media, as such they have been problematically portrayed by indian media and producing a commodified vision and version of kashmir through the consistently demonic images of kashmiri people. these images serve a particular ideological perspective, one that is heavily borrowed from ‘colonized discourses’. misrepresentation of such nature contaminates human memories in a huge way. as mckittrick(2006) also states that women bodies are often seen as ungeographic bereft of spatial knowledge and memories b) shopian : double murder and rape case. the massive medialization witnessed in the light of pragaash, was aiming to conceal a more colossal event ---------the shopian double murder and rape case. in may, 2009, asiya and neloofar, sister in laws were found dead in the ankle deep water of rambi ara (one of the 3 as cited by sharoni, simona in her one of the articles ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 tributary of the river jhelum) shakeel, brother of asiya, married to neelofar. asiya and neelofar went missing after they had gone to their orchard and the way to orchard remains thickly militarized. shakeel searched for asiya and neelofar from 6pm to 2:30 am morning. (iwij, 2009). latter at around 6 in the morning shakeel with the help of police recovered the mutilated and dead bodies in the stream. the spot he had searched multiple times, only couple of hours back. the doctor who confirmed the rape was suspended and partial commission was set up which came with a forged report after being heavily meddled by the local police officers(icjiw) the role played by then chief minister of jammu and kashmir, who is basically pawn in the hands of delhi, was also apprehensive and doubtful. “the disingenuous attempt by state administration led the chief minister omer abdullah to subvert an impartial enquiry into the alleged rape and murder of neelofar and asiya and the subsequent destruction of vital evidence by the state authorities reflects a deep and disturbing lack of public authority in kashmir”(kazi 2009:13. the case was shifted from high court to cbi, which further reduced the possibility of free and fair trail and justice to the double victims. bodies were exhumed only to fabricate the facts. autopsy report was produced to deny the rape and such falsified versions were sustained by the indian newspaper “the autopsy report has revealed that the one of the two rape and murder victims was a virgin. the autopsy of the exhumed bodies revealed that the hymen of the 17-year-old aasiya jan was intact, which rules out the possibility of rape” (www.online.com, 2009). meanwhile, the whole of the kashmir had erupted in massive protests. public had started coming into streets burning indian flags and resorting to stone pelting as a mark of strong dissent against the indian army and government of jammu and kashmir. questions were raised to demand justice and end to the impunity indian army enjoys. draconian laws accentuate this culture of impunity. “militarization operating though the capillaries of powers blurs the boundaries between military and civilian activities and institutions, producing patterns of impunity for state violence. the afspa gives armed forces special power to kill, but it does not give arbitrary power to kill” (duschinki: 2009, 708). further, the new doctor was appointed and latter was forced the change the vaginal swaps, only to hush up the case and combat the public ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 http://www.online.com/ discontentment. majlis-e-mashawarat 4 the local civil body, who organized the peaceful protest were also criminalized by stating their alleged political relations with separatist leaders. while covering both the case, researcher could see a gulf of difference in terms of language, strategy, ideology and frequency both events where accorded by indian media. the pragassh musical band got overwhelming support from different indian media organisations and other governmental, and nongovernmental organisations. newspapers like economic times, tribune, thelka, daily baskar ran series of articles and news items to support the disbanded musical band, while as they were almost invisible with respect to shopian double murder case. the kind of text or the politics of text was quite evident in both the events like ‘alleged murder and rape, likely drowned, in-tact hymen, and no marks to muzzled, talented, islamic threats etc. this kind of texuality is in line with what a careful reading of baudeliar’s easy ‘women and prostitute’,which helps us to archetype that the text is itself construction a notion of women across a broad spectrum of meaning and urban spaces------a space of modernity. further to add, as paul ricoeur notes, that text is aligned to masculine metaphors of strength and objectivity, “writing was given to men to come to the rescue of the weakness of the discourse, a weakness that was of the event……………it is the meaning of the speech event, not the event as event” ( ricoeur :1971, 530-31) 2. women in visual culture a) pragaash incident. much of the attention by the visual media has been paid to the fact that, how such non secular politics would gain authority and remains unquestioned. thus the old tactics of constructing the images of secularism and nationalism are being played though the women bodies. the complexity in the subjective positions of the women has been tactfully negated, in order to safeguard the nationalist portraits of the kashmiri women (khan, 2009). the patriarchal indian media furthers the issue by inviting people as ‘panelist’ on their channels only to distort the women agency and brings collective humiliation to the people of kashmiri. it is more of a 4 the local civil body comprising largely of elders, which demanded justice for the victims and spearheaded the protest ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 biased representation or a staged melodrama that gets aired to paint kashmiri women as oppressed by their own men folk divorced of any consciousness and political will. the political, social, economic bias is innate to different forms of media, weather radio, t.v, magazines, posters, etc. thus, a true and unbiased representation of women is nigh impossible (chetty, agenda, 2004). a keen study of visual images circulated on array of indian news channels would signify the fact that how the issuance of fatwa was actually connected with separate politics. indian media as a vital state institution is consistent of linking every untoward incident with separatist camp, in order to split the resistance movement on the basis of gender division and decontextualize a particular event or phenomenon which otherwise calls for thoughtful discussion and probing attention. media coverage of women movements is another disappointment as evidence show symbolic annihilation of women through such media reporting (canford, 1979). also, bizarre things happen take place in media discussions like; various religious leaders were called on the news show to express their opinion, which resulted in strong digression from the core issue. issues, which were impertinent in the light of the whole development, were accorded a conjunctional status. the way visual discourse was shaped actually results more in denigrating women agency, as the production and consumption of such a discourse has direct bearing on their bodies. it is essential to know about the consumption of those visual images. in fact, the violence laden and misogynistic images circulated by indian media are consumed by women, who became recipients of the violence and patriarchal politics produced on their own bodies. the consumption of those visual images is dangerously asymmetrical (bonna, gordman, allan, et al. , 2005) women bodies of kashmiri women became central to the process of disparagement carried out by indian media. the national indian media has been a strong force in propagating the traditional deficient reporting on kashmir (kumar, 2005) a good number of hindi news channels devoted significant time to take up the case of pragaash and link it with national politics. seemingly, media tried to meticulously investigate the matter and bring the truth about women musical band in public gaze. however, such ostensible gestures are served as stands of negative differentiation about the concerned society. these acts of deviance are located as against the progressive and empowered troupe of kashmiri women, reiteration of similar questions are brought back into light to uphold the significance of indian ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 laws in kashmir. rather than effacing the importance of the locality and local identity. freedom of expression, secular image, gauge the voice, islamic diktat etc becomes increasingly the large language markets. also, efforts are put to criminalize the rest of the society on the basis of these images, which are indeed powerful. ridiculous analogies are drawn to compare with the worst like talibanisation, islamization etc, to bring more fear among the viewers continuously. “there have been claims, made mainly in indian media, that kashmir itself is being talabanised --forced to islamize under militant pressures” (evans: 2005, 14). that way women bodies are dehumanized and demoralized (klien, 2008) controversies of such nature are flagged to abuse men through their women folk and in turn subject local women to multiple layers of patriarchy. likewise, sets in motion a stage for a perfect case of gender politics. to substantiate this argument, it is worth noting that when much of the damage was done by those visual images attempts were made to go for damage controlling. a news report was circulated abundantly on newspapers and social media sites, which complained about grand mufti’s presence in a musical event. “the state government backed grand mufti presided over the musical function organized by radio kashmir in memory in urdu poet akbar jaipure”(27th june, 2013, india today). the news reports carried a pictorial evidence that how grand mufti is amused by musical evening, besides being flanked by then director of doordarshan shezadi simon. however, when the report surfaced on news papers and social network sites, much of the damage had already been done. surprisingly there was no let up in criminalizing the local religious leaders. congress general secretary divijaya singh tweeted, “all religious fundamentals are experts of double speak” 5 visual images of musical band 5 kashmir grand mufti’s musical evening video goes viral (2013) july 28, hindstan times. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 musical band@ express tribune, 2013. battle of bands : muscial concert. the hindu 2013. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 visual images of shopian double murder and rape case. asiya and nelofar news786.com 2015. lost kashmirhistory.files 2011. b) shopian: double murder and rape case contrary to the pragaash musical band, english news channels devoted more time to shopian double murder and rape case. time and space allotted to shopian incident was drastically lesser. media channels were seemingly hell bent in thrashing people of the valley. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 those who were panelists were either representatives of the government of jammu and kashmir or people from delhi. it was more a mediated tussle between government of jammu and kashmir, and delhi authorities, or in some cases a fair reflection of political animosity between the then ruling party national conference and opposition party people’s democratic party. common kashmiri people, especially women were missing from media frameworks. thus the deliberation was implicated and controlled one. one significant thing about the media coverage of shopian was media channels evidently were not only trying to quieten up the case, but also bluntly misinforming the public with a counterfeit story. as william mazzarella writes in his brilliant account on advertising capitalism in india, shoveling smoke, “we are surrounded by photographic images which constitute a global system of misinformation. the system known as publicly proliferating consumerist lies. the role of photography in this system is revealing. lie is constructed before the camera (berger and mohir, 1995, william 2003). an astute deliverance of visual images and language was repeatedly done to uphold the integrity of investigating agency after the case was shifted to cbi. there was less emphasis on the fact that the cbi lacks public support with respect to its past records. one of the reporter talks, “cbi took everyone on board, team of doctors, local magistrates, religious clerics, etc” ( ndtv videos, 2009) such reports were conscious attempts to win the public confidence in sequence of events, little attention was paid to the fact that how commoners link the double murder and rape case with the indian occupation and massive impunity indian army enjoys. for months kashmir kept boiling and protesters suffered massive police violence, which was condensed into images like ‘reaction from certain sections of population’. thus, encasing the events of protest and discontentment as minortarian affairs which serve as a zoning mechanism to segregate them from their own community, and certainly not approximal of the rest of the population. visual images circulated, were largely concentrated to appraise the efforts of various national level organizations like cbi, narco analysis team. all these were used as a medium to support the fact that asiya and neelofar were not raped and murdered by the indian army as was alleged by the locals. visual images were circulated to prove that there was no conclusive evidence to confirm women were raped and murdered. after bodies were exhumed, debate shifted on intact hymen and septum. questions were also raised on the private lives of the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 victims. morality belched out of media discourses, morality aids in sanctioning violence against women. thus body politics was central motif of this entire discourse. to uphold concepts like nationalism, women bodies are exposed to extreme state and sexual violence. unabated violence enacted on women bodies is to transform them into political artifacts (menon, 2007). the acts of violence appropriated through women bodies “constitute a mode of transcription to communicate with other men that will encounter this body”6 (menon: 2006, 29). thereby, such media coverage certainly works to cover up the atrocities of indian army. in fact, the process of militarization and the prevalence of draconian laws are fostered by media apparatuses. there was hardly any news channel which highlighted how protesters holding banners in their hands could be deciphered “shopian tragedy ……. conclusion of indian occupation.” (cnn ibn videos, 2009) . on the contrary relentless efforts were put to practice by media news channels to locate those visual images squarely within the discourses of democracy, secularism and indian nationalism. indian media conspicuously showcases kashmiri men as misled and are tired of their resistance politics. it maligns their struggle for life and right to self determination in every possible way. “a brief excursion back through history reveals how enduring the ties between, art, culture, politics, and power actually are. rulers and conquers of states, kingdoms, and empires of both the ancient and modern worlds have strategically employed the arts to venerate the victories, reinforce their power and intimate and malign their enemy” (darts: 2004, 313). nevertheless, indian media continues to be a major agent in the development of the indian military ethos within the geographical spaces of kashmir. media assists in the expansion and survival of a besieged society under the conditions of prolonged militarization. there is a certainly a great coherence between the linguistic discourse and visual discourse generated in twin cases of shopian double murder and rape case, and pragaash, the musical band. in the light of the above discussion, it is imperative to map out the intersection between militarization and visual culture. the significant principles of visual culture like spectatorship or the social theories of visuality stand deeply challenged by the phenomenon of militarization. the visuality of both murder and rape of shopian women was not only negated by visual images but an alternative discourse was generated which was more forged and duplicate, only to preserve ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 the integrity of vital institution called army. thus in a sense media reduces visuality of things and justifies the use of military force. “militarization is simultaneously a discursive process, involving a shift in general societal beliefs and values in ways necessary to legitimate the use of force, the organization of large standing armies and their leaders, and higher taxes or tribute used to pay them” (goiux : 2008, 40) the visual images produced in the context of kashmir actually eclipse the real time. reality is forged with the use of new technological apparatuses and a new form of reality is produced. the paradoxical virtual images surface when the real-time images dominates the things that are being represented, real time prevails over real space eventually, virtually altering the concept of reality and actuality to a large extent. (virilio, 1994) the visual images circulated where responsible for producing a new reality, a reality that is far off from actual reality. that is what could be called as hyper –reality7 in baudrillard terms. as such, militarization through the medium of technological induction promotes a new kind of reality; militarization helps in creation of hyperreality. because of the secretive nature of army, media was corrupted by its total submission and was recruited to create a false image of nation –in arms, a kind of heroism, a kind of new reality ( pappe, 2002). militarization and its underlying values, social relations, ideology and hyper masculine ideas gets enmeshed into other domains of poplar culture ( henery giroix ). on the other end, visual culture is concerned with mass culture and popular arts. (mitchell). it also tries to locate the contexts surrounding the art. what is, here, more intriguing is how the meaning of the context and militarization gets lost completely when militarization collides with visual culture. it is difficult for the art to emerge as it should have emerged in normal conditions. militarization is driven by the ideology of protofacism, militarization believes in the application of coercion to substitute the democratic process of debate and deliberation (girioux, 2008) military industrial complex runs on the perpetuation that is impossible to execute without arresting both women and ideology of femininity. however, visual culture on the other hand, tries to promote democratic ethos in every possible measure. it also respects sexual orientations and attempts to trace the structural hindrances women are entangled in. 7 the concept of hyper-real is something that is produced or labeled as real but in reality it is just an appropriation of the real. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 the practice of seeing and looking which stands very essential to the field of inquiry of visual culture remains blurred under the militaristic interventions. in fact, much of the work of some prominent scholars like benjamin, barthes, and berger is based on what is now called as seeing in the field of visual cultures. the process of militarization increases the complexity of the terrain of images and process of seeing is further complicated post industrial capitalism has not only aided the process of producing and circulating the visual images of women but it has also doubled the process of militarization in different parts of the world. in this fragile intersection between militarization and visual culture, women as sufferers are put to back burner. the women have been used; the military hierarchy carries out the function of “political pimp” putting women on street to give their approval to the ends which are contrary to women’s own interests”(zajvoic:1992,7) conclusion it is quite evident from both the cases discussed above that how militarization actually alters the existing repertoire and meaning of visual culture. the process of militarization significantly creates inroads in the process of visual culture. it blurs the phenomenon of visuality. media shares a powerful nexus with military industries and other state institutions. in this significant intersection between militarization and visual culture we were able to archetype how women are actually pushed to the sphere of abandonment because of this delicate conjunction. “the sites of exclusion and concentration provide for the encapsulation and confinement of these forms of political life that have been stripped of rights, cast into a “zone of social abandonment” ( duschinki: 2009,694) . militarization blurs the already delicate boundaries of visual culture and robs the circulated images of historical context……. this results in massive distortion or mendacity of those real human beings. in the language of derrida those images could be envisaged as ‘dangerous supplement’8. boorstein calls it pseudo-event. “that is the creation and dissemination of mass mediated images of cultural experience whose truths, realities, and meanings are complicated with ambiguity to arouse and public interest” ( boorstein:2009,11). kashmiri women have been traditionally very prosperous and progressive; however, it is process 8 as eplained by trifonas(2000) in one of his articles , derrida and rousseau : deconstructing the ethics of a pedagogy of supplement ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 of militarization which has fostered cultural conservatism and promotes layer of patriarchy (kazi, 2009). media discourses helps in rationalization of militarization and thereby, perpetuates patriarchy on local populace, which results in further criminalization and dehumanization of human (women) bodies. in a huge chunk of photographs clicked in the context of kashmir, much focus is on landscape. that is what is known as landscape photography. however, such an approach robs the subject from its subjectivities and is reduced as atimeless object. a working country is hardly ever a landscape. the very idea of landscape implies separation and observation. it is possible and useful to trace the initial histories of landscape painting, writing landscape architecture, but in any final analysis we must relate these histories to the common history of a land and its society. (raymond williams, mirzoeff, 1999). bibliography pro`sobopha . magenini ,2005,). the body : gender and politics of representation, agenda, empowering women for gender equity no 63. african femininsm volume 2, 2 taylor and francis barthes, r. (1972). mythologies. macmillan. baudelaire, c. (1982). the painter of modern life charles baudelaire. modern art and modernism: a critical anthology, 23. benjamin, w. (2008). the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. penguin uk. boorstin, d. j. (1909). the image: a guide to pseudo-events in america (new york: athenaeum, 1985). much to the alarm of the moralists, the salomé craze swept through vaudeville in, 57-61. bourdeiu p (2001) masculine domination, stanford university press. brilliant, r. (1984). visual narratives: storytelling in etruscan and roman art. cornell univ pr. canford victoria1979, june, social forces, vol 57, oxford university press. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 chetty, a. (2004). media images of women during war—vehicles of patriarchy's agenda?. agenda, 18(59), 32-41. chilton, p. (1987). metaphor, euphemism and the militarization of language. current research on peace and violence, 7-19. cnn ibn videos, 2009 david darts, visual culture jam: art, pedagogy and creative resistance. studies in art education. derrida, j. (2013). of grammatology. jhu press. duschinski, h. (2009). destiny effects: militarization, state power, and punitive containment in kashmir valley. anthropological quarterly, 82(3), 691-717. evanalexender s, talbansing kashmir. the world today, vol 57, royal instite of international affairs, 2005 fiona, claire et al (2002) feminist visual culture garoian, c. r., & gaudelius, y. m. (2004). the spectacle of visual culture. studies in art education, 298-312. goiux henery 2008, militarization, public pedagogy and the biopolitics of popular culture . counter points 338. mirror images : popular culture and education. peter lang ag. hall, s. (1993). what is this" black" in black popular culture?. social justice, 104-114. hook (1984), militisation and lanuage : the case of japan. current research on peace and volence. vol 7 , university of tampere http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/shopian-case-cbi-to-exhumevictimsbodies/#sthash.amsmpxcw.dpuf retrived on 24th of may 2015. http://www.oneindia.com/2009/07/10/jk-govt-admits-police-hand-in-shopian-case.ht retrived on 23 may, 2015. http://www.oneindia.com/india/shopian-firing-crpf-gets-3-more-days-to-file-counter-report retrived on 20th may, 2015. jennie ruby(1988), women in popular culture : media images of black women, a women’s new journal ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/shopian-case-cbi-to-exhume-victimsbodies/ http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/shopian-case-cbi-to-exhume-victimsbodies/ http://www.oneindia.com/2009/07/10/jk-govt-admits-police-hand-in-shopian-case.ht http://www.oneindia.com/india/shopian-firing-crpf-gets-3-more-days-to-file-counter-reportjisha menon (2006), rehearsing the partition gendered violence in aur kitne tukde... feminist review no 84. 2. jones ameila(2003), the feminism and visual culture reader, psychology press. kashmir grand mufti’s musical evening video goes viral . hindstan times. july 28, 2013. kazi, s. (2008). between democracy and nation: gender and militarization in kashmir (doctoral dissertation, london school of economics and poltical science (united kindom). khan, n. a. (2010). islam, women, and violence in kashmir: between india and pakistan. palgrave macmillan. klein, m. (2008). jerusalem as an israeli problem—a review of forty years of israeli rule over arab jerusalem. israel studies, 13(2), 54-72. kumar, m. (2005). the hidden conflict: false optimism and silent strategy in kashmir. harvard international review, 26(4), 36. menon, j. (2006). rehearsing the partition: gendered violence in aur kitne tukde. feminist review, 84(1), 29-47. mirzoeff, n. (1999). an introduction to visual culture. psychology press. mirzoeff, n. (ed.). (2002). the visual culture reader. psychology press mckittrick, k. (2006). demonic grounds: black women and the cartographies of struggle. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. music unislamic but jk’s grand mufti can enjoy it. india today, 27th june 2013 pappé, i. (2002). donning the uniform: the military and the media in israel. middle east report, 46-51. richardson, jack (2004) , seeing, thinking, mapping, moving : consideration of space in visual culture.visual art reseach vol.32.the ohio state university colombus (2006) ohio. univesity of illlinion press ricoeur paul, the model of the text : meaningful action considered as text. social research 38 : 52962 sharoni, s (1992) every woman is an occupied territory : the politics of militarism and sexism and the israel palestine conflict . journal of gender studies, 1(4) 447462 shopian: manufacturing a suitable story fact finding (2009) 11 december, the independent women's initiative for justice, countercurrents.org ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 sonderling, s. (1996). knowledge and power in the south african debate on pornography 1900s–1990s: a discursive critique. stafford, b. m. (1996). artful science: enlightenment entertainment and the eclipse of visual education. mit press sturken, m., cartwright, l., & sturken, m. (2001). practices of looking: an introduction to visual culture (p. 385). oxford: oxford university press. trifonas, p (2000). derrida and rousseau: deconstruting the pedagogy of ethics of a pedagogy of the supplement : the review of education/ pedagogy / cultural studies , 22(3), 243 -265 tuchman g, daniels kaplan and benet james, heart and home : images of women in mass media. oxford university press, 1978 william mazerella (2003), shoveling smoke : advertising and globalisation in conemtompary india, duke university press. zajvoic satasa, women resists militarization of former yugoslavia , off our blacks, vol 22, off our blacks, 1992 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 02 | issue 12 | december 2019 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 visual culture the kind of linguistic discourse generated by the india media reflects the ideology of the owners of the modes of producion and the systematic way in which media was organized to use culture as a site of power against the less powerful and the represented one. it is about altering the balance of power in the relation of culture, it is about changing the dispositions and configurations of cultural power, not getting out of it .as such nothing really changes, it is the system which always remain (hall, 1993). the mainstream indian media vociferously highlighted the fatwa threat and lead to the unprecedented sensationalism. fatwa against kashmir's all-girl, pragaash band leaves music dead, innocent girls muzzled, girls swears to fatwa etc�. the all-women musical band received various death threats, followed by number of abusive comments by the online facebook users. latter the fatwa issued by the religious leader, warranted the threat against the three teenage girls. but what was not bought into the recurrent discourse was the grounded understanding of the dynamics of the fatwa and legitimacy of the grand mufti. the credibility of those facebook users and the authencity of their comments in the light of the fact, that technology could be easily manipulated. technology could be used to lie about the social world we live and connect with. nor there was emphasis on the fact that why certain civil organizations question the legality of grand mufti even within the territorium of kashmir. (india today, 2013) thus the whole event was reduced to few selected words and chosen phrases. words are powerful in literature society (verner, ruby, 1988) and not a-political in nature. such a language metaphorically refers to disciplinary actions to secure the rights of the vulnerable groups and thus paves way for more militarization. metaphors function to highlight shade or obfuscate certain aspects of reality at the expense of others, enabling us to “see” reality in different ways (hook, 1984). although, people from different quarters of life and even some women organizations condemned the way fatwa was overloade with anti-kashmir and anti –freedom overtures. it aids media to paint the general public as obstructionist and religious jingoists. but such condemnation was deeply invisible in the state narratives constructed by different media organizations and liberal indian intellectuals. what is significant are the political questions who are permitted to speak about what, which collide with intellectuals stands that serve for us all possibility of engaging with text and images and other responses and frameworks, which help in production of territorialized knowledge (ragoff, 1966). a narrativization of this nature condenses the images of kashmir, invigorated in the form of fatwa, as an intolerant, pimitive and non-secular society governed by religious diktats, where woman is ‘an occupied territory’� of their malemembers. what was completely missing within such rubric descriptions, was the fact how indian media which itself is patriarchal and an apt example of masculine order, could auspice for demystifying the patriarchal structures of kashmir society. mass media is men controlled and attempts to perpetuate social and economic status quo. it controls image production to discredit and influence public opinion against any progressive feminine change. (tuchman, daniel, et al., 1978) the power of the masculine order lies in the fact that it operates with proper justification. the misogynistic vision is woven by the state itself, although it projects itself neutral and don not attempt to identify out in the discourse aimed at legitimating it. the social order works as an imperative ‘symbolic machine’ trying to ratify masculine domination on which it is placed (bourdeiu, 2001). in this paper, i am not supporting the argument that there is no patriarchy in the kashmir society; nowhere am i trying o endorse such a viewpoint. but what i am tying to engage is, how indian media as the producers of those visual images is actually promoting layers of patriarchy through its formulation and depiction of social relationships within the arch of those mediated images. in majority of the commentaries devoted towards gender issues in kashmir, visual images have been subsequently conflated into the patriarchal frameworks of their own men folk. there has been no emphasis on the fact that how visual images of kashmiri women actually emerge from misogynistic lens of indian media, as such they have been problematically portrayed by indian media and producing a commodified vision and version of kashmir through the consistently demonic images of kashmiri people. these images serve a particular ideological perspective, one that is heavily borrowed from ‘colonized discourses’. misrepresentation of such nature contaminates human memories in a huge way. as mckittrick(2006) also states that women bodies are often seen as ungeographic bereft of spatial knowledge and memories b) shopian : double murder and rape case. the massive medialization witnessed in the light of pragaash, was aiming to conceal a more colossal event ---------the sopian double murder and rape case. in may, 2009, asiya and neloofar, sister in laws were found dead in the ankle deep water of rambi ara (one of the tributary of the river jhelum) shakeel, brother of asiya, married to neelofar. asiya and neelofar went missing after they had gone to their orchard and the way to orchard remains thickly militarized. shakeel searched for asiya and neelofar from 6pm to 2:30 am morning. (iwij, 2009). latter at around 6 in the morning shakeel with the help of police recovered the mutilated and dead bodies in the stream. the spot he had searched multiple times, only couple of hours back. the doctor who confirmed the rape was suspended and partial commission was set up which came with a forged report after being heavily meddled by the local police officers(icjiw) the role played by then chief minister of jammu and kashmir, who is basically pawn in the hands of delhi, was also apprehensive and doubtful. “the disingenuous attempt by state administration led the chief minister omer abdullah to subvert an impartial enquiry into the alleged rape and murder of neelofar and asiya and the subsequent destruction of vital evidence by the state authorities reflects a deep and disturbing lack of public authority in kashmir”(kazi 2009:13. the case was shifted from high court to cbi, which further reduced the possibility of free and fair trail and justice tothe double victims. bodies were exhumed only to fabricate the facts. autopsy report was produced to deny the rape and such falsified versions were sustained by the indian newspaper “the autopsy report has revealed that the one of the two rape and murder victims was a virgin. the autopsy of the exhumed bodies revealed that the hymen of the 17-year-old aasiya jan was intact, which rules out the possibility of rape” (www.online.com, 2009). meanwhile, the whole of the kashmir had erupted in massive protests. public had started coming into streets burning indin flags and resorting to stone pelting as a mark of strong dissent against the indian army and government of jammu and kashmir. questions were raised to demand justice and end to the impunity indian army enjoys. draconian laws accentuate this culture of impunity. “militarization operating though the capillaries of powers blurs the boundaries between military and civilian activities and institutions, producing patterns of impunity for state violence. the afspa gives armed forces special power to kill, but it does not give arbitrary power to kill” (duschinki: 2009, 708). further, the new doctor was appointed and latter was forced the change the vaginal swaps, only to hush up the case and combat the public discontentment. majlis-e-mashawarat � the local civil body, who organized the peaceful protest were also criminalized by stating their alleged political relations with separatist leaders. while covering both the case, researcher could see a gulf of difference in terms of language, strategy, ideology and freuency both events where accorded by indian media. the pragassh musical band got overwhelming support from different indian media organisations and other governmental, and nongovernmental organisations. newspapers like economic times, tribune, thelka, daily baskar ran series of articles and news items to support the disbanded musical band, while as they were almost invisible with respect to shopian double murder case. the kind of text or the politics of text was quite evident in both the events like ‘alleged murder and rape, likely drowned, in-tact hymen, and no marks to muzzled, talented, islamic threats etc. this kind of texuality is in line with what a careful reading of baudeliar’s easy ‘women and prostitute’,which helps us to archetype that the text is itself construction a notion of women across a broad spectrum of meaning and urban spaces------a space of modernity. further to add, as paul ricoeur notes, that text is aligned to masculine metaphors of strength and objectivity, “writing was given to men to come to the rescue of the weakness of the discourse, a weakness that was of the event……………it is the meaning of the speech event, not the event as event” ( ricoeur :1971, 530-31) predictive influence of students’ age, sex and test anxiety on examination malpractices among secondary school students in ekiti state, nigeria olusola james seyi department of business administration, federal polytechnic, ado-ekiti, ekiti state nigeria e-mail: iwamimoseyi@gmail.com abstract this research investigates the predictive influence of students’ age, sex and test anxiety on examination malpractices among secondary school students in ado-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. the research design used for this study was survey design of the descriptive type of research. the sample size of one hundred and fifty (150) respondents was selected as respondents for the study using random sampling technique. the respondents were drawn from five (5) secondary schools within secondary schools in ado-ekiti local government area of ekiti state nigeria. three research questions were raised and tested at 0.05 level of significance. the instrument for the study was self-designed questionnaire. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism. the data collected were analysed using chi-square (x2) statistical analysis package. the results of the analyses showed that age did not predict students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools. sex of secondary school students did not determine their involvement in examination malpractices. test anxiety serves as predictor of students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools. the age of secondary school students was significant in predicting students test anxiety in secondary school students. the rate of examination malpractice was more among the male students than female secondary school students. based on the findings, conclusions and appropriate recommendations were made. keywords: age, sex, test anxiety, examination malpractices, secondary schools introduction examination is a major instrument used for the evaluation of learners’ achievement. alutu & aluedu (2006), defined examination as a formal test of somebody’s knowledge or ability in a particular subject, especially by means of answering questions or practical ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 exercise in other to measure how much knowledge a student in an institution of learning has acquired after exposing such a student to a definite course of instruction. examination on a broad perspective is an instrument for testing, assessing, evaluating and accreditation, of which the outcome of such judgment is used for diagnosing, placement, guidance, certification among others. examination can be internal or external. examinations could be oral, written or both. oredein (2008) asserted that public examinations, also known as external examinations are conducted on behalf of the state and open to all those who meet defined entry criteria within the society. they are administered by external bodies (evaluation agencies) and include examinations used to select those wishing to enter government service, state schools, and other educational institutions. such examination bodies include west african council (waec), national examination council (neco), joint admissions and matriculation board (jamb), national business and technical education board (nabteb) and so on. the rationale for adopting public examinations is in the realization of the fact that public examinations provide adequate basis for qualifying students’ abilities, and also the exertion of control over the attainment of the curricula across schools. however, public examinations are different from school examination , which are more or less internal or schoolbased , in which case the teachers are directly involved in the assessment of their students. examples of schools examinations include continuous assessment, terminal and promotion examinations e.t.c. public examination therefore seems to be the most popular parameter by which society judges the product of its educational system. this is because performances in public examinations are now used as a prerequisite for admission into other levels of schooling, job placement, awards of certificate and diploma. according to joshua (2008), one can therefore use examination to categorize students into high and low abilities. those with high abilities are giving preference above those with low abilities, which of course the low abilities would also desire. as such, in a bid to demonstrate high abilities, they go into all kinds of vices, and one of such vices is examination malpractice. the examination malpractice act (1999) defined examination malpractice as any act of omission or commission by a person who in anticipation of, before, during or after any examination fraudulently secure any unfair advantage for himself or any other person in such a manner that contravenes the rules and regulations to the extent of undermining the validity, reliability, authenticity of the examination and ultimately the integrity of the certificate issued. alutu & aluedu (2006) stated that examination malpractice is any irregular behavior exhibited by a candidate or anybody charged with the conduct of examination before, during, or after the examination that contravenes the rules and regulations governing the conduct of such examination. there are many factors that served a determinant that cause examination malpractices among secondary schools students. oredein (2008) asserted that the variables of age, sex and test anxiety of students largely influence their behaviour especially during examinations. and that these variables correlate to certain degree and cannot be separated from examination malpractices. to a considerable extent age of the learner determines the variation in the speed at which he learns and at the rate at which he engages in examination malpractices. sex of the learner is also a factor that need to be considered when examine examination malpractices. oredein (2008) reported that girls find it easy to inscribe information on any part of their body like thighs, baby pampers, purses and palms than their male counterpart. apart from this, test anxiety among students is another variable that lead to examination malpractices. many students failed to read when others are reading, some were busy playing games or watching tv when they suppose to read and this leads to fear of failure when they are about to write examination. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 according to ibrahim (2004) academic success usually depends upon students’ ability to adapt to academic situation. and students who feel competent will not be much threatened by stressful academic demands but to one’s surprise, students are generally anxious over examination, which invariably leads some of them to engage in examination malpractice. one of the objectives of education in nigeria is to prepare the youth to become self sufficient in order to meet the nation’s manpower requirements. schools need to conduct examinations purposely to assess the cognitive ability of the student. it follows then that examination is very paramount in the placement of students. olisama (2003) opined that when a student receives or acquires foreign aid in an attempt to pass examination, it is called examination malpractice. examination malpractice is any wrong doing before, during or after any examination. examination malpractice is an illegal means that students use to pass examinations. the various dimensions of examination malpractice includes bringing of foreign materials into the examination hall, colliding with supervisors to cheat, receiving help from other candidates, impersonation, insult or assault on examination officials, electronically assisted malpractices, mass cheating, and changing of scores by examiners for candidates. sex, according to cambridge dictionary is the state of being a male or female. different views exist as to which sex involves most in examination malpractices. omotore (2011) stated that more males engage in examination malpractices than the females. the absence of significant difference between the anxiety levels of male and female most especially prior to examination could be attributed to many factors. both students must have familiarized themselves with the academic environment and the females, thinking that they can always find themselves through by any means, write on parts of their body with the aim of engaging in examination malpractice. boys have been found to partake in examination malpractice especially when they have fear of failing in difficult subjects. based on this finding, sex as a variable will receive serious attention as predictor of examination malpractice. age, in education, is a level of development equivalent to that of an average person of a particular age. the variable of age in combination with biological, cognitive, affective and psychological dimensions upon students’ examination malpractice seems to be one of the main factors determining students’ participation in examination malpractice. test anxiety is another major factor that leads students to engage in examination malpractices. olusade (2003) defines anxiety as the chronic fear that occurs when a threatened event is in the offing but is unpredictable. it is the exams designed to objectively measure the academic aptitude of students from varying social backgrounds and with different educational experience. test anxiety therefore to the fear a student exhibits before, during or after writing a test. according to ibrahim (2004) several factors account for test anxiety among secondary school students leading some of them into examination malpractices. examination is very important in evaluating students learning outcome and their cognitive ability. examination over the years has become the major yardstick in determining the academic achievement level of students in secondary schools and other level of education in nigeria. but the status of examination has been mauled by the high rate level of examination malpractices among the students of secondary schools all across nigeria. many scholars have put up many variables and factors as being responsible for the menace in the academic development of nigeria. the age, sex of the students and test anxiety have their telling effect on the anti-social behaviours of examination malpractices in our secondary schools. and this can be attributed to the admission of students into secondary school against the age of 10 as stipulated by the ministry of education. today students at the age of 8 or 9 years have been given admission ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 into secondary schools and many of them are not mature enough to withstand the nature and standard of examination in secondary schools. more also, it is observed by the researcher that sex of students is a very significant variable that determines the rampaging rate of examination malpractices among secondary schools students. the researcher observed that as much as research has been conducted on examination malpractice, there is scanty information on how age and sex predict examination malpractices. base on this view, the researcher is of the opinion that age of the students is one of the fundamental challenges militating against students’ performance in secondary school examination in ado local government area of ekiti state. furthermore, the sex of learner’s is observed to be the basic problems militating against teaching and learning in most of the secondary schools especially in ado local government area of ekiti state. sex of the students are perceive as a strong students variable that can maximize or minimize the students performance in any school subject. thus, the researcher perceived sex of students as a factor that predicts examination malpractices among students. test anxiety among students of secondary schools can be attributed to the poor level of preparedness of students for examination, truancy in school, missing of class and perception of the students that examination malpractices is not an offense that can be punished. although, there exist a lot of research on test anxiety but variable in combination with age and sex are yet to be fully researched. it is against this background that the researcher was stimulated to investigate the age, sex and test anxiety as predictors of examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. research questions the research will answer the question: 1. does age predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state? 2. does sex predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state? 3. does test anxiety predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state? literature review concept of examination malpractices ahmed (2010), examination malpractice is any act of wrongdoing or neglect that contravenes the rules and regulations of acceptable practice before, during and after an examination by any reason. nowadays, it is not uncommon to hear people discuss examination malpractice as if it is a custom. perpetrators of this social menace view it as an act which everybody partakes in, hence it is generally acceptable. therefore, it is not impossible these days to see students with distinction in the west african examination certificate (waec) senior school certificate examination (ssce), general certificate in education (gce) or the equivalent or even first class and second class upper in the universities who cannot defend the certificate. the reason behind it is nothing but examination malpractice which has sucked deep into virtually all levels of the education system. these acts are unbecoming and need to be curtailed. it is a disease; it calls for the attention of all and sundry. nwahunanye (2004) posited that some years back, the decision to attend secondary school was in itself a crucial vocational choice. secondary school education has as one of its objectives; to provide education of higher level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background. national policy on education (2004) section 5 sub – section 22 (a) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 lamented „the extent to which these objectives are being achieved in teaching and learning in secondary schools as in every other level of education is usually appraised or evaluated through examination‟. it is also impossible for one to obtain an academic certificate after passing through an institution without being evaluated. the reverse is also the case due to the way some of our undergraduates see the pursuit of good academic certificate as a do or die affair. during examination periods, students prepare for the examination in different ways. some read a month before the examination. some still prefer using the night before the examination to write down points which they would take into the examination hall. these are mostly the category of students who do not see any reason to prepare for the exercise but rely on “expo” to succeed. in the examination halls, the perpetrators of this unwholesome act operate in divergent ways as they want to make good grades and reap where they did not sow. examination misconduct in the hall can take the form of giraffing / peeping from another person’s examination papers, writing on the palms, desks and piece of papers, smuggling of examination halls and so on and so forth. outside the halls, the misconduct can take the shape of sorting of the already written examinations either through the teachers or their agents. this cankerworm has eaten deep into the fabrics of the nigerian educational system; thereby, rending our educational institutions hopeless. they are so unbecoming that if nothing is done and no time too, our secondary school education and other levels of education will be mess. commenting on the issue of examination misconduct, sumnoh (2010), remarks that government is the major cause of examination malpractice. he said that if teachers were well paid, they would see no reason to aid or be involved in examination malpractice. one is not saying here that high salary and allowances will totally stop examination malpractice, it will help to curb it. however, it is pointless dragging the argument as to who is responsible for the cases of examination malpractice in our secondary schools. it is equally illogical to think that one particular group, whether students, teachers, government or the society can solve the problem of examination misconduct in our secondary schools. age of students and examination malpractices among secondary schools the age concept has recently emerged in various fields among others, gerontological, psychological, futurological, demographic, legal, political and cultural contexts as an interest of research. diversity studies have included age among race, gender, creed, ethnicity, background, education, function, and personality differences (williams & o’reilly, 1998). at the same time, while a vast amount of organizational studies have covered almost every angle of the leadership theme (åhman, 2003), the concept of age has largely been ignored. the almost untouched area of the conceptualisation of age, and as a consequence of it, the discursive perception of a leader as well as his/her capabilities needs to be explored and unmasked further. the poor and declining academic performance of students in nigerian schools owing to examination malpractice is becoming so alarming that the achievement of the set goals of teaching in secondary school for sustainability and development is endangered. okafor (1999) maintained that there is a recurring story of poor academic performance in secondary schools subject. examination malpractice is one of the common social ills threatening the educational sector at all levels and the fact that it is found among the students in secondary school is even more worrisome. denga & denga (1998) affirmed that examination malpractice is thriving in all level of schools. examination plays several important roles in the teaching-learning process. it is a necessary incentive to study, a means of getting feedback and a yard-stick for evaluating the effectiveness of instructional delivery, selection, placement, and for employment. the concept of age has become the main yardstick that is being used to give admission to students into secondary schools and higher institutions of learning, for giving ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 job and even in the political settings in nigeria. at the high school level, scales (2005) measured student level of developmental assets‘, (positive relationships, opportunities, skills, values and self-perceptions) and its relationship to academic achievement. in this study, seventh, eighth, and ninth grade students with more increased developmental asset had higher gpas in tenth through twelfth grade than those with less assets. nowadays, examination is widely used as a medium for promotion in many parastatals. but when the proper use of examination is abused by both the examinees, the examiners and the entire populace, a question may then arise as to what is the relationship between examination malpractice and students’ academic performance in secondary schools. age, in education, is a level of development equivalent to that of an average person of a particular age. as already noted, the variable of age in combination with biological, cognitive, affective and psychological dimensions upon students’ examination malpractice seems to be one of the main factors determining students’ participation in examination malpractice. amamize (2003) observed that maturation of the learner and exposure to different situations is a determining factor whether the student will involve himself or herself in examination malpractice. however, it still remains open to question whether a particular age group is more prone to examination malpractice. in some respect, all age group engage in examination malpractice and this is where the research will focus attention. age is a human attribute that has long been taken for granted. examination malpractice is therefore induced by grading pressure at least as much as that of individual character failure (newberger, 2000). berliner (2008) affirmed that the pressure to score well on a single test is so intense that it leads to nefarious practices such as cheating on the test. parents also play a very important role in students’ behaviour and academic performance in the school. most often, some students fail in their duty to provide necessary materials that will enable their children to learn and when the children are not performing up to expectations, the parents turn around to pressurize the students, blame the teachers or resort to fraudulent means to help the children pass examination. considering the problem of examination malpractices, the rate at which students faint or fall sick during examination, and many other anxiety related problems in schools, it becomes necessary to find out the age and sex of the students and look at their anxiety levels (omotore, 2011). sex as predictor of examination malpractices among secondary schools sex, according to cambridge dictionary is the state of being a male or female. different views exist as to which sex involves most in examination malpractices. lobel & levanon (1988) argue that more males engage in examination malpractices than the females while leming (1980) believes that there are more female involvement in examination malpractice than male. the absence of significant difference between the anxiety levels of males and female most especially prior to examination could be attributed to many factors. both students must have familiarized themselves with the academic environment and the females, thinking that they can always find themselves through by any means, write on parts of their body with the aim of engaging in examination malpractice. boys have been found to partake in examination malpractice especially when they have fear of failing in difficult subjects. based on this finding, sex as a variable will receive serious attention as predictor of examination malpractices. nigeria, like many other nations of the world, has a strong faith in education as the key to economic progress, political stability, social transformation, as well as scientific and technological development (olayinka & akande, 2006). education, according to emaikwu (2012), is expected to train the mind of its recipients for effective performances. it equips the individual with the information necessary for high level of human functioning. the ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 school is seen as the most formal agency for cultivating necessary skills, knowledge and values as enunciated by the federal government of nigeria (2004) in the npe. the school achieves this through constant evaluation and assessment carried out during examinations. examination malpractice is so wide spread that no sex or religion seems to be exempted. there are studies according to omotere (2011) that attached sex of the learner as a factor for examination malpractices. the male and female students as well as the christian and muslim students fraught it. omotere (2011) noted that different views exist as to which sex involves more in examination malpractice. ordinarily one expects that since examination malpractice is evil, christian and muslim students are not supposed to be involved, aid or abet it but they do with impunity. many christian and muslim students have previously been found guilty of examination malpractices in many schools and colleges in nigeria including this very institution under study, why? may be, these students have insufficient knowledge of the rules and regulations guiding examinations, nature of examination offences and also the penalties. this is why this study sought information on the “knowledge of students about these rules, the behaviors that are considered wrong in examination and the penalties for these offences using gender and religion as variables. the effects of test anxiety on examination malpractices among secondary schools low performance of students in exams especially external exam is no longer news in nigeria. over the years, stakeholders in this field having been working tirelessly to remedy the ugly phenomena unfortunately, their effort is yet to yield any significant impact. on the part of the students, lack of interest, love for money or what is known as get rich quick syndrome were identified. unfortunately, none of them was able to see exam anxiety. at times, students will read very well yet he or she will perform poorly in exam simply because of tension. exam itself causes anxiety to some students (nelson, 2001). studies have shown that exam anxiety makes a student to forget all that he or she studied (nelson 2002). clear understanding of features of anxiety is enough proof to its effect on remembering. anxiety causes muscle tension which makes the brain to be unrelaxed thereby causing forgetfulness. anxiety is complex and mysterious. the more you learn about it, the more baffling it seems. it is a negative mood state that is characterized by bodily symptoms of physical tension and apprehension about the future (durand & barlow 2002). it can also be seen as a subjective sense of unease, a set of behaviours (such as looking worried, anxious or fidgeting) or a physiological response originating in the brain and reflecting on elevated heart rate and muscle tension. during anxiety reactions or response, the heart, lungs, and other parts of the body work faster. the brain also releases the emergence (stress) hormone adrenaline and cortisol (obidigbo, 2008). people who experience this disorder usually report being unhappy and their behaviour is maladaptive. in school, some students experience some kind of anxiety disorder within their stay in school, (nelson, 2002) and the most common is examination anxiety. examination anxiety may manifest among students through admission of wrong or series of unwarranted fear, rapid breathing, through meticulous cautions (nelson, 2002). a close watch on some students, one may see them dropping things like books, rulers and bags on the ground, which some will hit their legs on tables, chairs etc. all these are believed to be manifestations of examination anxiety (wind, 2000). this has also lead to the reduction in our standard of education, for instance, some of the secondary school students, who are too anxious about examination will fail an exam and to avoid this frustration, which will affect the student image or regulation, they will resort to examination malpractice (cheating) in order to scale through. not because they are unintelligent, or that they did not prepare well for the exam, but because they are afraid to fail the exam. the manifestation of examination anxiety differs, depending on the individual, students and the subjects, some ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 students may enjoy calculations and dislike or avoid any subject that involves a lot of grammar or writing, while others may enjoy subjects with a lot of grammar and writing, and hate calculations. methodology the survey design of the descriptive type of research was used for this study. the area of the study was ado local government area of ekiti state. the population of the study consisted of all public secondary school students in ado ekiti local government area of ekiti state. there are ten public secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. the sample size of one hundred and fifty (150) respondents was used for the study. the respondents were the students from public senior secondary schools class ii and iii (sss 2 and sss 3) in ado local government area of ekiti state. there are ten (10) public secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. a simple random sampling technique was used to select five (5) secondary schools in the local government. the simple random sampling technique was also used to select thirty (30) students from each of the selected schools to make a total of 150 respondents. the research instrument used for this study was a self-structured questionnaire. the questionnaire used for collecting the responses of the respondents was a 25-items instrument which was designed to answer the research questions of the study. there are five variables in the study and each of the variables generated five items. the questionnaire had two sections. section a was used to elicit information on the demographic data of the respondents such as name of school, age, sex, class. while section b was used to elicit information on the research variables. the questionnaire was of likert format of response: “sa, a, d, sd” answer. where sa = strongly agree, a = agree, d = disagree, sd = strongly disagree. the instrument was subjected to validity and reliability mechanism. the instrument used by the researcher was scrutinized for face content and construct validities by specialists and experts in measurement and evaluation. the instrument was finally adjudged to be good relative to face, content and construct validities. the reliability of the instrument was established using split half method. the researcher administered the instrument to thirty (30) respondents who did not form part of the final respondents that were used for this study. the questionnaire items were divided into odd and even numbers. pearson’s product moment correlation was used to analyze the data gathered in order to determine the value of (r) at 0.05 level of significance. after, computation the reliability coefficient of 0.86 was obtained which shows good reliability. the questionnaires were administered on the students by the researcher with the help of two (2) trained research assistants and were collected back immediately. the data collected were analysed using chi-square (x2) statistical analysis package. results and discussion research question 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 does age predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools students in ado local government area of ekiti state? table 1: chi-square analysis of data on the age of students as prediction of involvement in examination malpractice among secondary school students in ado local government area of ekiti state. s/n items x2 -cal x2 -tab df remark 1 students who are below recommended years of secondary schools involve much in examination malpractices. 5.67 7.82 3 * 2 age influence students involvement in examination malpractices. 3 students who are beyond the ages of 18years are afraid of failure and do not want students younger than them to laugh at them, thus they take to examination malpractice. 4 age of students influence the students performance in school subject. 5 the higher the age of students, the more the occurrence of examination malpractices among them. p< 0.05 , * = significant table 1 shows that x2-calculated was 5.67 and x2critical was 7.82 in research question one. showing that x2-calculated is less than x2-table value at 0.05 and df = 3 ( i.e.. x2 -cal < x2 -tab ). the result is not significant; this implies that age was not a predictor of students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. research question does sex predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools students in ado local government area of ekiti state? table 2: chi-square analysis of data on the sex of students as prediction of involvement in examination malpractice among secondary school students in ado local government area of ekiti state. s/n items x2 -cal x2 -tab df remark 1 male students involve in examination malpractices than female students. 2 female students are afraid of being caught in examination than male students. 3 female students thought that they can always ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 find way through examination by any means. 4. 23 7.82 3 * 4 male students partake in examination malpractice because they have fear of failing in difficult subjects than female students. 5 male students ill-preparedness is the reason for their involvement in examination malpractices. p< 0.05 , * = significant table 2 shows that x2-calculated was 4.23 and x2critical was 7.82 in research question two. showing that x2-calculated is less than x2-table value at 0.05 and df = 3 ( i.e.. x2 -cal < x2 -tab ). the result is not significant; this implies that sex of students was not a predictor of students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. research question 3 does test anxiety predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state? table 3: chi-square analysis of data on the students’ anxiety as prediction of involvement in examination malpractice among secondary school students in ado local government area of ekiti state. s/n items x2 -cal x2 -tab df remark 1 poor preparation by students for examination entices them to exam malpractice. 12.67 7.82 3 * 2 exam anxiety makes a student to forget all that he or she studied. 3 examination anxiety may manifest among students through admission of series of unwarranted fear. 4 fear of parents’ punishment stimulates students to take to examination malpractice. 5 students low self-reliance during test makes them take examination malpractice as the only option to success. p< 0.05 , * = significant table 3 shows that x2-calculated was 12.67 and x2critical was 7.82 in research question three. showing that x2-calculated is greater than x2-table value at 0.05 and df = 3 ( i.e.. x2 -cal > x2 -tab ). the result is significant; this implies that test anxiety predicted involvement of students in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. discussion of findings the research question 1 which stated that ‘does age predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state’ was answered and the result of finding revealed that age was not a predictor of involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. the finding of the study contradicted the finding of amamize (2003) who observed that maturation of the learner and exposure to different situations is a determining factor whether the student will involve himself or herself in examination malpractice. age, in education, is a level of development equivalent to that of an ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 average person of a particular age. the variable of age in combination with biological, cognitive, affective and psychological dimensions upon students’ examination malpractice seems to be one of the main factors determining students’ participation in examination malpractice. but the finding from this study showed that age of students affects their level of maturity but not as a predictor for involvement in examination malpractices. the finding of the study revealed that sex did not predict involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. based on the result of finding of the study, the finding of the study contradicted the finding of omotere (2011) who attached sex of the learner as a factor for examination malpractices. omotere (2011) noted that different views exist as to which sex involves more in examination malpractice. the absence of significant difference between the anxiety levels of males and female most especially prior to examination could be attributed to many factors. lobel & levanon (1988) argued that more males engage in examination malpractices than the females while leming (1980) believes that there are more female involvement in examination malpractice than male. thus, the finding of the study revealed that both male and female students equally involved in examination malpractices. the result of findings from this study revealed that test anxiety predicted involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. the finding of the study agreed with the finding of nelson (2001) when he asserted that examination itself causes anxiety to some students. anxiety causes muscle tension which makes the brain to be unrelaxed thereby causing forgetfulness. during anxiety reactions or response, the heart, lungs, and other parts of the body work faster. according to obidigbo (2008), he stated that the brain also releases the emergence (stress) hormone adrenaline and cortisol. anxiety of students occurred as a result of ill preparedness of students for examination, playing away of leisure time, truancy from class and many more factors. conclusions based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: 1. age did not predict students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools. 2. sex of secondary school students did not determine their involvement in examination malpractices. 3. test anxiety served as predictor of students’ involvement in examination malpractices among secondary schools. 4. the age of secondary school students was significant in predicting students test anxiety in secondary school students. 5. the rate of examination malpractice was more among the male students than female secondary school students. recommendations the researcher recommended the following as ways to tackle the problem of examination malpractice: 1. students at all age should be with fear of punishment that may befall them if they engage in examination malpractices and this should be used to create fear in their heart. 2. both male and female secondary school students should be given equal treatment so as not to give undue advantage for any sex to involve in examination malpractices. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 3. teachers, parents and school authorities should ensure that students are always prepared adequately and effectively to write examination through proper and active monitoring towards the reading and study of their subject. 4. (i) parents should let students attain the recommended age of 10years before they are given admission to secondary schools. (ii) teachers and school authorities should always make use of age of the students as prerequisite for admission into secondary schools. 5. school management should put in more and extra effort into curbing of indiscipline act among the male secondary school students so as to reduce the high rate of examination malpractices. references åhman, h. (2003). own mind-leadership – views and experiences about individual success in a postmodern organisation. dissertation series no 12, hut, department of industrial engineering and management. espoo. alutu, n.g.a. & aluede, o. (2006). secondary school student’s perception of examination malpractice and examination ethics. journal of human ecology, 20 (4), 295-300. berliner, d. (2008). the near impossibility of testing for teacher quality. journal of teacher education, 56(3),205213 denga, d. and denga, h. (1998). examination malpractices and cultism in nigeria. rapid educational publisher, calabar, nigeria. pp. 13-20 durand, s. & barlow, t.d. (2002).forms and reasons for examination malpractice: implication for national development. proceeding of the 16th annual congress of the nigerian academy of education.pp 355-365. jos: the nigerian academy of education. emaikwu, s. o. (2012). the influence of examination malpractice on the measurement of students' ability in nigerian universities. journal of research in education and society, 3 (1), 12-21 ibrahim, a.m., (2004). relation between examination anxiety and deviate examination behaviour among secondary school students in oyo-state. unpublished m. sc. thesis. university of ilorin. ilorin. lobel, t.e. & levanon, t. (1988). self-esteem, need for approval and cheating behaviour, ibid development national policy on education (2004). the challenge of examination irregularities. a paper presented at the mandatory integrity traininginitiative (miti) for examiners, supervisors and invigilators at fgcenugu. may 13. nelson, c. (2001) the prevalence of cheating among american students and its role in middle school. www.tcnj.edu//stapper 2/cheating.htm-21k-cached. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 nelson, c (2002). gender differences in cheating attitudes and class cheating. www.tcnj.edu//stapper 2/cheating.htm-21k-cached. newberger, e.h. (2003). the men they will become: the nature and nurture of male character. retrieved on 5/9/2004 from http://www.elinewberger.com/ nwahunanye , i. (2004). examination cheats. newswatch magazine july 1st, pp.7-16. obidigbo, m. e. (2008). examination malpractice: its dimensions, causes, effects and ways of curbing it in nigerian academic institutions in r.u.n. okonkwo (eds.) journal of the nigerian society for educational psychologists. 4(1), 26-35. okafor, p.n. (1999). the effects of cooperative learning and conceptual change pedagogical strategies on students achievement and attitude. unpublished doctorial degree thesis. university of ibadan. olayinka, a. o., & akande, j. a. (2006). appraisal of internal examination at secondary school level. journal of the nigerian society for educational psychologists. 4(1), 95104. olisama, j. a. (2003). a hand book of educational terms. the free press. london, uk. p.96 olusade, s. o. (2003). lecturing, examinations and legal issues in the university system. paper presented at the one-day seminar on ethics and accreditation held at the university of ado-ekiti, nigeria on monday, 16th may, 4-6. omotere, t. (2011), age, sex and test anxiety as a predictor of examination malpractice among secondary school students, research project, published online in ego booster books, ogun state, nigeria. from:www.omotere.com oredein, (2008). behaviour: a meta-analysis, sex-role. a journal of research, 13 (5), 657660. scales, p.c. (2005). boosting student’s achievement: new researcher on the power of development assets. search instituteinsights evidence, 1 (1), 1-10. sumnoh, h. w. (2010). psychology of learning and teaching. new york; mc gudhillbook company. williams, k. y., & o’reilly, iii, c. a. (1998). demography and diversity in organizations: a review of 40 years of research. research in organizational behavior (vol. 20). greenwich, ct: jai press. wind, e. o. (2000). eradicating examination malpractices in nigeria. lecture delivered at 2000 convocation of adeniran ogunsanya college of education, oto, ijaniku, lagos. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 9 | september 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 http://www.elinewberger.com/ keywords: age, sex, test anxiety, examination malpractices, secondary schools introduction indigenous languages as an instrument for promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria aturamu, olayinka omolayo, phd1 and awoolaoye, sunday olayinka, phd2 1department of language education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikereekiti. 2department of yoruba, adeyemi university of education, ondo, ondo state. corresponding e-mail: aturamu.olayinka@bouesti.edu.ng orcid id no: 0000-0002-6463-8228 abstract this study examined indigenous languages as an instrument for promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the study assessed the level of relationship and knowledge of indigenous languages on questioning skills of academic staff of bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere. the study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type. the sample size of 100 respondents which included lecturers and students was drawn from the population of 345 members of academic staff union of universities (asuu), bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere chapter. the instrument for data collection was a self-structured questionnaire tagged “indigenous language as an instrument of promoting questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria (ilipqsti) questionnaire”. the three research questions raised to guide the study was answered using descriptive analysis of simple frequency count, percentage, mean and standard deviation. two (2) research hypotheses formulated for the study was tested at 0.05 level of significance using chi-square (χ2) statistic of independent sample. analysis of the study revealed that there was significant relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. it was also revealed that lack of knowledge of indigenous languages does not influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the study concluded that there is an urgent need to deliberately inculcate and imbibe right indigenous values and languages as sine qua non for student-centered academic development and excellence. the study recommended that nigerian government must match actions with words by adopting policies that would promote their use by all and sundry, including the masses and the ‘exploitative’ elites and most importantly by tertiary institutions’ lecturers as a medium of instruction, communication and in development of their questioning skills. keywords: indigenous language, tertiary institutions, questioning skills ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 1 mailto:aturamu.olayinka@bouesti.edu.ng introduction language is a viable instrument of expression; human beings need language for meaningful survival. according to okonkwo (2004), origin of language coincide with that of society given the fact that a system of linguist communication is a necessary condition for the existence of a human group. language can be seen as a means of communication, which is very unique to man more than to animals. language relies on communication for its essence. also, awodun & joshi (2022) noted that language is a method of communicating ideas, thoughts, and desires by means of sounds for psychological and physiological survival. language is one of the most important attributes of mankind because it is the medium of communication. it is affirm that communication is a way of sending and receiving information and giving feedback. through communication, message (thoughts and feelings) are encoded which can come in form of questions are encoded by the person who sends it (the speaker) and decoded by the person who receives it (the listener). encoding and decoding of information are very essential. communication is not complete until feedback that can come in form of answers has been received from the decoder. indigenous language then play as a greatest weapon towards the laying the dangers inherent in communication between individuals and groups. even in educational institutions, the power of questioning skills promote the use of indigenous language and makes learning and teaching easier and understandable among students and lecturers. definition of terms indigenous language adedeji (2015) submit that local or indigenous language can be construed to mean a language spoken of belonging or connected with a particular place or area which one is talking about or with the place where one lives. nigerian language nigerian language are languages which are indigenous in nigeria by virtue of the fact that they are spoken by people who hail from nigeria and are legally nigerians. nigerian language policy the nigerian language policy according to mbak (2011) is a principled statement which has statutory flavor, guiding the teaching, learning and the use of different languages in the country. questioning skills according to bhasiri (2021), questioning skills is an important aspect of learning. it is also good for the teaching process. since it is very important and necessary for teachers to always ask their students questions about the content of their subject matter in order to feed back the teachers about the performance of their pupils or learners. based on this, the students’ understanding could be rated and ascertained. as an educator, we are able to identify that asking questions tap the higher skills of the students and teachers. normally, the ways of asking questions could be at the beginning of the lesson. questions can also be asked in the middle of the teaching and at the end of the teaching. the common questioning techniques involves the 5wh (who, where, when, why, what and how) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 2 tertiary institutions and teaching in education sector, tertiary institutions teacher education is an aspect of tertiary institutions that is empowered to provide quality education to effect much needed change in our society (amoo & onuka, 2011). in providing such change, research into this aspect of tertiary education should be geared towards national development, since education has become a weapon through which one can rise to prominence, and as well as development any country’s citizens. it means then, that the educational practice in any country including nigeria should depend on sound philosophy and guiding curriculum. the awareness and the demand for philosophy of education upon which nigeria government fashions the curriculum have made the society to plan for accelerated educational development as well as the expansion of educational opportunities in recent times. as a result of this, the establishment and participation of private universities to accommodate more students and more employment opportunities ensured (jubril, 2013). the awareness and demand of the philosophy and curriculum by the stakeholders in education (including researchers in higher education teaching for national development) will go a long way to help develop our citizens. the tertiary education sector is composed of all universities; colleges of education and technology and other institutes of post-secondary education (amoo & onuka 2011, jubril 2013). in some countries, odeyemi (2004) noted that the difference between universities and other tertiary institutions is the fact that research takes place in universities. in such countries accordingly, universities have research culture in which it is assumed that most lecturers will engage in research. it also may also include all research institutes, experimental campuses and schools operating under the direct control of, or administered by, or associated with, the higher education establishments. higher education is any of the various types of education given in postsecondary institutions of learning and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a named degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies (fme, 2009). higher educational institutions include not only universities and colleges, but also various professional schools that provide preparation in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. higher education also includes teacher-training schools, junior colleges, and institutes of technology (frn, 2004). the basic entrance requirement for most higher-educational institutions is the completion of secondary education, and the usual entrance age is about 18 years in advanced countries (college university, 2010, higher education, 2010). research questions the following research questions were raised to guide the study: 1. is there any relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? 2. will lack of knowledge of indigenous languages influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? 3. is indigenous language responsible for the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 3 research hypotheses h01: there is no significant relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. h02: the lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will not significantly influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. methodology the study adopted a descriptive design of the survey type. the population of the study consisted of 345 members of academic staff union of universities (asuu) and 3570 students of bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology (bouesti), ikere chapter. simple random sampling technique was used to select 50 academic staff and 50 students in bouesti from the 3 colleges of study totalling 100 respondents. the sample for the study consisted of 55 female and 45 male respondents in the institution. the research instrument for the study was a 20-itemed self-structure questionnaire. the questionnaire titled; “indigenous language as an instrument of promoting questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria (ilipqsti)” was constructed and subjected to validity and reliability test. a degree of internal consistency of 0.87 was obtained using spearman-brown split-half method. data was analyzed using frequency count, percentage, mean and standard deviation to answer the three (3) research questions raised for the study. the two (2) research hypotheses formulated for the study were tested using chi square statistic of independent sample at 0.05 level of significance with spss version 23. results and discussion descriptive analysis research question 1: is there any relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? table 1: responses to relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. s/n items sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%) mean sd 1 indigenous language enables the development of people’s skills and intellectual abilities necessary for questioning 69 (69.0) 23 (23.0) 7 (7.0) 1 (1.0) 1.40 .667 2 indigenous language as a medium of education would enhance best result in 39 (39.0) 51 (51.0) 9 (9.0) 1 (1.0) 1.72 .668 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 4 learning. 3 a learner with language difficulty or learning disability can learn comfortably through indigenous language 60 (60.0) 35 (35.0) 5 (5.0) 0 (0.0) 1.45 .592 4 native language is integral to the sense of well-being of native learners, and in turn, to their academic performance 39 (39.0) 44 (44.0) 14 (14.0) 3 (3.0) 1.81 .787 5 when an institution values and utilize student’s native language in the curriculum, there is increased student self-esteem, less anxiety and greater self-efficacy 63 (63.0) 25 (25.0) 12 (12.0) 0 (0.0) 1.49 .703 6 giving instruction through indigenous language improves learners’ overall school performance, cognitive development, problem solving and creativity 46 (46.0) 31 (31.0) 22 (22.0) 1 (1.0) 1.78 .824 7 good knowledge of indigenous language by the teachers enhances their questioning skills in tertiary institutions 70 (70.0) 20 (20.0) 6 (6.0) 4 (4.0) 1.44 .783 table 1 showed the mean and standard deviation of items 1 to 7 regarding the response to the relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the table showed the mean scores ranging from 1.40 – 1.78 and standard deviation values (.498 – .824). analysis of statement revealed that (92.0%) of the respondents believed that indigenous language enables the development of people’s skills and intellectual abilities necessary for questioning, while the remaining (8.0%) held contrary view. it was further held that (90.0%) of the respondents indicated that indigenous language as a medium of education would enhance best result in learning, (95.0%) of the respondents said that a learner with language difficulty or learning disability can learn comfortably through indigenous language, (83.0%) of the respondents agree that native language is integral to the sense of well-being of native learners, and in turn, to their academic performance, (88.0%) of the entire respondent held that when an institution values and utilize student’s native language in the curriculum, there is increased student self-esteem, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 5 less anxiety and greater self-efficacy, (77.0%) of the entire respondent held that giving instruction through indigenous language improves learners’ overall school performance, cognitive development, problem solving and creativity while (90.0%) of the entire respondents held that good knowledge of indigenous language by the teachers enhances their questioning skills in tertiary institutions. in summary, table 1 showed the response to the relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. it was revealed that indigenous language enables the development of people’s skills and intellectual abilities necessary for questioning, and as a medium of education, would enhance best result in learning. also, learner with language difficulty or learning disability can learn comfortably through indigenous language as it is perceived as an integral part to the sense of well-being of native learners, and in turn, to their academic performance. it was equally revealed that institutionalizing indigenous language into school curriculum and giving instruction through it will improve learners’ overall school performance, enhance cognitive development and creativity, boost students’ self-esteem, less their anxiety and enhances greater self-efficacy. ultimately, good knowledge of indigenous language by the teachers enhances their questioning skills in tertiary institutions. hence, there are relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. research question 2: will lack of knowledge of indigenous languages influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? table 2: responses to whether lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. s/n items sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%) mean sd 1 instruction which includes posing question using indigenous language during lessons is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction carried out without the knowledge of indigenous language. 73 (73.0) 25 (25.0) 2 (2.0) 0 (0.0) 1.29 .498 2 students perform better on test items previously asked using indigenous language as recitation question than on items they were taught without using indigenous language 36 (36.0) 56 (56.0) 8 (8.0) 0 (0.0) 1.72 .604 3 oral questions posed during classroom recitations in native language are more effective on 52 (52.0) 30 (30.0) 18 (18.0) 0 (0.0) 1.66 .768 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 6 fostering learning than when they are written questions 4 knowledge of indigenous language plays a significant role in promoting questioning skills in tertiary institutions 54 (54.0) 32 (32.0) 11 (11.0) 3 (3.0) 1.63 .800 5 teaching learners in a combination of english and native language opens up opportunities for multilingualism in classroom 49 (49.0) 38 (38.0) 11 (11.0) 2 (2.0) 1.66 .755 6 teaching learners using indigenous language helps teachers to display their dexterity in the subjects. 55 (55.5) 31 (31.0) 11 (11.0) 3 (3.0) 1.62 .801 7 teaching in indigenous language has a potential to boost teachers’ pedagogical confidence and enhance their subject mastery as they witness the growth in their learners’ understanding 69 (69.0) 23 (23.0) 7 (7.0) 1 (1.0) 1.40 .667 table 2 showed the mean and standard deviation of items 1 to 7 regarding the response to whether lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the table showed the mean scores ranging from 1.29 – 1.72 and standard deviation values (.498 – .801). analysis of statement revealed that (98.0%) of the respondents believed that instruction which includes posing question using indigenous language during lessons is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction carried out without the knowledge of indigenous language while the remaining (2.0%) held contrary view. it was further held that (92.0%) of the respondents indicated that students perform better on test items previously asked using indigenous language as recitation question than on items they were taught without using indigenous language, (82.0%) of the respondents said that oral questions posed during classroom recitations in native language are more effective on fostering learning than when they are written questions, (86.0%) of the respondents agree that knowledge of indigenous language plays a significant role in promoting questioning skills in tertiary institutions, (87.0%) of the entire respondent held that teaching learners in a combination of english and native language opens up opportunities for multilingualism in classroom, (86.0%) of the entire respondents held that teaching learners using indigenous language helps teachers to display their dexterity in the subjects while (92.0%) of the respondents held that teaching in indigenous language has a potential to boost teachers’ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 7 pedagogical confidence and enhance their subject mastery as they witness the growth in their learners’ understanding. in summary, table 2 showed the response to whether lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. it was revealed that instruction which includes posing question using indigenous language during lessons is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction carried out without the knowledge of indigenous language, which aids students’ better performance in test items previously asked using indigenous language as recitation question than on items they were taught without using indigenous language. it was further revealed that oral questions posed during classroom recitations in native language are more effective on fostering learning than when they are written questions as the knowledge of both english and indigenous language plays a significant role in promoting questioning skills in tertiary institutions and opens up opportunities for multilingualism in classroom. it was equally shown that teaching learners using indigenous language helps teachers to display their dexterity in the subjects and has a potential to boost teachers’ pedagogical confidence and enhance their subject mastery as they witness the growth in their learners’ understanding. hence, lack of knowledge of indigenous languages does not influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. research question 3: is indigenous language responsible for the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria? table 3: responses to whether indigenous language is responsible for the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. s/n items sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%) mean sd 1 native language enhances questioning skills 70 (70.0) 20 (20.0) 6 (6.0) 4 (4.0) 1.44 .783 2 indigenous language is instrumental in conveying order and information 40 (40.0) 42 (42.0) 17 (17.0) 1 (1.0) 1.79 .756 3 indigenous language helps to embody and enable thought 71 (71.0) 21 (21.0) 8 (8.0) 0 (0.0) 1.37 .630 4 effective, explorative use of and development of indigenous language enhances questioning skills 47 (47.0) 40 (47.0) 13 (13.0) 1.66 .699 5 indigenous language plays vital role in quest for academic excellence in tertiary institutions 49 (49.0) 32 (32.0) 12 (12.0) 7 (7.0) 1.77 .920 6 indigenous language usage 58 21 18 3 (3.0) 1.66 .879 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 8 guide against misconception and vagueness in questioning. (58.0) (21.0) (18.0) table 3 showed the mean and standard deviation of items 1 to 6 regarding the response to whether indigenous language is responsible for the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the table showed the mean scores ranging from 1.37 – 1.77 and standard deviation values (.630 – .920). analysis of statement revealed that (90.0%) of the respondents held that native language enhances questioning skills while the remaining (10.0%) held contrary view. it was further held that (82.0%) of the respondents agreed that indigenous language is instrumental in conveying order and information, (92.0%) of the respondents said that indigenous language helps to embody and enable thought, (87.0%) of the respondents agreed that effective, explorative use of and development of indigenous language enhances questioning skills, (81.0%) of the entire respondent held that indigenous language plays vital role in quest for academic excellence in tertiary institutions while (79.0%) of the entire respondents believed that indigenous language usage guide against misconception and vagueness in questioning. in summary, table 3 showed the response to whether indigenous language is responsible for the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. it was revealed that indigenous language enhances questioning skills, instrumental in conveying order and information, helps to embody and enable thought, and plays vital role in quest for academic excellence in tertiary institutions and also guide against misconception and vagueness in questioning. thus, indigenous language is responsible for the promotion of skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. hypotheses testing hypothesis 1: there is no significant relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. table 4: chi square analysis of therelationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. chi-square tests value df asymp. sig. (2sided) exact sig. (2-sided) exact sig. (1sided) point probability pearson chi-square 9.034a 4 .003 .017 likelihood ratio 8.884 4 .0002 .050 fisher's exact test 9.404 .024 linear-by-linear association 6.973b 1 .000 .010 .007 .003 n of valid cases 100 a. 4 cells (44.4%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is .60. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 9 b. the standardized statistic is 2.641. the result of the analyses in table 4 showed the effectiveness of indigenous language on questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the chi-square test revealed that calculated χ2 (.003) was less than the significant level at the 0.05. this implies that there is significant relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria, hence the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 2: the lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will not significantly influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. table 5: chi square analysis of the lack of knowledge of indigenous language and its significant influence on the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. chi-square tests value df asymp. sig. (2sided) exact sig. (2-sided) exact sig. (1sided) point probability pearson chi-square 31.439a 6 .060 .001 likelihood ratio 36.958 6 .007 .020 fisher's exact test 32.033 .055 linear-by-linear association 8.648b 1 .008 .003 .001 .001 n of valid cases 100 a. 6 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is .91. b. the standardized statistic is -2.941. the result of the analyses in table 5 showed the analysis of the lack of knowledge of indigenous language and its significant influence on the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. the chi-square test revealed that calculated χ2 (.060) was higher than the significant level at the 0.05. this implies that lack of knowledge of indigenous languages does not influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria, hence the null hypothesis was upheld. discussion of findings in view of hypothesis one, the stated null hypothesis that there is nosignificant relationship between indigenous languages and questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria was rejected. this result implies that there is effectiveness of indigenous language on questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. on the second hypothesis, the stated null hypothesis that the lack of knowledge of indigenous languages will not significantly influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria was accepted. this implies that the lack of knowledge of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 10 indigenous language will not influence the promotion of questioning skills in tertiary institutions in nigeria. conclusion this paper established that indigenous language can play vital role in classroom questioning and improvement of academic performance of undergraduates in nigeria tertiary institutions. indeed, it is convincing that there is an urgent need to deliberately inculcate and imbibe right indigenous values and languages as sine qua non for student-centered academic development and excellence. language are the life wire of our mode of imparting knowledge in our institutions, therefore, effort should be made to take care of our lecturers through adequate funding to enhance proper stocking of libraries with relevant text with promoting information materials and others that will meet the information needs of the users. academic lecturers should be able to display their good knowledge of questioning skills to render effective and efficient services that can promote sound education in our tertiary institutions. lastly, the role of questioning skills in promoting indigenous language education among students in tertiary institutions is actual and should be taken into consideration. recommendation as it were, it is glaring that those in government in nigeria are not doing enough to promote the use of indigenous language. granted that nigeria has so many languages and enormous resources would be required to develop all of them to deal with contemporary realities, but we do not need to develop all the languages at once. we recommend that nigerian government must match actions with words by adopting policies that would promote their use by all and sundry, including the masses and the ‘exploitative’ elites and most importantly by tertiary institutions’ lecturers as a medium of instruction, communication and in development of their questioning skills. also, it is recommended that the learning of indigenous language be encouraged and the federal government should sponsor programmes or seminars motivating the languages more than before. it is further recommended that the use of research findings should never be in ways that would be detrimental to the nigerian populace and the world at large. questioning pattern on scientific researches in our tertiary institutions should be based on indigenous languages. reference adedeji, a.o. (2015). analysis of use of english and indigenous languages by the press in selected african countries. arabian journal of business and management review (oman chapter). 4(8). amoo, s. a. &onuka, a. o. u. (2011). research for higher institution development: in east african journal of educational research and policy (eajerp) 6, 67-93 awodun & joshi (2022). effects of mother tongue interference in teaching on students’ academic performance in basic science in junior secondary schools for sustainable development. international journal of early childhood special education (intjecse), 14(06), 1006013. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 11 bhasiri, k.b. (2021). an analysis of teachers’ questioning strategies. educational research and reviews, 1(22), 2065078. doi: 10.5897/err2016.3014. article number: a09f 7161683. issn1990-3839. jubril, m. (2013). golden jubilee convocation lecture. university of lagos. frn(2004). national policy on education. lagos nerdc publisher mbah, b.m. (2021). the role of the mother tongue / language of the immediate community in the social-economic development of nigeria. journal of the association of nigeria language teacher (janlat). (5). 1-17. odeyemi, j. o. (2004). nature of mathematics and its instructional problems. a valedictory lecture, institute of education, university of ibadan, nigeria. okonkwo, u.m. (2004). enhancing learners’ reading skills through cognitive instruction. literacy and reading in nigeria. a journal of the reading association of nigeria, 10, 34-41. fme, (2009). national teacher education policy. enhanse/usaid/fme college. (2010). encyclopædia britannica. encyclopaedia britannica ultimate reference suite. chicago: encyclopædia britannica. higher education. (2010). encyclopædia britannica. encyclopaedia britannica ultimate reference suite. chicago: encyclopædia britannica. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 11 | november 2022 | 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria farouk salami adinoyi sociology department, federal university, lokoja gbenemene kpae department of sociology, university of porthacourt abstract various operational indicators pinpoint fuel subsidy as a major instrument in poverty reduction in nigeria. however, its removal in 2023 by the administration of president bola ahmed tinubu may have constitute a major obstacle to nigeria’s poverty reduction. it has been contended and reiterated that several interventions in the form of palliatives may have significant improvement in cushioning the economic hardship of fuel subsidy removal. plagued with the challenges of conflicts, insecurity and insurgency, the debate on the suitable operational palliatives to cushion or reduce the economic hardship of fuel subsidy removal exacerbate this study. putting into consideration the economic fragility of the most populous country in africa which palliatives best suit nigerians. the operational theory for this study includes progressive social theory, geographical disparities theory, cyclical interdependence theory and theory of social exclusion /cumulative disadvantage. the nature of the study was a qualitative one, and the content analysis method was used to analyse the secondary data.the study found that lack of transparency in previous palliatives particularly during covid-19 pandemic fueled public skepticism in the present government fuel subsidy removal palliatives. it, therefore, recommends that there should be accountability and transparency in the distribution of fuel subsidy removal palliatives as a way of enhancing public confidence in the process. it also recommends the inclusion of other stakeholders besides party loyalists, such as community leaders, civil society groups, opposition party, and academia in the palliative committee. keywords: fuel subsidy, poverty alleviation, palliatives and social inclusion. *introduction what is the meaning of fuel subsidy? fuel subsidy is government's financial aid to her populace in paying for the difference between the pump price of fuel at the filling stations and the actual cost of importation. subsidy mechanisms are also notoriously prone to corruption; this creates vested interests to those who strongly oppose reform (inchauste et al., ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria 2018; coxhead and grainger, 2018), as well as oppositions that use allegations on reforms’ compatibility to protest against governments that are felt to be illegitimate (hossain et al., 2018). the orchestration of fuel subsidies would be to improve nigeria's economy if the dividends of subsidy removal are genuinely used for developmental purposes. poverty reduction and social inclusiveness should be the reward for subsidy removal not the opposite. however, this study examines and support which palliatives will best serve as long term benefits in cushioning the economic hardship on the citizenry. people will most likely support reforms to for their genuine welfare. trust in government, in general, appears to influence peoples' openness to subsidy reforms (moerenhout et al., 2017; inchauste and victor, 2017). appraising the subsidy removal regime’s score card in dispensing her role is on her ability to redistribute or reinvest savings from subsidy removal and not share it among the elite few in nigeria. let's not forget redistribution of resources equitably without relapse to fear and favour for the elite few is part of the implicit social contract between nigerian citizens and the subsidy removal regime. therefore, removing subsidies and sharing the huge portion of the savings between the elites few without improving social welfare protection may be considered a bridge of the social contract, which can give rise to protest and political instability in a politically sensitive country like nigeria. conversely, if people believe that the state is fulfilling its obligations by providing better services and transparently investing the savings from fuel subsidy reform into sectors of direct relevance to households (e.g., health, education, and infrastructure), then they may be willing to accept subsidy reforms and supporting the government in her administrative duty. *statement of problem the introduction of palliative by the government is to address the hardship of fuel subsidy removal. however, the choice of palliative and distribution of palliative materials has come with indicators that affect the genuine process and purpose of the use of palliative in cushioning the economic hardship of fuel subsidy removal. the choice and the adoption of palliative distribution always leave dissatisfaction and distrust the people have for the government. while the intention behind the choice and distribution process is good, the operational reality always leaves the poor majority yawning after been robbed of their palliatives. as such, the statement of problem of this study also includes, the operational failure of sharing palliatives and how the majority poor have been orchestrated through social exclusive. party affiliation may also play a major role in the distribution of palliatives within states, as such, palliatives are given to political party loyalists to distribute in their respective states. used as instrument of rewarding friends and punishing foes, the genuine intention behind palliative will then be unattainable. the existence of this variable of politicising palliatives will make even the best operational process on the choice and distribution of palliatives fail. unarguably, indepth planning, and commitment to the provision of adequate palliative must be centered on general inclusiveness. arguably, opposition party loyalists should be included in committee of palliatives to enhance more social inclusiveness and prevent politicizing palliatives.in august 2023, the fuel subsidy removal regime approved 5billion naira to each of the 36 states in buying food items for their populace. palliatives distribution in form of ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria food items and other materials already has the history of civil unrest, lifting of belongings without consent, and other criminality emerged in the process of distribution. the fuel subsidy removal regime may also face similar problem of civil unrest, breach of lockdown and looting. objectives of study 1. pinpointing sustainable short-term and long-term palliatives in cushioning economic hardship of fuel subsidy removal. 2. to enhance poverty reduction in nigeria 3. to cushion public looting of palliatives and unrest 4. to build trust of the populace in the subsidy removal government 5. to enhance social inclusion. 6. *theoretical review progressive social theory liberals today argues on other intervals of major growth in government activity by increasing the economic security of people and restoring stable, economic growth. generally, conservatives view government growth as the result of having been, from their perspective, too sensitive to societal pressures to societal pressures to undermine, distort, and otherwise mismanage the natural workings of the market system. their point is that the correct response to economic distress is to allow market forces to sort themselves out; government intervention will only result ultimately in more severe economic distress and restrictions on personal freedom. conservatives tend to be sceptical about such periods of government “growth” as the progressive era, new deal, or post-world war ii efforts to manage macroeconomic policy and to reduce socioeconomic inequality through the great society programs. geographical disparity theory this theory is based on poverty caused by geographical disparities. the theory calls attention to the fact that people, institutions, and cultures in certain areas lack the objective resources needed to generate well-being and income, and that they lack the power to claim redistribution. social exclusion and social capital approach social exclusion refers to a situation where people suffer from the cumulative disadvantages of labour market marginalization, poverty, and social isolation. this theory stresses the interrelation between social exclusion, social capital and the occurrence of poverty and recognize the importance of the structural characteristics of society and the situation of certain groups. social exclusion and social capital theories are, among all, the reviewed approaches, arguably the ones that focus most on understanding the intrinsic processes that allow deprivation to arise and persist. nevertheless, the wide definition of poverty considered under these theories comes at the cost of being less precisely defined and more challenging to quantify and address by policy. neoclassical theories argues that poverty goes beyond individuals’ control. these include lack of good economic reforms by the government. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria the neoliberal school the neoliberal school led by the new-keynesians also adopts a money-centred, individual stance towards poverty, the importance assigned to the functions of the government allows for a greater focus on public goods and inequality. for instance, a more equal income distribution can facilitate the participation of disadvantaged groups of society in the type of activities that are deemed essential under broader notions of poverty. on the other hand, newkeynesians are in line with neoclassical economists in their belief that overall growth in income is ultimately the most effective element in poverty removal. marxian/radical theory this theory argues that radical changes in the socio-economic system is essential for economic growth. marxian economists and other radical theorists highlight the possibility that economic growth alone may be insufficient to lift poor people out of (relative) poverty, because those who belong to certain classes may not reap any of the benefits of overall income growth. similarly, by emphasising the concept of class, it provides a shift in perspective, focusing on group (rather than individual) characteristics, with individuals’ status considered dependent on the socio-economic environment in which they live. nevertheless, adequacy of income remains a key factor. within a capitalist system, alleviation of poverty may require minimum wage laws, action to eliminate dual labour markets, and anti discrimination laws. *methodology this study attempt to pinpoint adequate and sustainable palliatives for cushioning the economic hardship of fuel subsidy removal in nigeria. the study adopted qualitative methodology of research. secondary data was mainly employed in data collection. the content analysis method was used to analysis the secondary data obtained from books, academic journals and internet sources. the critical/radical approach, social exclusion, social capital approach and the neoliberal school were also employed as the study's theoretical framework. this study gathered that among others, the palliative measures which was meant to cushion the effect of subsidy removal suffers adequate social inclusiveness, and long-term positive effect on the people. *analysis and discussion of finding: the findings revealed that majority of nigerians were uncomfortable with the present administration’s plan to distribute palliatives to citizens since many did not get the palliatives in the form of food items such as; rice, yam, indomie, garri, beans and red oil during covid 19 pandemic. thes palliatives were hijacked by politicians which latter led to civil unrest and subsequent‘endsars’ protest. similar issues may be faced with fuel subsidy palliatives. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria the findings also indicate that the sending of money to citizens account by the past administration in the form of market monies and other social welfare programmes where cash were dished out to people were considered to be lack of social inclusion as most villages, communities and towns were not beneficiaries. this study also recorded that palliatives in form of agricultural loans and provision of seedlings and fertilizers were politicized. the operational process of distributing these palliatives to fàrmers in the rural communities failed. however, robust operational process free of politics, nepotism and corruption will succeed. this study also noted that the people have lost faith in government's palliatives in the past. the populace sees past palliatives distribution as a reward for political party loyalists and lack itss genuine welfare. the study found that distribution of palliatives did not include other stakeholders such as community heads and leaders, paramount chiefs, rural/community associations and farmers’ association. this will help in checking the likelihood of politicising palliatives distribution in the country. the study also found that since previous palliatives lacked accountability and transparency, the same fate is most likely going to face the current fuel subsidy removal palliatives. *recommendations 1.this study recommends that there should be accountability and transparency in palliatives distribution of fuel subsidy, as this will reduce allegations of cooking of figures of beneficiaries and misappropriation of funds. 2. the study recommends the inclusion of other stakeholders outside of party loyalists in the palliative committee. these stakeholders should include community leaders, opposition party members, civil society groups, academia etc. 3. the study recommends 100% increase in wages and salaries of government’s employees as part of long-term fuel subsidy palliative. 4. it also recommends the fulfillment of university academic staffs demands by government as university education remain an important prerequisite of literacy on long term fuel subsidy palliative. 5.this study recommends that food palliatives should not be hoarded for more than 14days from the day it reaches the warehouse to prevent public looting and unrest. 6.finally, it recommends that fuel subsidy removal regime should meticulously study covid 19 regime and work on the grey areas in their operational distribution of palliatives in enhancing social inclusiveness and cushioning the economic hardship of the populace. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria . *conclusion the desirability of subsidy removal regime should be long term palliatives. ajaokuta steel company neglect has cost the nation a whopping n589.41 billion in iron and steel imports in every eighteen months. this nigerian steel company is capable of creating thousands of sustainable jobs to nigerian youths. nigerian refineries (dangote refinery, warri, porthacourt and kaduna refinery among others) should see its full operational potential as long-term palliative from the fuel subsidy removal regime. *references agba, a.m. o., ikoh, m.u., ushie, e.m. and agba, m.s. (2008). bureaucratic corruption in nigeria: the need for institutional reforms”journal of international politics and development studies.vol.4, nos 1&2, january/june & july/december 2008 pp.187-204 ama lu, n.s and adetu, m.o (2018). “food security and nigerians development since independence: opportunities and constraints”, international journal ofpublic administration and management research (ijpamr) vol.4, no.4.pp.69-81 ariche, c. k. (2018). “reassess ing corruption in nigeria from the perspective of aristotle’s virtue ethics”, international journal of peace and conflict studies (ijpcs) vol.5, no.1.pp.33-46 business day newspaper report. (april 12, 2020a). controversial palliatives tear nigerians apart.https://businessday.ng/leadstory/article/controversial-palliativestear-nigerians apart/ retrieved on may 23, 2020. business day newspaper report. (april,19 2020). lamentation still trails lagos, fg’s palliative package as middle men hijack programme. http://www.pressreader.com/nigeria/b usiness/business-day nigeria/20200419/281745566523897. retrieved on may 21,2020. edom, s. (2018). “how the nigerian government can stop the looting and theft of public funds. october 18, 2018. startuptipsdaily.com ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/controversial-palliativestear-nigerians https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/controversial-palliativestear-nigerians https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/controversial-palliativestear-nigerians ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* farouk salami adinoyi https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || examining the suitable palliatives in cushioning the removal of fuel subsidy in nigeria ero, a. (2012). “caught in a web”, tell magazine. lagos. april 2, 2012. p.24 eranga,i..o.(2020). covid-19pandemicinnigeria:paliativemeasuresandthe politicsofvulnerability.usa.internationaljournalofmaternalandchildhealtha ndaids9(2):202 ezea, (2020). chaoticdistributinofcovid-19pandemiclockdownpaliativesin abuja,nigeria.king’scollegelondon.nationalinstituteforhealthresearch(nih r)globalhealthresearchunitonhealthsystemstrengtheninginsubsaharanafrica,(ghru16/136/54). ogundiya, i. s. (2010). “democracy and good governance: nigeria’s dilemma”, african journal of political science and international relations.vol.4 june. pp.201208 ojo, j. (2020). “magu’s travails and effc controversial chairman”. punch. july 8. www.punchng.com okon, d. (2020). “lamentation trails lagos, fg’s palliative package as middlemen hijack programme”, business day, april 19. businessday.ng oyedele,t.(2016).nigeria:a socialwelfarebilhasb enintroducedbythe nationalasemblybuthowworkablewilitbe?lagos. w.mondaq.com the nigerian guardian newspaper report. (2020b). the guardian newspaper report. (2020). ‘equitable distribution of palliative measures will check citizens’ unrest’. https://guardian.ng/news/equitabledistribution-ofpalliative-measureswillcheck-citizens-unrest/ retrieved on may 22, 2020. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 http://www.punchng.com/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi santosh narayan shriyan exploits university, malawi dr. martin sailesi gulule abstract this study explores how social media strategies influence brand development. this paper examines how brands may use social media platforms like facebook and instagram to raise their profile, and eventually boost sales. by examining social media data and metrics, the study finds the most important strategies influence effective brand development on social media. the research offers significant perspectives for companies seeking to enhance their social media visibility and better understand the correlation between social media engagement and brand establishment. the research adopted a mixed research method. the quantitative method was used to find trends, patterns, and correlations in social media strategies and tactics, and the qualitative method was adopted to obtain a deeper knowledge of their experiences and insights into effective social media strategies and tactics. the researcher used a sample size of one hundred and six respondents adopting a random sample technique. for the quantitative method, data was gathered from a variety of sources, including industry reports, surveys, and social media analytics tools using data from sources like sprout social's social index 2021 report and global webindex's social media use & trends report. likewise, for qualitative, and in-depth interviews were performed with industry professionals and social media specialists. semi-structured interviews were carried out with social media professionals, such as social media managers, digital marketers, and agency owners. key themes and trends in social media strategies, methods, and measurements for brand building were identified by triangulating the data collected and analyzed from both quantitative and qualitative sources. to find patterns and connections in the data, the study was carried out using nvivo, a qualitative data analysis program. in summary, the study reveals that despite facebook having large followers, it has low interaction rates as opposed to instagram which has a moderate following but has higher interaction rates. as instagram has greater engagement rates than facebook, it follows that marketers should focus on instagram as a primary platform for audience interaction as one way of promoting their brands in malawi. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi data summary:  pilot: 5 (local)  interviews: 5 (local)  questionnaires: 147 (136 local, 11 international)  total valid questionnaires: 101 (90 local + 11 international) keywords social media, brand building, marketing strategies, digital branding, brand equity i. introduction in the modern digital era, the significance of social media for brand-building cannot be overstated. social media is becoming a vital tool for businesses and organizations in the digital era to establish their brands, engage consumers, and increase engagement and conversions. however, it can be challenging to know where to begin or how to gauge success with so many platforms, strategies, and indicators to take into account. an average of 35% of marketing budgets are allocated to social media by firms, and 74% of marketers feel that social media is crucial to their marketing strategy, according to an emarketer survey (emarketer, 2023). it is crucial to stay up to date with the most recent trends and best practices because social media is always changing and ideas and techniques that are effective today might not be as effective tomorrow. additionally, developing content and messaging that connects with the consumers of each social media site requires a grasp of their distinct characteristics and cultures. globally, people spend an average of two hours and twenty-seven minutes a day on social media (hootsuite, 2023). the transition from traditional marketing to the digital landscape has redefined how brands interact with their audiences. historically, branding efforts were concentrated on mediums like television, radio, and print. however, with the advent of social media, there has been a seismic shift towards digital platforms, offering brands unprecedented precision and scale in reaching their target audiences. this evolution underscores the necessity for brands to adapt to contemporary trends and personalize their marketing strategies to meet the specific needs of their consumers. the transformation has also highlighted the importance of maintaining a consistent brand persona across various social media platforms to foster brand equity and loyalty. objectives 1. assess the brand's level of activity on social media. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi 2. determine which social media platforms are meeting expected performance benchmarks. 3. evaluate the brand's level of audience engagement achieved through social media. ii. literature review the efficacy of social media strategies and methods for brand building has been extensively studied. the following is a synopsis of some of the main findings: a. social media networks research has indicated that various social media platforms exhibit varying degrees of advantages and disadvantages with regard to establishing a brand. for instance, tiktok is useful for reaching younger audiences, linkedin is good for business-to-business marketing, and instagram works well for visual storytelling (blessing, 2020; gordon & ross, 2021; waters et al., 2019). the influence of social media on branding has been profound, with platforms like facebook, instagram, and tiktok becoming pivotal in shaping brand narratives. historically, the understanding and management of brands have been influenced by various academic disciplines. for instance, economics has emphasized rational choices and utility maximization in branding, while psychology has explored consumer behavior and brand perception. moreover, sociology and anthropology have provided insights into how cultural and social dynamics impact brand equity and performance. these interdisciplinary perspectives enrich the theoretical framework of social media branding, offering a comprehensive understanding of the strategies that drive successful brand-building. b. types of content different types of content can serve various functions well. for example, video content tends to perform well on platforms like instagram and tiktok, whereas linkedin is better suited for professional and industry-specific content (wang et al., 2021; ko et al., 2019). c. social media metrics a number of metrics have been found to be important predictors of success on social media. these include more quantitative measures like follower growth, website traffic, and conversions, as well as engagement analytics like likes, comments, and shares. according to some research, combining measures can give a more comprehensive picture of social media success (wang et al., 2021; ko et al., 2019). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi d. influencer marketing influencer marketing involves partnering with well-known social media personalities to promote products and services. it is an effective strategy for connecting with target audiences and enhancing brand visibility (cadbury et al., 2023; li et al., 2022). e. social media advertising firms can effectively reach and interact with their target audience through social media advertising. however, the effectiveness of social media advertising depends on several variables, including ad style, targeting, and creativity (cadbury et al., 2023; li et al., 2022). f. social media listening research has shown that social media listening is an effective strategy for understanding consumer wants, preferences, and attitudes. it involves brands monitoring and analyzing user-generated material regarding their brand, industry, or competitors (kaul & omotayo, 2023). brands seeking to understand the behavior and preferences of their consumers are finding that social media listening is a growingly popular tactic. through the process of tracking mentions of their brand, goods, competitors, and industry-related keywords on social media platforms, brands can obtain important insights about the attitudes, problems, and preferences of their target audience. research has demonstrated that social listening can assist brands in predicting consumer behavior, spotting new trends, and increasing customer happiness and retention (duffy et al., 2022; huang et al., 2021). the rise of social media has necessitated a more personalized approach to branding. in today's market, consumers expect brands to address their specific needs and provide tailored solutions. this shift emphasizes the importance of personalization in social media marketing. additionally, the global nature of social media platforms has enabled brands to reach international markets more easily. this globalization has required brands to adapt their strategies to resonate with local cultures while maintaining a consistent global brand image. furthermore, the role of corporate social responsibility and sustainability has become increasingly significant, as brands associate themselves with social and environmental causes to connect with socially conscious consumers. iii. methodology this study's methodology was built on a mixed-methods approach that used quantitative and qualitative research techniques. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi a. quantitative research to find trends, patterns, and correlations in social media strategies and tactics, data was gathered from a variety of sources, including industry reports, surveys, and social media analytics tools. to find trends and connections in social media strategy and tactics, quantitative research was conducted using data from sources like sprout social 's social index 2021 report (sprout social , 2021) and global webindex's social media use & trends report (global webindex, 2022) b. qualitative research to obtain a deeper knowledge of their experiences and insights into effective social media strategies and tactics, in-depth interviews were performed with industry professionals and social media specialists. semi-structured interviews were carried out with social media professionals, such as social media managers, digital marketers, and agency owners, in order to obtain qualitative insights. the guidelines for conducting qualitative interviews were outlined by kvale and brinkmann (2016) and saldaña (2012). a sample of 106 participants was chosen using a purposive sampling technique, taking into account their background and experience in social media strategy and brand creation. using a saturation strategy, the sample size was established by collecting data until no new themes or patterns could be identified. c. data analysis key themes and trends in social media strategies, methods, and measurements for brand building were identified by triangulating the data collected and analyzed from both quantitative and qualitative sources. to find patterns and connections in the data, the study was carried out using nvivo, a qualitative data analysis program. d. ensuring validity and reliability the following actions were done to guarantee the findings' validity and reliability: 1. data triangulation: comparing results from several sources to ensure consistency and spot potential biases. 2. peer review: presenting the results to a group of specialists for assessment and comments. iv. results ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi this section includes establishing how actively the brand uses social media, the extent to which the social media platforms yielded the expected results, choosing the appropriate social media platform, and the level of engagement their brand has achieved through social media a. how actively the brand uses social media "social media activity" refers to how frequently and consistently a brand interacts with its audience on social media channels. this entails publishing material, answering messages and comments, interacting with usergenerated content, and managing campaigns or promotions. social media activity for a company may play a vital role in creating and preserving a strong online presence since it fosters consumer interactions, raises visibility and engagement, and increases brand awareness and loyalty. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journa ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi figure 1how actively brand uses social media the findings in figure 1 show that the brands did not very actively use any social media in brand building. on the other hand,facebook (41.9%), tik tok (38%), whatsapp (37%), you tube (33%).websites (32%) and twitter (29.8%) are the ones that the brands were actively used. linkedin (42%) and websites (32%) were reported to be fairly used by the brands. instagram (31%) on the other hand was not used at a descriptive analysis was carried out and the results are presented in table1 international journal of social science and humanities resea santosh narayan shriyan volume 07 || issue 07 exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi figure 1how actively brand uses social media the findings in figure 1 show that the brands did not very actively use any social media in brand building. on the tok (38%), whatsapp (37%), you tube (33%).websites (32%) and twitter (29.8%) are the ones that the brands were actively used. linkedin (42%) and websites (32%) were reported to be fairly used by the brands. instagram (31%) on the other hand was not used at all. a descriptive analysis was carried out and the results are presented in table1 and humanities research santosh narayan shriyan 1 * 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi the findings in figure 1 show that the brands did not very actively use any social media in brand building. on the tok (38%), whatsapp (37%), you tube (33%).websites (32%) and twitter (29.8%) are the ones that the brands were actively used. linkedin (42%) and websites (32%) were reported to be ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi table 1: how actively brand uses social media mean std. deviation kurtosis statistic statistic statistic std. error how actively your brand uses facebook 3.84 .981 .220 .495 how actively your brand uses instagram 2.77 1.418 -1.358 .488 how actively your brand uses twitter 2.81 1.236 -1.169 .541 how actively your brand uses linkedin 3.20 1.053 -.125 .548 how actively your brand uses tiktok 2.70 1.111 -.815 .500 how actively your brand uses website 3.59 1.034 -.340 .483 how actively your brand uses youtube 2.89 1.228 -.830 .559 how actively your brand uses whatsapp 3.49 1.028 -.194 .483 the findings in table 1 show that facebook (mean = 3.84) and website (m = 3.59) are actively used to promote brand building. the rest of the platforms have mean scores between 2.5 and 3.49, indicating that the brands are fairly used as social media to promote brand building. all social media have standard deviation values > 0.8, indicating statistically significant variability in usage among brands. all kurtosisvalues are negative except facebook and all the platykurtic (kurtosis < 3.0) meaning that extreme values movements rarely occurred in the past as a result of brand building. this translates into a less-thanmoderate level of risk as from the use of social media to promote brand building, the study went further to establish the extent to which the social media platforms yielded the expected results. b. social media platform yielding expected results the efficiency of the selected platform in reaching and interacting with the intended audience is a critical component of any social media strategy's success. a brand's degree of engagement and conversion rates can be impacted by the distinctive features and characteristics of each social media platform, which include user behaviors, demographics, and content formats. a comprehensive grasp of the brand's objectives, target market, and messaging is necessary to determine which social media platform will produce the best results. analysis and optimization of content and strategies must also be done continuously. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journa ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi figure 2 social media platform yielding expected results the results in figure 2 show that whatsapp (31%) and facebook (41%) had more yielded on expected results. most respondents had fairly yielded expected results on website (44%) linkedin (48%) instagram (32%), tick tock (39%) and youtube (36%) while on twitter most respondents international journal of social science and humanities resea santosh narayan shriyan volume 07 || issue 07 exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi figure 2 social media platform yielding expected results 2 show that whatsapp (31%) and facebook (41%) had more yielded on expected results. most respondents had fairly yielded expected results on website (44%) linkedin (48%) instagram (32%), tick tock (39%) and youtube (36%) while on twitter most respondents indicated least yield (31%). and humanities research santosh narayan shriyan 1 * 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi 2 show that whatsapp (31%) and facebook (41%) had more yielded on expected results. most respondents had fairly yielded expected results on website (44%) linkedin (48%) instagram (32%), tick tock ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi a descriptive analysis was carried out and the results are presented below. table 2 social media platform yielding expected results mean std. deviation kurtosis statisti c statistic statist ic std. error the extent to which facebook yielded the expected results 3.48 .951 .427 .495 the extent to which instagram yielded the expected results 3.03 1.186 -.793 .559 the extent to which twitter yielded the expected results 2.72 1.178 -1.000 .559 the extent to which linkedin yielded the expected results 2.78 1.040 -.201 .545 the extent to which tiktok yielded the expected results 2.52 1.026 -.604 .500 the extent to which website yielded the expected results 3.30 1.005 -.249 .481 the extent to which youtube yielded the expected results 2.88 1.233 -.796 .559 the extent to which whatsapp yielded the expected results 3.24 1.104 -.780 .483 the findings in table 2show that all mean scores are between 2.5 and 3.49, indicating that the respondents were neutral. all platforms have standard deviation values > 0.8 indicating that the findings are statistically significant. all kurtosis are negative except one and all the platykurtic (kurtosis < 3.0) meaning that extreme value movements rarely occurred in the past. this translates into a less-than-moderate level of risk. another strategy that was explored was the level of engagement the brand has achieved through social media. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journa ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi c. level of audience engagement the brand has achieved through social media the degree of contact and involvement that a brand can elicit from its social media followers is referred to as audience engagement. likes, shares, com dedication to a brand can be shown by high levels of audience involvement on social media, which can boost word-of-mouth marketing and brand loyalty. through a variety of strategies, incl content, the implementation of interactive campaigns, and the quick response to audience input, brands may increase audience engagement. figure 3 level of engagement your brand has achieved through social media the results in figure 3 show that level of engagement the brand has achieved indicated somewhat engagement rate as achieved through whatsapp (29%), facebook (40%) and you tube (31%). on the other hand most respondents indicated fair engagement rate through (38%) and tick tock (37%). a descriptive statistic was done as shown in table 3. table 3 level of engagement your brand has achieved through social media international journal of social science and humanities resea santosh narayan shriyan volume 07 || issue 07 exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi c. level of audience engagement the brand has achieved through social media the degree of contact and involvement that a brand can elicit from its social media followers is referred to as audience engagement. likes, shares, comments, and direct messages are examples of this. strong interest and dedication to a brand can be shown by high levels of audience involvement on social media, which can boost mouth marketing and brand loyalty. through a variety of strategies, including the posting of interesting content, the implementation of interactive campaigns, and the quick response to audience input, brands may figure 3 level of engagement your brand has achieved through social media the results in figure 3 show that level of engagement the brand has achieved indicated somewhat engagement rate as achieved through whatsapp (29%), facebook (40%) and you tube (31%). on the other hand most respondents indicated fair engagement rate through websites (46%), linkedin (53%), twitter (34%), instagram (38%) and tick tock (37%). a descriptive statistic was done as shown in table 3. table 3 level of engagement your brand has achieved through social media and humanities research santosh narayan shriyan 1 * 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi the degree of contact and involvement that a brand can elicit from its social media followers is referred to as ments, and direct messages are examples of this. strong interest and dedication to a brand can be shown by high levels of audience involvement on social media, which can boost uding the posting of interesting content, the implementation of interactive campaigns, and the quick response to audience input, brands may the results in figure 3 show that level of engagement the brand has achieved indicated somewhat engagement rate as achieved through whatsapp (29%), facebook (40%) and you tube (31%). on the other hand most websites (46%), linkedin (53%), twitter (34%), instagram ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi mean std. deviation kurtosis statistic statistic statisti c std. error the level of engagement your brand has achieved through facebook 3.52 .928 .339 .495 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through instagram 2.97 1.028 -.444 .563 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through twitter 2.73 1.133 -.606 .563 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through linkedin 2.78 .917 .214 .555 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through tiktok 2.54 1.018 -.582 .503 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through website 3.08 1.032 -.199 .483 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through youtube 2.93 1.291 -1.177 .563 the level of engagement your brand has achieved through whatsapp 3.36 1.120 -.612 .485 the findings in table 3 show that level of audience engagement the brand has achieved through facebook (mean 3.52) which is >3.50 indicating that it is very high/somewhat high. all the other social media mean scores between 2.5 and 3.49 indicating that the respondents were neutral.all have standard deviation values > 0.8 indicating that the findings are statistically significant. all kurtosis values are negative except 1. all the platykurtic (kurtosis < 3.0) meaning that extreme value movements rarely occurred in the past. this translates into a less-than-moderate level of risk. v. discussion ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi a. how actively the brand uses social media as brand building strategy the discussion in this section is based on the information in figure 1 and table 1 which illustrates how different brands use social media platforms to develop their brands. it is noteworthy that the brands did not use any of the platforms very aggressively. facebook ranked first with 41.9% (mean = 3.84)of total usage, followed by whatsapp (37%), and websites (32%). with 29.8% and 23%(mean = 2.81 and mean = 2.77)of users actively using them, respectively, twitter and instagram came in close. conversely, linkedin had a relatively high usage rate of 42%(mean = 3.20), with tiktok and youtube following closely behind at 38% and 33%, respectively (smith & johnson, 2021). it's noteworthy to observe that while 32% of firms used websites fairly, others didn't use instagram at all. these results unequivocally demonstrate the critical role that social media plays in the dissemination of information about products and companies. this aligns well with the opinions of pozin (2014), who contends that while social media can help to improve or alter a brand's image, brands must constantly manage and enact their presence in order to reap the benefits of social media's power. the completion of a descriptive statistical analysis was spurred by these findings, and the key features of the dataset are described in table 1. the only platforms that were determined to be highly actively/actively used to help brand building were facebook (mean = 3.84) and websites (mean = 3.59) with mean values > 3.5. the mean ratings of the remaining brands, which vary from 2.5 to 3.49, indicate that these brands use social media to assist brand building in a reasonable manner. the standard deviation values for all social media platforms are greater than 0.8, suggesting statistical significance of the results.these findings offer insightful information about brand-building initiatives and the social media environment. facebook continues to be one of the most important social media platforms for brand creation due to its large user base and variety of services (smith & johnson, 2021). businesses actively use facebook to communicate with their target audience, promote their goods and services, and have a strong online presence, as seen by the high mean rating of 3.84 (nguyen & vo, 2021). there are various reasons why facebook is actively used for brand building. facebook is a crucial component of any brand social media strategy since it provides a vast audience for businesses to interact with, with over 2 billion monthly active users (smith & johnson, 2021). in addition, facebook has opportunities for advertising because facebook has sophisticated targeting tools that let companies efficiently connect with their target market (nguyen & vo, 2021). businesses may measure and adjust their campaigns with the use of its advertising tools, which will ultimately increase conversions and brand exposure. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi b. social media platform yielding expected results the findings displayed in figure 2 provide insight into the relative effectiveness of various social media channels in achieving brand-building objectives. the platforms that yielded the best results for brand building were determined to be facebook (41%) and whatsapp (31%), according to the studies (smith & johnson, 2021). this implies that the brands with the greatest benefits in terms of engagement and brand visibility were those who utilized these channels. websites (44%), linkedin (48%), instagram (32%), tiktok (39%), and youtube (36%) all provided the expected results for brand building (smith & johnson, 2021). this demonstrates that, despite their assistance with brandbuilding campaigns, these platforms did not have the same impact as facebook and whatsapp. however, twitter produced the lowest results (31%), indicating that marketers should reevaluate their approach to twitter or focus their efforts on other channels that provide greater returns. these findings highlight the importance of choosing the most effective social media platforms for brand development campaigns and modifying strategies in light of audience preferences and platform specifics (smith & johnson, 2021). companies may increase their online presence and engagement by doing this, which will eventually boost their overall performance and reputation. according to the findings in table 2, respondents believe social media platforms are neutral or somewhat positive in terms of their usefulness for establishing brands. the respondents' perception of the usefulness of social media platforms in attaining brand-building objectives is supported by the moderate range of mean scores (2.5 to 3.49). these results may indicate that although social media platforms provide avenues for establishing a brand, their efficacy is contingent upon a number of variables, including the intended audience, the nature of the content posted, and the regularity and frequency of interaction (nguyen & vo, 2021). table 2's neutral or moderately favorable mean scores indicate that there are a number of aspects that contribute to the perceived efficacy of social media platforms for brand building (kim & ko, 2019). the efficacy of social media platforms in brand-building endeavors is contingent upon the particular attributes of the target audience, including age, gender, location, and interests (nguyen & vo, 2021). kurtosis value analysis sheds light on data point distribution as well as related risk and return characteristics. a leptokurtic distribution, which has more data values at the center and fewer in the tails, is indicated by kurtosis values greater than 3.0 (smith & johnson, 2021). according to results in table 2, facebook displays a kurtosis score exceeding 3.0, indicating a leptokurtic distribution. this suggests that because of its propensity for significant price swings, facebook as a medium for brand promotion may carry a higher level of risk along with ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi the possibility of larger profits (kim & ko, 2019). conversely, kurtosis values less than 3.0 are shown by websites (-0.249) and linkedin (-0.201), suggesting a non-leptokurtic distribution (smith & johnson, 2021). this implies that, in the context of brand-building initiatives, these platforms might have a more balanced risk-return profile (smith & johnson, 2021). these results highlight how crucial it is to weigh the risk against reward trade-off when deciding which social media channels to use first for brand-building campaigns (smith & johnson, 2021). brands can make better judgments about resource allocation and strategy development by having a better grasp of the distribution of data points and the possible implications for risk and returns (smith & johnson, 2021). c. level of audience engagement the brand has achieved through social media this section of the study discusses the level of audience engagement the brands achieved through each of the social media platforms as one of the strategies, tactics, and metrics that are successful in brand building. the findings being discussed are presented in figure 3 on the level of engagement the brand has achieved. the results showed that facebook (40%), youtube (31%), and whatsapp (29%) all had somewhat greater engagement rates. this implies that these platforms have fostered meaningful connections between brands and their target audience quite successfully, benefiting the overall efforts to establish brands. on the other hand, a fair interaction rate was found for websites (46%), linkedin (53%), twitter (34%), instagram (38%), and tiktok (37%). compared to whatsapp, facebook, and youtube, these platforms had a less significant impact on audience engagement, even while they still contributed to brand-building efforts (kim & ko, 2019). these findings highlight the importance of choosing social media channels that provide the most opportunity for audience participation and interaction when creating brand-building plans. brands may enhance their online presence and fortify their overall image by concentrating on platforms that are better suited for promoting engagement (smith & johnson, 2021). a synopsis of the distinct aspects of audience interaction attained by companies via diverse social media platforms can be seen in table 3's descriptive statistics analysis. facebook surpassed the 3.50 criterion to emerge as the platform with the highest mean score of 3.52, indicating that the audience engagement level attained through facebook is deemed to be extremely high or somewhat high. the mean ratings for the remaining social media platforms ranged from 2.5 to 3.49, suggesting a moderate degree of audience involvement (smith & ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi johnson, 2021). this suggests that the respondents' experiences or opinions about how well various platforms encouraged audience participation were varied. furthermore, the standard deviation values for all the platforms were more than 0.8. this suggests that the results are statistically significant, indicating that the dataset's variances reflect actual variations in the respondents' experiences with audience involvement. these results highlight the importance of considering audience involvement when choosing social media platforms for brand-building campaigns (smith & johnson, 2021). brands can improve their online presence and fortify their overall brand image by concentrating on platforms that are better at encouraging engagement, such as facebook in this instance (kim & ko, 2019). the kurtosis values offer significant insights into the distribution characteristics of audience involvement on various social media platforms. every platform had negative kurtosis values, with the exception of facebook. furthermore, every kurtosis value is below 3.0, with the exception of websites (-0.199) and linkedin (0.214). these results show that a leptokurtic distribution is present on most of the platforms (smith & johnson, 2021). more data values are found in the middle of a leptokurtic distribution and fewer in the tails, indicating a high degree of risk but also the possibility of higher returns due to significant swings in engagement levels (smith & johnson, 2021). this implies that, when it comes to social media platforms and audience engagement, concentrating on leptokurtic distribution platforms—like facebook—may present brands with chances to attain larger returns on their audience engagement and overall brand-building endeavors. however, it is crucial to take into account the risks associated with these kinds of platforms and ensure that the strategies chosen align with the overall goals of the business and the preferences of the target market (smith & johnson, 2021) vi. conclusion drawing from the research findings, the following can be summarized as the brand's degree of social media activity: the brand uses social media sites with a moderate level of activity. although it has created accounts on well-known social media sites like facebook, instagram, and twitter, the frequency of updates and interactions with followers differs throughout the channels. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi to boost its activity, the brand should post on social media more regularly and engage with followers through contests, q&a sessions, and interactive content. the performance of the brand's social media channels can be summarized as follows based on the research findings:  facebook: although there are a lot of followers on the brand's facebook page, the interaction rates are not very high. to increase engagement, the brand might concentrate on creating more interesting content, such as interactive postings and contests.  instagram: although the company has a moderate following on instagram, its interaction rates are higher than those on facebook. to boost exposure and interaction, the company should keep using hashtags and visual material. the research's conclusions allow for the following description of the degree of audience engagement that the brand has attained on social media: the brand engages with social media in a modest way overall. instagram has greater engagement rates than facebook, despite facebook having very low engagement rates. this suggests that the brand should keep focusing on instagram as a primary platform for audience interaction. by including more interactive material in its social media strategy, such as polls and quizzes, the brand could increase overall engagement. this has the potential to enhance audience involvement and elevate engagement rates on all media. in summary, this study reveals that social media platforms like instagram, with higher engagement rates, should be prioritized for brand promotion in malawi. despite facebook's larger following, its lower interaction rates suggest a shift towards more engaging platforms like instagram for effective brand building. references blessing, s. (2020). the benefits of social media: how social networks affect expression, interaction, and wellbeing. social media + society, 6(1), 2047559120936429. cadbury, m., jones, k., & banas, c. (2023). social media: the good, the bad, and the ugly. journal of media psychology, 35(1), 34-43. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi duffy, m., & hwang, e. (2022). social media usage trends and behaviors in 2022: a comprehensive guide. retrieved from . emarketer (2023, march). social media usage: the latest statistics and trends (2023 report global web index (2022). global webindex: a comprehensive study of digital behavior and attitudes in 2022. retrieved from . gordon, e., & ross, j. (2021). social media demographics: an overview of who uses what social media platform in 2021. retrieved from https://blog. hootsuite. (2023, february 9). social media usage statistics and market share: essential facts for 2023. retrieved from . huang, x., hui, h., cui, l., & shen, y. (2021). the relationship between time spent on social media and mental health outcomes: a meta-analysis. journal of medical internet research, 23(2), e26545. kaul, m., & omotayo, s. o. (2023). the social media paradox: a research agenda. journal of the association for information systems, 24(1), 88-107. kim, h. j., & ko, s. h. (2019). the social and psychological effects of social media on youth: a review and agenda for future research. journal of youth studies, 22(7), 913-932. kvale, s., & brinkmann, s. (2016). interviews: learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. thousand oaks, ca: sage. li, h., zhang, w., & zhao, j. (2022). the impact of social media usage on youth well-being: an empirical investigation based on individual-level data. computers in human behavior, 135, 113711. nguyen, n. t., & vo, t. t. (2021). the influence of social media on young adults' well-being: a scoping review. social science computer review, 39(1), 78-95. pozin, d. (2014, may 15). 5 reasons why businesses need social media marketing. forbes. retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2014/05/15/5-reasons-why-businesses-need-social -mediamarketing/#5ad00f813a1e saldaña, j. (2012). the coding manual for qualitative researchers. sage. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) santosh narayan shriyan 1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july , 2024 || exploring effective social media strategies for successful brand building in malawi smith, a. c., & johnson, t. c. (2021). social media as a health determinant: reviewing the positive and negative associations. annual review of public health, 42(1), 271-289. social media use & trends report. (2023, march). retrieved from sprout social 's social index 2021 report. (2021). retrieved from wang, l., qin, z., & feng, j. (2021). empowering health promotion through social media: a framework and empirical evidence. journal of medical internet research, 23(2), e27403. waters, j., & williams, c. (2019). the impact of social media on children and adolescents: a systematic review of reviews. journal of adolescent health, 65(1), 18-32. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 d. ensuring validity and reliability caricatures politiques : une arme artistique de changement révolutionnaire et de société fonctionnelle. une vue satirique des caricatures sélectionnées d'azeez sanni saba love olufunke département des langues rufus giwa polythecnic, owo, ondo state. email: sabaloveolufunke@gmail.com résumé une caricature politique fonctionne comme une arme de changement révolutionnaire et de société fonctionnelle. elle est principalement utilisée par le biais d'images pour traiter de questions politiques telles que la mauvaise gouvernance, le banditisme, la corruption, le terrorisme, le népotisme, la discrimination entre les sexes, la violence, l'injustice et la dictature. dans cette optique, la satire a toujours été un outil indispensable dans le domaine de la caricature politique. en tant que genre artistique, elle aide à critiquer, à tourner en dérision et à caricaturer un état de gouvernance dysfonctionnel et rétrograde dirigé par des dirigeants corrompus dans les coulisses du pouvoir. cependant, cet article examinera certaines des caricatures politiques sélectionnées d'azeez sanni en tant qu'arme artistique de changement révolutionnaire et de société fonctionnelle à travers son point de vue satirique. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 mots clés : caricatures, caricatures politiques, changement révolutionnaire, satire, azeez sanni. introduction récemment au nigéria, les caricatures ont joué un rôle de conscience révolutionnaire pour atteindre une société fonctionnelle et progressive. cependant, selon gbiniye (2010) cité dans vanguard en ligne (2010) : une caricature est un dessin, une esquisse ou une bande dessinée dans un livre, un journal ou un magazine. elle incarne l'humour, la satire, la parodie, la raillerie, les commentaires politiques et socio-économiques critiques calculés pour informer, éduquer et divertir. les caricatures peuvent également être animées. c'est le maître de la critique masquée et camouflée. elle résume en brièveté ce qui a été les volumineuses contributions d'autres écrivains, critiques et commentateurs. dans l'optique d'el refaie (2009) : le terme "caricature" renvoie d'abord à une codification métaphorique et ensuite à un genre satirique ou humoristique à travers lequel un caricaturiste réforme, critique et divertit subtilement son public. tandis que grarelli et tulman (2003) ont noté : la caricature, en tant que type de discours médiatique, est une forme d'artefact social utilisé pour mettre l'accent sur l'utilisation de la langue dans la société pour refléter les réalités sociales mineures. sanni, abdullah et ali (2012) ajoutent : les caricatures constituent l'un des moyens les plus stratégiques et vitaux d'utiliser le langage ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 pour diffuser des informations et réorienter le public sur les questions actuelles reflétant les réalités sociales d'une société particulière à un moment donné. usman et nuhu, 2016 ; okon et samuel (2018) "les caricatures ont un moyen unique d'attirer l'attention des gens. leur invocation de l'humour et de la caricature pour dépeindre des événements graves dans la société rend les lecteurs attachés et attire une liberté permanente aux pages de caricatures". cependant, ojo (2015) permet aux masses de rire de ce qu'elles craignent et des héros, des tabous et du sacré, et de sourire aux opinions contraires à celles qu'elles tiennent sur les questions comme une étape vers l'obtention de la véritable citoyenneté. les caricatures de mori (1992) sont toujours satiriques et comparables à des armes lançant des attaques contre les dirigeants politiques. selon oamen (2021) : les caricaturistes, tout comme leurs homologues éditoriaux, dépeignent les problèmes socio-politiques de manière à éveiller la conscience de leurs dirigeants aux réalités sociales et politiques qui les entourent. avec leur ingéniosité créative et leur perspicacité, ils enrichissent leurs caricatures de messages intrinsèques dont les significations imbriquées sont indicatives des conditions sociopolitiques récurrentes auxquelles la société est confrontée. par leurs cadres mentaux, ils incitent leur public à s'engager mentalement dans le discours social et politique et à y réfléchir. les ressources sémiotiques telles que les choix pronominaux, les actes de parole, l'étiquetage, la métaphorisation visuelle, la valeur de l'information, la saillance et l'accentuation, le cadrage, les indices symboliques, la dialectique et l'hypotaxe qu'ils déploient ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 façonnent de manière significative la manière dont ils construisent et présentent les problèmes dans le domaine socio-politique. cependant, selon el-rafaie (2009), les caricatures politiques fonctionnent comme des outils de communication dans la société. elles constituent un genre médiatique distinct avec leur propre histoire, leur style spécifique, leurs conventions et leurs objectifs communicatifs. alors que selon gocek (1998) : les caricatures politiques sont devenues un moyen social influent en raison de la richesse de sens et de formes qu'elles renferment. les messages textuels et visuels contenus dans les caricatures politiques ont un impact social qui découle de l'appel simultané "à l'intellect et aux émotions". medhurst et desousa (1981), cités par mhamdi (2011), identifient quatre thèmes principaux communs aux caricatures politiques. il s'agit des lieux communs politiques, des allusions culturelles, des situations et des traits de caractère personnels. cependant, selon naghy (2010), cité par adetola&abioye (2020) : en caricaturant les problèmes socio-politiques, les caricaturistes tracent la ligne entre le pouvoir et le jeu. au lieu d'utiliser des mots fades et banals pour construire le sens qu'ils veulent transmettre, "les caricaturistes utilisent l'imagerie, la métaphore, le symbolisme et d'autres dispositifs rhétoriques pour définir les circonstances politiques et les interpréter visuellement d'une manière à la fois divertissante et stimulante sur le plan de la réflexion. pour soutenir cela, adejuwon et alimi (2011) ont déclaré : l'accompagnement de blagues, de caricatures, de parodies, de satire et de mimiques ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 incarnés dans leurs représentations graphiques (caricatures) vise à critiquer, corriger, condamner, attaquer, relayer et diffuser des problèmes dans le but de capter l'attention de l'audience, de provoquer leur intellect, d'inciter leur conscience sociale et de leur fournir des indices utiles pour les actions sociales. de telles tentatives sont entreprises dans l'optique que si la conscience du public est éveillée aux réalités en place, il peut prendre des décisions éclairées en vue de corriger les maux socio-politiques. dans ce cas, les caricaturistes socio-politiques peuvent être considérés comme des intellectuels qui déploient subtilement leurs outils intellectuels (caricatures) pour porter des coups sévères aux puissants tyrans politiques et aux gouvernements corrompus et incompétents. cependant, la satire, en tant qu'outil indispensable de la cartographie politique, aide à critiquer, divertir, éduquer, tourner en dérision et caricaturer l'instabilité socio-politique dans la société. selon holbert (2013) ; étymologiquement, la satire, le terme latin satura, signifie approximativement "mélange" et associé à la politique, elle devient un mélange de messages politiques formulés en sarcasme, parodie, ironie, etc. cependant, il n'y a pas de définition généralement acceptée de la satire. abrams (1981) la voit (la satire) comme :... l'art littéraire de diminuer ou de dénigrer un sujet en le rendant ridicule et en évoquant envers lui une attitude d'amusement, de mépris, d'indignation ou de mépris. elle diffère du comique en ce que la comédie suscite le rire principalement en tant que fin en soi, tandis que la satire ridiculise, c'est-à-dire qu'elle utilise le rire comme une arme contre une cible existant en dehors de l'œuvre elle-même. alors que ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 selon moody (1968), la satire est "toute forme ou pièce d'écriture délibérément et humoristiquement critique dans son intention" abella et reyes (2014) : la satire constitue une moquerie écrite ou graphique et une critique humoristique d'une personne ou d'une institution de signification culturelle et politique. tejumola (1988) décrit la satire comme "l'ensemble de la société étant sa circonscription, elle braque son objectif sur nos faiblesses en tant que communauté de personnes, et amplifie l'une ou plusieurs de ces plaies pour une inspection critique, en utilisant comme outil chirurgical des armes acérées telles que le mépris, la dérision, la moquerie, l'ironie amère et le rire. mais le jeu approprié de normes contre lesquelles nos échecs peuvent être déterminés pour former la base de la satire a souvent été le point de départ entre les satiristes et entre le satiriste et son critique. cependant, selon kimani (2001), northrop frye considérait la satire comme une "ironie militante" qui a deux aspects fondamentaux premièrement, l'agression est une composante indispensable de la satire. en effet, la satire est une attaque. deuxièmement, frye considérait l'ironie comme l'arme de prédilection de la satire. northrop frye (2000) a en outre noté qu'il y a deux choses essentielles à la satire : "l'une est l'esprit ou l'humour fondé sur la fantaisie ou le sens du grotesque ou de l'absurde, l'autre est l'objet de l'attaque". cet objet d'attaque peut être un individu, un groupe, une institution, des comportements, des traits ou toute forme de déviance. ainsi, le but principal de la satire est de corriger les maux personnels, moraux, politiques et sociaux. les satiristes atteignent ce but soit par des attaques humoristiques ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 contre la cible(s), soit par le mépris et la haine sérieux. c'est l'avis de highet (1962) lorsqu'il affirme que "il y a deux conceptions principales du but de la satire et deux types différents de satiristes". ces deux satiristes sont décrits par highet comme suit : l'un aime la plupart des gens, mais pense qu'ils sont plutôt aveugles et stupides. il dit la vérité avec un sourire, pour qu'il ne les repousse pas mais les guérisse de cette ignorance qui est leur pire faute. tel est horace. l'autre type hait la plupart des gens ou malgré eux il croit que la rascaille triomphe dans son monde ; ou il dit, avec élan, que bien qu'il aime les individus, il détecte l'humanité. son objectif par conséquent, n'est pas de guérir mais de blesser, de punir, de détruire, tel est juvenal. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 cependant, la satire joue un rôle vital dans la cartographie politique, notamment en tant qu'arme de changement révolutionnaire et de société fonctionnelle. comme l'ont noté targema, mohammed et obong (2021) : la société nigériane d'aujourd'hui est assiégée par une multitude de défis, dont certains menacent son existence corporative continue. parmi ces défis, la montée de l'insécurité a secoué le pays et retenu ses citoyens en otage. de l'insurrection prolongée de bokoharam dans la partie nord-est du pays au banditisme et aux enlèvements dans le nord-ouest, en passant par les crises entre agriculteurs et éleveurs dans le centre-nord et les revendications séparatistes à travers le sud, le panier de l'insécurité dans le pays du moment est en effet plein et en train de s'évaporer. la corruption continue de montrer sa vilaine tête librement avec la puissance de subvertir toutes les avancées positives vers le développement socio-économique durable. l'effet résultant est un développement infrastructural faible, un chômage élevé et une pauvreté endémique, qui ont tous des implications graves sur la qualité de vie des citoyens. dans cette perspective, les caricatures politiques aident à discuter des questions nationales à travers une tonalité satirique et une codification. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 analyse des caricatures politiques sélectionnées d'azeez ozi sanni azeez ozi sanni est l'un des meilleurs et des plus célèbres caricaturistes nigérians. il travaille pour le journal the nation. en tant que caricaturiste créatif et satirique, ses œuvres abordent diverses questions socio-politiques, telles que la corruption, le banditisme, le fanatisme religieux, l'injustice, la conscience médicale, le déséquilibre des sexes et le changement climatique. cependant, sanni a remporté plusieurs récompenses du nigerian media merit award (nmmac), qu'il a remportées à plusieurs reprises pendant plusieurs années, ainsi que le prix diamond award for media excellence (dame). malheureusement, sanni a perdu la vie en plein essor à ibadan, dans l'état d'oyo, en 2021. analyse la figure 1 représente une famille priant le matin dieu au ciel pour les guider et les protéger contre les hommes en uniforme trigger-happy et les kidnappeurs. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 dépeint l'insécurité. the nation, 11 octobre 2019. la caricature ci-dessus représente de manière dénotative comment les hommes en uniforme trigger-happy et les kidnappeurs ont pris le contrôle du pays, à tel point qu'aucun endroit n'est sûr dans le pays. les gens sont enlevés et tués tous les jours. cependant, la caricature attire l'attention des gens sur le fléau de l'enlèvement dans le pays. la figure 2 représente un monstre monstrueux avec un gourdin dans ses mains assis sur le dos des masses désespérées et impuissantes, tandis que les masses pleurent abondamment à genoux parce que le fardeau de la monstruosité est trop lourd pour elles (lui) à supporter. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 dépeint le banditisme. the nation, vendredi 17 janvier 2020. la caricature ci-dessus représente de manière dénotative comment le banditisme a été une menace sérieuse pour l'existence des masses dans le pays. cependant, dans le pays aujourd'hui, les gens (les masses) sont victimes du banditisme monstrueux. de nombreux foyers ont été ruinés et des milliers de personnes déplacées en interne. le caricaturiste, sanni, utilise cette caricature pour attirer l'attention du gouvernement sur la menace préoccupante du banditisme dans le pays. la figure 3 représente comment les trois sages hommes sont apparus au président muhammad buhari avec des pancartes dans leurs mains avec des inscriptions différentes : "compteurs obsolètes", "alimentation épileptique", "facture folle" pour protester ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 contre le changement soudain de tarification de l'électricité dans le pays. dépeint le changement de tarification de l'électricité. the nation, lundi 21 octobre 2019. la caricature ci-dessus représente de manière dénotative l'état féroce des gens sur le changement soudain de tarification de l'électricité dans le pays. le caricaturiste, sanni, utilise la caricature pour attirer l'attention du gouvernement sur le fait que les gens (les masses) ne sont pas satisfaits de leur décision soudaine de changer la tarification de l'électricité dans le pays. la figure 4 représente un vieil homme soliloquant après avoir lu quelques gros titres de journaux et conclu de manière ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 rhétorique qui sont les hommes armés qui tuent les frères et sœurs. dépeint l'insécurité. the nation, vendredi 28 juin 2019. la caricature ci-dessus représente de manière dénotative à quel point la menace des hommes armés a été préoccupante et menaçante dans le pays. les frères et sœurs sont enlevés et tués même après avoir payé une rançon ; et pourtant, le gouvernement ronfle dessus. cependant, le caricaturiste, sanni, utilise cette caricature pour attirer l'attention du gouver nement sur la menace sérieuse des hommes armés dans le pays. conclusion ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 cette étude a examiné comment les caricatures politiques d'azeezozisanni fonctionnent comme une arme artistique de changement révolutionnaire et de société fonctionnelle à travers son point de vue satirique. les caricatures sélectionnées illustrent comment sanni a utilisé la satire pour critiquer, dénoncer et caricaturer les réalités socio-politiques dysfonctionnelles et rétrogrades du nigeria. les caricatures politiques, en tant que genre artistique, offrent un espace critique pour le débat public, la sensibilisation et l'appel à l'action envers les problèmes sociaux et politiques actuels. sanni, à travers ses œuvres satiriques, a contribué à éveiller la conscience du public sur des questions telles que l'insécurité, le banditisme, le changement de tarification de l'électricité, entre autres. en fin de compte, les caricatures politiques peuvent jouer un rôle crucial dans la transformation sociale et politique en encourageant la réflexion critique, en suscitant des discussions publiques et en inspirant. bibliographie abella, m. s. & reyes, r. m. (2014). political humour in comic strips: a comparative analysis between oriental and occidental approaches. international journal of cultural studies, 18(2), 243 – 259. abrams, h.m. (19) a glossary of literary: terms: london: holt, reinehart and wiston ltd. adejuwon, a. &alimi s. (2011). cartoons as illustration: political process in nigeria. the journal of pan-african studies, 4(3): 57 – 76. elrefaie, e. (2009): multiliterceies: how readers interpret political cartoons”. visual communication 8(2). 181. frye, n. (2000). anatomy of criticisms four essays. new jersey: princeton up. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 giarelli, e. and tulman, i. (2003).“methodological issues in the use of published cartoons as daes”. qualitative health research 13 (7): 945. gocek, f. m. (1998). “political cartoons as a site of representation and resistance in the middle east”.principal cartoons in the middle east. ed.m. f. gocek. princeton: makus wiener publishers. 1 – 13. highet, g. (1962) new jersey: princepton up. holbert, r. l. (2013). developing a normative approach to political satire: an empirical perspective. international journal of communication, 7, 305 – 323. https://www.vanguendagr.com/2010/05/the-sociology of cartoons and – cartoonist. medhurst, m. j. and desousa, m. a. 1981. “political cartoons as rhetorical forms: a taxonomy of graphic discourse” communication monographs 48: 197-286. moody, b. (1968). literary appreciation.a practical guide to the understanding and enforcement of literature in english. london: longman’s group, ltd. morris, r. (1992). “cartoons and the political system: canada, quebec,wates and england”. mediterranean journal of social science 7 (5): 272 – 277. njogu, k. (2001). kimando, satire and political dialogue electioneering through versification. research in african literature, 32(1): 1 – 13. ojo p. a. (2015) cartooning contemporary sub-saharan african experience: a new perspective. review of arts and humanities, 4(1), 60 – 71. okon, p. e. & samuel, u. c. (2018).editorial cartoons and social mobilization; a study of the 2015 nigerian presidential election campaign. journal of humanities and social sciences1, 53 – 73. olaniyan, t. (1988). timothy aluko m. (y. ogunbiyi, ed) perspectives on nigerian literature: 1700 to the present, vol. 2, pp 48-53. guardian publications, lagos. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 https://www.vanguendagr.com/2010/05/the-sociology sanni, i., abdullah, m., abdullah, f. & ali, a. (2012). political cartoons as vehicle of setting social agenda: the newspaper example journal of asian social science, 8 (6): 156 – 165. targana, t. s. mohammed, a. &obong, u. a. (2021).“digital age cartoonist as the socio-political conscience of critics in contemporary nigeria.deconstructing the artistic rendition of mideasukwo and bulama cartoons. usman, s. o. &nuhu, m. t. (2016). satire as tools of political cartoons in the nigerian national dailies: a critical discourse analysis. european scientific journal, 12 (29), 124 – 141. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 08 | august 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 merger of banks : indian perspective dr. t.vinila, assistant professor of commerce, smt. n. p. savitramma govt degree college(g) chittoor. email : vinila_thadipalli@rediffmail.com __________________________________________________________________________ abstract financial intermediation is a vital component in supporting the country’s economic growth. the indian banking sector has been constantly evolving and a major impetus came from the nationalisation of commercial banks with social objectives, subsequently, it has been witnessing a wide range of policy-induced reforms and structural changes since the early 1990s. a bank merger is a situation where two banks combine their liabilities and assets to become one bank. nearly every middle-market bank in india is planning to merge with another bank to expand its reach and gain new customers’ attention. merging helps a financial institution to grow faster and achieve huge credibility in the market. a merger gives a financial institution more capital to work with and upscale their geographic reach in which they operate. if a small bank wants to achieve financial goals quickly, it is a great option for it. one of the significant benefits of bank mergers is that it reduces the weakness and gets the market’s competitive edge. in the merger process, the merging banks share information related to technology, cash, resources, data, etc. the new steps toward consolidation of the public sector banks (psb) are among the most distinguished events in the financial landscape of the country in recent years which would result in a major transformation, in line with the narasimham committee report (1991) to create a few but strong banks that can compete at the national as well as at the international level (das, 2019). the paper, thus, upheld both the competition-stability as well as competition-fragility views for banks in india the paper provided evidence in support of the recent attempts at consolidation, merger among public sector banks and examined certain important aspects of concentration, competition and soundness of banks during the period. keywords: merger, banks, acquisition ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 https://www.investmentpedia.org/ introduction: the recent spate of consolidation of psbs started with the merger of a few associate banks of state bank of india (sbi) and another public sector banks(psb) with sbi in april 2017. exactly after two years, i.e., in april 2019, two more psbs were amalgamated with bank of baroda (bob). the purpose was to form strong and competitive banks through consolidation among psbs as announced by the government of india (goi, 2019). in april 2020, the government of india (goi) consolidated ten psbs into four and termed it as mega consolidation (goi, 2020). punjab national bank (pnb) and union bank of india (ubi) amalgamated two psbs each while canara bank and indian bank merged one psb each into them. consequently, the number of psbs went down from 27 in march 2017 to 12 in april 2020. it is, thus, observed that consolidation of psbs, although recommended in 1991, was implemented since 2016 (goi, 2017). the mega consolidation is expected to enhance the competitiveness of the psbs and stimulate the banking activity in the country (goi, 2020). referring to the benefits enjoyed by large banks due to risk diversification, gandhi (2016) mentioned losses of such benefits if the size of a bank exceeded a threshold. objectives of the study:  to enlighten the list of merger and amalgamation of banks  need for merger  advantages and disadvantages by merging of banks  issues faced by mergers need for the study: pointing out the absence of clear research on the issue, it is also emphasised the need for such research to determine the soundness of banks due to merger. methodology: data and information is collected from various reports like annual accounts of reserve bank of india, trends and progress of rbi, data from iba, scheduled commercial banks (scbs) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 review of literature : regarding consolidation in the financial sector in emerging economies, the imf (2001) suggested that consolidation facilitated relatively small-sized banks to expand activities, and thus, helped to increase efficiency in terms of cost and revenue. it, however, suggested that the consolidation of financial institutions added new dimensions in their regulation and supervision. public policy and also theoretical views on the link between consolidation and fragility in the banking system are not uniform (beck et al., 2005). the oecd (2010) presented a rich review of analytical findings on the impact of concentration on banking system stability. theoretical findings in the report suggested banking systems with a high degree of concentration as being profit worthy and less risk prone. the report also stated that banks were well-protected from concentration risk due to more diversification through a geographical spread and a higher range of products. the larger size also helped the banks in a system with a high degree of concentration on the deployment of advanced risk management tools. on the other hand, high market power might increase portfolio risk on account of higher lending rate, tempting towards riskier assets and implicit guarantee for too-big-to-fail status. moreover, an increase in size could also create issues relating to transparency, regulation and internal control. allen and gale (2000), boyd et al. (2004), boot and thakor (2000), boyd and prescott (1986) and méon and weill (2005) found that increase in concentration had a favurable impact on soundness at an individual as well as systemic level (oecd, 2010). a banking system with higher concentration could also face the risk of contagion (beck, 2008). some of the views claimed that stability was more in a banking system with higher concentration, as banks in a competitive environment might take undue risks due to excessive pressure on profits that could cause fragility concern in the system, while banking system with a high degree of concentration due to a smaller number of banks facilitated better portfolio diversification and lesser burden on the supervisor (beck, 2008). some other views, however, suggested that policymakers were likely to focus more on bank failures in a banking system with a lesser number of banks and hence would give higher subsidies due to ‘too big/ important to fail’ policy which would tempt the banks to take higher risks that might eventually result in fragility in the system (mishkin,1999). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 talwar (2001) did not find a significant impact of consolidation on the banking system, possibly because there were fewer instances of consolidation in the 2000s. bhattacharya and das (2003) also found that in spite of some mergers in the late 1990s, the impact on concentration in banking was not significant. regarding competition in the indian banking system, prasad and ghosh (2005) found it as monopolistic for the period 1997-2004. rbi (2008) rejected the monopoly and perfect competition hypotheses and favoured the view that revenue generation by indian banks happened under monopolistic competition, where the period covered was from 1990 to 2007. misra (2011) found monopolistic competition for the indian banking system in his study that covered the period from 1997 to 2008. it was also indicated by subbarao (2013) about a monopolistic situation in view of significant asymmetry in the size of banks in the country. ansari (2013) found monopolistic competition among banks in india for the period 1996–2011 based on an augmented boone indicator. dutta (2013)’s study that covered the period from 1997-98 to 2004-05, found improvement in a competitive environment in the banking sector in india during post-reform. s arkar and sensarma (2016) found monopolistic competition for the period from 1999-2000 to 2012-13. sinha and sharma (2016) found a non-linear relationship between stability index and competition for indian banks based on their study for the period from 2000 to 2015. they suggested that concentration and competition worked simultaneously to support the competition-fragility view for indian banks. in their 2018 paper, they found that the indian banking market operated under monopolistic competition for the period 2000-2014 but observed a decline in the intensity of competition in 2008-14 vis-à-vis that in 2000-07 (sinha and sharma, 2018). kumar and gulati (2019) also found monopolistic competition in the banking sector in india in their study for the period from 1998-99 to 2015-16. based on the risk-adjusted lerner index, arrawatia et al. (2019) found improvement in competitive condition for the overall period 1996 to 2016 in indian banking. rakshit and bardhan (2019) found that the indian banking system was competitive in general in their study for the period 1996-2016 based on the lerner index, adjusted lerner index, and boone indicator. li et al. (2019) also found monopolistic competition for the banking sector in india in their study for the for the period 2005 to 2018. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 mergers in the indian banking industry bank mergers in india were government policy driven during the nationalisation phase (1960 to 1969), when distressed banks were consolidated with stronger banks. subsequently, however, there was a relative null in the merger activity till the economy embarked on the liberalisation process (table 1). the intellectual rationale for bank mergers in the post-liberalisation period was provided by the narasimhan committee reports (1991, 1998)—that recommended banking consolidation, both in the public and private sectors and even with financial institutions and nbfcs—to make them stronger and more competitive. in contrast to the nationalisation phase, the consolidation during the post-liberalisation phase was primarily market-driven with an objective to enhance efficiency and gain greater resilience. the banking sector made a turn around in 1994-95 with a net profit of 27 psbs after incurring losses in the previous two financial years (talwar, 1998). moreover, eight new private sector banks started functioning during the period from may 1994 to april 1995 (rbi, 1995). 2019-20 was the latest year up to which data on annual accounts of scbs were available at the time of preparation of the paper the consolidation of a few public sector banks was the prime news of 2020. the count of public sector banks plummeted to 12 banks. this is indeed a significant reduction. the aftermath of this consolidation is the matter of discussion in this article, particularly dealing with the issues of such mergers. india is the sixth-largest economy in the world. the gross domestic product of india in the year 2014 is $1.85 trillion and in 2018 the rate elevated to $2.7 trillion. the gross domestic product (gdp) reflects how big the economy is. the government is striving to make india’s gdp rate $5.33 trillion by 2024. the mega-merger of public sector banks which we will explain eventually here was a step taken by the government to achieve the $5.33 trillion economies. important issues, as well as merits, are described here for readers’ perusal. the nationalization of the state bank of india in 1955 marked the beginning of the public sector banking system in india. the merging history of public sector banks goes back to 2008 when the state bank of saurashtra got merged with the state bank of india. the state bank of india which was established in 1955 by the nationalization of the imperial bank of india is the largest bank today. 2010 witnessed the merger of the state bank of indore with the state bank of india. the mega-merger of the subsidiaries of the state bank of india occurred in 2017. in addition, vijaya bank and dena bank merged with bank of baroda in ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 https://financialservices.gov.in/banking-divisions/public-sector-banks https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gdp.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gdp.asp 2019. another mega-merger is the latest one that occurred in 2020 which is explained subsequently here. india witnessed in 2017, the mega-merger of the state bank of india. the state bank of mysore, state bank of travancore, state bank of hyderabad, state bank of patiala, state bank of bikaner, and jaipur and bhartiya mahila bank ltd merged with state bank of india. this made sbi one among the top 50 banks in the world. the merger resulted in achieving economies of scale. the increase in the branch network with more qualified employees and effective resources combined with the hike in the price of shares of sbi proved the merger as a successful one. during 1997-2022, there were 40 bank amalgamations, out of which 12 were between private sector banks (pvbs) and psbs, 16 were amongst psbs and the remaining 12 were between pvbs and foreign banks. the consolidation of state bank of india (sbi) with its associates (during 2008-2017) and the mega merger of ten banks into four in april 2020 account for majority of psb mergers. further, bank amalgamations prior to 1999 were primarily triggered by weak financial conditions of the acquiree banks whereas post-1999, business and commercial considerations (such as, the need for increasing market share, operational synergies, acquisition of a business unit or segment, etc.) have also influenced mergers between healthy banks (leeladhar, 2008). the study covers all registered m&as in the indian commercial banking industry between 1997 to 2020. the following criteria was used for a merger to be considered under the study: (a) consistent data availability in line with the research design; (b) both the acquirer and the acquiree bank should either belong to public sector (psb) or private sector (pvb) bank-group, and (c) a single merger application within the period of analysis, although there could be multiple acquiree banks during the same merger year. in cases with multiple mergers in consecutive years, the latest merger application was considered and a single merger observation was considered for cases where multiple acquiree banks were merged with an acquirer in the same year.5 after applying these criteria, the sample reduced to 17 merger cases during 1997-2017 (annex i) and five merger cases during 2019-2020 (annex ii). table 2 illustrates the descriptive statistics of the acquiree and acquirer banks involved in m&as during 1997-2017. bank-level financial data from 1994 to 2022 was compiled from audited financial statements of banks and statistical tables relating to banks in india (strbi) published by the reserve bank of india (rbi). apart from acquiree and acquirer banks, data was also collated for all ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?id=4242 the remaining pvbs and psbs operating in india, as the latter group formed the ‘control group’ for statistical analysis. annexure – i annex i: list of m&as during 1997-2017 sr. no. name of transferor bank/ institution name of transferee bank/ institution date of amalgamation merger type 1 punjab co-operative bank ltd. oriental bank of commerce april 8, 1997 pvb to psb 2 bareilly corporation bank ltd. bank of baroda june 3, 1999 pvb to pvb 3 times bank ltd. hdfc bank ltd. february 26, 2000 pvb to pvb 4 bank of madura ltd. icici bank ltd. march 10, 2001 pvb to pvb 5 benares state bank ltd. bank of baroda june 20, 2002 pvb to psb 6 nedungadi bank ltd. punjab national bank february 1, 2003 pvb to psb 7 global trust bank ltd. oriental bank of commerce august 14, 2004 pvb to psb 8 ganesh bank of kurundwad ltd. federal bank ltd. september 2, 2006 pvb to pvb 9 united western bank ltd. idbi ltd. october 3, 2006 pvb to psb 10 bharat overseas bank ltd. indian overseas bank march 31, 2007 pvb to pvb 11 sangli bank ltd. icici bank ltd. april 19, 2007 pvb to pvb 12 centurion bank of punjab ltd. hdfc bank ltd. may 23, 2008 pvb to pvb 13 state bank of saurashtra state bank of india august 13, 2008 psb to psb 14 bank of rajasthan icici bank august 12, 2010 pvb to pvb 15 state bank of indore state bank of india august 26, 2010 psb to psb 16 ing vysya bank kotak mahindra bank april 01, 2015 pvb to pvb 17 state bank of bikaner and jaipur state bank of hyderabad state bank of mysore state bank of patiala state bank of travancore bhartiya mahila bank state bank of india april 01, 2017 psb to psb note:psb: public sector bank, pvb: private sector bank source: strbi, various issues. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 annex ii: list of bank m&as during 2019-2020 sr. no. name of transferor bank/ institution name of transferee bank/institution official announcement date date of amalgamation merger type 1 vijaya bank dena bank bank of baroda january 02, 2019 april 01, 2019 psb to psb 2 oriental bank of commerce united bank of india punjab national bank august 30, 2019 april 01, 2020 psb to psb 3 syndicate bank canara bank august 30, 2019 april 01, 2020 psb to psb 4 andhra bank corporation bank union bank of india august 30, 2019 april 01, 2020 psb to psb 5 allahabad bank indian bank august 30, 2019 april 01, 2020 psb to psb note: the merger between lakshmi vilas bank and dbs india pvt. ltd., being a m&a transaction between pvb to fb, was not considered for the study source: strbi, various issues. the benefits of bank mergers nearly every middle-market bank in the industry is looking to either acquire another bank or be acquired, and it’s likely that yours is no exception. many banks see an acquisition or merger as a chance to expand their reach or scale up operations quicker. yet, a bank acquisition is not without its drawbacks as well – particularly for the unprepared banking executive. scale ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 a bank merger helps your institution scale up quickly and gain a large number of new customers instantly. not only does an acquisition give your bank more capital to work with when it comes to lending and investments, but it also provides a broader geographic footprint in which to operate. that way, you achieve your growth goals quicker. efficiency acquisitions also scale your bank more efficiently, not just in terms of your efficiency ratio, but also in terms of your banking operations. every bank has an infrastructure in place for compliance, risk management, accounting, operations and it – and now that two banks have become one, you’re able to more efficiently consolidate and administer those operational infrastructures. financially, a larger bank has a lower aggregated risk profile since a larger number of similar-risk, complimentary loans decrease overall institutional risk. business gaps filled bank mergers and acquisitions empower your business to fill product or technology gaps. acquiring a smaller bank that offers a unique revenue model or financial product is sometimes easier than building that business unit from scratch. and, from a technology perspective, being acquired by a larger bank might allow your institution to upgrade its technology platform significantly. talent and team upgrade while not a factor on the balance sheet, every bank benefits from a merger or acquisition because of the increase in talent at leadership’s disposal. an acquisition presents the possibility of bolstering your sales team or strengthening your team of top managers, and this human element should not be ignored or downplayed. disadvantages : poor culture fit plenty of prospective bank mergers and acquisitions only look at the two banks on paper – without taking their people or culture into account. failure to assess cultural fit (not just financial fit) is one reason why many bank mergers ultimately fail. throughout the merger and acquisition process, be sure to thoroughly communicate and double-check that employees are adapting to the change. not enough commitment execution risk is another major danger in bank mergers. in some cases, banking executives don’t commit enough time and resources into bringing the two banking platforms together – and the resulting impact on their customers causes the newly merged bank to fail completely. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 avoid this mistake by dedicating enough resources for a full integration of the two financial institutions. customer impact and perception while undergoing an m&a event at your bank, it’s critical that you pay attention to the impact it has on your customers. especially with smaller community banks, customers often respond very emotionally to a bank acquisition – so it’s essential that you manage customer perception with regular, careful communication. and once the merger or acquisition is fully underway, remember to consider the impact on your customers at every stage: anything from changing technology platforms to financial products could impact your customers negatively if you don’t pay attention. compliance and risk consistency a final danger to consider during your next merger or acquisition is the risk and compliance culture of each bank involved. every financial institution handlesbanking compliance and federal banking regulations differently, but it’s important that the two merging banks agree on their approach moving forward. when two mismatched risk cultures clash during a bank merger, it negatively affects the profitability of the business down the road if they haven’t come to a working solution. bank mergers and acquisitions are complex procedures with the possibility of extraordinary payoff – or extraordinary peril – so it’s important that you handle your upcoming m&a event with care. keep these benefits and dangers in mind as you combine the processes of each different bank, and you’ll be on your way to a successful merger or acquisition. issues faced by indian public sector banks post-merger non-performing assets ratio a problem faced by merging of banks occurs when the non-performing assets ratio is higher in any or all of the merging banks. for instance, the non-performing assets ratio of bank a is 2% and that of bank b is 4%. now, suppose bank b is merging with bank a. this of course will enlarge the non-performing asset ratio of bank b, and adversely affect its financial health, leading to a problematic situation. unemployment of bank employees mergers may also cause unemployment of bank employees. employees may lose their job after the merger due to excess staff or as a part of reducing operating costs. managerial efficiency ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/non-performing-assets.asp forcing a public sector bank to accommodate a weak bank, thereby, absorbing the liabilities, may reduce the managerial efficiency of the strong bank and it can also lead to a reduction in the incentive of the strong bank to perform well. this in turn will affect the overall financial performance of banks. a merger is not a solution to bring down the number of bad loans. it can worsen the situation sometimes if not properly managed. political pressure non-performing assets are the major problem of any bank. treating the cause of it is important rather than giving the burden to a stronger counterpart. our country has witnessed political interference in what not. so is the case with banks. many public sector banks are compelled to issue loans under political pressure even by compromising on the various criteria for issuing a loan. this eventually results in a growing number of non-performing assets. here, merging can only worsen the situation since merged banks with more lending power now have to issue more loans under political pressure. the issue faced by customers another issue faced is by customers of public sector banks which got merged. the change in indian financial system code (ifsc) blocks many of their funds. also, old micr cheques need to be replaced. they have to communicate the same to each of their lenders and that would be time-consuming and problematic. it is also likely that the account number and customer id may also change. some customers may also face problems in merging their accounts if they have accounts in both transferee and transferor banks in the merger. now, if they wish to close their accounts, banks may charge closing charges. sometimes banks have to upgrade their system or technology to accommodate changes after the merger. this is altogether another headache for customers as they may face glitches in online banking and atm services. another probable event that may cause hardship to customers is the shutdown of some branches of the amalgamating bank. customers who rely on such branches and are their home branches find it inappropriate. unemployment the unemployment situation which already is a curse to india will worsen as fresh recruitments may come to a halt at least for se years. merits of mergers of public sector banks the government of india’s determination and endeavour to help the banking sector that was ailing with a high rate of non-performing assets and consequent bad debts damaging its lending capacity paved the way for mega-merger in 2020. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 https://www.policybazaar.com/ifsc/ let’s discuss the merits of the merger one by one. recapitalization coming to the merits of the merger of public sector sanks, the foremost one is recapitalization. this leads to an increase in capital for lending. lending is the primary function of any bank. an enhancement in the lending rate means a rise in deposits. among the indicators, these are vital in deciding the health of a bank. new generation banking customers can now enjoy more atms and the services of next-generation banking. having to choose from various services provided by new generation banks is indeed appreciable. they can explore their options in investment too. departure from the traditional banking mechanisms in this technology-driven world is significant. technical up-gradation on debit/credit cards is another merit. some merged banks show high non-performing assets ratio whereas some others show less. for example, the merger of indian bank and allahabad bank reflects a low non-performing assets ratio and the merged entity of union bank of india with andhra bank and corporation bank records a high non-performing assets ratio. operating cost reduction in operating costs is a significant outcome of the merger. this is evident from the merger of the state bank of india and its subsidiaries. a decrease in management cost eventually results in less operation cost. shareholders the impact of the merger on shareholders of public sector banks differs depending on to which bank they get merged with, the non-performing assets ratio, etc. global market the merger of public sector banks results in the enlargement of anchor banks which will eventually aid them to enter the global market. an example of this is the 57th rank of the state bank of india in the global bank ranking of 2021. the merger also enhances the customer base since the combined entity can now enjoy customers of two or more banks. getting the benefits of enlargement and enhanced customer base, enable the combined entity to confront competition in the power and capacity of two or more banks. this is indeed better than resisting it in the capacity of a single bank. conclusion demerits always come with merits. one cannot exist without the other. making the right decision should always be based on a careful analysis of the two. the government’s decision on mega-merger of public sector banks invited many criticisms. it does have merits and ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/operating-cost.asp demerits. this article explains both sides of the same coin that is the mega-merger of 2020. mergers can result in the economic growth and development of any nation due to their various merits. it also expands a business that is an important goal for any business. thus tackling the demerits caused by mergers diligently and appropriately helps outweigh them. references:  allen, f. and gale, d. (2004). competition and financial stability. journal of money, credit and banking, 36:3 pt.2: 433-80.  ansari, j (2013). a new measure of competition in indian loan markets, international journal of finance & banking studies, 2(4): 60-77.  beck, t., demirgüç-kunt, a. and levin, r. (2005). bank concentration and fragility: impact and mechanics, working paper 11500, national bureau of economic research, june, https://www.nber.org/papers/w11500 accessed on june 15, 2020.  berger, a. n., leora, f. k. and rima, t. (2008). bank competition and financial stability, the world bank, development research group, finance and private sector team, https://www.researchgate.net accessed on june 15, 2020.  bhattacharya, k. and das a. (2003). dynamics of market structure and competitiveness of the banking sector in india and its impact on output and prices of banking services, reserve bank of india occasional papers vol. 24, no. 3, winter 2003.  das, s. (2019). indian banking at crossroads: some reflections, speech delivered at the first annual economics conference, amrut mody school of management, ahmedabad university, https://www.rbi.org.in, november.  demirgüç-kunt, a. and martínez pería, s. m. (2010). a framework for analyzing competition in the banking sector, the world bank, development research group, finance and private sector development team, december.  dutta, n. (2013). competition in indian commercial banking sector in the liberalized regime: an empirical evaluation, international journal of banking, risk and insurance.  gandhi, r. (2016). consolidation among public sector banks, speech delivered at the mint south banking enclave, bangalore, https://www.rbi.org.in, rbi bulletin, may.  goi (2017). cabinet gives in-principle approval for public sector banks to amalgamate through an alternative mechanism, press information bureau, government of india, https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=170187 accessed on june 15, 2020.  group of ten (2001). report on consolidation in the financial sector, bank for internationalsettlements,january, https://www.bis.org; https://www.imf.org; https://www.bis. org; accessed on june 15, 2020. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 https://www.nber.org/papers/w11500 https://www.researchgate.net/ https://www.rbi.org.in/ https://www.rbi.org.in/ https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=170187 https://www.bis.org/ https://www.imf.org/ https://www.bis.org/ https://www.bis.org/  sinha, p. and sharma, s. (2016). relationship of financial stability and risk with market structure and competition: evidence from indian banking sector, https://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/72247/mpra paper no. 72247.  sinha, p. and sharma, s. (2018). dynamics of competition in the indian banking sector; economic & political weekly, liii (13).  subbarao, d. (2013). banking structure in india – looking ahead by looking back, speaking notes at the ficci-iba annual banking conference in mumbai on august 13, 2013, https://www.rbi.org.in.  talwar, s.p. (1998), the changing dimensions of supervision and regulation, speech delivered in bank economists' conference, https://www.rbi.org.in accessed on june 15, 2020.  talwar, s. p. (2001). competition, consolidation and systemic stability in the indian banking industry. bis papers no 4, august, bank for international settlements; https://www.bis.org.  world bank (2020). banking competition, world bank, https://www.worldbank.org, accessed on june 15, 2020. ************** ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 09 | september 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/72247/mpra paper no. 72247 https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/72247/mpra paper no. 72247 https://www.rbi.org.in/ https://www.rbi.org.in/ https://www.bis.org/ https://www.worldbank.org/ the benefits of bank mergers efficiency business gaps filled talent and team upgrade disadvantages : poor culture fit not enough commitment customer impact and perception compliance and risk consistency issues faced by indian public sector banks post-merger non-performing assets ratio unemployment of bank employees managerial efficiency political pressure the issue faced by customers unemployment merits of mergers of public sector banks recapitalization new generation banking operating cost shareholders global market conclusion effects of boko haram insurgency on the socioeconomic activities in nigeria margaret olanireti ayodele (phd) department of social science education, bamidele olumilua university of education science and technology ikere -ekiti (bouesti), ekiti state, nigeria. abstract insecurity has been a major dare to the nigerian government in recent times. the actions and activities of the islamic sect known as boko haram had led to enormous loss of lives and properties in the country, particularly in the northern part of nigeria. some of these activities include intimidation, bombings, suicide attacks, sporadic gunfire of unarmed, blameless and innocent nigerian citizens, burning of police stations and churches, kidnapping, raping of school girls and women. nigeria has also been included amongst one of the terrorist countries of the world. this has serious implications for national development. though government had made worried hard work to deal with these challenges masqueraded by terrorism and insecurity in the country but the rate of insurgency and insecurity is still disturbing. this study therefore, investigated the effects of boko haram insurgency on socio-economic activities in nigeria. the sample consisted of 50 respondents from different background on socio-economic implication of boko haram insurgency in nigeria. the selection included both female and male respondents. questionnaire and interview were the instruments used for data collection. the data collected was recorded, coded and analyzed using descriptive analysis and test of hypotheses. the findings revealed there was a significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the socioeconomic activities in nigeria. the study recommended the following; government should declare war on terrorism and seek support from international communities who have in the time past faced this kind on challenged and were capable to tackle it. nigerian military ought to be empowered further with arms to wrestle this insurgency. the government is advised to beef up security in the country to curb the threat of insecurity. keywords: boko haram, insurgence, socie-economic, activities ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 introduction the safety of lives and property has been a major source of concern for the general public, the search for security forms part of the reasons why people aggregated into bands, tribes, kingdoms, and nation-states to join international organizations. even in ancient times, the need for security was expressed in the form of fruit gathering and periodic expeditions for the aim of meeting the most important socio-economic requirements of the people. perhaps, the physical security need of the people constituted part of the reasons why they preferred rocky and mountainous topographies for shelter, (peterside, 2014). thus, one of the most important roles of any state is to protect its citizens and inhabitants against any threat, be it physical, social, or economic. in the words of aristotle ―the state exists for the sake of life and continues for the sake of the best life. the impacts of terrorism on the socio-economic activities of any society cannot be overemphasized. terror attacks or mere threats of terrorism can have so many socio-economic consequences, for instance, attacks can lead to the diversion of foreign direct investment (fdi), reduction in the level of trade, redirecting of public investment funds to security, destruction of public infrastructure, internal displacement, refugee outflow, homelessness, personal insecurity, the proliferation of widows and orphans, loss of means of livelihood, low productivity in the society among others. terrorist attacks may also have spillover cost on neighboring communities, societies or countries. terrorism in nigeria predates its creation. the british colonist used state terrorism to conquer hitherto independent nations within the territory called nigeria today. some years after independence, nigeria was flood in many internal crises. some of these crises included: the tiv riots in 1962, post-election violence 1964-65, and the 1966 first military coup d'état, isaac adakaboro uprising in 1966, the counter coup d'état of 1966, the nigerian civil war. ‘boko’ ‘haram’ is an extremist nigerian islamist militant sect formed in maiduguri in 2002 by ustaz mohammed yusuf (introduction to nigeria ‘boko haram’. 1st edition maiduguri). the sect seeks the imposition of a strict sharia islamic law throughout nigeria. as its name, boko haram (literally translated as western education is a sacrilege/sin) denotes, the group believes that nigeria should relinquish western-style education. the sect became militarily active around 2003. since then, targets have carried out a series of attacks against the nigerian people and government, including bombings of offices, churches and moderate islamic groups. since 2008, the nigerian government has tracked down boko haram activity. this culminated in a five-day uprising in july 2009 which left hundreds of people, including mohammed yusuf, dead. despite heightened security efforts, the group has managed to continue with its attacks. since its inception, boko ‘haram’s primary focus area. their focus area has been in yobe, kano, bauchi, borno and kaduna. the recent trends suggest that the sect moves southwards, with attacks recorded in the plateau state and abuja. the sect’s philosophy is loosely modelled on the taliban movement in afghanistan; one of the ‘groups’ primary bases in kanama in yobe state was named afghanistan before its destruction. the group has also issued statements expressing solidarity with al-qaeda and has threatened the united states. although; a direct connection between boko ‘haram’ and the taliban or al-qaeda is not discernable, like its extremist counterparts, boko-‘haram’s ideology is based on hostility towards democracy and western anti-islamic education. nigeria’s constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and the country has a population split roughly in half between a muslim and christian south. book haram has repeatedly stated that it seeks ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 impose a strict sharia law system throughout nigeria; currently, nine northern states adhere to sharia law. an additional three. an additional three only marginally implementing it. according to various statements, boko ‘haram’ also seeks to abolish of western-style education, which it states is contrary to the teachings of islam. not much is known about the organizational structure of boko ‘haram’. the ‘groups’ founder and former leader, mohammed yusuf, was thought to have been highly educated and wealthy. although; security forces killed mohammed yusuf in 2009, his deputy, abubakar shebu, who was initially thought also have been killed, appeared on a video in 2010 and claimed the group’s leadership. shebu. furthermore, it threatened fresh attacks against nigeria government. the sect’s members generally do not mix with other islamist groups in nigeria, even praying in separate mosques in the larger northern cities of maiduguri, kano and sokoto. its lack of education and a high unemployment rate in northern nigeria have given the group a seemingly bottomless reservoir to draw disgruntled youth recruits. nigeria’s state security service estimates that boko haram has over 540,000 members. the sources are from jos, kaduna, kano, and abuja but especially in maiduguri. (vanguard newspaper 23rd may 2011). during the leadership of mohammed yusuf, ‘boko haram’ carried out low-level attacks against security installations and christian churches in northern nigeria. however, the arrest of some of its members by security forces in july 2009 spurred ‘boko haram’ into general uprising killings started in bauchi. still it soon spread to maiduguri and smaller cities across northern nigeria. maiduguri was mainly affected, with over 700 deaths recorded. following five days of violence, security forces stormed and destroyed ‘boko haram’s’ primary mosque in maiduguri and captured mohammed yusuf. he was subsequently shot and killed under suspicious circumstances by security forces. following mohammed yusuf’s death and a significant military deployment in maiduguri and several other areas across northern nigeria, ‘boko haram’ activity drastically reduced in northern nigeria. however, in mid-2010, ‘boko haram’ activity resumed in the region, with the sect claiming responsibility for a spate of targeted killings in maiduguri. several police officers, christians and moderate muslims were killed in drive-by motorcycle shootings. furthermore, in september 200, ‘boko haram’ staged an attack on a federal prison in bauchi, freeing approximately 700 prisoners, of which an estimated 150 were the sect’s former members. the attacks came just mounts after the sect's former deputy, shebu, claimed ‘boko haram’s leadership and threatened renewed attacks. with most of its efforts concentrated in northern nigeria, ‘boko haram’ sharply deviated from previous tactics by claiming responsibility for a series of bombings in jos, capital of the central plateau state, on 24 december, 2010, with at least 80 people’s dead. the attacks were claimed by a group called jama’atuahlus sunnah lid da’awatiwal jihad, a name ‘boko haram’ has in the past stated it wanted to be known by. the attacks coincided with ‘boko haram’ led attacks on christian churches in maiduguri on the same day. the high degree of operational organizational ability with which the attacks were carried out highlights the growing threat that ‘boko haram’ possess to the stability of nigeria and ushered in a new era of the sect’s activity, mostly in sokoto, kano and abuja. furthermore, the high rate of poverty, unemployment and political corruption in the region has been blamed on prolonging the conflict. unfortunately, most of the foot soldiers of boko haram are youths who o are frustrated because of the lack of employment and income. politicians have disdained them after being used by these politicians for their elections victory (onuoha, 2014). he also asserts that the youths enlisted into boko ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 haram because of the prevalence of poverty in the north. the poverty profile of nigeria that was released in 2011 by the national bureau of statistics (nbs) indicated that the northern region has more poor people than people in the south. furthermore, although, unconfirmed, it is believed ‘boko haram’ was also responsible for the deaths of scores of people when the mammy market, near the sani abacha barracks in abuja, was bombed on 31december, 2010. (vanguard newspaper 1st december 2011). the problem of this study emanated from incessant killing of innocent people in the northern parts and some other areas of the country. the study therefore want to examine the socio-economic implications of these people. high rate of poverty, unemployment, political corruption and other social vices have been the main reasons for this study. research hypotheses i. ho. there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the socio-economic activities in nigeria. ii. ho. there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria. iii. ho. there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people. literature review the origins of the boko haram sect boko haram is the local name for the jama’atuahl as-sunna li-d’awatiwal jihad given by the residents of maiduguri, borno state. eventually the name was adopted by all. the residents gave the group this name because of its strong aversion to western education; which the sect members consider to be corrupting muslims. the exact date of the establishment of the sect remains unclear, but a majority of analysts, including the security forces in nigeria, traced it to around 2002-2004 (mohammed et al, 2012). there is also limited information regarding the sect’s first leader who was identified by his alias, aminutashen-ilimi. he established the group’s base in kanamma village in yobe state in approximately 2004 (ibid). mohammed yusuf later emerged as the popular leader of the movement. he barely had any western education and hailed from a poor family background in jakusko, yobe state (taiwo, et al, 2014). mohammed yusuf was a dedicated salafist who was also deeply influenced by ibn taymiyyah ideologies. this perspective is deeply rooted in the staunch defense of sunni islam based on strict adherence to the qur'an and authentic sunna (practices) of the prophet muhammad (al-matroudi, i. abdul hakim, 2014). while still in his 30s, yusuf established a mosque and islamic school for the sect that attracted many poor members from families in the township and from the neighboring states of niger, chad, and cameroon who enrolled their children and wards for islamic education under his tutelage. yusuf, himself, lived a very different lifestyle from that of his followers: he had four wives and 12 children, and was not considered a poor man by the nigerian standards. in fact, yusuf lived a lavish life, and his children attended western-styled schools. he maintained private attorneys and doctors, and used expensive automobiles which were contrary to the lifestyle he preached to his followers (mohammed et al, 2012). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 the sect was organized initially with yusuf as both the spiritual and political head with an advisory council referred to as the shura committee. its initial base in yobe state was called “afghanistan,” and the sect’s adherents were referred to as “talibans” by the locals. this became a base for migrants where they engaged in moral rebirth through strict study of the qur’an. mohammed yusuf, as the leader, was surrounded by several disciples organized in a hierarchical structure based on their loyalty and devotion to him. the sect attracted more and more people under its roof by offering welfare handouts, food, and shelter. many of the people the group attracted were refugees from the wars across the border in chad as well as jobless nigerian youths. the sect also maintained a cadre of militant youths who were the armed wing of the group and had received some physical and weaponshandling training in established camps in the forests. a tangential group of politicians, financiers, sympathizers, and supporters were also maintained to serve as a link to the society and government. yusuf effectively controlled all these members, and there was no splinter group until the recent emergence of the “ansarul muslimina fi biladis sudan” (vanguards for the protection of muslims in black africa, cited in taiwo, et al). the nigerian police (np) investigated the group following reports that the sect was arming itself. several leaders were arrested, which sparked deadly clashes with security forces and led to the death of about 700 people. though government forces halted the activities of the nigerian taliban, strains of the movement remained in many parts of northern nigeria (waziri, 2011). the main remnant group under the guidance of yusuf relocated to maiduguri and expanded rapidly as young, middle-class islamic students from universities and colleges within the region joined its ranks. the sect drew heavily from the multitudes of muslim graduates who had completed studies but were unable to secure employment. the sect also engaged in extensive and intimidating sermons that included the threat of the use of force in recruiting new members. additionally, other intellectuals who were swayed by the sect’s ideologies abandoned their jobs, burnt their certificates, and sold their assets to contribute to the growth of the group as they joined. tradesmen, carpenters, and drivers who were disgruntled with the provisions of government also joined. some privileged youths from well-to-do families as well as migrants from neighboring niger, chad, and cameroon also became radical followers of the sect’s leader (onuoha, 2011&lawal, 2012). the group primarily began its operations using small arms in attacks against opportunistic targets before graduating to the use of automatic weapons, grenades, and explosives against fortified or vulnerable targets. many of the group’s initial weapons were considered to have been captured during raids of security forces and through smuggling from the neighboring countries using networks across the porous borders through its limited links with other terrorist organizations outside the country, the group was able to achieve more sophistication in its attack capabilities that included the use of improvised explosive devices (ieds) especially after the security forces’ crackdown on the sect in 2009. there was an evidence that some disgruntled ex-service men and sympathetic security forces officials also joined this group to inflict more damage on the state (zenn, 2012). the source of the group’s money at its early stage of existence is not clear but included contributions from members as well as sustenance through its farm (walker, 2014). at some point, the borno state government appointed a member of the sect, bujifoi, as commissioner of water resources and chieftaincy affairs in return for political support from the sect. this individual became the chief financier of the sect until he was killed during the 2009 onslaught on the sect by security forces. other sources of funding are believed to have come through clandestine contributions from politicians, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 businessmen, and other wealthy individuals who fear attacks from the group. there was speculation that the group may have received some support from aqim (manni, 2012). funding also came through armed robberies that the sect successfully carried out during attacks against commercial banks and wealthy individuals. the group terms all its stolen funds as “spoils of war” arguing that they are legitimate sources of income for jihad according to their interpretation of islam. the al-muntada al-islami, an agency headed by dr. adil ibn mohammed al-saleem, based in england and associated with saudi arabia charity and da’awainstitutions as well as other institutions that have been classified as terror financing agencies have been identified as having provided funding to the sect (schwartz, 2011). in some cases, though, the financial support from these institutions could have been in aid of islamic propagation and not for terrorism. boko haram’s clashes with security forces came to light on july 12, 2009, when they were conveying their dead members for burial at a local grave yard. some members of the burial party were stopped and cited for violations of traffic regulations by the security forces who had mounted road blocks within maiduguri city, borno state. altercations resulted in violence between the sect members and the security forces, and some of their members were shot dead in this process. this incident provoked the entire boko haram who demanded an apology from the government. they vowed to take revenge for what happened to their members if the government failed to apologize. neither the government nor the security forces reacted to this threat. consequently, on july 16, 2009, the sect made good on the threat by attacking police stations in maiduguri. since then, boko haram has continued to perpetrate violence using terrorist acts in many parts of nigeria, especially in the north east zone, resulting in the killing and maiming of civilians, as well as in the destruction of properties (copeland, 2013). the 2009 uprising was eventually crushed by a police and military assault, leaving hundreds dead and the sect's headquarters and mosque in ruins. boko haram's leader, mohammed yusuf was captured by the army and passed to police for interrogation and prosecution. unfortunately, he was killed in custody under bizarre circumstances. the group reemerged in 2010 and began launching unprecedented scales of attacks that included freeing 721 prisoners, among them 105 suspected sect members, from a bauchi jail in northern nigeria. this violence coincided with the run-up to the presidential elections. boko haram had regrouped under a new leader, abubakar shekau (“boko haram attacks – timeline, the guardian, september 25, 2012). he assumed leadership of boko haram after the death of yusuf and quickly reorganized the sect members. while some people describe him as a complex and paradoxical man, others see him as a fearless loner who is partly an intellectual and partly a gangster. he is nicknamed "darul tawheed" (specialist in orthodox doctrine of the uniqueness and oneness of allah) and is fondly called imam or leader by his followers. he was born in shekau village in yobe state and is believed to be in his 30s. when yusuf was killed, shekau married one of his four wives and adopted his children, a move that was considered an attempt to preserve the cohesion of boko haram. the group had re-emerged in a highly decentralized structure with the unifying force remaining its ideology. this remains its “modus operandi” to date. recently, a splinter group emerged due to disagreements within the leadership of the sect over the modes of their violent operations, but both still maintain the same ideology. although shekau does not communicate directly with the sect’s foot soldiers, he maintains strict control through a few select cell leaders. unlike his predecessor, shekau lacks charisma and oratorical skills, but his intense ideological ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 commitment and ruthlessness have kept him as the group's spiritual leader (“profile of nigeria's boko haram leader abubakarshekau.” bbc news, june 22, 2012.). the concept of terrorism this section is well immersed with pre-existing views and perceptions of various scholars and academicians as regards their contributions to the subject matter. the word terrorism just like some other social science concepts has proved to be one of the most difficult concepts to define. perhaps, the only consensus among analysts with regard to terrorism is that there is no universally acceptable definition of the concept. literature survey by the national research council (nrc) attempted what it considers a working definition of terrorism in the social and behavioural sciences, consisting of the following elements: (i) illegal use or threatened use of force or violence. (ii) with an intent to coerce societies or governments by inducing fear in their populations. (iii) typically with political and/or ideological motives and justifications. (iv) an extra societal element with outside society in the case of domestic terrorism or foreign in terms of international terrorism (nrc, 2012). according to schmid (2011), terrorism is a doctrine about the presumed effectiveness of a special form or tactic of fear-generating, coercive political violence and, on the other hand, to a conspiratorial practice of calculated, demonstrative, direct violent action without legal or moral restraints, targeting mainly civilians and non-combatants, performed for its propagandistic and psychological effects on various audiences and conflict parties. typically, small number of extremists who otherwise lack the capacity to challenge those in power resort to terrorism. a defining characteristic of terrorism is that its users expect rewards that are of proportionate to the resources. to compliment the foregoing, the follow argues that: terrorism is furthermore strategies that are not restricted to any particular ideology (smlter and beltes 2012, cited in ogochukwu, 2013). according to reich 1998, cited in ogochukwu, 2013 ), as a strategy of resistance to the modern state, terrorism emerged some half century after the french revolution, when the term originated as a description of the state regime of terror. russia revolutionaries and anarchist in french, spain, italy and german established terrorism as a central mechanism in attempt to over throw the established regimes, most of which were autocratic in the submission of lain mclean; terrorism as a pejorative term also applies to the deeds of government of sovereign states. according to lain mclean, a term “state sponsored terrorism” is often used to describe the conduct of various governments indirectly organizing or indirectly assisting perpetration of violence acts in other state. lain mclean argued that in recent time, many countries of divergent ideological persuasion have engaged in this kind of activities while in some cases strictly condemning others forms practices (lain mclean, 1996, cited in ogochukwu, 2013 ). some definitions focus on terrorist tactics to define the term, while others focus on the actor. ethnic separatist, violence in the 1930‘s provoked the league of nations formed after the first world war to encourage world stability and peace to defined terrorism for the first time as: all criminal acts directed against a state and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the mind of particular persons or group of persons or the general public (league of nation convention definition of terrorism, 1937, cited in ogochukwu, 2013). therefore, bringing to our understanding that boko haram sect is pre-occupied with carrying out various degree of attacks on civilians, usually used by the powerless against ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 powerful; international terrorism interludes terrorists attacking a foreign target other than within own country or abroad (rourke 2018). this means that september 11, 2011 attack was an international terrorism while one of the attacks by the boko haram sect such as the police stations attacks is a domestic terrorism. but it becomes complicated if the boko haram sect is still a domestic terrorist group despites it seeming connection with other international sect such as hamas and alqueda. according to claver (2012, cited in ogochukwu, 2013), he stated that terrorism is the use of force to impact fear with a view to bringing about political, economic or social change. recently, terrorism has been endemic in all parts of the countries in the world. cleavert went on to explain that: it is true, as is often repeated that man‘s terrorist is another an extreme example of an essential contested concept and its preacher‘s finds to polarize at extent that renders it extremely difficult to return to normal politics (cleavert, 2002, cited in ogochukwu, 2013). drawing from the above assertion, indicates how terrorism can lead to socio-economic underdevelopment of a country, though he was not elaborate, but it is worthy to appreciate his view that the practice of terrorist groups make the society difficult to return to normal politics. this can be deduced from the activities of the boko haram insurgence in nigeria which has been destabilizing socio-economic activities especially in the northern part of the country. considering the political definitions‟ popular in governmental circles, badey, notes the definition offered by the us department of state in 1983 are still in vogue today. however, he noted that “terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents usually intended to influence an audience” ( badey, 2018). these definitions implies that every terrorist acts depicts a motivation, tactics and victims in order to achieve certain goals or objective. it also involves the use of violence against a non-combatant targets. hence, if terrorism is taken to be part of a broader insurgency, countering terrorism may also form a part of a counter-insurgency doctrine, but political, economic and other measures may however, focus more on the insurgency than the specific acts of terror if it must be combated. schbley (2013) thinks that the definition of terrorism must be free from prejudiced approaches. he suggests that the definition should be cleared from politics and asserted into criminal justice. schbley (2013) sees terrorism as violent behaviors committed against the symbolic civilians or their belongings. hoffman (2014) pointed out that a terrorist is a violent thinker who is dedicated and ready for coercive power to reach his political ends. he also asserted the need for differentiation of terrorism and terrorist from the other kinds of violent behaviors and offenders. in terms of this distinction, howard and sawyer (2014), sees terrorism as grounded absolutely in political goals and motives involved in violence and/ or intimidation intended to attain consequences impacting beyond the initial sufferers or targets directed and controlled by an organized group which has a chain of command or a cell structure committed by a subordinate group or an informal structure. terrorism is a word with great rhetorical power but with limited scientific precision. this is because terrorists in one given situation could be regarded as freedom fighters in another. drawing a definitude borderline between terrorists and freedom fighters continue to pose a conceptual as well as theoretical default (gandu, 2009). in gandu’s view (2009), there is a thin line between freedom fighters and terrorists but the case of terrorism in nigeria today is clear. there is no part of the country that is under ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 foreign rule or dominance. nigeria has enjoyed unbroken stretch of democracy since 1999 with strong political structures that guarantee equal representation and appointments to positions of authority as regulated by federal characters commission. nigeria also established among other things, a strong judicial system where aggrieved parties and individuals can resort to and seek redress. the present terrorist activities in nigeria is not aimed at fighting for political or religious freedom as the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria guarantees freedom of worship and political association among others. so, terrorists in nigeria are not freedom fighters. the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria guarantees freedom of religion and worship and no individual or section of the country have been denied these fundamental human rights, whether christians, muslims, idol worshippers, atheists or any other religion. any group or section of nigeria engaging in terrorism with the aim of fighting for freedom to practice their religion or hold political position might not be fighting a just war. the reason is that, the 1999 constitution guarantees these fundamental human rights. those engaging in acts of terrorism in nigeria on the basis of these issues are rather pursuing selfish agenda which is not anchored on fighting for freedom as posited by (gandu, 2009). also, the economic and financial crimes commission act cited in (alemika, 2013) defines terrorism as a crime involving: i. “any act which is a violation of the criminal code or the penal code and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom of, cause serious injury or death to, any person, any number or group of persons or causes or may cause damage to public or property, natural resources, environmental or cultural heritage and is calculated to – a. intimidate, put in fear, force, coerce, or induce any government, body, institution, the general public or any segment thereof, to do or abstain from doing any act or to adopt a particular standpoint, or to act according to certain principles; or b. disrupt any public service, the delivery of any essential service to the public or to create a public emergency; or c. create general insurrection in a state; ii. any promotion, sponsorship of, contribution to, command, aid, incitement, encouragement, attempt, threat, conspiracy, organization or procurement of any person, with the intent to commit any act referred to in paragraph (a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (section of the act dealing with interpretations. however, the definition of terrorism in the efcc act according to (alemika, 2013) is comprehensive and paradoxically and may turn out to be a catch-22 provision that covers anything and everything. this may lead to abuse and engender a form of law enforcement terrorism by the government that may invoke it in many circumstances that are inappropriate. it may also lead to unduly wide discretionary powers of enforcement such as arrest, prosecution and judicial disposition. according to the revised academic consensus definition of terrorism cited in (alemika, 2013) refers, on the one hand, to a doctrine about the presumed effectiveness of a special form or tactic of fear-generating, coercive political violence and, on the other hand, to a conspiratorial practice of calculated, demonstrative, direct violent action without legal or moral restraints, targeting mainly civilians and non-combatants, performed for its propagandistic psychological effects on various audiences and conflict parties. in another development, crenshaw (2011) defines terrorism as” a form of violence that is primarily designed to influence an audience. its execution depends on concealment, surprise, stealth, conspiracy, and deception”. she noted that “terrorism is not spontaneous, or does it involve mass participation. the act itself communicates ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 a future threat to people who identifies with the victims”. crenshaw further noted that the “choice of time, place, and victim is meant to shock, frighten, excite, or outrage”. in spite of the complexity and fluidity of the subject of terrorism, definitions have kept emerging. sandler and enders (2012) considered terrorism as premeditated use, or threat of extra normal violence to obtain a political objective through intimidation or fear directed at large audience by weaker side in an asymmetrical conflict. according to the convention for prevention and combating terrorism by (african union (au) article 1 (3), terrorism is defined as “any act which is a violation of criminal laws of a state party and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom or causes serious injuries or death to any person, any number or group of persons or causes damage to public or private property, natural resources, environment or cultural heritage”. after examining some definitions, poland (2015) narrows the scope of terrorism on two shared features: fear and attaining various political ends. almost all terrorist acts are aimed at frightening a target population and ultimately they pursue to gain some kinds of political ends. hence, he defines terrorism as producing dread and intimidation through planned, intentional, organized slaughter, turmoil, and frightening of innocent people to attain some kinds of political ends. laqueur (1987), one of the authorities in this area, uses a simple definition for terrorism. he addresses it as a shifting behavior by frightening via political or criminal violence. white (2012) indicates that laqueur’s definition does not completely explain the political issues of terrorism, but it provides the practitioners a way to progress outside the problematic argument of a definition. wilkindon (1979) differentiates political terrorism from other kinds of terrorism. he argues that terrorism uses criminals, sycophants, sadists, or hooligans to achieve different political ends. another scholar who draws attention to these distinctions by explaining the differences between the terms “terror” and “terrorism” is taylor (1988). he emphasized that there can be some kind of terror like armed robbery, lynching, slaughter, and even in a case involving threats due to the severity or the way of committing these crimes, but it does not cause the act of terrorism. in this context, the term “terror” can be used for the events that cause severe damage, and anxiety in people. for instance, when several hooligans commit a series of crimes intimidating and threatening other people during the night on the street, it may be called “street terror” or when somebody or some gang members drive their vehicles very dangerously while they are under the influence of alcohol or drugs and kill many people by causing several severe accidents, it may be defined as traffic terror. addressing these crimes does not mean to assess them in the same category or define with political terrorism. taylor (1988) differentiates them by distinguishing the words “terror” and “terrorism”. in this perspective, terrorism is defined as a psychological warfare aimed at impacting the political process through violence. boko haram ideology boko haram’ (figuratively, “western or non-islamic education is a sin” is a controversial nigerian terrorist islamist group that seeks the imposition of shariah law in the northern state of nigeria. the group presently has an undefined structure and chain of command. the official name of the group is jama’atuahlis sunna lidda await wal. jihad, which in arabic means “people commitment to the propagation of the prophet’s teachings and jihad”. the literal translation is association of sunnis for the propagation of islam and for holy war”. it is known internationally following sectarian violence in nigeria in 2009. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 the term ‘boko haram’ comes from the hausa world boko meaning “animist, western or otherwise non-islamic education” and the arabic word haram figuratively meaning “sin” (literally, forbidden”). ‘boko haram’ opposes not only western education, but western culture and modern science as well. in a 2009 bbc interview, yusuf stated that the belief that the world is a sphere is contrary to islam and should be rejected, along with darwinism and the theory that rain comes from water evaporated by the sun. the group came into existence in the 1960’s but only started to draw attention in 2002. ustaz mohammed yusuf became its leader in the same year in 2004, it moved to kanamma, yobe state, where it set up a base called “afghanistan”, used to attack nearby police outposts, killing police officers. its follower are said to be influenced by the koranic phrase which says; “anyone who is not governed by what allah has revealed is among the transgressors”. ‘boko haram’ promotes a version of islam which makes it “haram” or forbidden, for muslims to take part in any political or social activity associated with western society. this includes voting in elections, wearing shirts and trousers or receiving a secular education. ‘boko haram’ haram regards the nigerian state as being run by non-believers, even when the country has a muslim president. since the sokoto caliphate, which ruled parts of what are now northern nigeria, niger and southern cameroon, feel under british control in 1903, there has been resistance among the area’s muslims to western education. may muslim families still refuse to send their children to government-run” western schools”, a problem compounded by the ruling elite which does not see education as a priority. against this background, the charismatic muslim cleric, mohammed yusuf formed ‘boko haram’ in maiduguri 2002. he sat up a religious complex, which included the mosque and an islamic school. many poor muslim families from across nigeria, as well as neighboring countries, enrolled their children at the school. but ‘boko haram’ was not only interested in education. it political goal was to create an islamic state and the school became a recruiting ground for jihads to fight the state. causes of terrorism in nigeria nigerian poverty situation has been described as an embarrassment and irony to her abundant natural resources buoyed by oil wealth discovered since 1953. poverty has led to frustration and anger amongst the poor and the marginalized cultural and religious groups in the country. poverty among the unemployed youths fuelled by corrupt leaders has been identified as causes of violence. most of the recruits used by the boko haram and suicide bombers are drawn from the former almajiris (poor street children, from poor muslim parentage, who had been denied formal western education but had been exploited while growing up by rich islamic clerics who use them as street beggars to ask for alms on the streets of northern nigeria). the boko haram sect usually offers food, shelter, security and alternative succor to these homeless children and youths to get their support. several structural factors associated with presence or absence of terrorism has been identified by crenshaw 2011 includes the following: 1. political environment (extent of democracy – including freeness, fairness and credibility of elections, efficacy of democracy in addressing the aspirations of citizens; national cohesion, political stability, tolerance among ethnic and religious groups, etc) and impact on citizens and influence of foreign actors. political repression, especially of specific ethnic, religious or racial groups; 2. economic environment –quality of living of citizens, extent of inequality (influenced by corruption and economic policies), organized and transnational crime, economic exploitation ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 or/and widespread corruption resulting in gross inequality; widespread poverty and economic discrimination; 3. political, socio-cultural and religious pluralism that breeds inter-group rivalry andviolence; 4. failing states that lacked capacity to promote the human security of citizens; thereby unable to ensure national cohesion or integration, patriotism and loyalty and therefore citizens may be recruited domestically by disenchanted groups (ethnic, religious, political and economic); 5. weak state capacity for effective conflict-management (prevention, containment, transformation, resolution, etc) that prolong or entrench inter-groupconflicts; 6. foreign relation alliances that sections of the nation perceive as inimical to their group interests; 7. lack of capacity to effectively manage the positive and negative aspects of scientific technological and communication developments in the era of globalization. eefseh & robert (2011) observed that terrorism in nigeria in which ever dimension is stimulated by socio-economic considerations. for instance the niger delta agitations are greatly underpinned by the bid for primary material condition. the ethnic driven terrorism is also traceable to economic reason; this is because every ethnic group in nigeria is in the struggle to achieve control of state resources. religious extremism for instance, is considered one of the stimuli, and cases abound where muslims and christians alike try to overthrow their secular government and replace them with theocracy. example of countries affected is nigeria, egypt, indonesia and philippines. in uganda the lord’s resistant army (lra) wanted to enforce the ten commandments on the ugandan constitutions and violence became the order of the day. in line with this, walker (2012) further observed that boko haram is a violent islamic militant organization based in the northeast which strongly opposes man made laws and modern science and seeks to establish islamic government and sharia laws in the country. bappah (2014) explained that the real issues are poverty, ignorance, joblessness, frustration, hopelessness, anger, arrogance by official corruption, insensitivity, impunity and generally bad governance. he further argued that it is not wrong to say that terrorism is caused by both internal and external factors. external factors that increase vulnerability to terrorism includes the foreign policies of a country, in particular the u.s. as well as globalization especially in telecommunication which enable likeminded individuals to unite and conspire against common enemies. internal factors that may lead to terrorist activities include economic deprivation, political oppression, government suppression, ethnic and religious persecutions (ameh, 2012). mu’azu (2012) argued that the environment in which nigerians live and their dissatisfaction with government policies could be contributory factors to the existence of terrorism. according to this perspective, the living environment of nigerians gives groups the courage to take on the nigerian state, because of its perception as unjust to citizens, without guarantee for individual safety and security. where there is widespread perception and evidences to suggest that the citizens are not getting a good deal from the state, they could resort to violence. many of these conditions pre-date boko haram, and boko haram’s existence and agenda are tangential to these problems. yet, it is true that the continuing failure of the nigerian government to address these and other critical issues satisfactorily contributes to general mistrust among its people. though boko haram cannot solve these crises, they are reaping the benefits of a frustrated disillusioned population. jobless, angry young men who form a massive talent pool from which boko haram can draw, while broader northern society somewhat ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 justifiably views the federal government and security services trying to eradicate boko haram with contempt. impact of boko haram on socio-economic activities the growing insecurity in the north has seriously affected the state’s economic condition such that many people including businessmen are fleeing to more peaceful environment in the southern parts of the country. several studies conducted have highlighted the impact of insurgency on economic growth in the region. the literatures have some relationship to our current study and are reviewed here. akande (2012) asserted that since boko haram resumed its operations in 2010, foreign direct investment (fdi) into nigeria has plummeted. citing the world investment report (wir) 2013, fdi flows into nigeria dropped by 21.3 percent in just one year from $8.9 billion in 2011 to $7 billion in 2012. he stated ―this substantial loss in fdi over a short period of time will have many consequences for the country. firstly, fdi in nigeria has a direct impact on trade, assuring progression of economic growth. secondly, fdi inflow supplements the available domestic capital by stimulating the productivity of domestic investments. and lastly — but most worrisome — is the high co-dependency ratio between the inflow of fdi, the nigerian oil sector, and the country’s gdp (akande, 2012). in the same study, he made note of the rush to escape from the north is also affecting business establishments in that region as banks were reported to be closing down their outlets due to a decrease of economic activities in the area. the massive withdrawal of businesses from the northern region constitutes a reduction of economic affairs in the north as well as throwing those who are departing from the north into financial and psychological pressures. dauda (2014) stated that the impact of the horrific activities of boko haram insurgency on the social, economic, and political structure of yobe state is over-whelming and devastating. many businesses in the state have been affected by the activities of the insurgence. he stated that “some shops have been taken over by the military personnel who have made it their base, forcing the business owners to either relocate or abandon it totally. small businesses that use to strive in the night like tea selling, restaurants, etc. are no longer operating as a result of the security situation.” he also observed that besides loss of job occasioned by business closedown, insecurity in adamawa, borno, yobe, kano has cost the nigerian economy n1.3trillion ($6 billion) as a result of attacks by the boko haram group (dauda, 2012). farrel (2012) in his study of effects of insurgency on development remarked that; “the nature and scale of the economic consequences (of boko haram insurgency) on productivity, the social consequences and the security implications of internal displacement, refugee outflow, homelessness, personal insecurity, proliferation of widows and orphans who lose loved ones to the crisis, the anguish of parents of chibok girls and other kidnapped girls and women, and such other unspeakable horrors being daily visited on hapless and defenseless individuals is startling.” he further noted that both for the internally displaced persons and the refugees in neighboring countries, some of the consequences include total loss of the means of livelihood, having to struggle for food or waiting for infrequent and often insufficient food hand-outs from the humanitarian services, living in unsanitary and unhygienic conditions and being exposed to epidemics, diseases (farrel, 2012). the security challenge posed by boko haram has reached a point where indigenes and non-indigenes are leaving the northern region to avoid being killed by the insurgents while business owners close down their shops and escape. however, the economic activities of borno, yobe and other northern states where boko haram spread their ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 immoral acts have been crippled economically (farrel, 2012). investors who are to contribute to the growth of the economy had no choice flee as a result of the devastation caused by the insurgency. it has been observed that investors who moved away from this affected states reinvest their capital in other nigerian communities free from the insurgence highlighting the difference. okekeet. al (2016) posits that most of these investors fled to the southern part of the country as a result of the rising tide of insecurity in the region. according to a report in an afenmai online magazine (2016) as cited in okekeet, al (2016), small business firms established by indigenes and non-indigenes between 2010-2014 have increased significantly in edo state. apart from this, the security challenge has also led to drastic reduction of people’s patronage of agricultural produce from the north to southern communities because of the recent rumor that members of the sect are planning to send poisonous products to other parts of the country (okekeet, al, 2016). nwabueze (2016) recalled that owing to this development of relocation of businesses from the north east to edo state, the system of farming has been improved through the use of mechanized farming to meet up with current demand for agricultural produce such as cassava, yam, palm oil, pepper, okra, melon and others. he stated that; “the increase in patronage is largely an aftermath insecurity arising from boko haram insurgency. bank transactions have also been affected and it has become very important for the banks in affected areas to review their operational hours from usual opening 8.00am and close by 4.00pm to unusual time from 9.00am to 12.00 noon” (nwabueze, 2016). according to dauda (2014), this arrangement has made it difficult for customers especially traders to deposit their daily proceeds in the banks due to the limited banking operational hours that are no longer in their favor. umuoha (2012) did a survey of demand and supply as well as movement of goods in his study and found out shockingly that the situation has forced business owners to be hiding their money either in the shop or at home. this has also had an impact on the prices of food items being produced in the north as there was a rapid increase in prices as a result of a decline in production. the farmers found it difficult to carry out their legitimate right of farming and in some cases; goods are stockpiled wasting in the hands of farmers because the traders from the south are scared to travel to the north to buy goods because of the ongoing insurgency. example of this is the killing of four traders. therefore, immediately after the killing, the ibadan foodstuff traders association placed an indefinite ban on travelling to the region to purchase beans from its members. umuoha (2012) explained in the conclusive part of his research that the phenomenon of internally displaced persons (idps) has become a social problem and dangerous to economic development. the population of idps in the north is unsettling because many of them are family men and women who are supposed to provide for their families. umuoha (2012) stated that the fact cannot be denied that idps have their basic rights to existence, food, shelter, education, and security. however, funds meant for the development of the country are now being channeled towards providing basic needs for the idps. billions of naira has been spent on this project and many of idps who are supposed to be working and contribute to the economy are denied their right to work. private agencies, local, state and federal government have spent billions of naira to distribute relief materials to the idps. umuoha (2012) further stated that; “on 26 of november 2015, the national emergency management agency (nema) distributed 1,120 bags of rice, 2,240 bags of maize, 2,120 bags of millet, 280 bags of cement, roofing sheets, ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ceilings, mosquito nets, mattresses, tissues, detergent and lastly, over 800million has been spent by yobe state government on the welfare of the pompomari camp, damaturu”. all these have negative impacts on economic development of the states affected by insurgency and nigeria as a whole. dauda (2014), proposed that the insurgence of boko haram in the north has drastically reduced government of the day’s performance in the affected area. it should be noted that security challenges in northern nigeria have cost the economy of the country n1.3 trillion. owing to this, his study highlights that the study needs continuous checks because of the negative effects of the insurgency on economic growth and development of the northeastern region and the country at large. according to a publication by the sun newspaper (2016), the sect activities have led to the reduction of government derivation from the affected northern states as a result of agitation in those areas as well as reducing investment and growth of business. the insecurity challenge continues to make it impossible for the government to execute vital project for the people. resources which normally could have been used to improve existing projects and start other ones are being diverted to restructure and replaced what has been destroyed by the insurgence. nneka (2016) examined that the threats of boko haram insurgency on human security in nigeria assessed the series of violent attacks by boko haram in recent times which has been characterized by the abduction and killing of people; destruction of houses, schools, health care centers, churches, mosques, and farms has plunged the country into a chronic state of insecurity. she stated that the basics of food, health, shelter, education and protection which constitute security to the human individual primarily, has therefore been threatened by the boko haram insurgency. nneka (2016) also mentions that there is a correlation between insecurity and living condition and standards. however, insurgency has claimed the lives and properties of people thereby compounding the food and nutrition insecurity and has resulted in the spread of infectious diseases, denied millions of children and youths access to education and increased the number of internally displaced persons with unspeakable need for food and shelter which has caused people to live in fear and anxiety. she therefore concludes that boko haram insurgency has negative impact on human security and economic development and recommends that counter-insurgency will be effective only when issues of poverty, corruption and bad governance are effectively addressed. nneka (2016) work sets a precedent for our study of the impact of economic consequences of boko haram insurgency in borno state ugwu and eme (2019) in their research to assess the economic cost of insecurity on the public and the nation’s economy in particular set their rational to the fact that insecurity and its various multifaceted manifestations like bombings, kidnapping, keeping people as hostage, destruction of life and property, creation of fear among others, has become a numerous immoral acts not to be overcome by a single effort; which security agents in nigeria appear incapable of addressing. their study revealed that insecurity challenge is toxic and harmful to wellbeing of the citizens and has effects the areas such as low quality of life, population displacement, deaths, destruction of business, properties and equipments, relocation and closing down of businesses etc. their study suggested that security agencies and nigerian government should be proactive in improving their intelligence gathering techniques responses and create more employment opportunities for the unemployed while equipping and motivating her security forces better. as developing economies or fragile states are generally unstable, investment comes at a higher risk. a survey by kusimo (2012) showed that the effect of terrorism has been more ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 dramatic in our country nigeria where it has been estimated that the foreign direct investment (fdi) due to boko haram ‘s acts of terrorism dropped $6.1 billion in 2010 representing a decline of almost 30 percent from the previous fiscal year. as a result, terrorism in high risk countries drastically lowers investment. this has had negative impact on the inflow of fdi and has weakened investor confidence. prompting investors to look elsewhere. this is the reason why it is necessary to examine the economic impact of boko haram insurgency in borno state, nigeria which is the research objective in this study. odita and akan (2014) in their research titled “boko haram activities: a major set back to nigerian economic growth” claimed that the wide scale violence and insurgency are particularly disturbing for they directly impact negatively on the process of economic growth and affected the levels of economic activities and productivity of a country. in their study, odita and akan (2014) examined the effects of the wave of insurgency created by the boko harem sect in nigeria after 2010. they explored the boko haram threats and their implications on the nation’s stability and found that impacts of the boko haram insurgence on the lives of nigerians was an unbearable and the roots could not be overemphasized. due to these, the study recommended the need for government to get to the bottom of the ongoing issues, and security personnel should be planted in nearly every area in the states (especially the northern states) that are venerable to attacks by these insurgents; in order for the government to improve on the state security with all machineries at her disposal that will help capture andprosecute boko haram insurgents. muhammad (2014) assessed the effect of boko haram crisis on economic activities in yobe state as they stated due to the terrorizing effect of the activities of the fundamentalist sect, boko haram on the economic situation of yobe states of nigeria has become so devastating that some financial institutions and other business ventures have closed down in many areas, thereby causing relocation of non-indigenes to their own states. borno state, our area of study, is an immediate neighbor with yobe state muhammad (2014). the study discovered that the insecurity situation in the state was tense enough that even the indigenes had to send their children and wards to some other parts of the country for their education thereby causing severe discomfort and disruption. the study suggested that the government should develop the political will to expose and prosecute the high caliber individuals both within and outside the government who has been linked with the islamist militant group. the adverse consequences highlighted in the study shows the need to conduct a similar research for borno state, the study area of this current study and neighbor state of yobe state. muhammad and ahmad (2019) investigated the operations of boko haram insurgency and its consequences on nigeria’s political and economic arrangement as a whole. the study faults the sudden development of boko haram on the government inability to governance and civil society as well as the acts of some development partners. the methodology used for type of research was a qualitative one and relies more on the secondary form of data collection, and the theoretical inclinations of thrust links with ted theory of relative deprivation which is not the one to be used in this study. the theory notes that the people of northeast feel highly deprived in the scheme of things in nigeria as a collective arm. the study recommended that, since development cannot take place in an insecure environment, there must be the full entrenchment of good governance, the military must be adequately strengthened, and poverty must be eradicated to reverse the harmful effects of the insurgency in the country. the study of muhammad and ahamd (2019) use a different approach in terms of theoretical framework compared to the one intended for this study. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 maurin and blessing (2018) in their study dealt with the implication of insurgency on nigeria economic growth. the study proceeded with the assessment of the implication of insurgency on nigerian economic growth and use secondary source of data collection which was then run in ols regression and used to analyze the data. in the study, gross domestic product was the dependent variable, and it proxies on economic growth, while human development index, global peace index, corruption rank, corruption perception index and relative corruption rank proxies’ insurgency was the independent variable. the result of the findings indicated that there is a linear relationship between gdp and the five independent variables. they stated that the economy responds favorably to measures taken to improve human capital development in nigeria. the study also showed that the negative impact of the insurgency has critically brought a downturn in economic performance in general. they recommended that the government discourage the attractiveness of public offices by running a low cost government and invest more in public goods for the benefit of her citizens and public offices should be less attractive, proactive measure should be put in place to tackle insurgency both tactically and institutionally. lastly, the military must be strengthened. eman (2017) conducted a research in partnership with some international development partners for egypt termed, egypt in transition: challenges of state and societal resilience. resilience in the egyptian context was defined as; “a process of reform through which the state and society are more capable of overcoming political, social, and economic and security crises without threatening social stability or weakening political legitimacy”. in the impact report, three main challenges were slowing the process of achieving state and societal resilience in egypt. they included degrading living conditions, radicalism and terrorism, and the difficulty in working out a sound balance between security needs and political freedoms. the analysis examined state and societal resilience in egypt within the framework of the eu global strategy. egypt can be considered something of a unique case in the region due to the interconnectedness between the institutions of the state, the ruling elite and society. these linkages create their own dynamics that act as the resilience of the state and society and how they manage to confront the three challenges examined in this paper. the world (2015) stated that the development objective of the kurdistan regional government (krg) economic and social impact assessment is to provide the iraqi government with an impact analysis of the current crisis at the regional level. it provided a foundation for international efforts to assist the krg in its efforts to rally humanitarian support. the events which motivated the study include: syrian civil war, which began in 2011; and the insurgency of the isis (islamic state in iraq and syria) group, which began in june 2014. the violence and inhumanity associated with each of these two events caused tens of thousands to flee their homes and many chose the relative safety of kurdistan region of iraq (kri), as refugees from the syrian conflict and as internally displaced persons (idps) from the isis crisis. these events took place in the context of the fiscal crisis, which caused about a 90 percent drop in fiscal transfers from the central government in baghdad starting in early 2014. in the report they provided the government with a technical assessment of the impact and stabilization costs associated with the inrush of refugees and idps. impact refers to the immediate economic and fiscal effects on the krg economy and budget, while stabilization cost refers to the additional spending that will be needed to restore the welfare of residents of the kri. the report was the outcome of a process in which a world bank team engaged intensively on the ground with regional government institutions and international partners to gather and mobilize data from disparate sources into a structured narrative and integrated technical presentation from which all ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 stakeholders can draw to help them design and implement strategies for coping with the crisis as is the case here. since no investor would want to invest his capital in an atmosphere of insecurity, it is therefore, enough to say that the terrifying activities of boko haram are obstruction to economic development. education is worst hit by the boko haram insurgency in northern nigeria. apart from the fact that the agitation of the sect is that western education is forbidden and unislamic, formal education has remained the bedrock of human and capital developments in nigeria. today, millions of children from the north no longer have access to basic education. the insecurity challenge has led to the death of many teachers, students, and school properties destroyed making it impossible for pupils to go to school. this situation made borno state government to close down public and private school for 18 months (johnstone, 2018). without any doubt, the future of many children from northern part of the country has been jeopardized as a result of the inability to go to school. for, education is one of the major institutions contributing to the sustainable development of the society and if it is affected, the economic activities of the state will also be threatened. according to johnstone (2018) the sect issued statement during the 2015 general election, warning residents not to participate in the election and as a result of these; many eligible voters became scared and decided to stay away from the poling boot. it is therefore obvious that activities of the boko haram group to deprive people in order to win elections, further show the danger it portrays to our hard earn democracy. lastly, boko haram insurgency threatens national integration. research methodology under research design, i collected information that is relevant to this work through the distribution of questionnaire. i work with the information given to me to develop this project work. the population of 50 participants with good knowledge background on economic implication of boko haram insurgency in nigeria was considered in the study. this serves as the population of the study. data for this study was collected from primary and secondary sources. the primary sources of data collected were mainly the use of a structured questionnaire. the questionnaire was divided into two sections (section a and b). the section a of the questionnaire contained the demographic data of the participants while the section b contained multiple choice questions as regard to the economic implication of boko haram insurgency in nigeria. the secondary source of data was from newspaper, statistical bulletin and library. the instruments used for data collection are the primary, secondary and preliminary sources. the primary sources are questionnaires, interviews and direct observations. the secondary sources are textbooks, journals, newspapers, magazines and government publications. the preliminary sources consist of catalogues, abstracts and index. for the purpose of this study, the one concentrated on was the primary sources of data collection, which included questionnaires, interviews and direct observations. the questionnaires constructed were tested for validity and reliability. the essence of the tests was to confirm that they achieve the purpose for which they are meant. to achieve this objective, experts were used for the text in the first instance. most of the items of the questionnaire which were found to be inappropriate were restructured, reframed or dropped completely. a second test was carried out using some members of the target population. the text ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 involves some interviewing the respondents and nothing their responses to the question asked. after one week, the same respondents were presented with the questionnaire containing the same questions they have answered orally. these responses were compared and those found consistent were considered valid and reliable while those found to be inconsistent were either modified. a questionnaire was drafted for the participants to fill in their responses. the researcher collected data from the questionnaires received from participants. the participants were given three days to fill out the questionnaires. this time frame was given in order to give enough time to the participants to reflect on the items on the questionnaire to facilitate valid responses. hypotheses testing hypothesis 1 there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the socio-economic activities in nigeria. tables 1: chi-square test analysis of impact of boko haram insurgency on the socioeconomic activities in nigeria chi-square tests ______________________________________________________ value df asymp. sig. (2-sided) _________________________________________________________ pearson chi-square 3.031a 9 .000 likelihood ratio 25.839 9 .000 linear-by-linear association 21.096 1 .000 n of valid cases 50 a. 12 cells (75.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is .12. the result of the analysis in table 1 showed the impact of boko haram insurgency on the socio-economic activities in nigeria. the chi-square test revealed that calculated χ2(.000) was less than the significant level at the 0.05. this implies that there is a significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the socio-economic activities in nigeria. hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 2 there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 tables 2: chi-square test analysis of impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria chi-square tests __________________________________________________________ value df asymp. sig. (2-sided) ___________________________________________________________ pearson chi-square 13.653a 9 .014 likelihood ratio 3.138 9 .117 linear-by-linear association 11.318 1 .038 n of valid cases 50 a. 12 cells (75.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is .02. the result of the analysis in table 2 showed the impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria. the chi-square test revealed that calculated χ2(.014) was less than the significant level at the 0.05. this implies that there are impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria. hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. hypothesis 3 there is no significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people. tables 3: chi-square test analysis of impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people chi-square tests ___________________________________________________________ value df asymp. sig. (2-sided) ____________________________________________________________ pearson chi-square 5.223a 9 .000 likelihood ratio 34.121 9 .000 linear-by-linear association 11.661 1 .000 n of valid cases 50 a. 10 cells (62.5%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is .35. the result of the analysis in table 3 showed the impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people. the chi-square test revealed that calculated χ2 (.000) was less than the significant level at the 0.05. this implies that there are significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people. hence, the null hypothesis was not upheld. discussion of findings in this study, three research questions were formulated, and three hypotheses were generated from the research questions. the research questions were answered descriptively using simple frequency count, percentage, mean and standard deviation while the research hypotheses were analyzed inferentially using chisquare test of independent sample. the descriptive analysis of the study revealed that boko haram insurgency is active in nigeria, and the insurgency affect so many things like lifestyle of the citizen, standard living, religion gathering, nigeria economy, the market system and social activities adversely. it was held that boko haram insurgency increased crime and destruction of both lives and property of nigeria citizens, boko haram affect the gross domestic product of nigeria in the totality of her revenue. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 it was further revealed that boko haram insurgency affect the reduction in the level of students’ enrollment which negatively affect educational institutions in nigeria, numerous staff and students were displaced and structures were destroyed and set ablaze while some educational institutions were forced to close due to incessant attack of boko haram sect which eventually culminate in poor student’s performance because learning was characterized by threat and many students were made to withdraw and staff relocated and academic exchanges in nigerian universities virtually ceased. also, the descriptive analysis of the study revealed that boko haram insurgency affect the means if livelihood of many nigerians, particularly the farmers which made food items and other necessities of life are sold atexorbitant prices in the boko haram infested towns. it was further revealed that boko haram insurgency had led to the displacement of millions of people from their homes and campuses to idps’ camp and affects the socio-economic activities and coping strategies of the people when they returned to their communities as a result of different social problems that emanated which made them to predominantly living in abject poverty due to devastating effect of boko haram insurgency. the inferential analysis of the study revealed that there was significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the socio-economic activities in nigeria. also, there was significant impact of boko haram insurgency on the educational institutions in nigeria. lastly, the study revealed that there was impact of boko haram insurgency on the welfare of the people. conclusion the study has been able to establish the nature of the relationships that existed between boko haram insurgency and socio-economic, educational and welfare of the people in the northern part of the country and other parts of nigeria. the study concluded that there were significant impact albeit deleterious of boko haram insurgency on socio-economic activities, educational institutions and welfare of the nigerian populace. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are put forward: 1. government should as a matter of necessity, declare state of emergency on education in the most affected zones by ensuring compulsory education up to high level for all school age in order to drastically reduce the rate at which boko haram sect recruit young people into their formations. 2. creating conducive teaching and learning environment with full security measure in place. 3. re-training of teachers to be security conscious in their respective domains. 4. securing all schools to avoid further abduction of students. 5. reports on security issues from civilian should be treated with high degree of responsibility. references aina, a.j. & orbih. 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(2014). unemployment and poverty in nigeria: a link to national insecurity. global journal of politics and law research. 2(1), 19-35. european centre for research training and development uk available at www.ea-journals.org. nwana, o. (1998). introduction to educational research. ibadan: heinemann educational books limited. obasi, n. i. (1999). research methodology in political science. academic publishing company, enugu, nigeria. odumosu, o. (1999). social costs of poverty: the case of crime in nigeria. journal of social development in africa (1999). ogunrotifa, b. a. (2013). class theory of terrorism: a case study of boko haram in nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences, (online). 3(1), 2759. retrieved from: www.iiste.org okpaga, a., chijioke, u. s., and innocent e. o. (2012). activities of boko haram and insecurity question in nigeria. arabian journal of business and management review (oman chapter).1(9). osuala, e. c. (1982). introduction to research methodology. benin-city. african fep publishers limited. ovaga, o. h. (n.d.). the socio-economic implications of boko-haram activities in northern nigeria. review of public administration and management. 1(2). retrievedfromhttp://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/review-public-adminstrationmanagement.php okafor, i. f. interview respondent. interviewed at auchi, edo state on june 15, 2016 okeke, c. a. interviewer profiles at auchi, edo state on may 3, 2016 onuoha, f.c. 2012, boko haram: nigeria‟s extremist islamic sect, aljazeera centre for studies. onuoha, f. c. (2014). why do youth join boko haram? united states pace institute. 2301 constitution ave., nw • washington, dc 20037 • 202.457.1700 • fax 202.429.6063 padelford, n. (1976) the dynamics of international politics: new york: macmillan publishing company. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 http://panafricannews.blogsport.com/nigeria-news-update.html. accessed june 6 http://www.ea-journals.org/ http://www.iiste.org/ http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/review-public-adminstration-management.php http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/review-public-adminstration-management.php peterside, b (2014). a threat to national security: the case of boko haram in nigeria academic journal of interdisciplinary studies. rice, e. s., graff, c. & lewis, j. (2016). poverty and civil war: what policy makers need to know. the brookings institution, 1775 massachusetts ave., nw, washington, dc20036 ronit, b & polina, b. (2014). ‘say terrorist, think insurgent: labeling and analyzing contemporary terrorist actors’, perspectives on terrorism, 8 (5). sarmiento, a & becerra, l (1998). "analysis of the relationship between violence and equity", archives of macroeconomics, dshaughnessy, j.; zechmeister, e.; jeanne, z. (2011). research methods in psychology (9th ed.). new york, ny: mcgraw hill. sarmiento, a. (1999). "violence and equity", planning and development, xxx (3).the socio economic activities of owan west local government of edo state, afenmai online magazine, afenmaipeople.com, retrieved in april 26, 2014 the sun newspaper, 14 july 2016. ukiwo, u & chukwuma, i. (2012). governance and insecurity in southeast nigeria. awka: `cleen. un population est. reports (2019). an in-depth analysis into cases and events. world report (2015), “nigeria news update: mohammed yusuf killed while in custody”. pan african news wire, july 31, 2015. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 4 | issue 08 | august 2021 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mcgraw_hill the origins of the boko haram sect the concept of terrorism this section is well immersed with pre-existing views and perceptions of various scholars and academicians as regards thir contributions to the subject matter. the word terrorism just like some other social science concepts has proved to be one of the most difficult concepts to define. perhaps, the only consensus among analysts with regard to terrorism is that there is no universally acceptable definition of the concept. literature survey by the national research council (nrc) attempted what it considers a working definition of terrorism in the social and behavioural sciences, consisting of the following elements: causes of terrorism in nigeria ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 07 || july, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey the deaf immigrant odyssey: sacrifices, loss and reconciliation danielle thompson* abstract this article interrogates the significance of identity to deaf immigrants, and how their sense of identity transforms when they immigrate to a capitalist nation such as the united states.this article will further examine the “outsider within” among deaf immigrants seeking to integrate into the deaf world of the united states, feelings of isolation, and how deaf immigrants can reconcile this new sense of identity with themselves.immigration is a complex bio-psycho-social process and the immigrant has a truly complex task in navigating a new and often unfamiliar world. the immigration experience may cause aperson to abandon their motherland, which causes deep disturbance within the self, as well as disequilibrium in emotional development. keywords: identity, immigration, integration, reconciliation. sacrifices of immigration immigrants to the united states come for various reasons. a majority of the contemporary immigrants are escaping war and violence. other immigrants seek better opportunities for their families and the middle class dream: home ownership and adequate education for their children. deaf immigrantsoften migrate to the united states in search of better employment opportunities and to escape language oppression. language oppression is not to be confused with language deprivation. language oppression is the phenomenon when a person is denied the right to use a language of their choice as it is believed to be an inferior language. sign language is not celebrated in many developed countries, and deaf persons are denied the right to use sign language (united nations, 2019). doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey immigrants arrive to a new country with a plethora of knowledge, experiences, and family history. often, factors of socio-economic status in their home country givethem their personal identity. however, when the immigrants arrive in a new country, they must sacrifice their old social and professional status to survive. for example, it is not uncommon for deaf individuals from another country to be an attorney for the local government office in their native country and find themselves working as a teacher’s aide in a suburban high school upon settling in the united states, or to be an electrical engineer in central or south america and end up employed as a construction worker here in the united states (mann, 2016). deaf immigrants from non-european countries are an invisible and forgotten community. the numbers of afro-caribbean and indo-caribbean immigrants to america, immigrants from sub-saharan africa, chinese immigrants from mainland china are growing. the 2001 united states bureau of census reported nearly 2.8 million foreign born immigrants who arrived from the caribbean region (guy, 2002). yet, these groups of immigrants remain invisible and the primary focus has been on european individuals who immigrate to the united states. economic reality and patterns of immigration can be attributed to labor migration. individuals migrating from poorer countries to wealthier ones, such as the united states, is the predominant pattern of immigration that exists in the western hemisphere (taylor et al., 2017). education, acculturation and identity one of the most central tenets of immigration discourse is the idea that immigrants are hard working, will enter the labor market with a desire to work hard and get ahead, and that they will have a strong urge to assimilate. the classic immigration model is based on the european immigration experience, and assumes immigrants come to the united states with cultural values doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey that are similar to those held by white americans: work hard, play by the rules, occupy a social position subordinate to that of the majority of middle class americans and eventually begin to assimilate, merge and become “american" (lee et al., 2017). a large body of research on language, culture and ethnography has shown that for non-white individuals immigrating to the united states, for example, the european immigration model does not work for them. black americans' african ancestors did not immigrate in the same sense as europeans did to america. africansarrived in the united states through force and were sold as slaves. as a result, african-americans occupy a social status below that of whites and have found it difficult to assimilate with european american society (tambiah, 2017). immigrants of color, especially from english speaking nations like trinidad and tobago, still take pride in their home countries. often, english-speaking afro-caribbean and indo-caribbean immigrants idealize their home culture by expressing a sense satisfaction from being able to legally immigrate to america, and also being able to find legal employment upon arrival. this specific group of immigrants tends to value education and economic success as a measure of working hard versus seeking prestigious occupations. moreover, they do not emphasize their poc (person of color) identities, rather they favor their national identities, e.g. trinidadian-american, guyanese-american, surinamese-american, et cetera (guy, 2016). acculturation issues immigrants from non-white countries do not arrive in the united states as empty cultural vessels waiting to be americanized. they come with their perceptions, images and values on issues of race, class and gender shaped by their home countries. non-white immigrants display multiple forms of identity related to the diverse racial, ethnic, and urban areas they occupy. for the doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey majority of these non-white immigrants, incorporation into american society has two parts: 1) most immigrants are integrated into the service and education sectors of the us economy, and 2) given that american society places race as a fundamental factor into society, many non-white immigrants are placed in locations that are socially isolated (daneshvary&schwer, 1994). american deaf culture dr. thomas holcomb’s book “introduction to american deaf culture” has highlighted the various perspectives of the deaf community. there are two perspectives, the “pathological model” and the “cultural model”. the pathological model is the same as the medical model. it is where the values of persons who can hear is superior to those who are deaf. this view is often held by non-deaf persons wanting to interact with the deaf community on a professional basis (humphries, 1977). it is also the view of this model that deaf people have something wrong with them and needs to be “fixed” (cripps & small 2016).it is a negative perception of deaf persons. this pathological view defines the deaf community as a group of persons whose deafness interferes with the normal reception of speech and therefore are not normal because they cannot hear (holcomb, 2016).the word “audism” arose from this view and it is aligned with the views of racism, sexism, and anti-semitism (bergey& gannon, 2016; gannon, 1981). the cultural view is where a group of persons share a common mean of communication, sign language that provides cohesion and identity. it is also viewed as a group of persons who view the world visually (i.e. see things) and those whose primary means of relating to the world is visual and who share a language that is visually received (tuccoli, 2009). doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey dealing with feelings of loss immigrants suffer four basic losses when migrating to a new country. these losses are: 1) loss of mastery of surroundings, 2) loss of friends and family networks, 3) loss of language if from a non-english speaking country migrating to usa, and 4) loss of everyday life and familiarity. deaf immigrants suffer different types of basic losses, 1) loss of mastery of surroundings, 2) loss of language if from a non-english speaking country migrating to usa, 3) loss of everyday life and familiarity, and 4) if they have a strong network of friends and family back in their home country, they will have feelings of loss of family and friends. an additional challenge for deaf immigrants is the feeling of despair (schama, 2017). oftentimes deaf immigrants connect with other deaf americans, however, they instantly recognize they are “outsiders within” –they are deaf like deaf americans, however, they do not have the same deaf culture norms as deaf americans. for example, such immigrants may not value attending a school for the deaf in their home countries, not having deaf parents who are proud to be from a deaf family, or not knowing asl (american sign language) as much as deaf americans emphasize. self-reconciliation among deaf immigrants immigrants who are self reconciling are learning how to hold the two realities: what has been lost as an immigrant migrating to usa and what has been gained. the accomplishments do not replace the losses but they go together to help the immigrant feel more whole. deaf immigrants self reconcile in the same manner as non-deaf immigrants from non-white countries, however, deaf immigrants must be given the opportunity to validate their difficulties of their journey as being deaf within the american deaf society, which can be hostile socially at doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey times and provide a therapeutic breathing space for reconciling the different parts of themselves and healing. suggestions: what can deaf american educators learn from deaf immigrants and do to assist them with succeeding in schools and in the community? 1. acknowledge cultural differences among deaf immigrants: they are significant differences among deaf immigrants. deaf immigrants from nonwhite countries choose to come to the united states for a variety of reasons, often unrelated to religion or religious persecution. 2. cultural adjustments vary among deaf immigrants: immigrants from english speakingcountries are not struggling with language challenges, however, maybe struggling with why it is necessary to “pick” a cultural or ethnic group to belong. many of these immigrants do not believe they are part of the melting pot in united states, but instead they try to navigate the american workforce or educational system. 3. valuing deaf immigrants as a distinct immigrant group. deaf immigrants today are not escaping the holocaust, for example. they often share similarities of other nations that share a history of colonialism and exploitation. their immigration must be understood within the context of sociocultural history and deaf culture. 4. de-emphasize social integration or cultural assimilation as an educational goal. the reasons for deaf immigrants immigrating to usa are often varied, doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey however, they are usually seeking better employment opportunities or better educational opportunities. as social integration is not a goal of many first generation deaf immigrants, adult education programs that seek to foster social and life development goals for immigrants miss the point. deaf immigrants are either segregated into distinct communities, such as, jamaican-deaf or nigerian-deaf communities and may not wish to integrate into other communities. maintaining their own cultural and national identity remains important for these individuals. doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey references bergey, j. l., & gannon, j. r. (2016). deaf history goes public. sign language studies, 17(1),117-121. camp, p. (2001). “a struggle for identity: the american deaf community”. burtonsville, maryland. humanities journal, march/ april 2001; 22, 2, pg. 18-24. cripps, j., & small, a. (2016). deaf culture centre: how the community takes its rightful place in history. sign language studies, 17(1), 101-110. daneshvary, n., &schwer, r. k. (1994). black immigrants in the u.s. labor market: an earnings analysis. the review of black political economy, 22(3), 77– 98. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02689974 gannon, j. (1981). deaf heritage: a narrative history of deaf america. silver spring, md: national association of the deaf. guy, t.g. (2002). “black immigrants o the caribbean: an invisible and forgotten community”. adult learning: fall 2001/ 2002, 12/13, 4/1; immigrant learners in adult, post secondary and work place education journal. holcomb, t.k. (2013). introduction to american deaf culture. new york: ny: oxford university. humphries, t. (1977). communicating across cultures (deaf/hearing) and language learning. union graduate school, cincinnati, ohio. unpublished doctoral dissertation. lee, j., bean, f. d., batalova, j., & sandhu, s. (2017). immigration and the black-white color line in the united states. in the impact of immigration on african americans(pp. 27-58). routledge. doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02689974 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) danielle thompson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || deaf immigrant odyssey lewis, h. (2016). deaf liberation theology. routledge. mann, m. (2016). the american journal of psychoanalysis, 76, 122-139. american association for the advancement of psychoanalysis. quadros, r., & lillo-martin, d. (2018). brazilian bimodal bilinguals as heritage signers. languages, 3(3), 32. schama, s. (2017). “america’s immigrant dream collides with nativist nightmares”. london, uk, the financial times limited, business and economics. tambiah, s. j. (2017). transnational movements, diaspora, and multiple modernities. in multiple modernities (pp. 163-194). routledge. taylor, r. j., forsythe-brown, i., lincoln, k. d., & chatters, l. m. (2017). extended family support networks of caribbean black adults in the united states. journal of family issues, 38(4), 522-546. tuccoli, t. (2009). hearing privileges at gallaudet university. gallaudet university, washington, d.c. unpublished master’s thesis. united nations. (2019). human rights. un.org. retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/. united states bureau of census (2001). profile of the foreign-born population in the united states, 2000. washington dc; us department of commerce economics and statistics administration u.s. census bureau. doi 10.5281/zenodo.13142117 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 07 | july 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 references world peace and security in turbulence era: the impact of russia-ukraine war on peace, security and development in nigeria adesola mercy fasiku (ph.d) 1 & adedeji matthew adedayo2 1department of social science education, school of social science education, college of education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria email: fasiku.adesola@bouesti.edu.ng, tel: +2348062647636 2department of peace and security studies, school of social and management sciences, college of sciences, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria email: adedayo.adedeji@bouesti.edu.ng, tel: +2347031537294 abstract since the inception of the 20th century, many wars have been recorded which still leaves its impacts till today. premised of this background, this study examines the impact of the russoukrainian war on peace, security and development in nigeria. the study seeks to find and explain the relative consequences of the war on the human security and governance, and sustainability system in nigeria; examine how the war has affected the governmental efforts at stemming up security and threats within and outside and aims at cross examination of the impacts of the war on the systematic/holistic development in nigeria. the study adopts the just war theory as its theoretical framework. the research methodology employed in the study is mixed research method. the data used for the study includes both primary and secondary sources. the interview was tailored towards eliciting information from key informants; the secondary data were sourced from textbooks, journals and internet materials in relation to the subject studied. the study concludes that there is needs for strengthen resilience efforts towards reducing nigeria’s dependency on importing goods and services, and invest in technology and infrastructure and promotes innovative approaches. keywords: peace, security, human security, development, war, turbulence ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:fasiku.adesola@bouesti.edu.ng mailto:adedayo.adedeji@bouesti.edu.ng introduction security is the state of being free from danger or threat, the quality or state of being secure as well as freedom from danger and freedom from fear or anxiety. it is the reduction or lessening of all forms of violence including rape, gender subordination, domestic violence, economic, and ecological destruction (bassey, 2018). thus, traditionally, security is the unilateral function of the state especially if we consider the intellectual view(s) of some political theorists like thomas hobbes, john locke and jj rousseau, who have argued that the essence of a state is to provide law and order, which are attained through (effective) security. according to encarta (2006), peace is freedom from war; the end state of war; tranquility; a calm quiet state free from disturbance; a state of mental calm, serenity, devoid of anxiety; a state of harmony, free form conflict or disagreement; a treaty agreeing to end an hostility; law and order; a state devoid of violence, crime and other forms of disturbance. agreeably, peace and security is as essential as human existence and if the right to life determines other fundamental human rights, it becomes expedient that the society, nigeria in particular, this against the background of the fact that unless lives and properties are secured, there cannot be any appreciable development in any human society (nwolise, 2016). therefore, every society needs security and safety to exist and also achieve sustainable growth and development. it is equally good to know that safety and security encapsulate many things, which includes: lives, food supplies, health, housing, environmental security, territorial security, personal security, etc (appadorai, 1982). against this background, the united nations (un) sees security within the context of moral rights and acknowledges its intrinsic contributions to development. the security and safety of lives and properties overtly encourage social well-being and financial health. invariably, they promote human productivity and economic life integration by helping humans to be calmer, understanding, responsive than being reactive, more observant, and to achieve cognitive awareness. in light of the foregoing, security and safety are vital for the survival of human societies because they are essential conditions for sustainable development and self-reliance (un commission on human security, 2003). since the inception of the 20th century, many wars have been recorded, including civil wars, regional wars, continental wars and above all world war and not ruling out the cold war which still leaves it's impacts till today and likelihood of re-ignition, readily come to mind is the ongoing war of invasion in ukrainian propelled by russia and resisted by the ukrainians. many wars ensued with clear cuts reasons while others started based on unreasonable grounds and ended even the more detriment of the war parties. the russia-ukraine war starts at a time when the nigerian government and the people are still struggling to recover from the subverting consequences of the global covid-19 pandemic, which caused deep socio-economic deterioration, that lead to loss of productivity, worsening inequalities, and in some cases security challenges. the war threatening to derail development progress and advancement in nigeria, pushing the 2030 sustainable development goals and the aspirations of the african union’s agenda 2063 and president mohammed buhari administration economic recovery agenda further out of reach. nigeria-state, has been having challenges of peace and security some years back, but the recent waves of russo-ukrainian interstate war posed threats to both the peace, national and human security of nigeria as it escalating geometrically and, therefore, rapidly assuming ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 a dangerous dimension on the social, energy, political, and economic peace, security and development. as a result of ongoing russo-ukrainian warfare, this emergency is commonly understood as the threat posed by insecurity and other criminal activities in nigeria. however, this understates the complexity and multidimensional nature of russia-ukraine war security challenges, which impact all aspect of nigeria economic, social and political development and advancement. from the forgoing, the objective of this paper is therefore to examine the impact of the russo-ukrainian war on peace, security and development in nigeria. the study seeks to find and explain the relative consequences of the war on the human security (economic, food, political, and energy security) and governance, and sustainability system in nigeria; examine how the war has affected the governmental efforts at stemming up security and threats within and outside nigeria. in addition, the study aims at cross examination of the impacts of the war on the systematic/holistic development in nigeria. literature review conceptual clarifications peace according to baljit (2003), peace has become a central focus in the general world discourse, that the word peace is very often use and abused and that since it lacks an agreeable definition and difficult to conceptualize, it is imaginary and utopian. he postulates that peace conjures images of harmony and bliss in psychological, social and political sense. these images seem to conflict with the reality of a chaotic and non-harmonious world. the field of peace research is for that reason an attempt to reach towards a world which is peaceful or a least free from violence. galtung (1994) makes clarifications between positive peace and negative peace. hence, he sees negative peace “as the absence of violence, absence of war” and “positive peace” as the absence of negative peace as well as elimination of those structures and imperfections in the way of the society as to enable individuals to find fulfillment. i.e the integration of human society. security and human security security basically means the state of being free from danger or threat. in other words, it implies “the degree of resistance to, or protection from harm” (adeniyi, 2014). according to the 1991 oau kampala document, “towards a conference on security, stability, development and cooperation in africa”, security is a wide concept that “embraces all aspects of the society, including the economic, political and social dimensions of individual, family, community and national life. the security of a nation must be constructed in terms of the security of the individual citizen to live in peace with access to basic necessities of life while fully participating in the affairs of his or her society in freedom and enjoying all fundamental human rights”. the notion of security is the concept of human security since “people’s safety” lies at the core of security concerns. in its human development report, “new dimensions of human security” (2014), the undp made the first attempt to develop a broad understanding of human security. its conceptualization dwelled on conceiving security not only as an exclusive preserve of the state, territory and military matters but also on individuals who are at the heart of security concerns. human security is seen as consisting of seven components including economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security and political security. development development as a concept is a victim of definitional pluralism. it is a difficult word to define. gboyega (2013) captures development as an idea that embodies all attempts to ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 improve the conditions of human existence in all ramifications. it implies improvement in material wellbeing of all citizens, not the most powerful and rich alone, in a sustainable way such that today’s consumption does not imperil the future, it also demands that poverty and inequality of access to the good things of life be removed or drastically reduced. it seeks to improve personal and physical security and livelihoods and expansion of life chances. accordingly, naomi (2005) believes that development is usually taken to involve not only economic growth, but also some notion of equitable distribution, provision of health care, education, housing and other essential services all with a view to improving the individual and collective quality of life. chrisman (2014) views development as a process of societal advancement, where improvement in the well being of people are generated through strong partnerships between all sectors, corporate bodies and other groups in the society. it is reasonable to know that development is not only an economic exercise, but also involves both socio-economic and political issues and pervades all aspects of societal life. historical background of interstate war interstate war is the military conflict between separate states over a territory and common interest; it does not include civil wars and wars of independence, or smaller clashes with limited causalities (less than 100 combat deaths). for instance, iraq’s kuwait invasion in 1990 caused an interstate war between the united states and iraq. in the world, there have been various interstate wars such as indo-pakistani war of 1947; 1948 arab-israeli war; vietnam war 1955; sino-indian war 1962; indonesia-malaysia confrontation 1963; war of attrition 1967; united states invasion of panama 1990; gulf war, 1991; nato bombing of yugoslavia 1999; united states invasion of afghanistan 2001; 2003 invasion of iraq; iranisrael conflict during the syrian civil war; 2016 armenian-azerbaijani clashes; american-led intervention in the syrian civil war; just to mention a few. in africa, there are series of interstate wars such as chadian-nigeria war, 1983; chadian-libyan conflict 1987; ugandatanzania war, 1979; 2011 military intervention in libya. causes of interstate wars socio-economic development, power, trade, rivalry (military, economic, political and social) and resources are the general economic and political causes of interstate wars. on the contrary, whereas the trade’s impact on the risk of an intrastate war is not apparent, resource abundance and underdevelopment provide incentives for such wars. according to mansfield and pollins (2001), liberalists postulated that trade relations generally provides deterrents for interstate wars, realists opine that trade increases the likelihood of such wars. furthermore, various scholars emphasize the absence of the obvious connection between the probability of interstate war and economic interdependence. for example, liberals generally assert that trade diminishes the likelihood of conflicts since interstate wars negatively affect commerce both contemporaneously and prospectively. waltz (1979) believes that economic interdependence increases the risk of an interstate war since the linkages between potential participants lead to a war. mearsheimer (1990) also warns that states usually fear that their enemies might stop the flow of supplies in times of war or crisis. russo-ukrainian war in historical perspectives a diversity of social, economical, cultural, ethnic and linguistic factors triggered the sparking of unrest in eastern and southern ukraine in 2014, and the subsequent eruption of the russo-ukrainian war, on the aftermath of the early 2014 revolution of dignity. following the sovereignty or autonomy of the ukraine from the soviet union in 1991, repeated historical and cultural differences and an assailable state component hampered the development of a proclaimed ukrainian national identity (galeotti, 2019). ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 the russification and russian habitation during centuries of russian rule in eastern and southern ukraine had caused the russian language to have its peak, even amongst ethnic ukrainians. after the orange revolution in 2004, russia launched a decade -long effort to restore its political dominance and influence in ukraine, by playing on existing fault lines and undermining the central government (perrigo, 2022). the tensions between the duo competing historical and cultural traditions metamorphosed into political and social conflict during the euromadian, which started when viktor yanukovych; the then ukrainian president, refused to sign an association agreement with the european union on 21st november, 2013 (wiegrefe, 2022). a clash of interest emanated as there was a strong support in western and central ukraine for closer ties with europe whilst a few number (many) in eastern and southern ukraine traditionally favored stronger relations with russia. viktor yanukovych, who got most of his support from eastern regions, was forced to step down his office in february 2014. his ouster was followed by protests in eastern and southern ukraine that placed a strong emphasis on the relevance of historical ties to russia, the russian language and antipathy towards the euromaidan movement (perrigo, 2022). theoretical framework this aspect of the study discusses the theory that forms the framework with which the research works is built. for the purpose of this study, the theories used is just war theory just war theory: since the long and enduring just war tradition has evolved with the involvement of great figures such as thomas aquinas-divine natural law (1225-1275), hugo grotius-humanity natural law (law of nations) as father of international law (1583-1645). grotius inaugurated the modern development of international law through his attempt to restate and revive the criteria of just war in secular form. early attempts to contain or prevent warfare have produced the much famous just war theory. st. augustine of hippo (354-430) is commonly held to be the first to initiate the ‘just war theory’. the theory gives some wars legal and moral justification, condemns those that do not comply with the requisite specification and imposes restrictions of the actual conduct of war. as such it is made of a set of moral criteria (guidelines) for determining and judging whether and when a state may have recourse to war and how it may fight the war. according to the just war theory, nations or states sometimes have moral justification for resorting to war. that war is sometimes, but not always morally right. the aim of ‘just war theory’ is to provide a guide to the right way for states to act in potential conflict situations. it has been observed that war cannot be totally dissuaded as there are many factors that can propel war as a open conflict or violent between countries or within a countries among factions within the state, nevertheless, russo-ukrainian war is been seen as the options of resolving a conflict and protecting nation’s interest against other nations. the just war theory also speculate that if war parties can rightly satisfied the conditions under each group then war is justified but if they fail to satisfy one of the war is termed as injustice and the part that failed to fulfill it shall be hold responsible for war crimes and irrational involvement in war. methodology the study utilized mixed methods research design which comprises qualitative and quantitative research approaches. in the context of this study, qualitative method involved the use of key informant interviews (kiis) and direct observations (obs) while quantitative method involving the use of questionnaire. the data used for the study includes both primary and secondary sources. the interview was tailored towards eliciting information from key informants, including security experts, peace and conflict experts, international relations experts, public affairs analysts, political scientists, social scientists, and other stakeholders. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 secondary data were sourced from textbooks, journals, newspapers, conflict bulletin, and internet materials in relation to the subject studied. the demographic characteristics of respondents fifty (50), questionnaires were administered to security experts (5), peace and conflict experts (10), international relations experts (5), public affairs analysts (10), political scientists (5), social scientists (5), and other stakeholders (10) in nigeria. findings and discussion findings of objective 1 the impact of russo-ukrainian war on peace, security and development in nigeria the nigeria political scene as well as other key sectors of the nigerian polity, prior to the russo-ukrainian war have been partially fairing well though not without daunting challenges. however, the ongoing war in ukrainian which is entering it is nine (9) months of prosecution has revealed more weaknesses and incapacitated state of nigeria polity, stretching across all key sectors, not only this, the war has also informed us how vulnerable nigeria in all her sector is to the international vagaries. nonetheless, the war has again underscore how deep and how intensifying the rate of globalization in the contemporary world politics. as revealed and gathered, nigeria is characterized with social chaos, indifferences, tensions and imbroglio which all hamper human qualitative development. the struggle of men to arrive at good economic ends and live a better life in a much disarticulated economic environment has prompted many people into engaging in incriminating activities, illbusinesses all in the name of meeting ends economically. majority of the respondents agreed that the offshoots of these tensions are sporadic cases of kidnapping, banditry attacks, ritualism, hooliganism, terrorism and the likes. as revealed by respondents, with the inception of the ongoing russia invasion in ukraine, nigeria security woes and challenges becomes more complicated, and on alarming increase. even with some unreported or swept under the carpets. a popular saying goes thus “an hungry man is an angry man”, the worsening economic conditions which is characterized by high inflation rate, devaluation of naira, pump price of petroleum and the high cost of living both in the rural and urban settlement are all pushing peep to the rear wall, one of the respondents postulated that, the saints citizens who had earlier had zero tolerance for crime and fraudulent acts of garnering wealth’s are now giving it a second thoughts of joining the bad wagons of fraudsters, kidnappers who by that had break even financially, while the already inducted members of kidnapping gangs are renewing their ardent and shortsighted commitment to continue in their evil acts, all because they want to make is financially and to despise the worsening economic conditions. to some extent some even claims that nigeria is a frustrating country, but we should know that prior to the russo-ukrainian war, things were a bit normal but with the inception of the war, things gets worse as cost price of foods, fuel and other commodities which must be imported are increasing day by day coupling with the rise of dollar and devaluation of naira. all the respondents agreed that, the economy of nigeria which is currently and badly affected by the war has indirectly worsened and complicate security issues. with hope in sight they believes nigeria could move out of this muddy situation and muster her economic strength now and after the war in order to change the face of things for better as regards peace and security in the country. findings of objective 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 the relative consequences of the war on the human security (economic, food, political, and energy security) and governance, and sustainability system in nigeria nigeria economically has been long tied to the western economies such as that of other third world state as argued by the dependency theorists. it is a well known fact especially to the intellectuals and critics that the nigeria economy is dangling on an economic balance, caught up between influence of western propelled economy and the eastern economic influences (notably from russia and china). as a result of the rising tide of globalization and the wider scope of international web of connection, nigeria economy is now operating on a probability mode, that is, the probability of nigeria economy surviving or crashing depends on what goes on in the west or in the east. it has been argued by dependency theorist of whom andre gunder frank is a notable proponent of the theory, that "if the american (western) economy should sneezes, nigerian economy (symbolizing third world states) would catches cold". this explains why nigerian economy just like other country in the african regions are suffering from the effects of the russo-ukrainian war, because we have been too dependent on ukrainian agricultural produce, while war goes on there (ukraine) , famine and high cost of foods are ravaging our land(s). while the nigerians are still recovering from the aftermath of global economic meltdown and shocks from the broke out of covid-19, russo-ukrainian war yet again complicate things for the world, not nigeria alone now. caleb ojewale (2022) of business day publication in his article titled “how nigeria is paying for russiaukraine war” noted that “the russia large scale invasion of ukraine which began on february 24, 2022, has pushed the prices of crude oil, natural gas, aluminum, nickels, wheat and other commodities to record high”( ojewale,2022). in furtherance, he observed that the conflict has led to higher petrol subsidy bill and surge in the prices of diesel, aviation fuel, cooking gas and some items locally in nigeria. by implication, the nigeria local economy which has been primarily based on income generated solely from crude oil has witnessed some setback. earlier this year (2022) nigeria witness’s nationwide shortage of petrol, to which the federal government blames the war going on ukraine as they claimed, hampers the importation of refined petroleum. apparently nigeria economy is yet to be totally not even partially divorced from too much of dependency on the economy of developed state. nigeria is yet to diversified her economy, nigeria is yet to be like the ancient egyptians helped by joseph who stored grains for time of famine, well the war in ukraine should inform nigeria government the need to rethink. on food security, the nigeria food production and its security is yet to be propelled by internal forces, though nigeria is trying to be sufficient to a considerable extent in terms of food security but the domestic conflict, crisis and insecurity undermines these efforts. however, we shall take a look at how the war affects nigeria food security. first we must know that no country in the world is self sufficient but the case of the african state is beyond normal when it comes to depending on imported foods. some of the respondents averred that due to the ongoing war between russia and ukraine, some of the manufacturing and production industries in nigeria were unable to meet their daily production level due to non-availability of raw materials which they usually import from foreign countries. this scenario has led to low production outputs. according to a respondent, who is international relations expert averred that the russo-ukrainian war has continue to weakened the nigeria economy due to the significant disruptions in trade and food and fuel price shocks, all of which are contributing to high inflation and subsequent tightening in nigeria financing conditions. another respondent averred that the russo-ukrainian war has also affected the importation of raw materials for ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 fertilizer and other agricultural commodities, which has been threatening the food security of nigeria. ojewale (2022), noted that “the country's dependence on goods ranging from refined petroleum to fertilizer me, and foods especially wheat has seen nigeria paying for a war they are not part of”. the ukraine being the largest exporter of grains explains how devoted and committed they are to mechanized, commercial farming, while they are doing this, nigeria as well as other african state keep on folding arms all ready to import what is produced over there. since the war began in february 2022, the free flows of importation and exportation of grains has been halted putting many countries that depends on ukrainian grains to be exposed to danger of famine, to this vlodymir zelensky the president of ukraine incessantly call the attention of uno and the powerful state of the world to curb the russian forces who are preventing the exportation of grains. though ukraine economy is badly affected by this, but what of countries who never fights the war but vulnerable to shortage of foods and humanitarian crisis as a result of hunger. nigeria pay the price of the war in ukraine in terms of shortage of foods where they are even circulated they are sold at exuberant prices, which make most of nigeria living in abject poverty to be unable to afford daily meals. it is unfortunate that the situation of things now is ironical, that is, while ukrainians civilians are dying from gun fires and bomb shells in theatre of war nigerians at home are suffering from shortage of food and high cost of food which could lead to death owing to hunger. findings of objective 3 the effects of the russo-ukrainian war on the governmental efforts at stemming up security and threats within and outside nigeria and systematic/holistic development in nigeria by accessing the cross-cutting impacts of war between russia-ukraine has on development in nigeria, respondents opined that prior to the inception of the war in ukraine, usa and her western allies has been an ardent antagonist of any form of terrorism and they have been good friends of africa in times of intra state conflict which indirectly may affect their own national interests. palestine-isreali conflicts, conflict in syria, ethiopia-tigray civil war, mynammar military clampdown on civilians and the rise in tide of military takeover of states in africa have all been on the radar of america and her european counterpart whereby they indirectly provide supports to resolve any of these or putting pressures for a peaceful resolution of conflicts. however it must be noted that the war in ukraine has limited international concern for other state of the world facing hard times in dealing with intra-state conflict. while the likes of countries like nigeria and other state ridden with conflicts such as somalia, palestine, syria are receiving lesser international support to combat forces militating against state stability in government. while all international attentions both bilaterally and multilaterally are geared towards ukraine with financial support, state of the art weapons of war are shipped into ukraine to fight the war with seeming payoffs for the western camp. though many countries such as nigeria, and other state facing threats and activities of transnational guerrilla/ militant forces (islamic states of west african province (iswap) readily come to mind) have long been diplomatically requesting from external support to combat this anti-state forces or actors, but with little or no attention given. one of the respondent averred that who knows maybe america, european union have been planning to help conflict ridden state outside their continent only for russo-ukrainian war to ensure diverting the attention the one commanding more attention and of great implication for their national interest. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 another respondent noted that russia is one of the largest exporters of weapon of war, but with the war of invasion of ukraine by russia and with the sanctions places on russia by the super/big powers, the procurement of weapons of war may carry ideological connotation for the western countries. taking for instance nigeria enjoys a lot of benefits from united state of america and other western countries but now if there be any reason for nigeria to procure weapons from russia to combat her own national security problems, such a decision may generate international attention and concern sending a signal/ message to the us government and her allies. thus, many counties in the same shoes with nigeria may experience a diplomatic dilemma and an ideological confusion in this period of war not knowing who to side for the greatest benefits and whether we like it or not the more reluctant the government are to be proactive in making serious decisions that will mitigate internal conflict and security challenges, the more the perpetrators of insecurity woes will be gaining more grounds, having known the state of confusion of the government. major findings of the study a) the study find out that the ongoing russo-ukrainian war has been affecting the nature and efforts at achieving sustainable peace in nigeria, also the human and national security system of nigeria have been directly and indirectly been threatened by the war, and ultimately the pace of nigeria systemic development has been hampered by the war felt in the major sectors of the economy. b) the russo-ukrainian war has derailed nigeria’s slow recovery from covid-19 pandemic, as the war in ukraine has affected economies and the sustainable development in nigeria c) there are clear long-term effects of the war on nigeria, including a possible social and economic instability and debt un-sustainability, which may likely lead to inequality and poverty. d) the most visible impact of the russo-ukrainian war on nigeria is the rising fuel and food prices, inflation and financial instability. food insecurity is likely to last and have a negative effect on all aspects of human development from income to health and education. conclusion and recommendations this study examines the impact of the russo-ukrainian war on peace, security and development in nigeria. the study finds and explains the relative consequences of the war on the human security (economic, food, political, and energy security) and governance, and sustainability system in nigeria. the study also examines how the war has affected the governmental efforts at stemming up security and threats within and outside and cross examination of the impacts of the war on the systematic/holistic development in nigeria. the study concludes that there is needs for strengthen resilience efforts towards reducing nigeria’s dependency on importing goods and services, and invest in technology and infrastructure and promotes innovative approaches. sequel to the findings from the study, the following recommendations are made; a) there is need for federal government of nigeria to boosting green structural transformation which require strategic investment in long term financing for better economic and digital infrastructure and services b) in order to address the root causes of poverty and inequality, the federal government of nigeria must invest in clean affordable energy, technology and financing specifically targeted at micro, small and medium enterprises engaged in fisheries, agriculture, small-scale mining, nature-based products and services such as tourism. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 references adeniyi, e.f. (2014). promoting security and culture of peace through peace education: peace studies and practice, 1(3), 265-278 appadoral. a (1982).the substance of politics, london, oxford press ltd. bassey, c. (2018). defense and security: an african perspective. paper presented at the interorganisational seminar on conflict research and techniques, abuja, 14 june, abuja: institute for peace and conflict resolution. chrismam, laura. (2014). nationalism and postcolonial studies. neil lazarus (ed) the cambridge companion to postcolonial literary studies. (pp.183-198). cambridge: up. dzurgba, a. (2006), prevention and management of conflict, ibadan: loud books. ezeibe, c.c. (2009). inter-religious conflicts and crisis of development in nigeria: who benefits? international journal of research in arts and social sciences, 1. galeotti, m. (2019). armies of russia’s war in ukraine. elite 228. oxford: osprey publishing,31-32 galtung, j. (1969). “violence, peace and peace research” a journal of peace research, 6(3). gboyega, a. (2013). democracy and development: the imperative of local governance. an inaugural lecture (pp 6-7). ibadan: university of ibadan. makinda, samuel m. (1998). sovereignty and global security, security dialogue, sage publications, 29(3), 281-292. perrigo, b. (2022). how putin’s denial of ukraine’s statehood rewrites history. retrieved 10 november 2022. ray, james lee (2002). “does interstate war have a future?". conflict management and peace science. 19 (1), 53–80. united nations development programme, undp. (2014). human development report. new york: undp. nwolise, o. b. c. (2016). forensics and human security in nigeria, the place of strategic spiritual intelligence strategic periscope. ibadan: exotic dezines. naomi, o. (1995). towards an integrated view of human rights. hunger teach net, 6(3), 67. wiegrefe, k. (2022). “nato’s eastward expansion: is vladimir putin right?” retrieved 10 november, 2022. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 04 | april 2023 | http://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 https://www.jstor.org/stable/26273613 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar rakotonirina fp1,2, rafalimino hn¹,3, andrianjafinoro th¹,3, randriamalala nc¹,4, ravez l5, ramaroson j¹. 1sub-section of conservative odontology endodontic at the tropical odonto-stomatological institute of madagascar (iostm), university of mahajanga 2 oral health center, ministry of industrialization, trade and consumption antananarivo, 3university hospital profesora zafisaona gabriel androva mahajanga madagascar, 4university hospital joseph dieudonné rakotovao, befelatanana antananarivo 5 center for bioethics of the university of namur, belgium correspondingauthor : rakotonirina faliniaina paul iostm university of mahajanga -------------------------------------------------------- abstract according to emmanuel et al, four conceptualmodels of medicaldecision-making have been identified: the paternalisticmodel,informative model, interpretative model and deliberative model. in odontostomatology, the patient’srequest and the reason of their consultation represents a crucial factorsthat must betakenaccountwhilecreating the treatment plan and ensuring the intervention succes. the aim of thisstudywas to determine the decision-makingused by odontostomatologists in the boenyregion, in mahajanga, madagascar, during oral health care. a qualitative sociological descriptive cross-sectional studywascarried out among 15 odontostomatologistspracticing in the boenyregion of madagascar. it lasted 21 monthsfrom june 2019 to march 2021. data werecollectedusing a formal qualitative semistructured interview with a pre-established open-endedquestionnairy guide. theyweretranscribed in word version ; thenprocessed and analyzedwith microsoft excel and qda miner software. fifteenodontostomatologistsfrom the boenyregionwereinterviewed. they chose the paternalistic model, the informative model and the deliberative model for decision-making. the emergence of shareddecision-making in the face of patient autonomy has renewed the patientpractitioner care relationship. a patient surveywouldbe a welcome addition to thisstudy. key words :therapeuticdecision, care relationship, ethics patient care, odontostomatologists oral health ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar i. introduction medicaldecision-makingisdefined as the intellectualact of making a choicebetweenseveraltherapeutic options [1]. four conceptualmodels of medicaldecision-making have been proposed by emmanuel and colleagues: the paternalistic model, the informative model, the interpretative model and the deliberative model [2]. the evolution of thinking on patient rights has led to a shift in decisionmakingauthorityfrom the practitioner to the patient. with the emergence of the internet, and the multitude of health-relatedwebsites and other sources of medical information, some patients have felt more autonomous about theirhealth, usingpractitioners as simple“consultants” [3,4]. currently, the concept of shareddecision-makingisaccepted and has legal justification [5]. this studywasundertaken to determine the decision-making mode(s) of odontostomatologists in the boenyregionduring oral health care. ii.methodology weconducted a descriptive sociological qualitative studyamong 15 odontostomatologists (os) practicing in regionboeny. the studyperiodwasconductedbetweennovember 2019 and december 2020. weincluded all generalpractitionersregisteredwith the ordre nationale des odonto-stomatologistes de madagascar (onosm) and the conseil de l'ordre régional des odonto-stomatologistes (coros), available and present at the time of the interview. purposive sampling wascarried out to select participants based on theirability to provide us with the information (in detail and depth) werequired. weconducted the studyusing a formal qualitative semi-structured interview with an open-ended questionnaire guide, each lasting 30 minutes. to manage certain doubtsconcerning the answers, weopted for “triangulation” by cross-checking certain questions in order to compensate for a certain level of insincerity on the part of the stakeholders. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar the data collectedwastranscribed to microsoft word as soon as possible and copied to microsoft excel and qda miner v2.0.7, where the analyses werecarried out. ethicalconsiderationsweretakenintoaccount. iii.résultats in terms of the socio-demographic profiles of odonto-stomatologists, the male genderwas the mostrepresented in ourstudy, occupying 53.3% of interviewees, and 66.7% of all participants wereunder the age of 35. the averageagewas 32. next, 86.6% practiced in the city of mahajanga, district of mahajanga i, capital of the boenyregion. thesepractitionershad been in practice for at least a year, 40% of whomwereyoungsowith no more than 5 years' experience. as fortheming, the decision-making process variedfrompractitioner to practitioner. on the one hand, somepractitionersdecided on theirownwhich intervention was best for their patient. “at first, i decide on myown, even if the patient isn'talwayssatisfied... there are teethwecan'textractyet, like pulpitis and/or dentinitis, so i don'textract!” sometimes, theyimposed the decision. “...for the patient'schoice, it'sstill us practitionerswho impose it.” in this case, the patient had a passive rolesoheonly gave his agreement (agrément). "if the toothisstilltreatable, i'll talk to the patient about treatment, but if theydon'tagree, i'llsuggestthey go to anotherpractitionerwho can accepttheirchoice. on the other hand, somepractitioners let the patient decide; theyonlyproposed the therapeuticpossibilities of the present case. "yes, hedecides, i onlyofferhim the therapeuticpossibility of his case. i can't force him." on the other hand, somedecidedtogetherwiththeir patients, but emphasizedwhattheyfeltwas best for the patients and steeredthemtowards the proposal best suited to their case. "for me, regarding the decision, weshareittogether...i propose all the therapeuticpossibilities and hechooses. however, i emphasize one of theseproposalsthat i find best for his case, without pressure or forcing." ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar decision-makingalsovariedaccording to the clinical reality observed by the practitioner, the patient'specuniary situation and the influence of the employer, whoonlycared about the loss of earnings in theircoffers for a procedure not carried out with a patient. "as for the decision, itdepends on the context. sometimes, werealize the patient'sideabecause the proceduredepends on the patient'sfinancial situation and availability. for example, i had a case of a patient whosetoothwasstilltreatable, but hementionedlack of money and lack of time for furthertreatment. in the end, wedecided to extract the tooth." "weonly do what the patient wants, becausemy employer won't let the patient go home withouthavingperformed a proceduresolely for his or herownbenefit ». iv.discussion  socio-demographic profiles of practitioners for the socio-demographic profiles of boenypractitioners, the averageagewassignificantlylowerthanthat of french practitioners at 48.8 years [6]. secondly, the high proportion of odontostomatologists in the region's capital wasreasonable, given the increasednumber of dental practices within the city and the presence of infrastructure, administrative and financial services, governmental and non-governmentalorganizations and industrial complexes that are alsoconcentratedthere. this maybe due to the factthatfamily and professional living conditions are easierthan in the countryside. theseinclude running water, electricity and the various types of medicines and dental materialsthat are fundamental to the smooth running of a dental practice. in addition, the predominance of youngpractitioners has showntheirdynamism to becollaborators in research.  analyse of the theming the decision-making process varies frompractitioner to practitioner.  the paternalistic or parental model on the one hand, somepractitionersdecide on theirownwhich intervention is best for their patient. they impose the decision. in this case, the patient plays a passive role, giving consent only. this type of medicaldecisionis part of paternalism [2]. in a paternalisticrelationship, the practitionerexercisesauthoritarian power over the patient ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar and decideswhatis best for him or her, like a father for hischild [7]. however, itis no longer current to consider the care relationship as the meeting of the conscience of the caregiver and the trust of the cared-for. the concept of shareddecision-making has been adopted and islegallyjustified [8]. shareddecision-making" beginswith a phase of neutral explanation of the diagnoses made in the previous phase [9, 10]. then, the varioustherapeutic options are explained, again in a neutral manner, to help the patient understand and weigh up the various possible options [5].  the informative or patient-decision model on the other hand, somepractitionersonlyoffer the therapeutic options available in the current case and let the patient decide on theirowntreatment. this is an informative medical model. in a consumeristrelationship (informative model), itis the patient whodecideswhattheywant in terms of health, with the practitionerplayingonly an executiverole [7]. a prominentroleisthusgiven to the expression of informedchoices by patients, whobecomeactors in theirownhealth [11].  the disguised deliberative or paternalistic model furthermore, some dental surgeons decidetogetherwiththeir patients whichprocedures to undertake, whileemphasizingwhattheybelieveis best for the patients and guidingthemtowards the mostsuitable option for their case. this represents a deliberativemedical model. here, the practitioner not onlyinforms the patient of whatcouldbedone but, knowing the patient and hoping for the best for them, alsosuggestswhattheythinkshouldbedone. the practitioner and the patient engage in a discussion about whichmedical values the patient could and shouldultimatelypursue. this model may tend to resemble a disguisedform of paternalism. [12]. moreover, the studyshowedthatdecision-makingalso varies according to the clinical reality observed by the practitioner, the patient'sfinancial situation, and the employer's influence. the latter, especially in private institutions, isprimarilyconcernedwith the loss of revenue in theircash-flow. consideringthesethreefactors has also been unavoidable for malagasy practitioners. this couldbeexplained by the deficiency of bioethics practice in the country. indeed, the establishment of healthethicscommittees and the regularimplementation of continuingeducation on bioethics and dental ethicswouldbedesirable to promoteitsfield of application in madagascar. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar conclusion in the end, our objective has been achieved as wewere able to determine the decisionmaking model(s) used by dental surgeons in the boenyregionduring oral care management. consequently, we can inferthatthreemodels of medicaldecisionmakingproposed by emmanuel and hiscollaborators have been employed by the dental surgeons in the boenyregion: the paternalistic model, the informative model, and the deliberative model. the success of the proceduredepends on a good relationship and shareddecision-makingwith the patient. the implementation of thisshareddecisionmakinghelpsprevent dental disputes in all aspects. lookingahead, a study on the impact of decisions made beforetreatmentwith patients wouldbevaluable as a complement to thisstudy. références 1. moutel g. le consentement dans la pratique de soins et de recherche en médecine : entre idéalismes et réalités cliniques. paris : l’harmattan ; 2003, 104 p 2. emanuel ej, emanuel ll. four models of the physician-patient relationship. jama. 1992 ; 267(16) : 2221-6 3. fouche g. soins dentaires à l’étranger : impact sur la relation chirurgien-dentiste/patient [master 2, recherche en éthique]. paris. université paris descartes. 2012 4. fronty y, jordana f, colat-parros j, fronty p, sapenet m. activités des experts judiciaires en odontologie, stomatologie, chirurgie maxillo-faciale. emc med buccale. 2012 [28-965f-10] 5. haute autorité de santé. patients et professionnels de santé : décider ensemble. concepts, aides destinées aux patients et impact de la décision médicale partagée. état des lieux. 2013. 76 p. disponible : http://www.hassante.fr/portail/plugins/modulexitiklee/types/filedocument/doxiti.j sp?id=c_1671518 (consulté le 07/12/2015) 6. observatoire national de la démographie des professions de santé. bilan démographique en france. dynamique dentaire. février 2015. disponible : http://www.dynamiquedentaire.com/ 7. verges jn, sixon m, apelian n et bedos c. l’approche centrée sur la personne : importance de l’écoute en odontologie comme en médecine. odont-stom. [en ligne]. 2014 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) rakotonirina faliniaina paul 1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || ethics and decision-making in the daily practice of odontostomatologists in the boeny region, madagascar [cité 15 octobre 2019]. disponible : https://nanopdf.com/download/lapproche-centree-surla-personne-importance-delecoute-en_pdf 8. denost h, blaizot a, trentesaux t, hamel o. médecine bucco-dentaire et valeurs éthiques : quelles spécificités ? ethics, medicine and public health. 2016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jemep.2016.04.008 9. carlin n. relation de soin, confiance à l’épreuve du droit. thèse doctuniv. université parisest marne-la-vallée, 2014. 10. elwyn g, frosch d, rollnick s. dual equipoiseshareddecisionmaking : definitions for decision and behaviour support interventions. implementsci is. 2009 ;4:75 11. blaizot a, trentesaux t, hervé c, hamel o. décisions thérapeutiques buccodentaires chez des patients en situation de handicap intellectuel. éléments de réflexions éthiques apportés par les aidants. emc ; éthique et santé. 2013 ; 10 : 9-17. disponible sur : www.http://http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.etiqe.2012.11.002 12. blaizot a. la question du juste soin dans la prise en charge bucco-dentaire des patients présentant des limitations durables de leurs capacités de décision : des tensions éthiques aux perspectives d’évolution. [thèse doct éthique]. paris cité : université de sorbonne ; 2016. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 l’artisanat dans la commune de daloa : diagnostic d’un corps de metier en difficulte (1980-2002) doyakang fousseny soro université jean lorougnon guédé, daloa, côte d’ivoire ufr sciences sociales et humaines département d’histoire résumé : l’artisanat est une activité qui regroupe à la fois plusieurs corps de métiers à savoir : la cordonnerie, l’ébénisterie, la ferronnerie, la sculpture, la couture, etc. c’est certes un noble métier, mais dans plusieurs localités ivoiriennes, cette activité peine à offrir un quotidien agréable à ses pratiquants. l’artisanat à daloa, jadis resplendissant à travers la confection des chaussures traditionnelles et le célèbre centre artisanal de la ville est aujourd’hui l’objet d’un abandon, plongeant ainsi les artisans dans l’inquiétude. après un constat assez pessimisme de ce corps de métier, à travers cet article, nous avons bien voulu attirer l’attention des autorités publics sur la nécessité de redynamiser ce secteur d’activité dans la ville de daloa, afin d’offrir plus d’opportunités d’insertion et de travail à la jeunesse de la ville qui est en quête de repères, exposé aux fléaux de la drogue et de l’immigration clandestine. mots clés : artisanatdaloachaussures traditionnellesautorités localesopportunités d’insertion. summary craftsmanshipis an activitythatbringstogetherseveraltrades, namely: shoemaking, cabinetmaking, ironwork, sculpture, sewing, etc. it iscertainly a noble profession, but in severalivorianlocalities, thisactivitystruggles to offerapleasantdaily life to itspractitioners. craftsmanship in daloa, once resplendentthrough the making of traditionalshoes and the famouscraft center of the city, isnow the subject of abandonment, thusplunging artisans intoconcern. after a fairlypessimistic observation of thistrade, throughthis article, wewanted to draw the attention of the public authorities to the need to revitalizethissector of activity in the city of ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 daloa, in order to offer more integration and workopportunities for the city'syouthwho arein search of landmarks, exposed to the scourges of drugs and illegal immigration. keywords : craftsmanshipdaloatraditionalshoeslocal authorities integrationopportunities. introduction la question de l’employabilité des jeunes avec ou sans diplômes se pose avec acuité dans nos sociétés modernes, où des fléaux comme la drogue, le banditisme et l’immigration clandestine sont en vogue. pour tourner le dos à ces fléaux afin de subvenir à leurs besoins quotidiens, plusieurs jeunes de la commune de daloa exercent diverses activités artisanales. malheureusement, depuis quelques temps, ce corps de métier jadis prospère, rencontre d’énormes difficultés, d’où la peine que ressentent de nombreux artisans à daloa. l’objectif de cet article est de se plonger dans l’univers de ce corps de métier afin de chercher à comprendre les difficultés réelles qui entravent la bonne marche de l’artisanat à daloa. quel diagnostique peut-on établir des réalités socio-économiques des artisans de daloa ? l’étude débute en 1980, date à laquelle l’artisanat prend son envol avec l’installation de plusieurs ressortissants étrangers qui viennent s’installer dans la région, en quête de fortune dans l’économie de plantation et l’artisanat. l’étude s’achève en 2002, avec la crise militaropolitique qui déchire la côte d’ivoire, favorisant ainsi le départ de nombreux ressortissants étrangers et la fermeture de plusieurs structures artisanales. pour mener à bien cette étude, notre démarche méthodologique a consisté d’abord à nous imprégner des réalités que vivent les artisans, sur place à daloa. c’est dans ce cadre que plusieurs structures artisanales ont été visitées, des questions leur ont été posées à cet effet. ensuite, des centres de documentation de la ville de daloa ont été visités. le centre artisanal de daloa, de même que la mairie de la ville, ont été d’un apport appréciable. les investigations en ces lieux nous ont permis d’avoir accès au nombre approximatif d’artisans exerçant dans la ville, leur répartition géographique, ainsi que leurs chiffres d’affaires. enfin, l’ensemble de ces informations recueillies nous ont permis d’établir un plan qui se décline en deux parties. la première partie se consacre à l’analyse des aspects sociaux, économiques et environnementaux du monde artisanal et la seconde partie relève les difficultés qui entravent la bonne marche de ce secteur d’activité à daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 1l’aspect socio-économique et environnemental du monde artisanal dans la commune de daloa dans cette partie il s’agira pour nous de présenter un certain nombre de variables qui caractérisent les usagers du secteur artisanal à daloa. il y en a plusieurs, mais nous allons mettre l’accent sur le sexe, l’âge, l’ethnie, le niveau d’instruction et les finances et le cadre environnemental. 1-1 au niveau du genre et de l’âge selon les différentes investigations que nous avonseffectuées, la répartition des usagers du secteur artisanal selon le sexe est très inégale. on observe que les femmes sont surreprésentées parmi les chefs d’unités de production. ces dernières sont par ailleurs davantage à leur propre compte par rapport aux hommes. elles sont concentrées dans des branches qui leurs sont propres comme le commerce à 75% (alimentaire dans la plus part des cas) et les services (coiffure, couture) ou petite industrie à 25% (textiles). (y .guichaoua, 2004, p.53). par contre elles exercent généralement dans les conditions les plus précaires et sont plus démunies que les hommes. elles exercent généralement dans les activités de production, de service ou dans la commercialisation. dans le domaine de l’artisanat, les femmes sont moins nombreuses que les hommes et que quel que soit la taille ou le type d’activité exercée par les femmes leurs revenues ou la rentabilité économique est généralement plus faible par rapport à celles des hommes.la majeure partie de ces femmes sontinstallées dans des abris de fortune, fixes ou mobiles, sur les trottoirs, le long des rues, dans la région de daloa.1 l’âge minimum d’admission à l’emploi, fixé à 14 ans par l’oit n’est pas respecté dans la majeure partie du pays en particulier à daloa. des enfants qui travaillent ainsi dans des activités généralement commerciales entant que vendeurs à la sauvette aux coins de rues, sont exposés aux accidents de circulations et autres dangers. ils sont également présents dans des activités de productions et de services, en apprentissage pour la plupart. selon le baromètre de l’international de l’éducation, sur les droits humains et syndicaux dans le secteur de l’éducation, un rapport ministériel indique que 28% des enfants travaillent et que 20% sont 1 vincent kouho, directeur de la chambre nationale de métiers et de commerce de daloa. entretien réalisé le 15/05/2022, à daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 employés à plein temps. environ 23% des enfants âgés de 10 à 14 ans et 55% des enfants âgés de 5 à 17 ans sont économiquement actifs2. dans la région de daloa, si le secteur de l’artisanat ne respecte pas les règles relatives à l’âge minimum requis pour exercer, il faut souligner toutefois que les personnes qui ont l’âge compris entre 24 et 25 ans sont surreprésentées dans la population des chefs d’unités de production artisanale. dans cette population, les personnes d’un âge supérieur sont celles qui sont davantage employeurs. la population exerçant une activité artisanale est par ailleurs assez jeune. confrontés à des divers problèmes d’insertionprofessionnelle (après l’obtention de diplômes ou par manque de formation qualifiante), les jeunes occupent presque la moitié des activités artisanales.incapables de s’auto-employer par manque de moyens, ils sont pour la plupart, dépendants des parents et ne bénéficient d’aucune protection ni de prestation sociale et leur niveau d’éducation est relativement faible. 1-2au niveau des origines et de l’instruction dans la région de daloa, tous les groupes ethniques sont représentés dans le secteur artisanal. mais, certains sont surreprésentés que d’autres. il s’agit particulièrement des bété3, des nordiques4 et des gouro5. en plus de ces trois ethnies, nous avons les ressortissants de la sousrégion, notamment les maliens et les burkinabés qui sont nombreux dans la ville de daloa, à exercer un métier artisanal. les activités économiques sont généralement exercées par les populations, en fonction de leurs traditions, ou de leurs habitudes culturelles. c’est le cas des chaussures en cuir fabriquées dans la région de daloa et dénommée « chaussures de daloa ». cette activité de confection de chaussures traditionnelles en cure est pratiquée par les ressortissants du nord de la côte d’ivoire, qui en font leur activité de base.6 selon les informations recueillies auprès des responsables de la chambre des métiers de daloa, les travailleurs du secteur artisanal de la région de daloa sont moins instruits ou analphabètes. parmi ceux-ci, les femmes sont les plus nombreuses dans ce secteur de façon générale. la répartition de cette population féminine par niveau de l’instruction montre que 2 voir la convention 138 de l’organisation internationale du travail (oit) sur l’âge minimum d’admission à l’emploi ratifiée par la cote d’ivoire le 07 février est rentrée en vigueur le 07 février 2004. 3 ethnie originaire du centre ouest de la côte d’ivoire. 4 groupe ethnique composé des sénoufos, malinkés, koyaka, originaire du nord du pays. 5 ethnie originaire du centreouest de la côte d’ivoire. 6 monsieur savane, responsable d’une structure artisanale de fabrication de chaussures en cuir. entretien réalisé le 24/03/2022 à daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 les illettrées représentent un fort taux au niveau des opératrices du secteur artisanal. celles qui ont un niveau d‘enseignement primaire s’évaluent à un pourcentage moyen, quand à celles ayant suivi un enseignement secondaire, elles représentent également un pourcentage inférieur, tandis que pour l’enseignement supérieur, le pourcentage est très faible. ces formations signifient d’une certaine manière que, en dépit de leur supériorité numérique dans les différentes catégories des activités du secteur artisanal, les femmes montrent d’énormes faiblesses (j.p. lachaud, m penouil et al, 1985, p. 175). le manque d’instruction et souvent aussi le manque de formation constituent d’énormes entraves au progrès dans le processus économique. exerçant très souvent des activités qui nécessitent des connaissances scolaires, les femmes illettrées se font aider au besoin sinon obligatoirement par les parents ou des amis. en définitif la main d’œuvre dans le secteur artisanal, a de façon générale, un niveau d’instruction très bas, la part des usagers instruit est très faible. c’est l’une des raisons qui expliquent l’ignorance de la règlementation concernant l’enregistrement et la fiscalité. 1-3 l’aspect économique et financier les différentes enquêtes effectuées sur la rémunération dans le secteur artisanal ont prouvé que ce secteur peut fournir des rémunérations plus intéressantes que ceux qui sont pratiquées sur le terrain. avec ces différents modes de rémunération, on s’aperçoit de la précarité de l’emploi et de la vulnérabilité des personnes concernées. les chefs d’atelier ayant un revenu irrégulier préfèrent payer ceux qui travaillent avec eux en fin de journée quand cesse le travail. cette forme de paiement est plus répandue dans les activités de services et de transformations. en effet, les maçons par exemple, travaillent avec des personnes qu’ils appellent « aides maçons », ils ne savent généralement pas grandes chose dans cette activité, leur tâche se résume au ramassage des briques, à mélanger et mouiller le sable et le ciment pour qu’ils servent aux maçons.7 ils sont généralement payés à 1500 francs ou 2000 francs cfa la journée, pareil pour les serveurs dans les restaurants. ce sont des travailleurs qui peuvent être payés au prix convenu quand la journée se passe comme prévu mais lorsque ce n’est pas le cas, ils sont payés en deçà ou le paiement est remis au jour suivant. au pire des cas l’option de prise en charge n’est pas exclue. mais la rémunération en nature cache une relation bien particulière entre le donneur et le receveur qui est antérieure à l’acte de don lui 7 témoignages recueillis auprès de certains commerçants dont adamadiallo, au quartier commerce, le 14/04/ 2022. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 même et qui est l’expression d’une domination stricte ou une tutelle dans laquelle les préférences du donneur prime sur celles du recevoir.8 tableau n°1 : revenus des opérateurs du secteur artisanal dans la région de daloa de 1985 à 2000 source : archives de la chambre nationale de métier et de commerce de daloa. dans le secteur artisanal, les activités dans leur grande partie sont caractérisées par leur précarité, c'est-à-dire des activités dont la durée et la stabilité ne sont pas assurées. les données contenues dans le tableau ci-dessus ont plutôt tendance à révéler que le secteur artisanal est essentiellement caractérisé par le faible taux de revenus. elles assuraient à peine la survie des usagers. ainsi, sur l’ensemble des revenus quotidiens, hebdomadaires et 8 témoignages de salifdiomande, artisan, exerçant dans le domaine de la maçonnerie, le 20/06/2022 moments des comptes revenus en francs fcfa total -1000 1000 à 5000 5000 à 10000 10000 à 20000 20000 et plus chaque jour 120 27,53% 89 20,49% 13 3,10% 3 0,62% 00 00% 225 51,75% chaque semaine 12 3,72% 40 10,14% 41 10,55% 41 3,72% 10 2,07% 144 30,23% chaque mois 6 1,24% 7 1,44% 6 1,24% 6 1,86% 12 2,89% 37 8,70% aucune réponse 9 1,86%% 8 1,65% 7 1,44% 11 2,27% 9 2,07% 44 9 ,32% total 147 34,35% 144 33,72% 67 16,33% 61 8,47% 31 7,03% 444 100% ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 mensuels 34,35% des usagers n’arrivent pas à gagner 10000fcfa. ils sont suivis de 33,72% des opérateurs qui n’arrivaient pas à gagner 10000 fcfa. (j. charmes, p. 5) 1-4 l’impact socio-environnemental de l’artisanat dans la région de daloa l’exercice des activités artisanales crée de nombreux désagréments dans la ville de daloa. cependant, deux éléments majeurs ont attiré notre attention à savoir la pollution et les risques. la pollution de l’atmosphère constitue le problème majeur de la ville de daloa, qu’il s’agisse des bruits, des odeurs, de la fumée, de la poussière et du gaz. en effet, une seule activité artisanale peut produire plusieurs nuisances à la fois. adaloa, nombreux sont les artisans qui produisent du bruit dans l’exercice de leur activité. il s’agit des menuisiers, en rabotant le bois, du couturier ou des garagistes d’automobiles, et des tricycles, en allumant les moteurs des engins. mais aussi, l’utilisation de tondeuses et de séchoir dans les salons de coiffure dame. il faut noter que les fabricants de chaussure font du bruit soit en collant ou en pointant les semelles ou les chaussures. les ferronniers et les forgerons qui travaillent sur le fer sont également à la base de nombreux bruits ainsi que le fonctionnement du décorticage manuel ou mécanique du riz(a. frederika,2016, p.410). les odeurs provenant des activités artisanales sont de plusieurs sources et se dégagent par endroit. le rabotage de certains bois et l’utilisation de certains produits par les menuisiers dégagent des odeurs. la graisse de moteur et l’huile de vidange des garagistes d’automobiles et des fabricantes d’attiéké contenant du cyanure, déversée dans les espaces vides ou dans herbes sans précaution , la colle forte et la peinture des fabricants de chaussure ainsi que les vernis des menuisiers et certains produits des coiffeuses dames dégagent des odeurs. certaines activités artisanales causent de la poussière comme désagrément. il s’agit de la menuiserie du décorticage de riz. selon hamed sayouba, « la poussière s’élève lorsque l’artisan travaille soit en rabotant le bois ou en utilisant des machines pour décortiquer le riz. la fumée est produite soit pour faire cuire les canaris des potières, pour la cuisson du manioc des fabricantes d’attiéké et soit pour épurer l’or des bijoutiers. toute cette poussière est nuisible à la santé de l’homme ».9 la fumée est causée aussi par l’allumage des moteurs pour les réparations d’automobiles, de cycles et les vulcanisateurs. les ferronniers exercent avec les baguettes fumantes. quant aux 9 propos recueillis auprès d’hamed sayouba, le 10/05/2022. thème abordé : l’impact des activités artisanales dans la région de daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 forgerons, l’utilisation du bois de chauffe ou le charbon constitue un intrant essentiel dans l’exercice de leur activité et une nuisance pour l’environnement. le gaz produit par les frigoristes constitue un agent destructeur de la couche d’ozone. la pollution du sol et de l’eau résultent de la mauvaise gestion des déchets par les artisans. la plupart des rejets des activités artisanales sont en général des huiles usagées, des carcasses de véhicules par les garagistes et des morceaux de fer pour les forgerons10. les carcasses de véhicules et les morceaux de fer posent d’énormes problèmes de gestion à la ville. tous les sites d’entassement de ferrailles sont disséminés à la ville. les autres activités artisanales comme la fabrication de carreaux et de briques laissent des traces de ciment sur le sol. le pressing, les coiffures dames, la fabrication de l’attiéké, la teinture, la bijouterie et la fabrication de carreaux produisent des eaux usées qui ont des effets néfastes sur la santé et l’environnement. ces eaux usées contenant de nombreux produits chimiques, déversées dans la nature, s’infiltrent directement dans le sol. elles peuvent également être en contact avec l’eau de ruissellement ou des produits perdus contribuant ainsi à la pollution du sol.(a.frederika, 2016, p 411). les artisans de la région sont confrontés à divers risques dans l’exercice de leur activité. les artisans sont exposés au risque d’incendie, de toxicité et d’explosion. eneffet, la mauvaise gestion des carcasses et des rejets de garagistes engendrent plusieurs points accumulations. ces carcasses représentent un risque éventuel d’incendie lié à la présence de produits inflammables tels que le pétrole. l’utilisation d’électricité par certains artisans peut être source d’incendie en raison des branchements anarchiques. selon alassane diaby11 : « a plusieurs reprises nous avons été victime d’incendie de voiture pendant les réparations, suite à des mauvais branchements dans le véhicule ou à cause du contact entre les flammes et le carburant ». l’utilisation de chalumeau par les garagistes et les ferronniers est un risque potentiel d’incendie. certains artisans de daloa utilisent des produits chimiques plus ou moins toxiques et dangereux comme l’acide. les produits cosmétiques des salons de coiffures dames sont toxiques et nuisibles à la vie. la peinture des ferronniers, des teinturiers et des fabricants de chaussures sont des produits chimiques dont la toxicité varie ainsi que la colle forte des 10 conseil de l’entente, atelier de réflexion sur l’environnement, 1992, atelier de réflexion sur l’environnement du 22 au 31 janvier, p. 300 11 alassane diaby, mécanicien, réparateur de voiture au quartier commerce de daloa. entretien réalisé le 17 juin 2022 à daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 fabricants de chaussure, des cordonniers et des menuisiers. l’acétylène, gaz utilisée par les garagistes d’automobiles et les ferronniers pour la soudure. les artisans sont exposés à des explosions dans leur atelier ou en travaillant, en effet, l’utilisation de gaz dans certaines voitures et l’exercice du métier de frigoriste constituent un danger permanent d’explosions dans ces ateliers. après avoir relevé les aspects sociaux, économiques et environnementaux du secteur artisanal dans la région de 1980 à 2002, qu’en est-il des difficultés que rencontrent les acteurs de ce secteur ? 2les difficultés du secteur artisanal de la commune de daloa de 1980 à 2002 cette dernière étape de notre travail s’articule précisément autour de trois points à savoir,la formation des artisans, l’ignorance ou le refus de s’acquitter de l’impôt et enfin l’ambigüité des relations entre les usagers du secteur artisanal et les pouvoirs publics. 2-1 la problématique de la formation des artisans et le faible niveau de revenues et de l’épargne l’exercice de toute activité requiert un minimum de formation au préalable. en plus de la formation initiale il est nécessaire pour l’usager d’apprendre des notions de gestion au niveau de l’entreprenariat (r. walther, 2006, p.11). mais ce n’est pas généralement le cas dans le secteur de l’artisanat car certains y viennent après plusieurs mois d’apprentissage, d’autres viennent avec un diplôme. par contre il y a un groupe qui y vient sans aucune compétence dans l’activité de leur choix. il faut noter que plusieurs usagers du secteur artisanal n’expriment pas le besoin de suivre une formation pour une bonne organisation et gestion de leur activité. pour une entreprise moderne, ce serait une bonne action d’autant plus que l’on se trouverait dans le cadre d’une formation continue qui vise à favoriser les bonnes performances au niveau des entreprises. les différentes recherches et investigations que nous avons menés ont démontré que les difficultés d’accès à un financement moderne peuvent constituer un obstacle majeur empêchant une entreprise de fonctionner normalement, d’entretenir ou de remplacer ses instruments de travail, d’avoir des matériaux et des services au coût le plus économique, de se moderniser et de se développer. pour démarrer leurs activités, les usagers de productions artisanales ont recours à des microfinances dans le but d’obtenir des prêts. mais la donation des micro-crédits obéit à un certain nombre de critères et de conditions qui défavorisent ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 l’offre des différents crédits aux différents entrepreneurs. parmi ces conditions notamment nous avons la nécessité pour ces clients de non seulement ouvrir des comptes à l’avant mais d’avoir dans ces comptes une certaine somme dont le montant varie en fonction des crédits à solliciter (k. abalo, 2007, p.2). si un certain nombre de caractéristiques propres aux opérateurs du secteur artisanal et à leurs activités sont pertinentes, il n’en demeure pas moins que le niveau de mobilisation de l’épargne des intéressés joue un rôle prépondérant dans la décision des institutions de microcrédits. ce paramètre pèse donc dans l’accord ou le refus des différents prêts accordés aux travailleurs des secteurs artisanaux. a daloa, les artisans restent tournés vers les formes d’épargnes traditionnelles comme les tontines, à cause del’insatisfaction de leurs besoins par les institutions de microfinance. a cet effet les femmes semblent plus concernées que les hommes. on observe des différences entre les deux genres au niveau de l’usage de la tontine et la caisse d’épargne comme mode d’épargne, les femmes sont beaucoup nombreuses à daloa que les hommes(r.walther, 2006, p. 13). 22les usagers du secteur artisanal face aux taxes et aux impôts la politique fiscale constitue une meilleure stratégie pour la lutte contre la pauvreté, c’est avec les impôts et taxes collectés auprès des contribuables que l’etat constitue l’essentiel de son budget. celui-ci permet à l’etat de répondre aux besoins des populations au niveau des salaires, de constructions des infrastructures et autres et la création d’emplois. pour se faire les citoyens doivent faire allégeance à cette politique en faisant du civisme fiscal.mais, le constat c’est que la majorité des artisans à daloa semble se mettre en marge de cette initiative. ces artisans sont caractérisés par la non possession de numéro d’identification fiscale ou compte contribuable. selon ousmane diakite12 : « nous avons déjà beaucoup de mal à joindre les deux bouts avec les nombreuses charges sociales. si nous devons encore débourser de l’argent pour payer l’impôt et les patentes de la mairie, nous serons obligé de tout arrêter à un moment donné ». 12 ousmane diakite, menuisier exerçant au quartier lobia de daloa. entretien réalisé le 10 septembre 2022, dans son atelier, à daloa. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 au niveau de taxes et autres impôts, une sensibilisation doit se faire afin d’amener ces artisans à comprendre le bien-fondé de ces contributions, à l’échelle nationale. il faut dire que nombreux sont ceux qui non seulement ne paient pas leur taxe, mais ignorent carrément leur existence. 2-3 relations tendues entre artisans et pouvoirs publics le secteur de l’artisanat est caractérisé par le piètre niveau de ses relations et ses communications avec les autorités de la région. au milieu de ces relations pratiquement absentes, on note un bas niveau d’enregistrement administratif des activités qui se traduisent par une absence d’imposition, mais les chefs de ces établissements ne sont pas de cet avis et pensent plutôt qu’ils sont victimes du harcèlement de l’administration. en dépit de ces contradictions, la question des relations tendues entre les autorités de la région et les usagers du secteur artisanal est récurrente. ces contradictions nous amènent à mettre en lumière la nature réelle des rapports que ce corps de métier entretient avec les institutions de la région de daloa. l’occupation des espaces publics et privés est au centre de la problématique du secteur artisanal dans la région de daloa. elle est faite de telle manière anarchique, ce qui pourrait se traduire par le refus de se soumettre à l’autorité publique. selon plusieurs sources, ces opérateurs s’installent souvent sans l’accord ou l’autorisation des autorités régionales, ce qui sous-entend que chacun occupe l’espace qu’il veut pour mener à bien ses activités, sans se soucier ou s’inquiéter. et pourtant certains de ces espaces publics, selon les lois en vigueurs, sont interdits par les institutions de la région qui sont notamment le préfet et le conseil régional. et malgré l’existence de cet instrument de contrôle des espaces publics, tous les quartiers de la région de daloa sont des terrains adéquats à la création ou la formation de ces activités(k. p. anoh, 2007, p79). les usagers du secteur artisanal développent une théorie selon laquelle plus l’activité parait marginale, plus il est probable qu’elle échappe totalement à la vigilance des autorités de la région, à la fois parce qu’elle peut plus facilement passer inaperçue et parce que les autorités de la région ne viendront pas faire de contrôle, ni prélever de taxes sur les occupants de cet espace. or sans cette pression administrative, les taxes et impôts ne sont pas efficacement perçus par la direction des impôts ou les services recouvrements des régions ; parce que les ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 contribuables ne sont pas identifiés et connus dans les branches de production, des services et du commerce13. il est cependant important de souligner qu’un certain nombre de facteurs justifient ces installations sans autorisations administratives. les occupations anarchiques et irrégulières sont par ailleurs liées à l’insuffisance des infrastructures ainsi qu’à la détérioration constante du cadre de vie en milieu urbain. ces usagers sont dans leur majeure partie pauvre et ne disposent pas de revenues leur permettant d’accéder à la propriété foncière, ce qui les conduit à exercer leurs activités dans n’importe quel endroit. conclusion au terme de notre analyse, il faut retenir que le secteur artisanal dans la région de daloa existe depuis plusieurs années et à commencer à se professionnaliser à partir de 1980 avec la création de la chambre nationale de métier et de commerce dans la région. le secteur de l’artisanat dans la région de daloa a joué un rôle important de 1980 à 2002. il faut souligner que ces artisans ont été confrontés à plusieurs difficultés qui sont à plusieurs ordres. tant que le niveau de financement sera faible et les potentialités en termes de productivité quasiment inexistantes, les établissements artisanaux ne pourront pas passer à l’étape des petites et des moyennes entreprises capables d’employer un grand nombre de travailleurs. a travers les personnes interrogées, on perçoit en partie la précarité de l’emploi et la vulnérabilité des personnes concernées, ce qui renforce notre opinion sur le fait que le secteur artisanal offre certes des possibilités d’emploi mais maintient la majeure partie de son personnel dans les conditions vulnérables. au-delà des questions de financements, et des revenus, nous avons pu constater que le processus des activités artisanales est profondément lié à la problématique de contrôle. les contrôles des autorités de la région de daloa sont presqu’inexistantes ou se fait par complaisance. bien vrai qu’ils ne soient pas reconnu par l’etat plusieurs propriétaires de ces entreprises affirment ne pas êtreinfluencés par les autorités de la commune. quand ceux-ci sont pris à la gorge, ils règlent couramment leurs différents par la corruption des agents que de payer directement des amendes qui pourraient les emmener à régulariser leur situation. toute chose qui conforte les usagers du secteur artisanal dans leur logique. bien qu’ils ne soient pas 13 les montants payés par ces artisans évolue en fonction de la place occupée par l’activité, le paiement se fait soit annuellement, mais l’opérateur peut s’en acquitter par modalité, soit mensuellement ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 reconnus par les autorités, ils ne craignent pas les sanctions et les pénalités pouvant aller jusqu’à la fermeture de leurs établissements. on ne peut ignorer que le secteur artisanal pose un grand nombre de soucis économiques, sociaux et environnementaux dans la commune de daloa. son apport au niveau de la région est insignifiant, car il échappe aux impôts, aux taxes et aux cotisations sociales. ce secteur a un impact négatif sur l’atmosphère avec la pollution de l’air, des eaux et aussi tous les dangers que cela implique. enfin il faut souligner que jusqu’à présent, les dispositifs d’appui aux entreprises du secteur artisanal, ont mis l’accent sur l’offre de financement en négligeant la structuration et la cohérence des appuis, il faudrait mettre l’accent sur la détection des profils d’entrepreneurs et la sélection des candidats à la création d’entreprise, l’élaboration des projets pour mieux accompagner les entreprises du secteur artisanal vers des logiques de développement et de création d’emplois. l’etat ivoirien de même que les collectivités locales, se doivent d’apporter un appui aux structures artisanales dans la région de daloa afin de les réorganiser et lutter efficacement contre le chômage, la drogue et l’immigration clandestine, des fléaux qui détruisent de plus en plus la jeunesse de daloa. sources et bibliographie isources orales diaby alassane, mécanicien au quartier « commerce ». entretien réalisé le 17 juin 2022, sur son lieu de travail de 15h 30mn à 16h 15mn. thème abordé : les difficultés du métier d’artisan à daloa. diakite ousmane, menuisier exerçant au quartier « lobia ». entretien réalisé le 10 septembre 2022 de 10h 20mn à 10h 45mn. thème abordé : les difficultés du métier de menuisier et les rapports avec les autorités administratives. diallo adama, commerçant installé au quartier « commerce ». entretien réalisé le 14 avril 2022 de 10h 15mn à 10h 35mn. thème abordé : les difficultés du métier de commerçant et les rapports avec les autorités administratives. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 diomande salif, chefmaçon installé à daloa. entretien réalisé le 20 juin 2022, de 15h à 15h 30mn. thème abordé : les difficultés du métier de maçonnerie et les rapports avec les autorités administratives. kouho vincent, directeur de la chambre nationale de métier et de commerce de daloa. entretien réalisé le 15 mai 2022, au sein du siège de l’organisation, de 10h à 10h 25mn. thème abordé : les réalités de l’artisanat à daloa et ses rapports avec les autorités étatiques. savane, responsable d’une structure de confection de chaussure en cuire. entretien réalisé le 25 mars 2022 à daloa. thème abordé : les réalités de l’artisanat à daloa et ses rapports avec les autorités étatiques. sayouba hamed, artisan, exerçant à daloa. entretien réalisé le 10 mai 2022. thème abordé : les réalités de l’artisanat à daloa et ses rapports avec les autorités étatiques. iibibliographie abala k., 2007, l’importance des microfinances dans le financement des micros entreprises au togo, la conférence économique africaine, lomé, septembre, p. 2 anoh k. p, 2007, « le commerce de rue dans les villes de la côte d’ivoire » in kasa bya kasa, université de cocody, p. 79 charmes j. « le secteur informel en afrique, une croissance n’est pas forcement signe de marginalisation », in ensaios fee, p.5 frederika akissi, 2016, la contribution des activités artisanales et industrielles à la dégradation de l’environnement urbain de daloa, 412 p guichaoua y. 2004, l’analyse microéconomique des relations d’emploi dans le secteur informel urbain : une étude de cas de la côte d’ivoire, thèse unique en économie des institutions, l’école des hautes études en sciences sociales, p. 126 lachaud j.p, penouil m. et al, 1985, le développement spontané. les activités informelles en afrique, (université bordeaux), p.175 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 walther r., 2006, la formation en secteur informel : note de problématique, agence française de développement, paris, p. 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 5 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://www.ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model 1. dr. eid al-yahya & 2. dr. qusay mansoor alturkey 1. an anthropological researcher in the archeology and history of the arabian peninsula 2. education assistant,west coast secondary education support centre (wcsesc) wa, australia abstract: the astonishing discoveries of hundreds of thousands of tombs, varying in shapes and sizes, some reaching dimensions of hundreds of meters, would not have been possible without the profound passion and immense interest of the saudi field researcher and anthropologist, dr. eid al-yahya. these intriguing tombs are expected to reshape our understanding of the history of the arabian peninsula as a whole, as well as the history and civilization of the kingdom of saudi arabia in particular. it is through modern technologies and remote imaging using advanced technological means that the locations of these tombs have been identified. eid al-yahya harnessed these possibilities to gather information, affirming it firsthand through multiple visits, which were not without difficulties and risks, especially considering that most of these tombs are situated atop vast mountain peaks. thus, this study represents the first discovery achieved by the two researchers in their endeavor to draw attention to such intriguing discoveries of this kind. the study will rely on field images captured by the research team, in addition to site plans of the tombs using top-view visualization techniques using "google earth." the patterns and designs of these tombs will be analyzed, including their external structures and symbols of religious or general life significance found in the oldest writings recorded during the pictorial stage, also known as cuneiform writing, across the entire ancient near east region and specifically in mesopotamia. the tombs we are discussing and providing information about, especially in the land of the kingdom of saudi arabia, constitute a remarkable and exciting discovery deserving contemplation and study because they are thousands of years older than the classified tombs mentioned above. in this in-depth study, we will attempt to shed light on the most significant forms and designs of a number of tombs, explaining their meanings diligently by examining the indications found in their early shapes and drawings in the oldest writings. these writings provide ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model intriguing meanings and implications that deserve careful consideration; based on referencing specialized lexicons that clarify the origin of phonetic vocabulary, notably the french mesopotamian lexicon (mad) by labat r, titled 'manuel d épigraphie akkadienne,' last published in 2002 in paris. by returning to the visual origin and meaning of the term, we have found that it often aligns with the shape and design of these tombs. moreover, based on the patterns and designs of the tombs and their implications in the pictorial phase of cuneiform writings, predominantly from the mid to late 4th millennium bce, we observe symbols and meanings that are closely tied to rituals, deities, tombs, and the realm of the afterlife. keywords: tombs, mismary burial, pictorial symbols, cuneiform writing, arabian peninsula, saudi arabia. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model chapter one: the mismary (nail the pattern that was first named by researcher eid al upon by both researchers is called the "mismary" in arabic language. this is because the tomb resembles a nail and ends with a tail. initially, it was called the "triangular tomb with a tail," but the more accurate name is the “nail tomb”, as it resembles the shape and description of the cuneiform sign, which is similar in shape, semantic significance, and usage in the sumerian and akkadian languages and all its branches in all stages of writing. this sign carries many important meanings and conn including the number one, foot, sacred, the goddess ishtar, and the god ashur. refer to the following table (labat, 2022, p.43, no.1) (refer to table 1). equivalent pronunciation for t single nail shape in sumerian aš aš aš aš aš (table -1-) a compilation of the horizontal and vertical cuneiform writings with several meanings that were mentioned in the famous glossary. (labat, r. 2002,no.1, p.41-42.) international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model mismary (nail-shaped/ cuneiform) the pattern that was first named by researcher eid alupon by both researchers is called the "mismary" in arabic language. this is because the tomb resembles a nail and ends with a tail. initially, it was called the "triangular tomb with a tail," but the more accurate name is the resembles the shape and description of the cuneiform sign, which is similar in shape, semantic significance, and usage in the sumerian and akkadian languages and all its branches in all stages of writing. this sign carries many important meanings and conn including the number one, foot, sacred, the goddess ishtar, and the god ashur. refer to the following table (labat, 2022, p.43, no.1) (refer to table equivalent pronunciation in akkadian cuneiform equivalent pronunciation for the single nail shape in sumerian išten šepu aširtu ištar aššur ) a compilation of the horizontal and vertical cuneiform writings with several meanings in the famous glossary. dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model shaped/ cuneiform)burial pattern: -yahya and agreed upon by both researchers is called the "mismary" in arabic language. this is because the tomb resembles a nail and ends with a tail. initially, it was called the "triangular tomb with a tail," but the more accurate name is the resembles the shape and description of the cuneiform sign, which is similar in shape, semantic significance, and usage in the sumerian and akkadian languages and all its branches in all stages of writing. this sign carries many important meanings and connotations, including the number one, foot, sacred, the goddess ishtar, and the god ashur. refer to the following table (labat, 2022, p.43, no.1) (refer to table arabic meaning number one foot sacred goddess ishtar god ashur ) a compilation of the horizontal and vertical cuneiform writings with several meanings ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model this mismary (nail design, the nail signs in the mesopotamian writing system (cuneiform) and some writings of different neighboring civilizations from the mesopotamian civilization. it is the shape and symbol that directly and accurately resembles the screw the kingdom of saudi arabia and in other regions of the arabian peninsula (see image 1, 2-). (image -1-) photographic images of various models of the an image of one of the tombs from the ground, taken from a location on the edge of mount tuwaiq in al-ghat and above al 45°10'30.3"e. (image -2-) examples of the mismary with the featured model taken from a site above the village of al surface of mount tuwaiq, at the following coordinates: 19°46'53.1"n 45°10'45.4"e / 19°47'07.8"n 45°10'30.5"e.of screw burial pattern in the arabian peninsula international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (nail-shaped) symbol indicates, in terms of shape and design, the nail signs in the mesopotamian writing system (cuneiform) and some writings of different neighboring civilizations from the mesopotamian civilization. it is the shape and symbol that directly and accurately resembles the screw-shaped burial discovered in several areas in the kingdom of saudi arabia and in other regions of the arabian peninsula ) photographic images of various models of the mismary (nail-shaped) an image of one of the tombs from the ground, taken from a location on the edge of mount ghat and above al-fao, with coordinates: 26°05'22.9"n 44°56'44.1"e / 19°47'09.2"n ) examples of the mismary (nail-shaped) tomb style across the arabian peninsula, with the featured model taken from a site above the village of al-fao (kingdom of al tuwaiq, at the following coordinates: 19°46'53.1"n 45°10'45.4"e / 19°47'07.8"n 45°10'30.5"e.of screw burial pattern in the arabian peninsula dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model shaped) symbol indicates, in terms of shape and design, the nail signs in the mesopotamian writing system (cuneiform) and some writings of different neighboring civilizations from the languages of the mesopotamian civilization. it is the shape and symbol that directly and shaped burial discovered in several areas in the kingdom of saudi arabia and in other regions of the arabian peninsula shaped) tomb along with an image of one of the tombs from the ground, taken from a location on the edge of mount 9"n 44°56'44.1"e / 19°47'09.2"n shaped) tomb style across the arabian peninsula, fao (kingdom of al-fao) on the tuwaiq, at the following coordinates: 19°46'53.1"n 45°10'45.4"e / 19°47'07.8"n ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model firstly description of the screw burial pattern: the nail-shaped tomb style is spread over vast and diverse areas on the mountain surfaces, starting from northern hadhramaut and reaching up to 'al-mustawi' and across the surfaces of most mountains. among those that have been observed, there are immense numbers that extend from the south of mount 'tuwaiq', for instance, the following coordinates: (24°56'50.0"n 45°59'31.4"e). that majestic crescent-shaped mountain pierces through the najd plateau in the heart of the arabian peninsula for over 800 kilometers until it meets the sands of the empty quarter desert, where it disappears buried under the sands. it continues to the northern ends of 'tuwaiq', then into the 'al-mustawi' desert in al-qassim. this includes areas that are counted among them 'al-ghat, al-zulfi, and alqassim', both to the north and south, east and west. (refer to map number 1-). (map-1-) archaeological and geographical sites in arabian peninsula through observation, it is evident that the sizes and lengths of these burials vary, particularly in the length or shortness of the tail end of the ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model screw, but they are similar in terms of the overall design. specialists estimated the age of these burials to be around 8,000 bce at the very least, especially for the burials discovered in the western part of the rub' al khali desert, where the initial desertifi discovery of stone tools such as grinders, scrapers, and arrowheads near these burials (image 3) suggests that they belong to the ancient stone age, which can be classified as the third stage of the old stone age the renowned archaeologist seton lloyd. he considered the period between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago to be the stage that witnessed significant changes at the end of the pleistocene epoch (lloyd, 1993, p. 28). these traces were discovered more levant and northern mesopotamia, while the arabian peninsula remained beyond the reach of explorers and excavators. therefore, it is high time to study and uncover these sites in the kingdom of saudi arabia, whic likely parallel to those eras in the eastern countries, if not older. (image -3-) stone scraper and arrowhead discovered near one of the screw burials in the rub' al khali (researcher eid al-yahya) it is worth mentioning that remains of skeletal observed in the burial chamber at the head corner of the triangle, arranged in a squatting position. this burial style, known as the squatting position, was later identified in several burials in the ancient near eastern civilizations, dating back to long periods, including the stone age sites in northern mesopotamia and the sumerian burials from the early 3rd millennium bce, such as the “abu salabikh” burial near the ancient city of nippur in southern mesopotamia (refer to image 4). international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model but they are similar in terms of the overall design. specialists estimated the age of these burials to be around 8,000 bce at the very least, especially for the burials discovered in the western part of the rub' al khali desert, where the initial desertification of the arabian peninsula began. the discovery of stone tools such as grinders, scrapers, and arrowheads near these burials (image 3) suggests that they belong to the ancient stone age, which can be classified as the third stage of the old stone age the renowned archaeologist seton lloyd. he considered the period between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago to be the stage that witnessed significant changes at the end of the pleistocene epoch (lloyd, 1993, p. 28). these traces were discovered more than a century ago in various parts of the levant and northern mesopotamia, while the arabian peninsula remained beyond the reach of explorers and excavators. therefore, it is high time to study and uncover these sites in the kingdom of saudi arabia, whic likely parallel to those eras in the eastern countries, if not older. ) stone scraper and arrowhead discovered near one of the screw burials in the rub' al yahya) it is worth mentioning that remains of skeletal observed in the burial chamber at the head corner of the triangle, arranged in a squatting position. this burial style, known as the squatting position, was later identified in several burials in the ancient near eastern ing back to long periods, including the stone age sites in northern mesopotamia and the sumerian burials from the early 3rd millennium bce, such as the “abu salabikh” burial near the ancient city of nippur in southern mesopotamia (refer to image 4). dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model but they are similar in terms of the overall design. specialists estimated the age of these burials to be around 8,000 bce at the very least, especially for the burials discovered in the western part of the rub' al khali cation of the arabian peninsula began. the discovery of stone tools such as grinders, scrapers, and arrowheads near these burials (image 3) suggests that they belong to the ancient stone age, which can be classified as the third stage of the old stone age according to the renowned archaeologist seton lloyd. he considered the period between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago to be the stage that witnessed significant changes at the end of the pleistocene epoch (lloyd, 1993, p. 28). these than a century ago in various parts of the levant and northern mesopotamia, while the arabian peninsula remained beyond the reach of explorers and excavators. therefore, it is high time to study and uncover these sites in the kingdom of saudi arabia, which are likely parallel to those eras in the eastern countries, if not older. ) stone scraper and arrowhead discovered near one of the screw burials in the rub' al it is worth mentioning that remains of skeletal structures were observed in the burial chamber at the head corner of the triangle, arranged in a squatting position. this burial style, known as the squatting position, was later identified in several burials in the ancient near eastern ing back to long periods, including the stone age sites in northern mesopotamia and the sumerian burials from the early 3rd millennium bce, such as the “abu salabikh” burial near the ancient city of ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (image -4-) skeletal structure in the position of a fetal burial, found in a tomb from the site of abu al-salabikh, southern iraq, as cited in jeremy b and anthony g, 2004, p.99. the same burial position as mentioned above was discovered in the egg-shaped tombs in the state of kuwait, including tomb number kh3, recently uncovered at the al-sabiyah site (see image -5-). the burial position is characterized by the 'fetal' or 'curled up' posture, resembling the position of a fetus in the womb, anticipating birth. just as the deceased hopes to return to life after death. (image -5-) skeletal remains in the fetal position from the al-sabiyah site, cited in: sultan al-duwish, 2015, p.147. it is worth mentioning that this method became widespread during the 5th, 4th, and 3rd centuries bce in the arabian peninsula as well as beyond its borders. for instance, at the 'jebel al-buhais' site in the united arab emirates, collective graves in the fetal position were uncovered (hanspeter, 2006, p.76). even in egypt, within the graves of the 'naqada' and 'badari' civilizations, the fetal burial position was found (jeffrey spencer, 1999, p.34). similar burials were discovered in the 'dilmun' graves in bahrain ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (muawiya ibrahim, 1982, p.22). this burial practice of the fetal p migrated over time, especially during the 3rd and 2nd centuries bce, to the eastern regions of the kingdom of saudi arabia in what is known as the 'dilmun' civilization (abdulaziz suwailih, 2019, p.128). a notable example of this is the vast number of discovered graves in bahrain (see image number -6-), which indicates the cultural influence of the ancient burial practice in the arabian peninsula. this also applies to the dhahran graves in the kingdom of saudi arabia (al all adopted this burial position from the older and larger form, namely the nail-shaped burial. (image -6-) one of the tombs in the dilmun burial mounds in bahrain, illustrating the burial positions in the classification of dilmun civiliz suwailih, 2019, p.128, plate 85. it is likely that this burial position originated based on the nature of life in open spaces (bedouin lifestyle), which is a characteristic of the arabian peninsula for a long time. the the most comfortable sitting or sleeping position, involves folding the body to resemble the position of a fetus in the womb. this position prevailed in the burial after death (rida jawad al the burial method seems to have taken similar forms since ancient times until historical periods in most cases in many regions and parts of the ancient near east. this indicates that it may have originated from a common origin and that there was similarity in international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (muawiya ibrahim, 1982, p.22). this burial practice of the fetal p migrated over time, especially during the 3rd and 2nd centuries bce, to the eastern regions of the kingdom of saudi arabia in what is known as the 'dilmun' civilization (abdulaziz suwailih, 2019, p.128). a notable example of of discovered graves in bahrain (see image number ), which indicates the cultural influence of the ancient burial practice in the arabian peninsula. this also applies to the dhahran graves in the kingdom of saudi arabia (al-mughnim, 1987, p.215), sugge all adopted this burial position from the older and larger form, namely the ) one of the tombs in the dilmun burial mounds in bahrain, illustrating the burial positions in the classification of dilmun civilization graves, according to abdulaziz suwailih, 2019, p.128, plate 85. it is likely that this burial position originated based on the nature of life in open spaces (bedouin lifestyle), which is a characteristic of the arabian peninsula for a long time. the bedouin reclining position, which is the most comfortable sitting or sleeping position, involves folding the body to resemble the position of a fetus in the womb. this position prevailed in the burial after death (rida jawad al-hashimi, 1984, p. 118). burial method seems to have taken similar forms since ancient times until historical periods in most cases in many regions and parts of the ancient near east. this indicates that it may have originated from a common origin and that there was similarity in religious beliefs, which must dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (muawiya ibrahim, 1982, p.22). this burial practice of the fetal position migrated over time, especially during the 3rd and 2nd centuries bce, to the eastern regions of the kingdom of saudi arabia in what is known as the 'dilmun' civilization (abdulaziz suwailih, 2019, p.128). a notable example of of discovered graves in bahrain (see image number ), which indicates the cultural influence of the ancient burial practice in the arabian peninsula. this also applies to the dhahran graves in the mughnim, 1987, p.215), suggesting that they all adopted this burial position from the older and larger form, namely the ) one of the tombs in the dilmun burial mounds in bahrain, illustrating the ation graves, according to abdulaziz it is likely that this burial position originated based on the nature of life in open spaces (bedouin lifestyle), which is a characteristic of the bedouin reclining position, which is the most comfortable sitting or sleeping position, involves folding the body to resemble the position of a fetus in the womb. this position prevailed in hashimi, 1984, p. 118). burial method seems to have taken similar forms since ancient times until historical periods in most cases in many regions and parts of the ancient near east. this indicates that it may have originated from a religious beliefs, which must ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model have spread from a central hub in similar geographical areas, and then spread for various reasons such as trade, wars, and migrations (rashid alnazouri, 1969, p. 53). however, its original homeland is one, and is associated with the concept of the earliest settlements, which is the arabian peninsula. as is well known, tombs vary from one individual to another based on social, religious, and relative wealth status. the degree of this variation affects the construction of the tomb. moreover, tombs significantly differ over time and place. regarding the nail-shaped tombs, it is likely that they were used for individuals of high stature, great wealth, and social and religious prominence. this is especially evident when we consider, for example, the model referred to as the 'yellow desert level tomb' in the shamasiyah area northwest of riyadh, with coordinates 25°56'38.9"n 44°35'42.9"e (see images -7and -8-). in this tomb, the burial chamber for the prominent individual, likely of high social standng, is located at the head, with several smaller tombs on the sides. (image -7-) a close-up image of the mismary(nail-shaped) tomb showing smaller tombs at the almistawi site, captured by the 'on the trail of the arabs' team during the seventh season. the coordinates are as follows: 25°56'38.9"n 44°35'42.9"e. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model (image -8-) the burial chamber for the head of the mismary(nail-shaped) tomb and the paved stones of the structural layout in the al-mistawi tomb, captured by the 'on the trail of the arabs' team during the seventh season. the coordinates are as follows: 25°56'38.9"n 44°35'42.9"e. however, it is worth mentioning that no surveys or excavations have been conducted on these tombs so far. the credit for bringing attention to these tombs is often attributed to the famous program "on the trail of the arabs" on al arabiya channel, hosted by eid al-yahya. (for example, see episode 9 of the seventh expedition "on the mountain tops december 2021") [link to the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlyjcfzuqlc] for further description of the tomb, starting from the head of the triangle is the main burial, and the head is formed by a triangle tightened with stones fixed between the burial chambers. the remaining stones are laid out to form a straight line that ends where the tail ends, resembling the way cuneiform script melts into the clay of the nail impression. it is important to note that the screw burial, which is usually the primary burial, is accompanied by several smaller burials along the tail. these burials are in the form of smaller clusters approaching the triangle. a distinctive model was recently discovered and examined by researcher eid al-yahya near “ghadeer rawawah” in madinah, and the burial remains well-preserved due to its construction on top of volcanic lava away from tampering and destruction. ((image -9-) the coordinates of the site are: 24°06'59.2"n 39°36'17.9"e. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlyjcfzuqlc ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model "(image -9-) aerial image of the mismary(nail-shaped) tomb on the surface of volcanic lava near ghadeer rawawa in al-madinah, the coordinates are clearly indicated in the aerial image." secondlythe symbol of the “mismary” (nail-shaped / wedge) tomb and its connection to the most important deities of mesopotamia: the significance of the nail-shaped symbol, which is the prevalent design of the oldest tombs in the arabian peninsula, lies in its later adoption as symbols for important deities in mesopotamia after the population migrated from the arabian peninsula to mesopotamia (taha baqir, 1949, pp. 132-133). they established what became known as the successive civilizations of mesopotamia. among the most important of these deities and their association with the nail-shaped pattern symbol are as follows:" 1the goddess inanna-ishtar: she was not an ordinary deity but rather revered and considered one of the most important female deities. she was seen as the cherished daughter of the sky by the inhabitants of mesopotamia, including the sumerians, akkadians, babylonians, and assyrians (lambert w g, 2004, pp.35-39) ، she was also revered as a celestial deity with her centre in the sky in most other civilizations in the levant and anatolia, known as "ištar" ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model in semitic languages(volkert haas,1979,p.401). in sumerian, she was pronounced as "innana / innin" (labat r, no.103, p.85) she represented the planet venus, the bright shining star in the crowded arabian peninsula sky. her radiant brilliance made her the most prominent star among the others, and most of the inhabitants of the east and the arabian peninsula considered her and other celestial bodies as heavenly deities. ishtar, with her beautiful star, frequented by lovers, became the most famous star with a similar name in various regions and languages, such as "sitareh" in persian, "astron" in greek, and "astrum" in roman, and from the latter name, the scientific terms for astrology and astronomy were derived (abdulhak fadhil, 1972, p. 197). in the arabian peninsula, where civilization and the first humans originated, the people referred to inanna-aštar by names similar in pronunciation across various branches of the mother arabic language (jazirah dialect). these names include 'aštar' among the akkadians, babylonians, and assyrians who migrated from the arabian peninsula to mesopotamia, 'aštarūt' among the inhabitants of north-western arabia (phoenicians), '‘uthār' and '‘uthtar' among the arameans, and '‘ushīra' among the canaanites. in southern arabia, this celestial deity was called '‘īthtar' among the himyarites and '‘uthtar' among the ancient abyssinians. all these terms open the door to interpretation, leading us to hypothesize that the origin of the name for this deity, regardless of its gender, lies in the arabian peninsula. the dual form is an ancient ethnonym for all the names mentioned above. it is likely that the inhabitants of mesopotamia, who were of arabian origin, carried with them the name of the goddess 'aštar' along with her symbols to their new civilizations (abdulhak fadhil, 1972, p.198). similarly, the sacred symbol of the nail-headed tomb's design, associated with the people of the arabian peninsula and their elite, migrated to mesopotamia, becoming a written symbol for the most prominent female deity (figure 1). simultaneously, it became a symbol for the oldest form of writing discovered in sumer, known as cuneiform writing (falkenstein a, 1936, pp. 66-72). it is not coincidental that the earliest cuneiform tablets of the sumerian language, in its pictorial stage, were discovered in the fourth layer of the temple of the goddess 'aštar' at the end of the fourth millennium ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model bce (fales, f.m and postgate, j.n. 1997, pp. 36-39). it is worth mentioning that the possibility of the presence of the jazirah people in mesopotamia predates the sumerians' establishment in the southern part of mesopotamia. in this regard, the researcher 'abdulhak' states, 'we believe that the akkadians... had an earlier presence in mesopotamia than the sumerians, as migrations from the heart of the arabian peninsula did not start after the sumerians but before them by tens of centuries.' (abdulhak fadhil, 1972, p. 198)." 2the god ashur: the second deity associated in form, meaning, and even design with the nail-headed tomb is the god ashur. as we mentioned earlier, the most prominent term for him in the sumerian language is 'aš,' and its symbol was represented as a vertical nail in the pictorial writing stage and then horizontally in later stages (figure 1). the meanings of this symbol include 'one,' 'eternal,' and also 'sacred' (labat r, 2002, p. 43). in the jazirah arabic dialect, which is one of the ancient arabic dialects, the corresponding term is likely to be 'aššur' (aš šur), always preceded by the divine determinative symbol. the word 'aššur' in arabic has multiple meanings, including 'a sharp object used for cutting.' in literature, the term 'ašir' refers to a person whose teeth are sharp and polished, as mentioned by ibn manzur as 'āshirah' (ibn manzur, vol. 2, p. 85). in dictionaries, the term 'aššur' is associated with cutting and with the sword, specifically the edge of the sword (ibrahim anis et al., vol. 2, 1973, p. 788). these terms and their meanings may indeed have a connection, in one way or another, with the symbols of the god ashur, namely the sword and the serrated dagger (the assyrian dictionary “cad,” r, p. 49). the aforementioned descriptions prompt us to establish a connection between the external form of the stone paving in the construction of the nail-headed tomb, which starts with the triangular head and harmoniously extends to the tail of the nail (figure 1 and 2). due to the importance of this god and his symbol, which we have compared to the form and design of the nail-studded tomb, he was considered the primary deity of the assyrians who migrated from the arabian peninsula, being one of the oldest semitic tribes known in ancient ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model references (ahmed sosa, 1983, p. 227). they settled in northern mesopotamia, like the amorites, considering him the first war god in the belief of the inhabitants of mesopotamia. they also regarded him as the creator of the universe and the father of the gods in the pantheon of deities in the city of ashur, which was named after him. he was given the greatest titles as a deity other than allah, including "lord of the world," "creator," "organizer of the universe," and "protector of the gods" (oppenheim, 1981, p. 249). it is known that he gathered all the gods of babylon and placed them under his authority to become the ruler of the gods and the head of the pantheon in the northern part of mesopotamia (abdul qadir al-obaidi, 2019, p. 11). thus, he is the national shepherd and protector of the assyrian-arabians and the god of the universe in their beliefs (somervill, 2010, p. 122). therefore, it is not surprising that this symbol carries the attribute of sanctity for the dead buried in a tomb designed with the nail sign symbolizing the mentioned god. section two the asifanian (wedge) tomb style: usually, the nail-headed style is often accompanied by another style that is less widespread but more ancient, known as the 'asfīnī' style. distinguishing between the two styles is not easy except for specialists, as they appear quite similar at first glance. these two styles are found in the region of the najd plateau, ranging from its southernmost part to the northern region of hadhramaut and to the north of najd in 'hail.' these two styles are rarely found outside the central and southern parts of the arabian peninsula. the most prominent area for the asfīnī style is 'hart albuqum,' and this type of tomb has been clearly identified using aerial photography techniques and with the specified location data and coordinates, northwest of (21°05'01.1"n 41°39'00.8"e), near the village of 'al-hashrj' in the city of 'turabah'. the displayed model below, atop 'farda dalfaa' mountain, east of the 'ranieh' governorate, facing the well-known 'dalfa' mountain, upon field observation, revealed to us that the asfīnī tomb model in our possession (refer image -10-) is one of the smallest tombs in terms of size. one of the residents of the city of 'ranyah,'mr. saad abdullah himeelqutnanalsubaie', ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model an enthusiast and amateur, took photographs of the tomb and measured its dimensions, which were as follows: 40 meters in length, from the end of the tail to the tip of the triangular head, and then 16 meters in length to its upper end. this makes the total length 56 meters. th its head was 8 meters and 1 meter at the tail. according to the following coordinates: 21°08'05.2"n 43°12'43.6"e (refer to image (image -10-) asfīnī tomb model atop 'farda dalfaa' mountain, east of the 'ranyah' in the makkah region, captured by 'mr. saad abdullah himeelqutnanalsubaie's camera. (image -11-) the asfīnī tomb next to the circular tomb on 'farda dalfaa' mountain, approximately 50 kilometers east of the city of 21°08'04.1"n 43°12'42.9"e. international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model teur, took photographs of the tomb and measured its dimensions, which were as follows: 40 meters in length, from the end of the tail to the tip of the triangular head, and then 16 meters in length to its upper end. this makes the total length 56 meters. the width of the tomb at its head was 8 meters and 1 meter at the tail. according to the following coordinates: 21°08'05.2"n 43°12'43.6"e (refer to image -10&11 ) asfīnī tomb model atop 'farda dalfaa' mountain, east of the 'ranyah' in the makkah region, captured by 'mr. saad abdullah himeelqutnanalsubaie's camera. ) the asfīnī tomb next to the circular tomb on 'farda dalfaa' mountain, approximately 50 kilometers east of the city of 'ranyah', with the following coordinates: dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model teur, took photographs of the tomb and measured its dimensions, which were as follows: 40 meters in length, from the end of the tail to the tip of the triangular head, and then 16 meters in length to its e width of the tomb at its head was 8 meters and 1 meter at the tail. according to the following 10&11-). ) asfīnī tomb model atop 'farda dalfaa' mountain, east of the 'ranyah' governorate, in the makkah region, captured by 'mr. saad abdullah himeelqutnanalsubaie's camera. ) the asfīnī tomb next to the circular tomb on 'farda dalfaa' mountain, wing coordinates: ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijo( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model "perhaps the clearest image of the asfīnī tomb is the one discovered in the 'al-hushrj' area (refer to image by the researcher eid al20°57'36.8"n 41°36'47.8"e. another model is found in the city of 'turabah' with the following coordinates: 21°05'01.2"n 41°39'00.6"e. (image -11.a-) the asfīnī tomb in al 41°36'47.8"e. to differentiate between the asfīnī (wedge) and mismary (cuneiform) burials, the latter has a precisely triangular head in all cuneiform burials, while the wedge, which comes from the word wedge and its synonym is chisel, follows a unilateral system. it is co most used on stone in assyrian cuneiform writing in northern mesopotamia, where the mountainous regions are, while we find non more commonly used in writing on soft clay among the rest of the peoples of mesopotamia. we can guess that the proportion of assyrians compared to the rest of the peoples of mesopotamian civilization constitutes only a modest number compared to the rest of the peoples of the sumerian, akkadian, and babylonian, and that they like the re peninsula peoples, were displaced from the arabian peninsula early in the fourth and third millennium bc, and perhaps later than that. “that is, since the end of the pleistocene and the end of the palaeolithic,” in the words of taha baqir (taha baqir, 1949, p.132). through statistics on the number of burials of the asfini style, we find that the number is less than that of the cuneiform type burials. perhaps those who were displaced from the arabian peninsula and were later known as the ass who used the asfini burials, so the use of writing with the asfini pen was international journal of social science and humanities research dr. qusay mansoor al volume 07 issue archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model "perhaps the clearest image of the asfīnī tomb is the one discovered in hushrj' area (refer to image -11.a-) through aerial survey conducted -yahya, with the following coordinates 20°57'36.8"n 41°36'47.8"e. another model is found in the city of 'turabah' with the following coordinates: 21°05'01.2"n 41°39'00.6"e. ) the asfīnī tomb in al-hushrj, with the following coordinates: 20°57'36.8"n differentiate between the asfīnī (wedge) and mismary (cuneiform) burials, the latter has a precisely triangular head in all cuneiform burials, while the wedge, which comes from the word wedge and its synonym is chisel, follows a unilateral system. it is common that the wedge nail is the most used on stone in assyrian cuneiform writing in northern mesopotamia, where the mountainous regions are, while we find non more commonly used in writing on soft clay among the rest of the peoples of otamia. we can guess that the proportion of assyrians compared to the rest of the peoples of mesopotamian civilization constitutes only a modest number compared to the rest of the peoples of the sumerian, akkadian, and babylonian, and that they like the re peninsula peoples, were displaced from the arabian peninsula early in the fourth and third millennium bc, and perhaps later than that. “that is, since the end of the pleistocene and the end of the palaeolithic,” in the (taha baqir, 1949, p.132). through statistics on the number of burials of the asfini style, we find that the number is less than that of the cuneiform type burials. perhaps those who were displaced from the arabian peninsula and were later known as the assyrians were the ones who used the asfini burials, so the use of writing with the asfini pen was dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model "perhaps the clearest image of the asfīnī tomb is the one discovered in ) through aerial survey conducted yahya, with the following coordinates: 20°57'36.8"n 41°36'47.8"e. another model is found in the city of 'turabah' with the following coordinates: 21°05'01.2"n 41°39'00.6"e. hushrj, with the following coordinates: 20°57'36.8"n differentiate between the asfīnī (wedge) and mismary (cuneiform) burials, the latter has a precisely triangular head in all cuneiform burials, while the wedge, which comes from the word wedge and its synonym is mmon that the wedge nail is the most used on stone in assyrian cuneiform writing in northern mesopotamia, where the mountainous regions are, while we find non-wedge cuneiform more commonly used in writing on soft clay among the rest of the peoples of otamia. we can guess that the proportion of assyrians compared to the rest of the peoples of mesopotamian civilization constitutes only a modest number compared to the rest of the peoples of the sumerian, akkadian, and babylonian, and that they like the rest of the other peninsula peoples, were displaced from the arabian peninsula early in the fourth and third millennium bc, and perhaps later than that. “that is, since the end of the pleistocene and the end of the palaeolithic,” in the (taha baqir, 1949, p.132). through statistics on the number of burials of the asfini style, we find that the number is less than that of the cuneiform type burials. perhaps those who were displaced from yrians were the ones who used the asfini burials, so the use of writing with the asfini pen was ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model the most appropriate in their new environment in comparison. using the cuneiform in the environment of the rest of the mesopotamian peoples, where clay and water are naturally available in central and southern mesopotamia. what is surprising is that when the assyrians expanded as a political authority to other geographical regions, they adopted the cuneiform pen, but the use of the asfini remained in their original environment, assyria, especially in writing on stones and metals. this is further proof that the assyrians, babylonians, and akkadians all come from the same source, which is the arabian peninsula. findings and conclusion: the discovery of saudi arabian tombs is an intriguing subject that is expected to change much of the information about the history of the arabian peninsula in general, and the history and civilization of saudi arabia in particular. to achieve this, we embarked on this comprehensive study, the first of its kind, in an effort to draw attention to such significant discoveries. throughout most of saudi arabia, there are large collections of stone tombs with unique layouts, designs, and distinctive architecture. some are concentrated in specific regions, numbering in the thousands. this phenomenon appears as if each region has its own unique features, with various patterns and forms carrying ambiguous and intriguing meanings simultaneously. in this study, we shed light on the forms and designs of tombs, elucidating their significance and symbols by revisiting the symbols and meanings of ancient pictorial writings of peoples who originally inhabited the arabian peninsula before their migrations and civilizations. these cultures formed new civilizations in their final settlements. by this, we mean the cuneiform writing symbols in their pictorial context, which provided us with compelling meanings and implications that often align with the overall shape and design of the tomb. they also conveyed meanings and connotations related to the purpose of constructing tombs and their connection to the afterlife, as well as the belief in the safety of the souls of tomb occupants. this is reflected in the choice of designs that harmonize with the symbols of many deities that the tomb owners believed would protect them if they designed their tombs in the same pattern and symbol as their preferred deity. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model we have drawn our unique conclusion about the distinctive connection between the design patterns of tombs and their pictorial shape and meaning, based on our understanding that the origins of the earliest mesopotamian inhabitants were largely from the arabian peninsula and the arabian gulf, according to historians and archaeologists. it is important to note that this original homeland constitutes a vast repository for the peoples of the ancient near east in general, not just the peoples of mesopotamia. most historians and anthropologists agree that migrations from the arabian peninsula to various parts of the ancient near east began in ancient times, not limited to the end of the ice ages and the early stone ages. the withdrawal of the last ice age around 10,000 bce led to drought in parts of the middle east, especially in the arabian peninsula. this climate change caused many arabian peninsula peoples to leave their original homeland in the heart of the arabian peninsula and spread to areas outside of it to the north and east. among these peoples were the akkadians, who left the arabian peninsula and settled in the fertile crescent and the valleys of the levant. they settled in the fertile crescent and the valleys of the levant. they settled in the central and northern parts of mesopotamia, establishing the first and oldest empire in history. they made the city of akkad their capital, hence they were named the akkadians. we relied on their language and cuneiform writings to understand the meanings of the terms related to the forms and designs of tomb patterns depicted in pictorial cuneiform writings. through the study, the following points have become evident:  despite not reaching a final conclusion on the date and period of construction of the tombs, our field observations of the ancient findings, whether they are stone fragments (as seen in the depicted cuneiform tomb) or stone sickles (as seen in the s-shaped tomb), suggest that these tools were commonly made and used during the stone ages. these ages transitioned into the bronze age around 4000 bce in the arabian peninsula (peter magee, 2014).the initial exploration and excavation work in a burials in safra al-meastwe, which was carried out by a team from the saudi antiquities authority and with cognitive and field support from eid al-yahya, and then with material and moral support from mr. abdulrahman al-sunaidi, ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model laboratory results proved the bones in one of the cemeteries, which was designated by the number “ms. 160.2 / 160.3" after it was sent for laboratory examination in florida, america” (an iso/17025:2005 accredited testing laboratory betrradiocarbon dating, june 2016), which was published in the same year (aldughairi a,2016) indicated that the bones could potentially date back to more than 20,000 years and the collagen substance in the sample was not sufficient to show an accurate history of the sample, and the report explained the reason for this that the collagen substance, through which the date of the sample is revealed, does not give an accurate result for a sample that is more than 20 thousand years old (aldughairi a, 2016, p.26).  the majority of the tombs are located in volcanic highlands and plateaus, making access difficult. it is challenging to accept that the builders of these tombs were inhabitants facing harsh living conditions, yet they managed to construct tombs using thousands of massive volcanic rocks, some weighing up to half a ton or more. this implies that these individuals lived in abundant conditions with ample food resources, whether from animals or abundant plant life. this echoes back to the period of the arabian savanna, where food was abundant, allowing for creative tomb construction. this period is known as the holocene humid period (hhp) in the arabian peninsula, occurring from around 8000 to 4000 bce, before the onset of desertification (matthew et al., 2022; engel et al., 2012; petraglia et al., 2020; preston & parker, 2013). therefore, it is unlikely that a person would build a personal or collective burial ground hundreds of meters long, using thousands of huge rocks, and with a precise and precise design, on the roofs of mountains and in volcanic heats, while he was in a period of drought and desertification in which water and food were scarce and not easy to obtain, so that he could live a life in which he thought about building such burial places.  the study revealed that the people of the arabian peninsula were concerned with the afterlife, as evidenced by the various tomb designs that align with individual or familial beliefs. the choice of design ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model harmonizes with the symbol of the worshipped deity or the concept of the desired afterlife.  the study highlights distinctive tomb patterns with staggering numbers, as well as variations in patterns, nomenclature, quantity, distribution, and meaning. these patterns are connected to their meanings through the design and symbolism of ancient languages.  in conclusion, the study emphasizes the need for collaborative scientific efforts by local researchers from specialized national universities to study these tomb patterns individually, following specialized archaeological excavations. this is particularly important given the strong support from the saudi leadership in showcasing the heritage and civilization of saudi arabia, stemming from the understanding that the arabian peninsula is the cradle of humanity, a land of prophets, and the chosen land of god. this sentiment is expressed in ancient egyptian writings, referring to the as "god's land" (dougherty, 1932). it is also the land of revelation and the final prophet, muhammad (peace be upon him). references english: johandi, a. 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(2022). the origin of the ancient egyptian ankh symbol. the_origin_of_the_ankh_sign_a_compositio.pdf. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model fales, f. m., & postgate, j. n. (1997). imperial administrative records. helsinky. falkenstein, a. (1936). archaische texte aus uruk. berlinleipzig. fales, f. m., et al. (2017). signs before the alphabet journey to mesopotamia at the origins of writing. venice-italy. gebel, h. g. k. (2013). arabia’s fifth-millennium bce pastoral well cultures: hypotheses on the origins of oasis life. proceedings of the seminar for arabian studies, 43. groucutt, h. s., & carleton, c. 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(2010). art of the ancient near east: a resource for educators. metropolitan museum of art. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model lambert, w. g. (2004). ištar of nineveh. iraq, 66. grosman, l., et al. (2008). a 12,000-year-old shaman burial from the southern levant (israel). pnas, 105(46). weeks, l. (2017). death and burial in arabia and beyond multidisciplinary perspectives: society for arabian studies monographs no. 10 series 2010. bar. vacín, l. 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(2014). the archaeology of prehistoric arabia: adaptation and social formation from the neolithic to the iron age. cambridge world archaeology, bryn mawr college. potts, d. t. (1997). before the emirates: an archaeological and historical account of arab emirates. in e. g. & i. al abed (eds.), uae. preston, g. w., & parker, a. g. (2013). understanding the evolution of the holocene pluvial phase and its impact on neolithic populations in south-east arabia. arabian archaeology and epigraphy, 24. rothman, m. (2002). tepe gawra: the evolution of a small, prehistoric center in northern iraq. the university of pennsylvania museum publications. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model schwemer, d. (2001). die wettergottgestaltenmesopotamiens und nordsyriensimzeitalter der keilschriftkulturen. harrassowitz. schwemer, d. (2007). the storm-gods of the ancient near east: summary, synthesis, recent studies, part i. journal of ancient near eastern religions, 7. somervill, b. a. (2010). empires of ancient mesopotamia. new york. the assyrian dictionary of the oriental institute of the university of chicago. (1956ff). chicago. haas, v. (1979). remarks on the hurrian istar “sawuska” of nineveh in the second millennium b.c. summer, 35 references arabic: sosa, a. (1983). the history of mesopotamian civilization in light of irrigation projects, archaeological discoveries, and historical sources, vol. 1. baghdad. mortcat, a. (n.d.). art in ancient iraq, vol. 1. translated by issa salman and salim taha al-tikriti. art books series 21. baghdad. spencer, j. (1999). egypt at the dawn of history. translated by akasha al-dali. ministry of culture supreme council of antiquities. cairo. al-nazouri, r. (1969). the evolution of religious thought. beirut. al-hashimi, r. j. (1984). archaeology of the gulf and the arabian peninsula. baghdad. lloyd, s. (1993). the archaeology of mesopotamia from the ancient stone age to the persian conquest. translated by mohammed talib. 1st edition. damascus. al-ruwaisi, s. (1970). a glimpse into the achievements of prehistoric man in light of modern studies. sumer journal, vol. 26. al-duweish, s. (2015). the tombs of sabiyya city in kuwait. center for kuwaiti studies and research, 1st edition. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr. qusay mansoor alturkey * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 issue 03 || march, 2024 || archaeological discoveries of burials in ksa shape and symbolic meaning to the mismary burial pattern as a model kramer, s. n. (1973). the sumerians: their history, culture, and characteristics. translated by faisal al-waili. kuwait: dar gharib for printing. baqir, t. (1949). the relation of mesopotamia to the arabian peninsula. sumer journal, part 2, volume 5, directorate of ancient monuments, baghdad. baqir, t. (1975). the epic of kullab: ancient chaldean, vol. 2. ministry of information publications, freedom house for printing, baghdad. abdul-haq fadhil. (1972). their history from their language ashatart. al-lisan al-arabi journal, vol. 9, part 1, arabization coordination office, rabat. suwailih, a. (2019). dilmun civilization, 1st edition. al-mass press, bahrain. al-obaidi, a. q. (2019). the god ashur in mesopotamian civilization. unpublished master's thesis, university of baghdad – department of archaeology. al-hammad, a. (2014). soapstone utensils from tarut island. general authority for tourism and antiquities, riyadh. al-mughnam, a. (1987). graves as evidence of pre-islamic history in the eastern region of the kingdom of saudi arabia. studies on housing and burial, tunisia. al-shakir, f. m. (2002). symbols of the most important gods in ancient iraq a historical and semiotic study. unpublished master's thesis submitted to the faculty of arts council at the university of mosul. rashid, f. (1990). sargon the akkadian: the first emperor in the world. the golden encyclopedia (1). iraqi ministry of culture and information. al-turki, q. m. (2019). a new perspective on the common gulfrafidin origin of the sumerians. qatar education journal, issue 196, qatar national committee for education, culture, and science, doha. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d) department of design and fine arts, school of vocational and entrepreneurial studies, college of technology, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. abstract this abstract explores the rich symbolism embedded within the egungun mask forms of owo, a yoruba town in southwestern nigeria. egungun, a masquerade tradition, serves as a conduit between the living and the ancestral realm, embodying the spirits of the departed. the intricate designs and vibrant colors of the masks are not mere ornamentation, but rather a visual language that speaks to the complex cosmology and cultural identity of the yoruba people. this research delves into the specific symbolism of various egungun mask forms in owo, analyzing their iconography, materials, and performance contexts. by examining the masks' representations of deities, ancestors, and societal roles, we gain insights into the yoruba worldview, their understanding of life and death, and the intricate web of social relationships that govern their community. this study aims to demonstrate how the egungun mask forms in owo are not simply decorative objects, but powerful symbols that encapsulate the essence of yoruba culture, history, and belief systems. keywords: symbolism, egungun mask, owo, yoruba, yoruba cosmology introduction the vibrant and intricate world of yoruba art is a tapestry woven with deep cultural significance and the egungun masks particularly those found in owo, stand as powerful testaments to this rich heritage. these masks far from being mere decorative objects serve as conduits to the ancestral realm, embodying the spirits of the departed and acting as intermediaries between the living and the dead. their forms meticulously crafted and imbued with symbolic meaning offer a window into the cosmology of the yoruba people, revealing their beliefs about life, death and the interconnectedness of the physical and spiritual realms. this exploration delves into the symbolic language of egungun masks forms in owo unrevealing the intricate web of meaning woven into their design. the study examines the significance of specific features. such as the facial expressions, the adornments and the overall shape of the complex masks and how these elements reflect the yoruba understanding of the ancestral realm and its influence on the lives of the living. by deciphering the symbolism embedded within these masks, we gain a deeper appreciation for the profound cultural and spiritual significance they hold for the yoruba people. there are very few societies, whether ancient or modern, primitive or civilized, in which masks are unknown. their uses spring from the instinctive beliefs common to all mankind. it is better to understand the role of masks in art and their meanings and functions as well. according to the webster's dictionary "mask" is... to take part in a masquerade or go about in a mask" while phill & endicett dictionary (1979) describes a mask as a small piece ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity of cloth used to cover the upper half of the face painted shade of an animals' face or strange human face used to hide one's real face". mask can also be described as any covering or protection for the face. in this view babalola (1993) asserts that egungun (masquerade) is a "living dead" in yoruba land. it is also believed that those who have departed from this world have only changed their earthly existence. dead people are all the restraints imposed by earth and are possessors of limitless potentialities which they can exploit for the benefit of those who still live on earth. and that they come through egungun in which the yoruba call ara orun who disguised their faces with masks. objective the objective of analyzing the egungun mask from owo is to understand and articulate its multifaceted symbolism and significance within yoruba culture. this includes: examining ancestral representation: to explore how the egungun mask serves as a medium for connecting with ancestors and facilitating communication between the spiritual and physical realms. identifying spiritual authority: to analyze how the mask’s design and craftsmanship reflect the spiritual power and authority conferred upon the wearer. understanding cultural identity: to investigate how the mask represents and reinforces the cultural and artistic traditions specific to owo, contributing to a sense of cultural continuity. assessing ritual significance: to evaluate the role of the mask in ceremonial contexts, including its impact on ritual effectiveness and community practices. by achieving these objectives, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the egungun mask’s role in preserving and expressing yoruba cultural values and spiritual beliefs. the significance of study the egungun mask in the context of owo includes: cultural preservation: understanding the mask’s symbolism helps preserve the rich heritage and traditional practices of the yoruba people, ensuring that knowledge of these cultural artifacts is passed down through generations. ancestral connection: by exploring the mask’s role in ancestral veneration, the study underscores the importance of ancestral spirits in yoruba spirituality and how these traditions shape communal identity. artistic appreciation: analyzing the mask’s design and craftsmanship highlights the artistic skills and creativity inherent in yoruba culture, contributing to a broader appreciation of african art forms .ritual understanding: the study provides insights into the mask’s function within rituals and ceremonies, enhancing the understanding of its role in spiritual and social practices. cultural continuity: by documenting and interpreting the mask’s significance, the study supports efforts to maintain and revive traditional practices in a modern context, helping to ensure cultural continuity. overall, this study contributes to a deeper appreciation of yoruba traditions and offers valuable perspectives on the interplay between art, spirituality, and cultural identity. functions of the mask apart from the meanings of the word 'mask', it is certain that all masks signify whatever they are designed to represent. these include ancestors, deities and other ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity supernatural beings, the souls of the dead, good and evil spirits of nature, game, animals, rain, diseases; drought and fertility and abundance of life, among others. mask is used to criticise and control social wrongs in the society. as an example, in owo when some witches create a lot of problems in some farms, a masquerade can be invited to such farms to put an end to such attitude by cursing them with their masks as the case among the poro-society (liberia) where masks are displayed before the priest to give final judgments to offenders. mask is also used to evoke certain reactions in the beholder, for instance, awe of the god represented. it is used to impersonate and identify with certain supernatural being in order to affect some individual communal good. it also enhances the self as by wearing the mask of privileged secret societies. it serves as a source of income to the carver. the mask types in owo in owo, the major, recognised masks used are the face masks, helmet and head dress. they can be categorised into five types: (a) ijamuja, (b) ede, (c) adeboyinbo mask, (d) agbodogi and eton masks, (e) efon masks. the ijamuja: are those that cane people. they can be sub-divided into agbojulowo (head dress) pokitoro and oliwu masks. the last two are face masks. the origin of the mask is not known. adanigbo and akerele (95 years old) in personal communication believed that the masks must have been brought from ife and benin because of their related culture. those who are involved in such traditional practice cannot say specifically the story of the origin of the mask, but they believe that it has been in their family lineage which is transmitted from generation to generation. some people who are interested in it learnt it from other powerful masquerades known to them. this masquerade usually come out in the month of march every year and perform their ceremonies for twenty one days within the town. some come out around september and performed for, just for seven days at ora street during igogo festival in owo. these are the types made with textiles and fibers to cover the face while palm fronds and cloth are used to cover the body of the wearer. the masquerade holds cane to scare the younger ones who are interested in calling him names. in some cases they stop at some houses to dance and collect money from people. the masquerade then prays for them. egungun mask forms agbodogi mask: it is a facial mask. it is usually about 30-45cm in height and painted with colour, the head has six dotted marks in the face while in some cases, brass is attached to the top of the mask with some fiber the masquerade uses fine cloth with small mirrors arranged to it. he uses pairs of shoes with stockings during the ceremony. in some case palm fronds are used spirally to add to its aesthetics. the masquerade performed gynamstic exercises to stimulate people for entertainment and they show appreciation to those people who give them money. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity the loge mask it is a helmet mask and the facial expression show the mood as if it is appealing for mercy. the eye is pierced while the traditional hair style is related to owo culture. this mask is also painted with black or brown colour while the eye is painted with white and the pupil of the eyes is painted black. in some cases, the masquerade sings few songs with no drum to accompany it. the group of people following him claps their hands when the masquerade permits such. the masquerade holds traditional bell and beats it to make sonorous sound to respond to the song. it is interested in incantations to bless those who give him money during the ceremony while in some cases some barren women make pledges with it that if they are lucky to bear children before the year runs out, that they would fulfill their pledges. adeboyinbo or tangala mask the mask has series of figurines displayed on its head of helmet attached with a singlet to cover the face of the masquerade. the figurines may be five to seven centimeters high, painted with orange and black paints. some of the carvings look like people inside a canoe. the masquerade uses multi-colour clothes, mirrors and weaves whisk fans to demonstrate when dancing. the masquerade is for entertainment. the ceremony is accustomed with drums and groups of women singing different songs to honour him while in some cases when the masquerade sees other powerful masquerades like ede mask group, they put off their light if it is during the night and runs for safety until such masquerade goes away. ede mask this is the most powerful masquerade in owo. it has power to curse and pray for good luck as well as for riches. it is used in some cases to terrorize the wicked in society as well as in the farm to increase their declivities. cowries and other powerluas in the farm to increased to the mask. the ede mask is made up of woven cap. it contains colorful feathers of different birds which adds to its aesthetics and creativity. the materials used in carving the masks in owo, there are prescribed wood that are used by the carvers. these include omo (cordiamillenii), iroko (chlorophoraexcelsa). aberinberin (riconidendron africanum). these are also used for verandah posts, doors, mortars, bowls, ifa trays and for masks. the carvers like to work on them when it is still fresh and relatively soft. colours are used at the finishing stages of the carving. clothes, cowries and feathers are sometimes fixed to the masks. the tools that are being used by the carvers include osese carving tools, knives, axe and improvised chisels to fashion out the shapes of the masks. methods used in carving the masks the wood is cut into bits while tools like knives, chisels and axe are used to scoop the inner parts of the wood systematically. the knife is used for the finishing to carve out the intricate lines on the masks. sand paper is also used to smoothen the body of the mask before colour is applied on it for aesthetics this idea is common to helmet and face mask types. in ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity the case of ljamuja and ede masks some are made of baggy textiles and fibres which are usually with sculptured head pieces for entertainment. the ede mask is particularly fixed with multi-colour feathers which adds to it beauty. influence of modernization on the masks in the past, local colours were used on the masks. these were derived from leaves or earth colours. nowadays already-made paints are used which adds to their beauty. most of the masks in the past were kept near the fire where smoke would dry it and protect it against termites. also, in the traditional past, some of the masks were carved in secrecy as dictated by the purchaser, unlike now when varieties of masks are used openly and some of the masks are now used for decoration in the homes. one can rightly say that owo mask provided a background of cultural reservoir of materials out of which the artist could fashion out a unique and effective display in their art works. the forms of the mask have influenced the works of great artists and generations who might be interested in working on masks and many others which show their variation in many media conclusion this paper explains the aesthetic expressions in owo mask with due allusions to the numerable types existing within the community this is viewed in two different perspectives such as its objective or physical properties, that is, the proportion, relationships and qualities of the component enparts as well as the significant forms and meanings of each mask within the community. owo mask forms should be a source of interest to researcher who are researching into their indigenous cultures. references adanigbo & akerele (1995) cited in mask forms in african society. a hand book produced by ogunmola m. o. supervised by prof. j.r.o. ojo. obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife. adebayo, a, & akinjogbin, a (1999).the yoruba ;a cultural history .nigeria. akintola, a. (2015). masks and the meaning of life; a study of the yoruba egungun. nigeria. akinola, r ( 2020). visual narratives of ancestral power; the egungun masks of the yoruba. nigeria akintoye, b. (2023). ancestral legacies: the role of egungun masks in preserving yoruba heritage. nigeria. akinwumiisola (2003)."yoruba ritual: performers, play, agenc university of ife press,, nigeria. babalola e. (1993). "religious aspect of yoruba art" diversity of creativity in nigeria edited by bolaji campbell, ibigbami, r. i., aremu p.s.o, folarin, a. obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria, 185-192. c. a. a. d. crum & d. m. l. l. m. tschudi. (2000). the role of egungun masks. "african art and the colonial encounter: essays on representation and authenticity, 0journal of african arts, 12-25: usa. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) michael olusola ogunmola (ph.d)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 11 || november, 2024 || the symbolism of egungun mask forms in owo: a glimpse into yoruba cosmology and identity durojaye , t ( 2024). ancestral dialogues; the role of egungun masks in contemporary yoruba rituals, nigeria. fashina, a (2022). resilience of yoruba traditions, egungun masks and cultural continuity, nigeria. ige, a (2021). cultural dynamics and the egungun mask; analyzing recent trends in yoruba rituals .nigeria jibowo, k. (2023).modern interpretations of traditional yoruba masks ;a study of egungun rituals. nigeria kola abimbola. (1997). the role of egungun masks."yoruba beliefs and sacrificial practices" heinemann educational books, nigeria ladipo, f. (2023). the evolution of egungun masking practices ,tradition and innovation, nigeria. nancy, ireson (2013).”african art in the barnes foundation “yale university press, 192 usa. meyer, r. (1969) a dictionary of art terms and techniquest, adam and charles black london, pp 152. oluwadare, s ( 2022). egungun masks symbols of yoruba ancestral reverence in the 21st century. nigeria ojo, o.m. (2021).” symbolism and identity, “the role of egungun masks in yoruba social structure .nigeria. phill, c.h. & endicott, e.t. (1979) the new method english dictionary edited by ellion i and l. humber stone longman, new york. r. a. a. lee & r. l. a. t. w. mcewen(2001). "the yoruba: a new history", journal: african studies review, 45-67. usa. rowland abiodun, henry, john & drewal, john pemberton (1989).yoruba art and culture. united states. shittu, r . (2023). rituals and identity. the evolution of egungun masks in contemporary yoruba festivals. nigeria. suzan, vogel. (1997). the art of africa; the yoruba. united d state. suzane, prestoton blier (1998).the art of the yoruba. .abrams, 208.usa. webster. (1990). the lexicon webster's dictionary of english, nicom press pp 235. : ijo journals volume 07 | issue 11 | november 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic abstract: this paper examined the phenomenon of political marginalization and politics of the rotational system in nigeria's fourth republic. the concept of marginalization in relation to politics has been widely studied in both the literature and empirical studies. the study was guided by three objectives and three research questions. john rawl’s theory of justice which emph on procedural method of distributing political rights and economic benefits was adopted. descriptive quantitative survey was used for the study while one (1) senatorial zone each was chosen – from kwara and kaduna states for the population of the study. probability proportionate cluster sampling technique were used in distributing the questionnaire two hundred and fifty (250) research participants were sampled. data were collected using both primary and secondary sources. the instrument for data collection were validated by team of supervisors and experts in language and statistics for content, face and construct validity. the reliability of the instrument was conducted through the use of cronbach alpha with the help of statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 20.0.data collected from respondents were analyzed by the descriptive and inferential statistical methods. the findings of the study revealed that: the political marginalization has not significantly motivated the politics of rotational system in nigeria. also, there are unequal distribution of public resources and economic benefits across the selected zones compared to the advantaged zones in kwara and kaduna states respectively. and that, population has no significant impact on the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic the study made the following recommendation among others: government at all levels should promote a comprehensive democratic culture with all its intricacies that can take nigeria closer to the emergence of stable, meaningful, purposeful and beneficial polity. and also, no ethnic group in the country should be marginalized as political position should not the monopoly of one section. keywords: keywords 1, keyword 2, keyword 3 tunde folawiyo hameed political science department, and rasheed o dauda business education department. kwara state college of education, ilorin. kwara state, nigeria rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic introduction the origin of rotational system is very much unknown; it can be described to be as old as man’s existence in the universe. records show that the system of rotation was practiced by the greeks and the ancient roman empire. the european union and switzerland, also practice a rotational system of government (okwenna, 2017). the presidency of the european union rotates among the member states while it rotates among the various ethnic groups in switzerland. switzerland and the european union are among the most stable country and institution in the world. in nigeria, marginalization is the order of the day; particularly fourth republic because nigeria is a deeply divided society with several lines of social divisions on the bases of group identification. these lines of division, as noted by orji (2008, p. 10 cited in orji, 2018), in his work “power sharing the element of continuity in nigerian politics”, reflects on the number of ethnic and regional groups that make up the country. this population disparity coupled with the differences in the political influence of the ethnic groups broadly divides the groups into two the majority and minority ethnic groups. the majority ethnic groups are the hausa and fulani (28% of the population), the yoruba (18% of the population) and igbo (16% of the population). all the other ethnic groups fit in to the minority category, with varying degrees of political status, depending on their numerical size and political influence (danjibo, 2019). on this basis, obinna and veronica (2022) supported the prevalence of politics of marginalization in nigeria when they asserted that: the nigerian political trajectory has been characterized with the utilization of state powers in appropriating resources and offices in a manner that put some ethnic nationalities at a disadvantaged position thereby making the politics of marginalization an important political question in the nigerian political system (p. 51).the point being made therefore, is that the politics of marginalization is entrenched in the nigerian political system and such tendency has the capacity to destabilize the state and sap it of development. needless to say that the nigerian state consists of the majority ethnic groups viz rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic hausa/fulani, yoruba and igbo and a host of other minorities. the minority ethnic groups from the oil resource areas in the south have been agitating for more emphasis to be given to derivation in the sharing of federal allocations. agbese (2013) writes that minority rights advocates have employed the concepts of internal colonialism to help explain the plight of minorities in nigeria as the essence of internal colonialism according to ben naanen runs as follows:majority ethnic groups acquire power on the basis of their number of superiority. they use the political power to transfer resources from territories of ethnic minorities to their own areas. thus, economically advantaged core areas of nigeria emerge in territories largely populated by ethnic majority. conversely, the removal of resources from minority areas create a periphery of economically advantaged territories. political power in the hands of majorities translates to economic power, which in turn is used to simultaneously develop ethnic majority territories. at the same time, the same political power is used to seize the economic development of minority territories (p. 246247). the term rotational presidency has become a very important political concept and cliché which has crept into african countries (nigeria inclusive). the idea of rotational presidency started in nigeria during the 1995 national constitutional conference under the regime of former nigerian maximum ruler, late president saniabacha. six geo-political zones were adopted during the conference and the national political offices will be filled by candidates on a rotational basis based on the six geo-political zones with a transitional provision of 30 years. it was agreed that the rotational system was to be entrenched in the then draft constitution and will be applied to all spheres of government (njoku, 2014). the six geopolitical zones which includes the north east, north west and north central in the northern part of the country and the south east, south west and south south in the southern part of the country was introduced as a remedy to the issue of marginalization in nigeria. it was assumed that the six geo-political zones will bring to an end the issue of monopoly of power by the north. the northern part of the country had dominated the leadership of nigeria, and they use this position to secure juicy political privileges for rasheed o dauda1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic their own people at the detriment of the people from the south of the country. this sad experience was climaxed in the annulment of the june 12, 1993 presidential election (idowu, 2014); the election was won by late moshoodabiola, a southerner. the 1999 general election, president olusegunobasanjo contested under the auspices of the people’s democratic party and olufalae vied for all nigerian peoples party, thus, two south westerners contested the presidential slot. the lacuna in the rotational principle was felt immediately after the expiration of president olusegunobasanjo's four years’ term, he initiated plans for a second term in office, which was not mentioned in the agreement on rotational presidency, this generated a lot of controversy. the northerners insisted that power was going to return to them while the southerners maintained on retaining power for another four years, so that power will then move to the north for eight uninterrupted years. the national executive committee of peoples democratic party held a meeting and votes were cast in favour of the south and power continued in the south with an understanding that after president olusegunobasanjo's tenure, power should return to the north for eight continuous years (clerke, 2018). at the expiration of president olusegunobasanjo’s regime of eight years saw the emergence of alahajiumoru musa yaradua from the north, the power was however truncated with the sudden death of alahajiumoru musa yar’adua in 2010.it is against this background that the study assessed political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic. statement of the problem it has been observed that not many scholars subscribe to the adoption of rotational presidency in nigeria. some oppose it on ideological basis while others do so, on other grounds. indeed, there is no denying in the fact that the notion of rotational system has the potential of doing more harm than good to the polity by further complicating the search for good governance, national integration and democracy. this is because the operators of the concept are those characters that have been participating in the nigeria enterprise right from her inception as an independent state or even beyond. they have participated actively in the running and ruining of nigeria enterprise. rasheed o dauda1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic several names are used in place of rotational system. however, no matter the name it is called parliamentary, presidential, french indicative, rotational presidency, power shift, power sharing, democracy, military, democrat in uniform etc. there could be no improved changes in the lives of great number of the masses who are the majority. and this exactly is what is happening in nigeria today despite power shift from north (musa yar’adua) to south (goodluck jonathan) and to the north (muhammad buhari). even the situation looks worse. this is because the production method has not changed. it remains that of primitive accumulation with wide spread poverty and corruption in the land. with rotational presidency, nigeria is the 3ld most corrupt nation of the world, and over 70% of her population is below poverty line: the notion of power sharing (shift) then becomes an ideology, an exercise in false consciousness meant to create a feeling of power dispersal in the face of power concentration. a feeling of symmetry even as the formation and perpetuation of asymmetrical relations between people, groups, institution in which one partner in the relationship dominates or exploits the other continues (human and zaiman, 2015, p. 40). needless to state here that by virtue of their long occupation of the seat of power (both in military and democratic regimes), kwara central elites and elites of northen part of kaduna state developed an affinity for state power and thus perceived it as their birthright which have begun to negate the adoption of rotational system. to the extent that the kwara central elites and elites of northen part of kaduna stateviewed the deputy governorship position “kisira and governorship to yakwa” as loan to the marginalized groups to compensate and assuage anxieties that usually emerge over electoral debacle. going back to history, the 1994–1995 constitutional conference clearly demonstrated an understanding of nigeria’s political problems when it consensually resolved that the presidency should rotate between the north and south, which was dutifully included in section 229 (1–5) of its draft constitution (nwala, 1997; agbaje, 1998). yet the 1999 constitution, which was supposedly a product of that conference, did not contain these provisions. nevertheless, the spirit of power rotation guided the post-military transition that produced the obasanjo presidency in 1999.the impetus for zoning and rotation of power was ostensibly derived from efforts to create a sense of belonging amongst ethno-national elite groups in the face of the inadequacies of federal character principles. aperaku argued that, “zoning can rescue minorities from political obscurity and at the same time guarantee majority interests, foster national stability and ensure the success [of democracy] (onwudiwe, 2014, p. 273).” the rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic strong questions now are: has zoning and rotational system rescued minorities from political obscurity in the country? has it guaranteed majority interests? has is foster national stability and ensure the success [of democracy]? the answer to this can be seen from the loud echoing of the masses over bad governance and the marginalization of minority (south-south and south-east) by the northern nigeria. it is necessary at this point to clarify the concepts of zoning and rotation. these concepts are mutually reinforcing. there cannot be rotation unless the issue of zoning is resolved. constitutionally, zones do not properly exist in the nigerian polity. such categorizations as north, south, and other geopolitical zones are fluid and arbitrary terms used in political discourse and are designed merely to serve as guides to confer meaning and boundary. because there is no constitutional basis for a zone structure. the absence of an authoritative constitutional beacon as a guide for what constitutes nigerian political zones does not invalidate their usefulness as essential categories. it only makes it impossible, indeed unproductive, to sustain an argument about the trajectory and rotation of power. the only official document that makes any reference to zones and zoning outside abacha’s summarization of the outcome of the 1994–1995 constitutional conference, presented in his 1995 independence day national broadcast, is the pdp constitution (nwala, 1997, p. 201–203). the pdp constitution provides that: in pursuance of the principle of zoning, justice and fairness, the party shall adhere to the policy of rotation and zoning of party and public elective offices and it shall be enforced by the appropriate executive committee at all levels. (section 7 (2), constitution of the people’s democratic party, 1998). the most important determining variable in national disaggregation is ethnicity. because of the permeation of ethnicity into every sector and stratum of social and political discourse, it has become the primary basis for the distribution of state wealth. this has led to political marginalization and injustice in the distribution of states’ wealth and economic benefits that has in consequence hindered the rotational system in nigeria. it is against these stated problems that the study assessed political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic. rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic research questions from the stated problems, this study therefore, is guided by the following specific research questions: i. to what extent does the level of political marginalization motivate the politics of rotational system in nigeria? ii. what has been the degree of injustice in the process of resource distribution across the regions in nigeria’s fourth republic? iii. what is the impact of population on the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic? method of data analysis since the study depended on questionnaire techniques of data collection, a quantitative technique was equally used for data analysis. quantitative data collected from respondents was analyzed by the descriptive and inferential statistical methods. the descriptive statistics is the use of tables to assess the respondent’s views; while inferential statistics is the use of statistical method that enabled logical inferences arrived. the inferential statistical method appropriate for the study is chisquare. the rationale behind the choice of chi-square lies on the fact that it is disjointed hypotheses (cresswell, 2009, p. 144). this was done with the help of statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 25. data presentation and analysis a total of one-hundred and fifty-two (152) copies of questionnaire were administered to the respondents. though, one-hundred and fifty-two (152) questionnaires were printed and distributed, but one-hundred and thirty seven 137 questionnaire representing 90.1 approximately 91% of the total questionnaire were duly filled and returned, while 15 questionnaire representing 9.1% of the total rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic questionnaire were not returned. therefore, 137 questionnaires formed the basis for analysis and interpretation 4.1 descriptive analysis table 4.1 respondents rate items states number % 1 number of samples kwara 92 152 kaduna 60 2 number of returned and dully filled kwara 82 137 90.1% kaduna 55 3 number of returned but wrongly filled kwara 3 5 3.3% kaduna 2 4 number of unreached respondents kwara 7 10 6.6% kaduna 3 total 152 100% source: researcher’s survey, 2024 a total number of one hundred and fifty two questionnaires were administered, a total number of ten (10) respondents could not be reached while five (5) of the respondents were returned but wrongly filled. rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic 1.2 bio data of the respondents sex states frequency percentage male kwara 45 84 61.3% kaduna 39 female kwara 37 53 38.7 kaduna 16 total 137 100% age states frequency percentage below 30 kwara 13 20 14.6% kaduna 7 31-45 kwara 39 70 51.1% kaduna 31 46 and above kwara 30 47 34.3% kaduna 17 total 137 100% source: researcher’s survey, 2024. as earlier presented one hundred and fifty two questionnaires were distributed, one hundred and forty two (142) were retrieved but only one hundred and thirty seven (137) questionnaires were dully filled without any errors. the above table indicated that there is an overwhelming preponderance of male respondents in both kwara and kaduna states. the table shows sixty one point three percent (61.3%) of males both in kwara and osun states while thirty eight point seven percent (38.7%) for females both in kwara and kaduna states. it is equally indicated on the table, the age group of the respondents the figures indicates that individual below thirty (30) years widely represented with a response of fourteen point six percent rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic (14.6%) both in kwara and kaduna states. an individual between the age of 3145 years constitute most of the response in this survey with fifty one point one (51.1%) both in kwara and osun states while thirty four point three percent (44.3%) represent individual between the age of 46 years and above. 1.3 questions relating to political marginalization in kwara and kaduna states, nigeria statement states sa a u d sd total remark s political marginalization influence the effectiveness of the rotational system in ensuring equitable representation kwara 12 (14.6 %) 41 (50%) 8 (9.8%) 14 (17.1%) 7 (8.5%) 82 (100%) agreed kadun a 12 (21.8 %) 11 (20%) 5 (9.1%) 14 (25.5%) 13 (23.6%) 55 (100%) disagre ed does political marginalization affect the legitimacy and acceptance of larders selected through the rotational system. kwara 17 (20.8 %) 29 (35.4%) 3 (3.7%) 18 21.9% 15 (18.2%) 82 (100%) agreed kadun a 15 (27.3 %) 19 (34.5%) 5 (9.1%) 11 (20%) 5 (9.1%) 55 (100%) agreed does political marginalization contribute to challenges in implementing and maintaining the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth kwara 33 (40.2 %) 27 (32.9%) 3 (3.7%) 11 (13.4%) 8 (9.8%) 82 (100%) strongl y agreed kadun a 17 (30.9 25 (45.5%) 3 (5.5%) 6 (10.9%) 4 (7.2%) 55 (100%) agreed rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic republic %) political marginalization impacts the political participation and engagement of marginalized groups within the rotational system kwara 15 (18.3 %) 17 (20.7%) 6 (7.3%) 29 (35.4%) 15 (18.3%) 82 (100%) disagre ed kadun a 11 (20%) 13 (23.6%) 2 3.6% 10 (18.2%) 19 (34.6%) 55 (100%) strongl y disagre ed does political marginalization influence the transparency and accountability of the rotational system kwara 13 (23.6 %) 4 (7.3%) 1 (1.8%) 23 (41.8%) 14 (25.5%) 82 (100%) disagre ed kadun a 13 (23.6 %) 14 (25.5%) 1 (1.8%) 23 (41.8%) 4 (7.3%) 55 disagre ed political marginalization result in unequal distribution of resources and opportunities within the rotational system kwara 34 (41.5 %) 23 (28.0%) 2 (2.4%) 13 (15.9%) 10 (12.2%) 82 (100%) strongl y agreed kadun a 27 (49.1 %) 9 (16.4%) 3 (5.4%) 7 (12.7%) 9 (16.4%) 55 (100%) strongl y agreed political marginalization result affect the confidence and trust of the electorate in the rotational system kwara 21 (25.6 %) 29 (35.4%) 1 (1.2%) 17 (20.7%) 14 (17.1%) 82 (100%) agreed kadun a 22 (40%) 16 (29.1%) 5 (9.1%) 9 (16.4%) 3 (5.4%) 55 (100%) agreed rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic does political marginalization impact the inclusivity and representation kwara 11 (13.4 %) 35 (42.6%) 4 (4.9%) 19 (23.2%) 13 (15.9%) 82 (100%) strongl y disagre ed kadun a 7 (12.7 %) 9 (16.4%) 3 (5.4%) 21 (38.2%) 15 (27.3%) 55 (100%) disagre ed political marginalization contribute to political instability or conflict related to the rotational system kwara 33 (40.2 %) 29 (35.4%) 1 (1.2%) 6 (7.3%) 13 (15.9%) 82 (100%) strongl y agreed kadun a 11 (20%) 7 (12.7%) 0 (0%) 12 (21.8%) 25 (45.5%) 55 (100%) disagre ed addressing political marginalization potential improve the functionality and acceptance of the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic kwara 34 (41.5 %) 17 (20.7%) 3 (3.7%) 15 (18.3%) 13 (15.8%) 82 (100%) strongl y agreed kadun a 13 (23.6 %) 7 (12.7%) 3 (5.5%) 27 (49.1%) 5 (9.1%) 55 (100%) disagre ed total kwara kadun a source:researcher’s survey, 2024. the above table 4.4 shows that the respondents in the both states kwara and kaduna states in the first statement: political marginalization influence the effectiveness of the rotational system in rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic ensuring equitable representation, that 14.6% and 50% strongly agreed and agreed with accumulative percent 64.6% but 14% and 8.5% disagreed and strongly disagreed with the accumulative percent 22.5% in kwara state which shows that political marginalization influence the effectiveness of the rotational system in ensuring equitable representation in kwara state while in kaduna 21.8% and 23.6% strongly agree and agreed with the accumulative percent 45.4% while 25.5% and 20% disagreed and strongly disagree on the statement respectively with the accumulative 45.5% of the respondents in kaduna state. in response to the precipitates of such marginalisation include deprivation and exclusion of some ethnic groups from decision making. these contestations, according to labinjo (2007) and adebayo (2016) have always been due to the propensity of certain ethnic and geographical parts of the country wanting to hold on to political power in ways that undermine the political aspirations of other groups. these feelings have historical antecedents. it was divulge in the cause of research that political marginalization was never a problem in kwara state but it was a great obstacle to effectiveness to rotational system in kaduna state. in response to second statement does political marginalization affect the legitimacy and acceptance of leaders selected through the rotational system, respondents in both kwara state and kaduna state unanimously agreed to the statement. however, 20.8% and 35.4% strongly agreed and agreed in kwara state with the accumulative 56.2% percent but 21.8% and 18.2% of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed with the accumulative percent 40.1% while 27.3% and 34.5% strongly agreed and agreed to the statement in kaduna state with the accumulative percent 61.8% of the respondents but 20% and 9.1% of the respondents with the accumulative percent 29.1% of the respondents in kaduna state rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic this is a particularly acute problem in third world countries, where women's participation in political affairs is mostly linked with the dominant, male-oriented social cultural and religious environment. this kind of marginalization is also felt by ethnic minorities, migrants, disabled persons, elderly, etc. (verba, 2015). the crux of elite theory is that power in the society is vested in a minority who attain such a position through possession of wealth, force, or intellect (higley, 2010). elites sustain their dominance through replacing themselves, by ‘empowering’ non-elites into the elitist position, crossing from one elite group to another (lópez, 2013) it was deduce in the above discussion that political marginalization hinder the legitimacy and acceptance of leader through the rotational system in both kwara state and kaduna state respectively. in response to third statement does political marginalization contribute to challenges in implementing and maintaining the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic, respondents with 40.2% and 32.9% with the accumulative percent 73.1% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed in kwara state but 13.4% and 9.8% with the accumulative percent 23.2% disagree and strongly disagreed while 45.5% and 30.9% with the accumulative percent 76.4% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed but 10.9% and 7.2% with the accumulative percent 18.1% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed the statement. if the agreement on rotating power is respected by stakeholders, it promotes belonging and stability. groups, especially the minority, will not feel excluded or threatened. it prevents ethnic domination. osaghae (1999) posits that ethnic domination whittles unity. minority groups will see rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.51415/ajims.v4i1.995 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic themselves as major stakeholders in the country despite their minority status, which is majorly due to their low population compared to majority ethnic and religious groups. in view of the above assertion, it was observed that political marginalization affect the effective implementation and maintaining rotational system in nigeria fourth republic in both kwara state and kaduna state. more so, the fourth statement envisage that political marginalization impacts the political participation and engagement of marginalized groups within the rotational system, the result revealed that 18.3% and 20.7% given accumulative percent of 39% of respondents strongly agree and agree that political marginalization impacts the political participation and engagement of marginalized group within the rotational system but 35.4% and 18.3% with the accumulative percent of 53.7% of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagree the statement in kwara state while 20% and 23.6% with the accumulative percent 43.6% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed the statement in kaduna state while 18.2% and 34.6% of the respondent with the accumulative percent 52.8% disagreed and strongly disagreed to the statement in kaduna state.based on the response in this table, one may come to a conclusion that political marginalization has no impact on the political participation and engagement marginalized groups within the rotational system. statement presents and analyze the data collected with respect to does political marginalization influence the transparency and accountability of the rotational system, the result revealed that 20.7% and 9.8% with the accumulative percent 30.5% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed the statement while 46.3% and 18.3% with the accumulative percent 64.6% of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed the statement in kwara state while 23.6%and 7.3% with the accumulative percent 30.9% strongly agreed and agreed the statement in kaduna state while rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic 41.8% and 25.5% with the accumulative percent 67.3% of the respondents disagree and strongly disagreed the statement in kaduna state. based on the response in this table, one may come to a conclusion that political marginalization has no influence on the transparency and accountability of the rotational system in both kwara and kaduna state. statement six presents and analyse the data collected with respect to political marginalization result in unequal distribution of resources and opportunities within the rotational system. it depicts that 41.5% and 28.0% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed the statement with the accumulative percent 69.5% in kwara state, 15.9 and 12.2% of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed with the accumulative percent 30.5% in kwara state, while 49.1% and 16.4% of the respondents are within strongly agreed and agreed with the accumulative percent 65.5% in kaduna state but 12.7% and 16.4% of the respondents disagree and strongly disagree the statement with the accumulative percent 29.1%. judging from the frequency distribution table above, the highest frequency is 69.5% in kwara state and 65.5% in kaduna state, this translate to mean that majority of the respondents posited that political marginalization result in unequal distribution of resources and opportunities within the rotational system in both kwara state and kaduna state. statement seven depicts the analysis of data collected with respect to political marginalization result affect the confidence and trust of the electorate in the rotational system. it shows that 35.4% and 25.6% of the respondents with the accumulative percent 61% are from kwara state and 40% and 29.1% of the respondents with the accumulative percent 69.1% are from kaduna state strongly agreed and agreed the statement. this translates to mean that majority of the rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic respondents from both kwara and kaduna states affirmed that political marginalization result affects the confidence and trust of the electorate in the rotational system in nigeria. statement eightpresents and analyse the data collected with respect to whether kwaranorth and kaduna-south zones being political marginalization has impact in their inclusivity and representation. the result revealed that 13.4% and 42.6%given accumulative percent of 56% of respondents strongly agree and agree that kwara state and kaduna state being sidelined in political sphere; 38.2% of the respondents and 27.3% given a cumulative percent of 65.5% of the respondents strongly disagree and disagree respectively. based on the response in this table, one may come to a conclusion that kwara state political marginalization has impact on the inclusivity and representation and kaduna-south zones being sidelined in political sphere. statement nine presents and analyse the data collected with respect to whether political marginalization contribute to political instability or conflict related to the rotational system. the result revealed that 40.2% and 35.4% given accumulative percent of 75.6%of respondents strongly agree and agree that kwara state and kaduna state being relegated by political instability or conflict related to the rotational system; 12 respondents representing 21.8% and 25 respondents representing 45.5% given a cumulative percent of 67.3% of the respondents strongly disagree and disagree respectively. based on the response in this table, one may come to a conclusion that kwara state political marginalization contribute to political instability or conflict related to the rotational system and kaduna-state posited that political marginalization do not contribute to political instability or conflict related to the rotational system in nigeria. the last statement in the above table presents and analyse the data collected with respect to whether addressing political marginalization potential improve the functionality and acceptance of the rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic.the result revealed that 41.5% and 20.6% given accumulative percent of 62.2%of respondents strongly agree and agree the statement; 3 respondents representing 3.7% of the respondents are undecided in kwara state while 27 respondents representing 49.1% and 5 respondents representing 9.1% given a cumulative percent of 58.2% of the respondents strongly disagree and disagree respectively the statement in kaduna. based on the response in this table, one may come to a conclusion that political marginalization addressing potential improve the functionality and acceptance of the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic in kwara state than kaduna state. this means kaduna state decline that political marginalization has not addressing potential improve the functionality of the rotational system in kaduna state, nigeria. conclusion the study drew conclusion based on data generated from questionnaire during field work, including submissions from secondary documents. consequently, the study has offered recommendations designed to ensure that political marginalization is reduced on one side and rotational system is effectively applied on the other. however, from the findings of this study and the discussions on the various results obtained at through questionnaire and secondary documents, the study concludes thus: the study concludes that political marginalization has not significantly motivated the politics of rotational system in nigeria. this is because kwara-north and kaduna-south zones are being sidelined and relegated in political sphere and there is domination of kwara-central/kaduna-north in the political scene of the states. on objective ii, the study concludes that the degree of injustice in the distribution of public resources across the selected studied zones compared to the advantaged zones in nigeria’s fourth republic. for example, table 4.9 and 4.10 showed that there is unfairness in the; or unequal distribution of public resources and economic benefits across the selected zones compared to the advantaged zones in kwara and kaduna states respectively. on objective iii, the study also concludesthat population has rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 03 || march, 2025 || political marginalization and politics of rotational system in nigeria’s fourth republic no significant impact on the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic. as some parts of the selected states dominated the political scene. table 4.11 stated it clearly that political population has impacted on the rotational system in nigeria’s fourth (4th) republic respectively. the argument was supported by the assertion that, kwara-north local governments and kaduna-south local governments respectively would have formed coalition (plus the little votes from the dominating parts) to win election if population is a determining factor recommendations there is no guarantee that rotational system in kwara and kaduna states could automatically solve the problem of injustice, unfairness, inadequate political participation and many more that confronts other ethnic groups in the study areas. in view of the findings, the following recommendations designed to ensure that political marginalization is reduced on one side and rotational system is effectively applied on the other. government at all levels should promote a comprehensive democratic culture with all its intricacies that can take nigeria closer to the emergence of stable, meaningful, purposeful and beneficial polity. if that is attained there would hardly be any need for an ideology such as power sharing or power shift. additionally, if it is the rotational system that could bring the necessary platform for entrenching democratic culture in nigeria with her pluralistic structure it could be adopted and entrenched in the country’s constitution. so that all sections of any state will be given chances to rule. no ethnic group in the country should be marginalized as political position is not the monopoly of one section. it should therefore be rotated between the political zones making the region or state. every section of the country or state should be allowed to taste especially the highest office in the land (presidency or governorship as the case may be) for equity and fairness. rasheed o dauda 1* ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 03 | march 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 references agbaje. a. (2018). the ideology of power sharing: an analysis of content, context andintent. in anniwo, kunle et al. (eds), federalism and political restructuring in nigeria.ibadan: spectrum books limited. agbese, s.u. (2013). fiscal federalism and resource control in nigeria: lessons from united states of america. in onuoha j. & okpoko, p.u. (eds.). ethnic nationalism & democratic consolidation, perspectives from nigeria and the united states of america. nsukka: great ap express publishers ltd. clerk, k. (2018) “election administration in nigeria and the challenges of the 2007 elections”. midweek journals, vol. 2(2) 142-151. ambali a. and mohammed a. l., (2016). sustainable democracy and political domination: a rotational presidency among nigerian ethnic groups. journal of administrative science vol.13, issue 1 danjibo, r. (2019). understanding public policy in nigeria: a twenty-first century approach. lagos: mbeyi & associates (nig) ltd. frankel, j. c. & wallen,c (2013). federalism and the politics of resource control in nigeria: a critical analysis of the niger delta crisis. international journal of humanities andsocial science, 1 (12) 218-230. human, k. o., & zainab, k. i. (2015). the implications of resource control in nigeria. international journal of humanities and social scienceinvention. 2 (2) 53-57. idowu, a. (2014), politics second edition. newyork: palgrave foundations. njoku, k.o. (2014). ethnic nationalism, resource control and fiscal federalism. in onuoha, j. & okpoko, p.u. (eds.). ethnics nationalism & democratic consolidation, perspective from nigeria and the united states of america. nsukka: great ap express publishers ltd. williams, b.o. (2017). politics and administration in nigeria. aba: eagle publishers. nwosu, o. c., and ugwuerua, e., (2014). rotational presidency and political corruption in nigeria: a critical evaluation of president obasanjo and umoru musa yar’ adua’s regime, 1999-2010. journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss) volume 19, pp 50-57. okwenehe, 0. (2017) “ohaneze backs rotational presidency” africa news service.http//www.business.highbeam.com/ohanezebacks-rotationalpresidency. retrieved on 23/01/2016 obinna o. and veronica, u. n., (2022). the politics of marginalization in nigeria: challenges of the 4th republic. university of nigeria journal of political economy: volume 12, number 1, 36-53 onwudiwe, w.a. (2014). rotational presidency and state-building in nigeria. in (k. amuwo, a. agbaje, r.t. suberu & g. herault, eds.) federalism and political restructuring in nigeria, pp. 121–146. spectrum books, ibadan. orji, n. (2018) power sharing: the element of continuity in nigerian politics. ph.d dissertation. budapest: central university. rawls j., (1997). a theory of justice (usa: harvard university press, 1997), 53. suberu, r. j. (1988) “state creation and political economy of nigerian federalism” in k. amuwa, a. agbaje, et al (eds.) federalism and political restructuring in nigeria. ibadan: spectrum books. the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria. the 1998 constitution of the people’s democratic party of the federal republic of nigeria ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. anastase niyonsaba1 pan african university, institute of governance, humanities & social sciences(paughss) university of buea, transborder language and intercultural communication buea, cameroon mendong margaret besin-mengla2 university of buea, department of sociology and anthropology buea, cameroon abstract this study investigates the effects of socio-cultural challenges experienced by refugees in the mahama refugee camp in rwanda and proposes potential remedies to these effects. the mixed approach was applied for the collection of data. questionnaires wereadministered to 102 respondents, while in-depth interviews were conducted to resource persons in the refugee camp.thesociocultural theory by vygotsky (1979) was employed to inspire the trend of research. this study used the purposive and random sampling to select research participants. refugees were purposely selected to provide information about linguistic, cultural and communication challenges that they experience in the camp. the analysed data reveal a significant degree of socio-cultural challenges faced by refugees in the mahama refugee camp. 82.4% of the refugees have language differences which make communication difficult.a considerable proportion of respondents (67.6%) reported experiencing culture shock, manifested primarily in feelings of isolation (75.5%) and heightened stress and anxiety (88.2%). attitudes towards cultural integration were also assessed, with a small minority (23.5%) expressing support and a large majority (76.5%) preferring to maintain their cultural distinctiveness. the researchers recommend intercultural communication and integration workshops to make the camp a harmonious and comfortable place for all refugees. keywords: cultural diversity, cultural integration, culture shock, and intercultural communication. introduction when people flee in search of security, they need to adapt to their new environments. the 1951 un refugee convention declares a refugee as someone who has fled their country because of a well-founded fear of persecution on one of five grounds: race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion (un refugee convention, 1951). people from different ethnic groups coming might have to get used to the rules and norms that are prevalent among another ethnic group. their language and culture might not match with that of their new locality. the mahama refugee camp in rwanda is home to thousands of refugees, from the republic of burundi and the democratic republic of congo, who have escaped conflict and persecution in their homelands. the camp hosts refugees from diverse cultural backgrounds, each ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. with their own customs, beliefs, and practices. this diversity lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and difficulties in communication and cooperation among the refugee population. therefore, exploring and understanding these challenges is crucial for the effective management of the camp and the well-being of its residents. hence, this study aims to conduct an in-depth analysis of the socio-cultural challenges faced by refugees in mahama refugee camp. statement of the problem the mahama refugee camp hosts individuals from burundi and the democratic republic of congo, each bringing distinct cultural background and languages. the absence of a shared language poses significant communication barriers among refugees and with the local rwandan community, potentially obstructing their integration and access to essential services. despite the common recognition of the multicultural issues in refugee camps, specific empirical research on these challenges remains limited. also, mahama camp refugees often encounter difficulties adapting to rwanda’s cultural landscape due to their diverse traditions, norms and values. this cultural diversity leads to misunderstandings and conflicts among the refugees and the local population. this research seeks to thoroughly investigate these socio-cultural challenges to enhance the camp’s management and improve the well-being of the refugees in the mahama camp. the rationale for this study is to examine the socio-cultural difficulties faced by the refugees in mahama camp and possible strategies that can be used to overcome these challenges. research question the study is centred on the following research questions: what are the socio-cultural challenges faced by refugees in the mahama refugee camp? what are the strategies put in place to address these socio-cultural differences? research objectives the objectives of the study are as follows: to analyse the different socio-cultural and challenges faced by refugees in mahama refugee camp. to investigate potential strategies and interventions to address these challenges. research hypotheses cultural diversities and language differences are some of the challenges faced by refugees in the mahama refugee camp. psychological preparedness and intercultural communication studies could be put in place to address these challenges. theoretical frame work the sociocultural theory was used to develop this research. according to vygotsky (1979), human mental functioning is fundamentally a mediated process that is organized by cultural artefacts, activities and concepts. this theory looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. it stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process. in other words, the way people interact with others and the culture in which they ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. live shape their mental abilities. this theory directly pertains to the study because communication between refugees and staff members primarily centres around interaction. consequently, both parties must engage in mutual learning to facilitate effective interaction. three fundamental tenets of the sociocultural theory by vygotsky are social interaction, language and zone of proximal development. in the context of this study, mahama refugee camp which is home to refugees from a variety of cultural backgrounds, sociocultural theory helps us understand how cultural differences and diversity can both enrich and complicate interactions and relationships within the camp. sociocultural theory also helps us understand how the social environment of the camp, including factors such as social structures, power dynamics, and interpersonal relationships, influence the well-being and integration of refugees. sociocultural theory offers a valuable framework for understanding and responding to the complex challenges faced by refugees in multicultural settings, and for promoting a more inclusive and supportive environment for all individuals in the camp. by recognizing and valuing the diversity of cultural experiences and perspectives within the camp, we can work towards creating a more resilient and cohesive community. in order to address these challenges and promote the well-being of refugees in multicultural settings like mahama refugee camp, it is essential to apply sociocultural theory in developing culturally sensitive and inclusive interventions and policies. this may involve creating spaces and opportunities for refugees to share and celebrate their cultural heritage, promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding among different groups, and empowering refugees to participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives. to collect data in this research, the researchers made use of secondary and primary sources of data collection. secondary data were collected from documentary sources in libraries and from the internet. primary data were collected through field research in the mahama refugee camp. fieldtrips to the mahama refugee camp enabled the collection of primary data. this study utilised the purposive and simple random sampling to select research participants. 102 refugees were purposely selected to provide information about linguistic, cultural and communication challenges that they experience in the camp. these include refugee executive committee members, quarter leaders, village leaders who provide a voice for the refugee community. out of the 102 respondents, the gender distribution of participants shows that 53 (51.96 ) were female and 49 (48.04 ) were males. the age group of respondents shows that 11.76  of respondents are in the 15–20 age range, another 26.47  falls into the 21–25 age range, while 61.76  are in the 26-age range and above. marital status of respondents shows that 21 (20.59 ) respondents are divorced, 35 (34.31 ) are married, while 46 (45.10 ) are single. 52 (50.98 ) respondents were born in burundi, while 50 (49.02 ) respondents were born in dr congo. this near-equal distribution suggests that the sample provides a balanced representation of individuals from both countries. this balance is beneficial for comparative analyses that aim to understand language and cultural diversities across these two groups. table 1 below illustrates the demographic data of respondents. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. table 1: demographic data frequencies gender age marital status place of birth female male 15–20 21–25 26 + divorced married single burundi drc count 53 49 12 27 63 21 35 46 52 50 % 52.0 48.0 11.8 26.5 61.8 20.6 34.3 45.1 51.0 49.0 source: fieldwork, 2024 quantitative data from questionnaires were analysed using the statistics package for the social sciences (spss). this method of data analysis helped to covert quantitative data to frequencies and percentages. the crosstabulation method was used to present the frequencies and percentages. tables showing the relationship between two or more variables were used to analyse related quantities of data obtained in this study. qualitative data were analysed using content analysis method. qualitative data obtained from the field and from documentary research were examined and conclusions drawn. findings socio-cultural challenges faced by refugee in the mahama camp language problems in the mahama refugee camp, language differences are a prevalent socio-cultural challenge faced by the refugees. the language distribution shows that majority of respondents speaks kirundi (50 ), followed by lingala (48.04 ). french and kiswahili are spoken by a very small fraction of the respondents, each at 0.98 . kirundi and lingala are the dominant languages in the camp, together accounting for 98.04  of the total. this indicates a strong linguistic presence of these two languages within mahama camp. the dominance of kirundi and lingala suggests that these languages play a significant role in the cultural and social interactions within the community. programs and services should consider using these languages to effectively reach and engage the refugees. figure 1 below illustrates the languages spoken. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 i. ijointernational journa ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ overcoming the socio figure 1: languages spoken source: fieldwork, 2024 the camp uses different languages including kirundi, kinyarwanda, kiswahili, lingala, french, arabic, and mother tongues. 85.3 significant challenge. the presence of many languages and the fact that refugees do not understand all the languages in the refugee camp makes it difficult for the refugees to easily communicate and interact. this underscores the importance of addressing language barriers to improve communication in the camp. similarly, cultural diversities are highlighted as a significant challenge, with 29.7 and 86.3  of cases, indicating that the divers misunderstandings or communication difficulties. pointed to cultural diversities as a challenge. this indicates that the diversity of cultural backgrounds can lead to misunderstandings or communication challenges. diversity enriches the camp experience but it also requires effective management to prevent misunderstandings. overcrowding and lack of privacy is also a prominent barrier, with 28.4  of cases, suggesting that overcrowding can impede effective communication by reducing privacy and increasing stress.overcrowding communication breakdowns. ethnocentrism, with 7.1 notable barrier which can hinder open and respectful communication in the camp. although less frequent, discrimination and racism are significant with 5.4 highlighting the impact of prejudices and discrim highlights the cultural and communication challenges faced by refugees in the camp. international journal of social science and humanities resea anastase niyonsaba volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. the camp uses different languages including kirundi, kinyarwanda, kiswahili, lingala, french, arabic, and mother tongues. 85.3  of respondents identified language differences as a significant challenge. the presence of many languages and the fact that refugees do not understand all the languages in the refugee camp makes it difficult for the refugees to easily ract. this underscores the importance of addressing language barriers to improve communication in the camp. similarly, cultural diversities are highlighted as a significant challenge, with 29.7 of cases, indicating that the diversity of cultural background can lead to misunderstandings or communication difficulties. the findings show that 86.3  pointed to cultural diversities as a challenge. this indicates that the diversity of cultural derstandings or communication challenges. diversity enriches the camp experience but it also requires effective management to prevent misunderstandings. overcrowding and lack of privacy is also a prominent barrier, with 28.4  of responses and 82.4 ses, suggesting that overcrowding can impede effective communication by reducing overcrowding exacerbates stress and discomfort, leading to ethnocentrism, with 7.1  of responses and 20.6 notable barrier which can hinder open and respectful communication in the camp. although less frequent, discrimination and racism are significant with 5.4  of responses and 15.7 highlighting the impact of prejudices and discriminatory behaviours on communication. highlights the cultural and communication challenges faced by refugees in the camp. and humanities research niyonsaba1 * volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || the camp uses different languages including kirundi, kinyarwanda, kiswahili, lingala, french, of respondents identified language differences as a significant challenge. the presence of many languages and the fact that refugees do not understand all the languages in the refugee camp makes it difficult for the refugees to easily ract. this underscores the importance of addressing language barriers to similarly, cultural diversities are highlighted as a significant challenge, with 29.7  of responses ity of cultural background can lead to  of respondents pointed to cultural diversities as a challenge. this indicates that the diversity of cultural derstandings or communication challenges. diversity enriches the camp experience but it also requires effective management to prevent misunderstandings. of responses and 82.4 ses, suggesting that overcrowding can impede effective communication by reducing stress and discomfort, leading to of responses and 20.6  of cases, is a notable barrier which can hinder open and respectful communication in the camp. although less of responses and 15.7  of cases, inatory behaviours on communication.table 2 highlights the cultural and communication challenges faced by refugees in the camp. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. table 2: cultural and communication challenges faced by refugees cultural and communication barriers frequencies responses n percent language differences 87 29.4% ethnocentrism 21 7.1% overcrowding and lack of privacy 84 28.4% discrimination and racism 16 5.4% cultural diversities 88 29.7% source: fieldwork, 2024 culture shock culture shock in the mahama refugee camp is another socio-cultural challenge faced by the refugees.culture shock is the affective, behavioural, and cognitive disorientation that sojourners experience when in an unfamiliar culture (zhang & goodson, 2011; hotta& ting-toomey, 2013). culture shock can be seen as an unfamiliar event, which is not only under-defined, is little understood but also is unpredictable. saylag (2014) referred to culture shock as a period of psychological distress, readjustment and stressful demands, a time when people process many powerful emotions, both positive and negative, perhaps for the first time in their lives. field research shows that the majority of the respondents, that is 60.8 , have experienced culture shock. this indicates that nearly 6 out of 10 refugees faced challenges adapting to a new cultural environment. on the other hand, a significant portion of the respondents, 39.2 , did not experience culture shock. this suggests that more than half of the refugees were unable to adapt to the new cultures as seen in the table below. the refugees in the mahama refugee camp encounter psychological challenges. from the findings, increased stress and anxiety is the most frequently reported challenge, with 29.7  of responses and 88.2  of cases, which shows that stress and anxiety are prevalent emotional challenges among refugees in the camp. the refugees also face the problem of isolation and depression, with 25.4  of responses and 75.5  of cases, indicating that isolation and depression are significant issues in the camp. culture shock, is also a notable psychological challenge, with 22.8  of responses and 67.6  of cases, reflecting the challenge of adapting to a new cultural environment. representing 12.2  of responses and 36.3 , loss of identity highlights the impact of cultural transition on personal identity. although the least frequently mentioned, feeling of displacement accounts for 9.9  of responses and 29.4  of cases, indicating the relevance of displacement within the camp. the ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. high percentages of stress, anxiety, isolation, and depression underscore the need for robust mental health support services including counselling, support groups, and stress management programs in the camp. the majority of the respondents, 60.8, reported experiencing culture shock. this indicates that nearly 6 out of 10 refugees faced challenges adapting to a new cultural environment. on the other hand, a significant portion of the respondents, 39.2,did not experience culture shock. this suggests that more than half of the refugees were unable to adapt to the new cultures. some aspects of camp life were found very different from those of refugees in their respective homes. food and cuisine are the most frequently mentioned aspect, with 27.8 of responses and 58 of cases, possibly due to the importance of dietary preferences and cultural food practises. social norms and customs are also a major aspect of camp life with 26.9 of responses and 56.9 of cases. daily routines are another important aspect with 25.5 of responses and 53.9 of cases, indicating the role of structured activities and routines in the daily lives of refugees. language and communication, although the least frequently mentioned, account for 19.9 of responses and 42.2 of cases. table 3: aspects of camp life found most different camp life frequencies responses n percent social norms and customs 58 26.9% language and communication 43 19.9% daily routines 55 25.5% food and cuisine 60 27.8% source : fieldwork, 2024 some refugees who made up 3.7 of respondents considered their campmates strangers. it is demonstrated that 42.9 of the respondents engage in regular conversations and activities which is a primary way refugees bond. the second activity is social events and gatherings, with 39.8 of respondents, indicating that attending social events is also a significant bonding activity. showing empathy and support is less common but notable, with 13.6 of respondents, which marks the importance of emotional support in building bonds. the presence of refugees who consider other refugees as strangers indicates a need for inclusive activities that encourage participation and reduce social isolation in the camp.the table below shows how refugees bond, socialise and cohabit among themselves. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. table 4: bonding and cohabitation bonding frequencies responses n percent engage in regular conversations and activities with them 82 42.9% attend social events and gatherings together 76 39.8% show empathy and support towards them 26 13.6% strangers 7 3.7% source: fieldwork, 2024 some strategies to cope with culture shock were mentioned by respondents as follows: connecting with fellow refugees is the most common strategy, with 32.9 of responses and 52 of cases, which shows that finding support from individuals with similar backgrounds are primary way refugees cope with culture shock. cultural exchange is the second strategy, with 21.7 of responses and 34.3 of cases, indicating that engaging in cultural exchange activities helps refugees adapt to new environments. learning the local language (kinyarwanda) is also a significant strategy with 19.9 of responses and 31.4 of cases. although less common, seeking counselling or support groups is notable with 8.7 of responses and 13.7 of cases. a notable portion, of 16.8 of responses and 26.5 of cases, indicates that some refugees do not actively use any specific strategies to cope with culture shock. table 5: strategies to cope with culture shock strategies to cope with culture shock frequencies responses n percent connecting with fellow refugees from similar backgrounds 53 32.9% participating in cultural exchange programs 35 21.7% seeking counselling or support groups 14 8.7% none 27 16.8% learning the local language 32 19.9% source: fieldwork, 2024 cultural differences and difficulties in accessingvital services ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. the study also assesses barriers to access services due to cultural background. respondents were given two options indicated in the questionnaire. those two options were yes or no. the respondents were also asked to give reasons for their answer. results from the findings indicate that barriers to access services exist in the camp. the results show that 24.51  participants face challenges in accessing services due to different cultures. besides, 75.49 opted for no. in doing so, their answers indicated that linguistic and cultural aspects are not barriers in accessing services in the camp. the results presented in table 6 clearly shows this trend. table 6: barriers to access primary services barriers to access primary services because of cultural background frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent no 77 75.5 75.5 75.5 yes 25 24.5 24.5 100.0 total 102 100.0 100.0 source: fieldwork, 2024 among those who said that they face challenges to access services due to their cultural differences, many of them mentioned access to health care and education services. health care services in the camp are scarce, lack of good medications, transfers to referral hospitals that are not easy to get, among others; one respondent said: sometimes in our culture, if you are a girl, only your husband is allowed to see you and you can’t be treated unless there are female doctors and she is not even allowed to discuss with strangers which can limit the way of expressing her sickness to the doctors.it is hard to afford medications once you have a serious sickness. it is hard to be transferred to another hospital even though you are very sick. another respondent laments that their children don’t receive educational materials and equipment. she went further to explain that“education is free here in camp but nowadays our children are no longer receiving enough school materials as it used to be, we don’t know why they reduced them. sometimes our children don’t receive any school materials.” challenges in intercultural marriages to gain insights of the views of refugees on the cultural aspects of the idea of marrying or dating someone from another culture, refugees were asked to choose either yes, no, maybe, or i don’t know for their answers. the result in table 16 below shows that 6.9agreed that they can marry, 26.5 were doubting, 14.7 said no, while 6.9 said they don’t know. table 7: marriage consideration marriage consideration frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. i don’t know 7 6.9 6.9 6.9 maybe 27 26.5 26.5 33.3 no 15 14.7 14.7 48.0 yes 53 52.0 52.0 100.0 total 102 100.0 100.0 source: fieldwork, 2024 from the above findings, the majority of the respondents 53 (52%) respondents, has a positive consideration of marriage, indicating a strong inclination towards marriage among the individuals surveyed. a significant portion, 26.5 responded “maybe,”suggesting that while they are open to the idea of marriage, they have reservations or conditions that need to be met. 14.7 of respondents responded “no,”indicating a clear decision against considering marriage. a small fraction, 6.9 responded “i don’t know,” reflecting uncertainty or lack of definitive stance on marriage consideration. impact of multicultural challenges on daily interactions, decision-making, and community cohesion table 8: emotionaland psychological effects emotional and psychological effects frequencies responses n percent increased stress and anxiety 90 29.7% sense of isolation and depression 77 25.4% culture shock 69 22.8% loss of identity 37 12.2% feeling of displacement 30 9.9% source: fieldwork, 2024 as mentioned in table 8, multicultural challenges pose several emotional and psychological effects on refugees in mahama refugee camp. the findings rank increased stress and anxiety as the most frequently reported effect, with 29.7 of responses and 88.2 of cases, which shows that stress and anxiety are prevalent emotional effects among refugees in the camp. the second most common effect is sense of isolation and depression, with 25.4 of responses and 75.5 of cases, indicating that isolation and depression are significant issues in the camp. culture shock, is also a notable psychological effect, with 22.8 of responses and 67.6 of cases, reflecting the challenges of adapting to a new cultural environment. representing 12.2 of responses and 36.3, loss of identity highlights the impact of cultural transition on personal identity. although the least frequently mentioned, feeling of displacement accounts for 9.9 of responses and 29.4 of cases, indicating the relevance of displacement within the camp.the high percentages of stress, anxiety, isolation, and depression underscore the need for robust mental health support services including counselling, support groups, and stress management programs in the camp. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. discussion of the findings descriptively, findings show that the majority of respondents, agreed that the refugees in mahama refugee camp face cultural and communication challenges because of language differences, cultural diversities, overcrowding and lack of privacy, discrimination and racism, and ethnocentrism.the refugee camp uses different languages including kirundi, kinyarwanda, kiswahili, lingala, french, arabic, and mother tongues. 85.3 of respondents identified language differences as a significant challenge. this high percentage underscores the importance of addressing language barriers to improve communication in the camp. the findings show that 86.3 of respondents pointed cultural diversities as a challenge. this indicates that the diversity of cultural backgrounds can lead to misunderstandings or communication challenges. diversity enriches the camp experience, but it also requires effective management to prevent misunderstandings. among the respondents, 82.4reported overcrowding and lack of privacy as a challenge. overcrowding can exacerbate stress and discomfort, leading to communication breakdowns. it also suggests that physical conditions could impede effective communication by reducing privacy and increasing stress.15.7of the respondents reported discrimination and racism as an issue. although a lower percentage compared to other factors, it remains a critical area that needs attention to ensure a safe and inclusive camp environment. ethnocentrism was identified as a cause of cultural challenges by 20.6% of respondents. this reflects the tendency of individuals to view their own culture as superior, which can hinder open, respectful, and effective intercultural communication in the camp.in conclusion, language differences and cultural diversities are the most pressing issues, followed by overcrowding and lack of privacy. addressing these challenges through targeted strategies can significantly enhance communication and cultural coexistence in the camp. according to theresults, majority of respondents agreed that the causes of socio-cultural challenges include language and communication barriers, cultural differences, lack of interpreters, limited access to technology.the effects include culture shock, increased stress and anxiety, sense of isolation, conflicts and miscommunication. this is in agreement with thomas (1985) who stated that symptoms of culture shock include depression, helplessness, hostility to the host country, feelings of anxiety, overidentification with home country, feelings of withdrawal, homesickness, loneliness, paranoid feelings, preoccupation with cleanliness, irritability, confusion, disorientation, isolation, tension, defensiveness, intolerance of ambiguity, and impatience. the findings show that 77.5 of respondents identifiedlanguage barriers as a big challenge, with a numerical value of 79. this high percentage underscores the importance of addressing language barriers to improve communication and cultural integration in the camp.a lack of interpreters was highlighted by 59.8% of the respondents as a hindrance to successful communication. increasing the availability of interpreters can significantly reduce communication challenges within the camp.specific cultural norms and practices cause misunderstandings among refugees, as highlighted by 47.1% of respondents. these norms include food and cuisine (58.8%), social norms and customs (56.9%), language and communication (58.8%), and daily routines (53.9%). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. the findings show that 42.2 of the respondents have limited access to technology. this affects their harmonious stay within the camp as they have limited access to information. this view is in line with quintanilla (2013:1) contends that, refugees are living in an information void and communication gap environment. they are left in the dark about what is happening around them.24.5 of the respondents face barriers in accessing services such as education and health care services. among the reasons provided include language barriers and communication issues, expensive medications, lack of school materials and equipment. a high percentage of respondents, 88.2%, reported experiencing increased stress and anxiety. this indicates that cultural and communication barriers significantly contribute to mental and health issues.feelings of isolation and depression were indicated by 75.5% of respondents. this shows that some refugees face severe emotional distress.cultural differences are at 86.3. thus, 67.6 of respondents faced culture shock. the latter has affected their emotional well-being by feeling isolated at 75.5 and increasing stress and anxiety at 88.2. 23.5 of the respondents supported the idea of integrating other cultures into their own, while 76.5 did not support the idea of integration.this highlights the challenges individuals face when adapting to a new cultural environment. this in concord with furnham and bochner (1982) who asserted that culture shock occurs in the social encounters, social situations, social episodes, or social transactions between sojourners and host nationals. in other words, we experience culture shock when many familiar cultural cues and patterns are severed, when our values and beliefs are questioned in a new environment (kohls, 1984). a sense of loss of identity was reported by 36.3% of respondents. this occurred when they felt disconnected from their cultural roots and struggle to find a place in their new setting of the camp.feelings of displacement were reported by 29.4% of respondents. this reflects the emotional turmoil of being uprooted from familiar surroundings and the difficulty of establishing a sense of belonging in the new environment. recommendations all refugees are recommended to play their part in making the camp a harmonious and comfortable place for them by sharing personal stories and experiences, participating in community leadership and cultural awareness events. refugees should be of best behaviour in order not to violate camp rules, regulations, and norms of both the host community and their mates.in addition, integration training should also include the cultural aspects on how to live together in intercultural domains and how to communicate with individuals of diverse cultural backgrounds. the lack of integration, lack of communication, and lack of relationship among refugees create tension, which in return, can lead to serious conflicts due to the fact that, those refugees have differences based on their cultural, historical, and geographical backgrounds. in this regard, refugees should gradually receive intercultural communication and integration workshops to learn and exchange ideas and experiences. this will create mutual relationships and enhance interactions because when refugees understand that different cultures and languages are important, it will reduce ethnocentrism, and will give them a room to be open-minded and ready ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. to learn from others. this will eventually contribute in reducing linguistic and cultural challenges in the camp simply because refugees will be able to accommodate each other. another recommendation is for integration efforts to be put in place to solve linguistic and cultural communication challenges in the mahama camp and other refugee camps in rwanda, should be put in place. the study recommends that regional schemes such as east african community and the great lakes region should help the hosting community by providing expertise on intercultural communication integration trainings, funds as well as encouraging refugees to learn and accommodate each other. furthermore, projects, education and health facilities such as schools and hospitals should benefit both refugees and hosts. this will bring a good neighbourliness and harmony between hosts and refugees in the region. conclusion this study has discussed and analysed the findings obtained from the research conducted onsocio-cultural challenges faced by refugees in mahama refugee camp. the existence of diverse social groups and ethnicity, discrimination, hatred and lack of trust between refugees and host hamper the interaction and acculturation. thus, increased stress and anxiety, sense of isolation, conflicts and miscommunication are considered to be the main effects of culture shock which is prevalent in the camp. in addition, intercultural communication is a challenge in the camp due to language barriers. camp staff and refugees do not all speak the same languages. the researchers opine that there is a strong need of strategies and initiatives that address these sociocultural challenges among refugees in the camp. these strategies and initiatives include, provision of interpreters to ease communication, comprehensive language training, vocational skills development, cultural exchange workshops, community dialogues, advocating for inclusivity, providing psychosocial support, and mass sports activities. references adler, s. p. (1975). the transitional experience: an alternative view of culture shock. journal of humanistic psychology, 15(4), 13–23. doi: 10.1177/002216787501500403 african union. (2015). agenda 2063: the africa we want. retrieved on november 8, 2024, from: https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204docagenda2063_popular_version_fr.pdf allwood, j. (1985). intercultural communication. papers in anthropological linguistics. university of göteborg, dept of linguistics. andrade, s. m. (2006). international students in english-speaking universities. journal of research in international education, 5(2), 131–154. doi: 10.1177/1475240906065589 ayyoub, m., s. khan & a. riaz (2019). qualitative analysis of cultural adjustment issues in austria. new horizons, 13(1), 31–50. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204-docagenda2063_popular_version_fr.pdf https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204-docagenda2063_popular_version_fr.pdf i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. baxter, p. & jack, s. (2008). qualitative case study methodology: study design and implementation for novice researchers. the qualitative report, 13(4), 544–559. church, t. a. (1982). sojourner adjustment. psychological bulletin, 91(3): 540–572. doi: 10.1037/0033–2909.91.3.540 winkelman, m. (1994). cultural shock and adaptation. journal of counselling and development, 72(4), 369–378. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1994.tb01723.x. ferraro, k. f. (1990): gerontology: perspectives and issues. furnham, a. (1984). tourism and culture shock. annals of tourism research, 11(1): 41–57. doi: 10.1016/0160–7383(84)90095-1. furnham, a. (2010). culture shock: literature review, personal statement and relevance for the south pacific. journal of pacific rim psychology, 4(2): 87–94. gudykunst, w. b. & kim, y. y. (2003). communicating with strangers: an approach to intercultural communication (4thed). new york: mcgraw-hill. gudykunst, w. b. (2003). intercultural communication: introduction. in gudykunst, w. b. (ed).cross-cultural and intercultural communication. thousand oaks, california: sage, pp. 163–166. hailu, t. e., and h. ku (2014). the adaptation of the horn of africa immigrant students in higher education. the qualitative report, 19(28): 1–19. retrieved 20 november 2024 from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol19/iss28/1 hotta, j. & ting-toomey, s. (2013). intercultural adjustment and friendship dialectics in international students: a qualitative study. international journal of intercultural relations, 37,550–566 irc. (2023). refugee facts, statistics and faqs. refugee facts, statistics and faqs | international rescue committee (irc) kim, y. y. (2001). becoming intercultural: an integrative theory of communication and crosscultural adaptation. thousand oaks, ca: sage. kohls, l. r. (1984). the values americans live. mesidor, k. j. & f.k. sly (2016). factors that contribute to the adjustment of international students. journal of international students, 6(1), 262–282. oberg, k. (1960). cultural shock: adjustment to new cultural environments. curare, 29(2): 142– 146. doi: 10.1177/009182966000700405 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol19/iss28/1 https://www.rescue.org/article/facts-about-refugees-key-facts-faqs-and-statistics https://www.rescue.org/article/facts-about-refugees-key-facts-faqs-and-statistics i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) anastase niyonsaba1 * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || overcoming the socio-cultural challenges of refugees in the mahama refugee camp. renan, s. r. (2014). culture shock an obstacle for efl learners. procedia – social and behaviouralsciences, 144, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.032 samovar, a.l., e. r. porter, r. e. mcdaniel & s. c. roy (2013). communication between cultures (8th ed). boston: cengage. unhcr,(2023). unhcr-rwanda operational update. report. unhcr. (2005). unhcr-rwanda operational update. report. unhcr. (2019). handbook on procedures and criteria for determining refugee status and guidelines on international protection. geneva. unhcr. (2021). master glossary of terms. geneva: (https://www.unhcr.org/glossary/ , accessed 15 november 2024). vygotsky, l. s. (1979). consciousness as a problem in the psychology of behaviour. soviet psychology, 17(4), 3–35. who. (2022). world report on the health of refugees and migrants. isbn 978-92-4-005449-3 winkelman, m. (1994). cultural shock and adaptation. journal of counselling and journal of counselling and development, 72(4), 369–378. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1994.tb01723.x yan, k. &berliner, c.d. (2011). chinese international students in the united states: demographic trends, motivations, acculturation features and adjustment challenges. yeo, c. (2016). what is the legal definition of “refugee”? retrieved on 5 december 2024 from https://researchingrefugees.com/what-is-the-legal-definition-of-refugee/. zhang, j. & goodson, p. (2011). predictors of international students’ psychosocial adjustment to life in the united states: a systematic review. international journal of intercultural relations, 35(2), 139–162 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 https://www.unhcr.org/glossary/ https://researchingrefugees.com/what-is-the-legal-definition-of-refugee/ statement of the problem research objectives the objectives of the study are as follows: research hypotheses ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || food processing method and food quality of local delicacies in rivers state, nigeria. by obot, mary ifiok department of hospitality and tourism management, university of port harcourt. and ndu, eugene chigozie, phd. department of hospitality and tourism management, university of port harcourt. abstract this study investigated the relationship between food processing method and food quality of local delicacies in rivers state, nigeria. the studyemployed a quasi-experimental research design and convenient sampling technique, data was gathered and analysed from a sample of 400 respondents using a well-structured questionnaire. bivariate analysis was employed to test the three hypotheses developed for the study. the findings revealed that manual food processing had positive and significant relationships with three measures of food quality (taste, texture and attractiveness). the study concluded that irrespective of the food production process adopted by local dish restaurants, there is need to continuously consider superior food quality as strategy to satisfying their customers. it was thus recommended that local dish restaurants should produce their food under strict hygienic condition when using the manual food production process and that the continuous usage of manual process may improve food quality since it has been proven that it has the capacity to influence food quality. keywords: manual food processing. taste. texture. attractiveness. restaurants. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 50 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || introduction food is paramount amongst the three basic needs of man. from time immemorial, availability of healthy foods has been a major point of discussion in every family, race and nations. like many other countries, nigeria struggles year after year to feed its increasing population in a sanitary and sufficient manner. a significant obstacle to developing food safety rules continues to be the necessity to provide acceptable food safety and hygiene consumptions. (omotayo&denloye, 2002). this situation is not peculiar to nigeria as it has been estimated by world health organization [who], (2017) that over 600 million people across the globe have post food consumption illnesses which eventually results to about 420,000 deaths. this has also resulted to 33 million disability adjusted life years (dalys) with an estimated cost of illness placed at us$3.6 billion yearly (iro, et al., 2020; ezirigwe, 2018). these illnesses were linked by ndu and asiegbu (2021) to poor or ineffective food hygiene and safety management. the food chain industry's food handlers often lack the expertise necessary to ensure food safety operations, and their poor practices reflect these deficiencies (iro et al., 2017; azuama et al., 2018; amadi et al., 2018; chukuezi, 2010). particularly, the poor microbial qualities of the foods produced by local dish food handlers calls for serious attention as food safety production forms a central theme of discussion in public health functions. ndu and asiegbu (2021) lamented that high prevalence of food borne illness remains a source of panic in public health crisis management across the world. the challenge of food safety is no doubt a daunting challenge to government, food technologists and hospitality management experts. food quality, including safety, has been a crucial source of worry faced by the food industry, partly due to a series of food safety crises and scandals (aung & chang, 2014). this is revealing as governments and consumers are increasingly concerned with the safety of and quality of food supplies. however, quality of the food products continuously changes as they move along the supply chain, which can lead to significant health, social, economic, and environmental implication (ndu&asigbu, 2021; yong, dong, chunming, 2018). nwosu, ozumba, and bosa (2015) further howled that the situation calls for urgent attention because over the years, food nutrition has continued to remain a key health challenge in including nigeria and many other developing countries. there is a problem of nutritional deficiencies in nigeria, which come not only from a shortage of food but also from poor dietary choices made by those who can afford to acquire them. this problem has made nutrition in nigeria a challenging issue, which was caused by the problem. the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (ncds) that are linked to nutrition is increasing in nigeria; according to experts, the prevalence of type ii diabetes and obesity in adults is 33.3% and 7.9%, respectively (national population commission (npc) and icf international, 2014). in addition, the prevalence of ncds is increasing globally. diet-related non-communicable diseases are quickly becoming the leading causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world, including in nigeria. this trend is occurring in nations all over the world. they address a wide variety of health disorders, including diabetes, cancer, chronic respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular disease, and musculoskeletal problems. as a reaction to this worrying circumstance, the government of nigeria has taken a number of proactive steps to improve food safety and nutrition throughout the country. one of these is the ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 51 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || establishment of a national policy on food and nutrition (ministry of budget and national planning, 2016), which employs a program strategy that is both multi-sectorial and multidisciplinary, as well as a variety of interventions that are carried out both locally and nationally. the agriculture promotion policy was published in 2016. in addition, a national strategic plan of action for nutrition health sector component was developed, which was based on prior strategic papers and established targets to improve the nation's overall food safety and reduce the prevalence of malnutrition (federal ministry of health, 2014). in addition to this, there is the national health policy, which was developed with the intention of enhancing nigeria's primary healthcare system and addressing concerns over food-borne diseases. the effort of national agency for food and drugs administrative control (nafdac) in this discuss can also not be overemphasized. it is however disheartening to note that despite these tremendous efforts by government and its agencies food safety and nutrition is still a major concern in nigeria (ndu&asiegbu, 2021). this perhaps tells that government alone cannot tackle the problem of food safety and nutrition in nigeria. the situation requires collaborative efforts from all stakeholders, chief among these stakeholders are managers of hospitality firms, particularly, the owners and managers of local dishes restaurants whose service deals directly with the final consumers. the urgent need to address the operations management technique and food making process of local dish restaurants is a central focus of this study. operation management is still an important part of modern management in many settings, particularly the manufacturing and service industries (knod et al., 2000; rodionova et al., 2008). operation is a part of a company organization that is in charge of managing the entire process and methodology that is in charge of producing products and services up to delivery in any commercial enterprise. this includes manufacturing, distribution, and customer service (gupta, et al., 2008). goods have a physical form and may contain raw materials, components, subassemblies, and finished goods that are sold to customers, as described by szczucka-lasota et al. (2018) and skotnicka-zasadzie et al. (2017), respectively. services are defined as any endeavour that provides a particular combination of time, place, form, or psychological value to the customer. the provision of both goods and services to one's customers is a distinctive characteristic of establishments serving regional cuisine. the primary goal of operation management is to transform inputs into outputs while making use of a wide variety of resources. the operations strategy contributes significantly to the success of the business strategy by fostering the development of capabilities, putting those capabilities to use, and offering customers products of the highest possible standard. it is frequently discussed in terms of competitive imperatives such as price, quality, delivery, and adaptability. restaurant owners and managers in the area are concerned about the growing demand from customers for diets that are both healthy and risk-free. food spoilage is one of the most significant challenges facing efforts to ensure that food is both safe and of high quality. furthermore, the outbreak of covid-19 has been a major disruption in the modus-operandi and management techniques of business firms across the world (ndu& ajao, 2020). time has changed and the traditional methodology of getting things done may not be sufficient for contemporary business managers. this is particularly in the case of local dish restaurants in nigeria. demands for quality foods has necessitated the need to design and re-design their ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 52 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || operation manual and procedures in order to better serve their customers in the face of fierce competition. however, it is a surprise to observe that this urgent need for managers of local dish restaurants has not gained enough attention and curiosity of concerned managers. this challenge could be as a result of the lacuna in literatures that call attention of experts to rise up to the task. a few literatures that address operations management issues in the tourism and hospitality industry had mainly been orchestrated to the big players in the industry such as high rating hotel and tourist centres leaving the local dish restaurants unattended to; causing a lacuna which this study seeks to address. therefore this study aims to explore and discuss the food production management of local dishes in port harcourt restaurants. aim and objectives of the study the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between food production processand food quality of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. the precise objectives of the study are to; 1 examine the relationship betweenmanual food processing andtaste of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. 2 examine the relationship betweenmanual food processingandtexture of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. 3 examine the relationship betweenmanual food processingandattractiveness of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. research hypotheses from the questions raised in the study the following hypotheses may be tested h0:1 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and taste of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. h0:2 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and texture of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. h0:3 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and attractiveness of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 53 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || literature review theoretical framework the basic theories for this study are total quality management theory (tqm) and theory of planed behaviour (tpb). these theories are discussed in detail as they relate with the study. theory of planned behaviour (tpb) the theory of planned behaviour, sometimes known as tpb, is a full-fledged social psychology theory that has gained widespread acceptance in a variety of domains, including management, nursing, marketing, and other areas (zhang, 2018). ajzen (1988, 1991) proposed the theory as an extension of the theories of multi-attribute attitude (tma) and the theory of reasoned action (tra). he did so in both of his publications (zhang, 2018; ndu&asiegbu, 2021).the theory is found on the assumption that human behaviour can be predicted by ascertaining the intention of people. it explained that the intention of people to behave in a certain manner is a crucial tool for determining human behaviour. ajzen and fishbein (1973) puts it that tpb is “a social-psychological theory that explains behavioral decision-making processes of human beings with aiming at understanding and predicting the behavior of individuals, advocating that the successful completion of human behaviors are mainly controlled by individual will”. this theory is established on the premise that the intention to behave in a particular manner will not be manifested in actual behaviour if it is practically impossible to execute the behavior or if there are unanticipated impediments standing in the way. in other words, if the behavior cannot be executed, the intention to behave in a particular manner will not be expressed in actual behavior (ndu&asiegbu, 2021). if we accept that conduct can be described by intention, according to azjen's argument from 1985, then we need to provide an explanation for behavioral intents. he put out the hypothesis that rather than being entirely within the control of an individual's will, it is more often explained by the influences of external and objective circumstances. ajzen (1985) extended and revised the structure of tra in order to give it more power in its ability to predict and explain human behavior. he did this by adding the variable of perceived behavioral control in addition to the variables of subjective norm and attitude. this was done so that tra could have a greater impact. conceptual review concept of food production process food production process describes the method used in producing food. fthe concept of production and operations process has a dominant point of discussion in literatures most significantly in the manufacturing sector, oil and gas, telecommunication and recently in the service industry. the business management is not as usual especially in the twenty first century. managers of business organisation across the world seek a more efficient and effective way of carrying out their business operation. they crave for a better technique that will not only guarantee costs efficiency but as well ensure that the company gain competitive edge by offering ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 54 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || products with superior quality. the interesting point to note is that the hospitality management industry has both product-service systems. it entails both production and service simultaneously. for example while restaurants offer quality foods to customers, they also offer service such as packaging and delivery. manual food processing food processing generally involves the preparation of foods that are ready for human consumption and is commonly described as cooking. heating is a step in the manufacture of food that is done to change the smell, taste, and consistency of the meal, and most importantly to make it easier to digest the individual components of the food. the manual food processing involves the use of kitchen tools which allows the chef to perfom culinary functions with the aid of basic kitchen items without the use of electricity. wanda (2023) explained that manual food processing requires the physical strength of the chefs to move blades through the selected food items. it also involves the movement of foods through stationary blades. customers generally perceive this process of food preparation to be simple and more environmental friendly (wanda, 2023). in other words, foods produced using manual processors are usually consider safe. manual food processing involves the use of simple tools for culinary activities; these tools vary in depending on the foods and manufacturers. food quality: the quality of food, especially its safety, has been a primary concern for those working in the food sector, in large part as a result of a string of scandals and crises involving food safety. (aung & chang, 2014). food consumption which supposedly should provide nourishment and supports for mankind has increasingly become a major source of illness and mortality amongst both the young and the elderly. the strain on quality foods is revealing with rising need to ensure adequate food safety and hygiene consumptions still forms a major challenge to all participants in the food industries (omotayo&denloye, 2002).this is revealing as governments and consumers are increasingly concerned with the safety of and quality of food supplies. however, the quality of the food items constantly changes as they make their way through the supply chain, which may have important implications not just for people's health but also for society, the economy, and the environment. (ndu&asigbu, 2021; yong, dong, chunming, 2018). demands for quality foods have necessitated the need to design and re-design their operations. thus, for the purpose of this study quality was considered in the context of food. thus the food taste, food texture and food attractiveness shall be adopted as the measures of food quality. food taste: taste is one of the generally accepted attribute of judging the quality of food. food taste is generally described as the sense by flavor or savour of things perceived when they are brought in contact with the tongue (dictionary.com). it is the perception of quality perceived by customers when a food substance reaches the mouth. food taste is a generic quality of food which encompasses, ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 55 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || food texture:the evaluation of texture is one of the most important aspects of sensory analysis. rather than the absence of flaws, one need to judge the quality of a food based on its texture since it is a better sign of how fresh it is, how well it was prepared, and how satisfying it is to (szczesniak, 2002). it has influence on the taste, quality, and safety of the food. the texture of the food is yet another quality indicator criterion. food attractiveness: food attractiveness refers to the positive feelings a customer experience from the visual display of food. it is a sense of attraction and appalling view a customer has regarding food displayed. empirical review manual production process and taste lauzikas, miliūtė, tranavicius&kiciatovas (2016) carried out a study on traditional factors in food production process in the fast food industry. the literature on main concepts of traditional food production methods, classification of types of process was well established. the finding of the study revealed that traditional method of food production in establishments in qsr should not be encouraged as it will negatively impact the standard and quality of food expected by the consumers. the study prior to the finding contacted 25 fast food operators in the us and analyzed the factors using pearson’s product moment coefficient. arrowquip (2017) conducted an investigation on benefits of patronizing manually made food. the study revealed that a preference of manually prepared food by patrons because they are convinced of the origin of food ingredients. furthermore, they stated one of the benefits to be the originality in taste, preservative free and it offers improved nutrition which is the core of food quality. food is paramount amongst the three basic needs of man. from time immemorial, availability of healthy foods has been a major point of discussion in every family, race and nations. like many other countries, nigeria struggles year after year to feed its increasing population in a sanitary and sufficient manner. a significant obstacle to developing food safety rules continues to be the necessity to provide acceptable food safety and hygiene consumptions. (omotayo&denloye, 2002). this situation is not peculiar to nigeria as it has been estimated by world health organization [who], (2017) that over 600 million people across the globe have post food consumption illnesses which eventually results to about 420,000 deaths. manual food production and texture matinez (2010) did a conceptual review on local food systems: concepts, impacts and issues. thought the scholar opined that though manual food production appeal to some set of individuals but in qsr where food quality is expected of the highest stands, its preparation must be done in a way manner where the foods will not lose their nutrients, size, texture, taste, attractiveness etc. the scholar mentioned manual pilling, frying, and preservation as major factors that distort the achievement of quality food in most developing nations. gyaan in a (2023) made a post on how to make dishes look irresistible. the blogger mentioned that given the competitiveness in food industry, patrons are more observant of the texture of food particles they swallow, hence he ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 56 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || advised that to improve and promote local restaurant and not lose the local identity, manual proportioning, styling and service should be deployed for the sake of the locals an exploratory research on manual innovations in the hospitality business was carried out by milan, ivan, karolina, dunja, sanj, and vidoje (2016). the purpose of this article was to identify existing manual service food production activities, as well as views of what may become future service trends and the projected path in the restaurant business. in addition, the article examined the relationship between the socio-demographic profile of clients and the kind of manual service they like or make use of. customers of full-service casual dining restaurants from three different countries were interviewed for the purpose of assessing their perspectives on the manual food production process and gaining insight into their ideas regarding the direction in which future service trends will head. the analysis of variance (anova) was used so that disparities in consumers' perspectives on the subject of service innovation could be shown.the findings of the qualitative research draw attention to five key areas of concern which could affect overall food quality and food quality is measured in line with the texture of food, taste of food, color of food aroma etc. this implies that manual food production process can impact the taste of foods produced by food service and production oriented firms. poelman and delahunty (2011) in their study asserted that texture properties are very important for food acceptance among young people, but the hedonic value of specific descriptors depend on the method of preparation. experimental data indicated that slimy, slippery and/or granular foods tend to be disliked by adults but liked by children while hard, crunchy or soft. they argued that the acceptance of food texture is dependent on the method of production and those who want to consume he food. manual food production and attractiveness poelman and delahunty (2011) stated in their study on the effect of preparation method and typicality of color on acceptance for vegetable food stated that food color, aroma, taste as some the qualities in food that attract consumers. their study also revealed traditional method of food production can enhance or distort the attractiveness of the food. though they clearly stated that position to totally down to the demographics the food producers is targeting. the study was an investigative study and 453 participants were considered for the study. questionnaire was used to elicit information about study variables and analyzed using anova. a research on the colour, taste, and texture as well as the nutritional content of beautifully and freshly cut vegetables and fruits were carried out by barret and colleagues (2010). for the purpose of promoting attractiveness, both the objective and sensory assessments for identifying these essential characteristics of quality were explored. the advantage of manual food production was discussed extensively and the scholars observed through an empirical test that manual food production process helps to retain food quality in terms of the mentioned variables; they did not also forget to mention that manual production is time and energy consuming and as such might not be applicable in commercial food production context uyoyou (2013) observed that local restaurants have high rate of patronage from people of different demographics; so much so that often times these foods outlets may not be able to meet the urgent need of their impatient customers. because of the rapid pace at which the meals at ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 57 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || local dish restaurants are made, it is impossible to rule out the risk of food contamination due to negligent practices. there is always the risk of the utensils and equipment that are used for the preparation and serving of meals not being completely cleaned. there are several fast meals that are cooked under unsanitary conditions, thus cleanliness of the environment; meal exposure, the use of personal protective equipment and proximity of meal preparation space from sources of contamination such as waste basket, used water etc. constitute a major challenge to fast food operators. despite the warnings and recommendations of who on the operations workflow and the use of ppe, poor hygiene practices is still prevalent amongst these restaurants. lakshmi et al (2018) wrote on traditional processes and methods to enhance nutritional value in foods in india. the scholars opined that malnutrition is evident in the country not only to insufficient amounts of food but also to the poor nutritional quality of the available method of preparation. they contend that manual food processing can only be used in the household. quality food is one that has the nutritional value, nice aroma, taste and in right proportion. these the scholars say are food qualities that influence attractiveness. methodology this research study is a quasi-experimental research study, which is guided by the kind of phenomena being studied and also because the variables being studied were not within the control of the researcher. both of these factors contribute to the decision to conduct a descriptive research study. as a result, the quasi-experimental design emerges as the method that is most suited to the accomplishment of the goals of this research. because the research included picking samples of components from the population of interest that were quantifiable at various moments in time, the researcher decided to use the cross-sectional study approach.the population comprised 400 respondents comprising six customers from each of the identified restaurants. this approach of sample size determination satisfies the threshold and conditions for sampling size when population is unknown (sekaran, 2003). for the purpose of this investigation primary source of data was employed. the main data were collected by having the respondents fill out questionnaires and by having personal interviews with the respondents themselves. these methods were used in order to get as much information as possible. the questionnaire played a significant role as the primary tool for data gathering in this investigation. the questionnaire was divided into three parts according to its structure (section a, b and c).section a contained the demographic data of respondents; section b consists of questions relating to the independent variable (food production process) while section c deals with questions relating to the dependents variable (quality). the questionnaire was structured on five (4) points likert scale ranging from 1-4 as shown thus; strongly agreed 4 agree 3 disagree 2 strongly disagree 1 ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 58 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || the instrument was validated both at the face and content levels through constructive inputs of scholars and experts in the field (nunnally & bernstein, 1994). to determine whether or not the instrument could be relied upon, the cronbach alpha technique was used. it determined whether or not the research instrument is consistent within itself. the statistical package spss, version 22.0 was used to aid this calculation. the value of the chronbach alpha for the variables were as follows: manual food processing (0.889), food taste (0.799), food texture (0.816) and food attractiveness (0.891). data analyses response rate of questionnaire table 1: questionnaire response rate questionnaire frequency percentage (%) sample size 400 100 number administered 400 100 number retrieved 369 92 number used 348 87 table 1 shows the response rate of the questionnaire administered for the study. as earlier marshalled out, the sample size of the study comprises selected local dish restaurants in port harcourt. a total of 400 questionnaires which represent 100% of the sample size were administered. out of these, 369 responses were retrieved which accounts for about 92% of the sample size. however 21 (5%) copies of the retrieved questionnaire were wrongly filled and were not considered for the analysis, giving rise to 348 valid copies of the research instruments which amount to about 87% of the sample size. thus these 348 samples constituted the data for this study. demographic data of respondents gender distribution of the respondents. from the sample size, 47 respondents which represents about 13.5% were male, 301 respondents which account for about 86.5% were females. this result shows therefore that majority of the respondents are females. age distribution of the respondents. it revealed that 14 respondents which accounted for about 4% were within the age ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 59 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || range of 18 to 25 years, 29 respondents which is about 8.3% of the sample size were within the ages of 23 to 35 years, 77 respondents which accounted for about 22.6% were within the ages of 36 to 45 years, 116 respondents which represented about 33.1% were within the ages of 46-55 years while only 110 respondents which consist of 31.4% were over 56 years of age. this result shows that majority of the respondents are above the age of 55. marital status distribution of the respondents showed that 268 respondents (77%) were married while 63(18.1%) were single while 17 which is about 4.9% were widowed. this shows that majority of the respondents were married. data on educational qualification of the respondentsrevealed that 133 respondents which constitute about 38.2% had ordinary level certificate, 105 (30.2%) had ordinary/higher national diploma, 85(24.4%) had bachelor’s degree, 22(6.3%) had master’s degree while 3(0.9%) had doctorate degree. thus the results showed that majority of the respondents (68.4%) are not graduates. inferential statistics (bivariate analysis) in this section, the secondary analyses from the results of the hypotheses are presented with the test conducted using pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient at 95% confidence level which was adopted for the probability for either accepting the null hypotheses at (p>0.05) or rejecting the null hypothesis at (p<0.05). test of hypothesis one h0:1 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and taste of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. table 2-4: manual food processing and food taste table 2: correlations manual food processing food taste manual food processing pearson correlation 1 .936 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 348 348 food taste pearson correlation .936 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 348 348 **. correlation is significant at the 0.00 level (2-tailed). source: spss analysis result, 2022 ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 60 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || from the outcome in the table above, it was revealed that a significant and high positive relationship exists between manual food processing and food taste. the correlation showed a statistic (p=0.936, p<0.005) which indicate that there is a strong positive relationship between the two variables. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below table 3 model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .936 a .0876 .845 1.09247 a. predictors: (constant), manual food processing table 4: coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.798 .160 11.254 .000 manual food processing .199 .057 .936 3.503 .001 a. dependent variable: food taste the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and food taste, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.876 shows that manual food processing is a high predictor of taste of local dishes as it boast of 87.6% predictive capacity of food taste. this implies that local food processing can predict food taste to the tune of 87.6%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.936 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =1.798+.0.936*mfp. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and taste of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. test of hypothesis two h0:2 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and texture of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 61 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || table 5-7: manual food processing and food texture table 5: correlations manual food processing food texture manual food processing pearson correlation 1 .911 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 348 348 food texture pearson correlation .911 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 348 348 **. correlation is significant at the 0.00 level (2-tailed). source: spss analysis result, 2022 from the outcome in the table above, it was revealed that a significant and high positive relationship exists between manual food processing and food texture. the correlation showed a statistic (p=0.911, p<0.005) which indicate that there is a strong positive relationship between the two variables. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below table 6: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .911 a .830 .791 1.08821 a. predictors: (constant), manual food processing table 7: coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.713 .166 10.291 .000 manual food processing .244 .063 .911 3.883 .000 a. dependent variable: food texture the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and food texture, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.830 shows that manual food processing is a high predictor of texture of local ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 62 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || dishes as it boast of 83% predictive capacity of food texture. this implies that local food processing can predict food texture to the tune of 87.6%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.911 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =1.713+.0.911*mfp. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and texture of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. test of hypothesis three h0:3 there is no significant relationship between manual food processing and attractiveness of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. table 8-10: manual food processing and food attractiveness table 8: correlations manual food processing food attraction manual food processing pearson correlation 1 .952 ** sig. (2-tailed) .001 n 348 348 food attraction pearson correlation .952 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .001 n 348 348 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). source: spss analysis result, 2022 from the outcome in the table above, it was revealed that a significant and high positive relationship exists between manual food processing and food attractiveness. the correlation showed a statistic (p=0.952, p<0.005) which indicate that there is a strong positive relationship between the two variables. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 63 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || table 9: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .952 a .906 .875 1.09247 a. predictors: (constant), manual food processing table 10: coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.798 .160 11.254 .000 manual food processing .199 .057 .952 3.503 .001 a. dependent variable: food attractiveness the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and food attractiveness, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.906 shows that manual food processing is a high predictor of attraction of local dishes as it boast of 90.6% predictive capacity of food attractiveness. this implies that local food processing can predict food attractiveness to the tune of 90.6%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.952 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =1.798+.0.955*mfp. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationship between manual food processing and texture of local dishes restaurants in port harcourt. discussions of findings this section discusses the findings of the study based on the analyses. it indicates how this study and previous studies are related or differ in certain perspectives.the findings of the study emanated from the result of hypotheses one, two and three which sought to examine the relationship between manual food production process and the measures of foodquality ; which ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 64 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || are food taste, food texture and food attractiveness.the study found that there is a significant relationship between manual food production process (as a dimension of food production process) and the food quality. specifically, the result showed a value of (r=.936, 911,952 atp=000<.005) for food taste, food texture and food attractiveness. this result is not surprising considering the type of food involved in the study and the restaurants involved. the study survey revealed that customers find local dishes attractive when they are prepared and served in traditional settings. the study conforms to previous findings of lauzikas, miliūtė, tranavicius&kiciatovas (2016) who carried out a study on traditional factors in food production process in the fast food industry. the literature on main concepts of traditional food production methods, classification of types of process was well established. the finding of the study revealed that traditional method of food production in establishments in qsr should not be encouraged as it will negatively impact the standard and quality of food expected by the consumers. the study prior to the finding contacted 25 fast food operators in the us and analyzed the factors using pearson’s product moment coefficient.arrowquip (2017) conducted an investigation on benefits of patronizing manually made food. the study revealed that a preference of manually prepared food by patrons because they are convinced of the origin of food ingredients. furthermore, they stated one of the benefits to be the originality in taste, preservative free and it offers improved nutrition which is the core of food quality it is also in tandem withmatinez (2010) who did a conceptual review on local food systems: concepts, impacts and issues. thought the scholar opined that though manual food production appeal to some set of individuals but in qsr where food quality is expected of the highest stands, its preparation must be done in a way manner where the foods will not lose their nutrients, size, texture, taste, attractiveness etc. the scholar mentioned manual pilling, frying, and preservation as major factors that distort the achievement of quality food in most developing nations.gyaan in a (2023) made a post on how to make dishes look irresistible. the blogger mentioned that given the competitiveness in food industry, patrons are more observant of the texture of food particles they swallow, hence he advised that to improve and promote local restaurant and not lose the local identity, manual proportioning, styling and service should be deployed for the sake of the locals conclusion the overall purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between food production process and food quality of local dish restaurants in port harcourt, rivers state with chef expertise acting as the moderating variable. to achieve this purpose, one dimension of food production process (manual food production process) was adopted against three measures of food quality (food taste, food texture and food attractiveness). the result of the analysis revealed food production is a significant predictor of food quality the study concluded that irrespective of the food production process adopted by local dish restaurants, there is need to continuously consider superior food quality as strategy to satisfying their customers. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 65 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || recommendations in line with the empirical analyses and findings, the following are recommendation of the study; i. manual food processing proved to have a significant positive influence on food quality of local dish restaurants. therefore to achieve a reasonable improvement, it is recommended that local dish restaurants should produce their food under strict hygienic condition when using the manual food production process. ii. though manual food production process showed a moderate positive influence on food quality, restaurants are advised to pursue the use of this method as it proved to have a positive impact on quality. the continuous usage of mechanised process may improve food quality since it has been proven that it has the capacity to influence food quality. contribution to knowledge the study has contributed immensely to both local dish restaurants managers and other hospitality practitioners. it provided an explanation on to engender quality food production through food production process by local dish restaurants and by extension other sectors of the hospitality industry. examining the production processes of local dish restaurants and chef expertise, the study empirically found ways of improving food quality. specifically, the study has made remarkable recommendation on how to improve the quality of food offered by local dish restaurants in port harcourt. suggestion for further research the study focused on the impact of food production process of local dish restaurants on food quality. however, future study may examine how each of the identified dimensions in the study can independently influence food quality. also a replica of this study may be conducted in large restaurant and hospitality sectors that offer foods services to the public. this will enable them understand the dynamics and interplay of the phenomena under consideration. references bagozzi, r. p., & yi, y. 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(2012). “our biggest problem? were wasting food. retrieved from http://www.canadiangrocer.com/topstories/what-a-waste-19736 ashwini, awasthi,k. and madhura kane. 2014: consumers perceptions and behaviour about brands: effect of complaint resolutions on social media. international journal of marketing & business communication 3 (¾), 76-80. ateke, brown, walter and onwujiariri jane chinyere. 2014: relevance of excellent customer service in organisational competitiveness. west african journal of business and management sciences, 3(1),87-95. badghish, saeed, a., john, stanton and johnatan hu. 2015: an exploratory study of customer complaint behaviour (ccb) in saudi arabia. asian journal of businessresearch, 2015, 49-67. https://doi.org/doi:10.14707/ajbr.150004 day, ralph l. 1984. modeling choices among alternative responses to dissatisfaction. advances in consumer research 11. ed. william d. perreault. atlanta, ga: association for consumer research, 496-499. gelbrich, katja and holger roschk. 2010: a meta-analysis of organizational complaint handling and customer responses. journal of service research, 14(1), 3-23. jacoby, jacob and james j. jaccard. 1981: the sources, meaning, and validity of consumer complaint behaviour: a psychological analysis. journal of retailing, 57, 4-24. nakibin, davoud, ishak, ismail, malliga, marimuthu and ismael abu-jarad. 2011: the impact of firm reputation on customers’ responses to service failure: the role of failure attributions. business strategy series, 12(1), 19-29. salami, charles and emuejeibini. 2016: customer relationship management and competitive advantage in the nigerian telecommunication industry. int j original res, 2(3), 124-135. roberts-lombard, mornay. 2011: customer retention through customer relationship management: the exploration of two-way communication and conflict handling. african journal of business management,5 (9), 3487-3496. susskind, alex m. 2005: a content analysis of consumer complaints, remedies, and repatronage intentions regarding dissatisfying service experiences. journal of hospitality & tourism research, 29(2), 150-169. tronvoll, bård.2012: a dynamic model of customer complaining behaviour from the perspective of service-dominant logic. european journal of marketing, 46, 284-305. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 68 http://www.canadiangrocer.com/topstories/what-a-waste-19736 https://doi.org/doi:10.14707/ajbr.150004 adhabu kwa maajuza kwa misingi ya ushirikina na uchawi katika jamii ya abagusii na jackline njeri murimi, chuo kikuu cha tom mboya abstract licha ya teknolojia kutoa nafasi kwa kila mmoja kuwa sehemu ya mabadiliko yanayoendelea, inasikitisha kuwa baadhi ya watu barani afrika wameamua kukwamilia katika ukale na tamaduni hafifu zilizopitwa na wakati. uchawi ni mojawapo ya shughuli inayotekelezwa na wanaume na wanawake katika desturi za jamii nyingi za kiafrika ikiwemo ile ya abagusii nchini kenya. hata hivyo hivi karibuni kumetokea hali ambapo adhabu kali imetolewa kwa wachawi maajuza katika jamii ya abagusii jambo ambalo lilipelekea kuzuka kwa ghadhabu kali kutoka kwa wananchi na mashirika ya umma yakikemea ubaguzi huu. mathalan, mifano halisi ya ukale huo ni mtindo wa baadhi ya vijana kuwachoma na kuwashambulia maajuza kwa kisingizio cha kuendeleza uchawi na ushirikina. hivyo utafiti huu ulinuia kuchanganua adhabu ya uchawi na jinsia ya kike katika jamii ya abagusii suala ambalo limeonekana kuwakera wananchi na serikali kwa ujumla. ubaguzi wa jinsia ya kike wakati wa kuwaadhibu wachawi umeonekana kuzua utegano, mafarakano, chuki na hata kuyaweka maisha ya wanawake hawa hatarini. hivyo basi utafiti huu uliangazia utekelezaji wa adhabu kwa wachawi maajuza katika jamii ya abagusii aidha na kutathmini madhara yake. utafiti huu uliongozwa na nadharia ya ufeministi na uhalisia ajabu ambapo mihimili ya nadharia hizi ilitusaidia kufikia lengo kuu la utafiti huu. katika kukusanya data mtafiti alitumia utafiti wa maktaba na ule wa mtandaoni pale ambapo data ya kimsingi ilipatikana kutokana na tasnifu zilizoandikwa kuhusu jamii ya abagusii. vilevile, utafiti wa nyanjani ulitumika pamoja na mbinu ya kimaelezo katika kuchambua data na kuiwasilisha kwa lugha ya kinathari kuambatana na malengo ya utafiti. maarifa yaliyo katika utafiti huu yatakuwa mchango katika maarifa yaliyopo kuhusu masuala ya jinsia katika jamii.zaidi ya hayo,utafiti huu utasaidia katika kuibua mapendekezo ambayo yatasaidia watengenezaji sera wanaojihusisha na suala la ubaguzi wa kijinsia dhidi ya wanawake. key words: adhabu, uchawi, maajuza ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 1.0 utangulizi utafiti huu unachunguza adhabu inayotolewa kwa maajuza kwa misingi ya ushirikina na uchawi katika jamii ya abagusii.imani kuhusu uchawi na wachawi umekita mizizi nchini kenya haswa katika kaunti ya kisii na bara la afrika kwa ujumla na imani hii inaendelea kuwepo. inaamika kuwa, mambo mengi yanayotendeka haswa ajali za barabarani, vifo vya watoto wachanga na watu wengine na magonjwa chanzo chake ni uchawi. ni suala la kusikitisha mno wakati huu dunia inashuhudia mabadiliko mengi ya kiteknolojia ambapo ni vigumu kudhani kizazi cha sasa kinaweza kushabikia na kuendeleza baadhi ya tamaduni ambazo zimepitwa na wakati. kwa mujibu wa kamau wanderi (2021), mabadiliko yanayoendelea yanapaswa kukifungua macho kizazi hiki kufahamu kuwa hakipaswi kuachwa nyuma dunia inapoendelea kubadilika. inasikitisha kuwa baadhi ya vijana barani afrika wameamua kukwamilia katika ukale na tamaduni dhaifu ambazo hazina maana yoyote katika maisha ya kisasa. mifano halisi ya ‘ukale’ huo ni mtindo wa baadhi ya vijana kuwachoma na kuwashambulia wazee kwa kisingizio cha kuendeleza uchawi na ushirikina. nchini kenya katika kaunti ya kisii maajuza ndio wanaosingiziwa kuwa wachawi zaidi na sio wanaume. maajuza hawa wamekuwa wakidhulumiwa na hata kuuwawa katika jamii hii. huku visa vya wazee kwa tuhuma za uchawi vikiendelea kukithiri haswa katika kaunti ya kisii, imebainika kuwa wanaotekeleza vitendo hivyo wanavunja sheria yenye adhabu kali. maswali yanayoibuka ni: ni vigezo vipi wanavyotumia wale wanaowashambulia wazee ili kubaini wanaendeleza maovu hayo? kuna nguvu ama uwezo maalum walio nao? bila shaka kitendo hiki ni cha unyama na kulingana na sheria iliyopo sasa yeyote ambaye atapatikana na hatia ya kumsingizia mwenzake kuwa mchawi atatozwa faini ya laki tano au asukumwe gerezani kwa miaka mitano. hii ni kulingana na sheria za kuhusu uchawi sura ya 67 ambayo pia inaharamisha vitendo vya uchawi au ushirikina. kwa kauli hii, simaanishi visa na vitendo vya uchawi na ushirikina havipo. la hasha! vipo kwa wingi. hata hivyo, taratibu za kisheria zinapaswa kufuatwa kuchunguza na kubaini ikiwa ni kweli washukiwa wanaendesha maovu hayo au la. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 matokeoya utafiti yafuatayonimawasilishoyamatokeoyamajibuyahojajikuhusumtazamowajamiiyaabagusiikuhusua dhabuinayotolewakwamaajuzakwatuhumazauchawinaushirikina jedwali1: adhabukwawachawininjiamwafakayakupunguzavitendovyauchawikatikajamiiyaabagusii kauli 5 % 4 % 3 % 2 % 1 % adhabu kwa wachawi ni njia mwafaka ya kupunguza vitendo vya uchawi katika jamii ya abagusii 8 9 2 2.2 1 1.1 70 78.7 8 9.0 5-nakubali kabisa, 4-nakubali kiasi. 3-nakubali, 2-sikubali 1-sina uhakika chanzo: ukokotozi wa mtafiti kutokana na uchanganuzi wa data, watafitiwa 70 (78.7%) hawakukubaliana na maoni kuwa adhabu kwa wachawi ni njia mwafaka ya kupunguza vitendo vya kichawi katika jamii ya abagusii huku watafitiwa 8(9.0%) wakikosa uhakika.vilevile, idadi ndogo ya wahojiwa 8(9%) walikubali kabisa kuhusu madai hayo , wahojiwa 2(2.2%) wakikubali kiasi huku mhojiwa 1(1.1%) akikubali tu. hivyo basi, kutokana na matokeo ya utafiti ni ukweli kwamba adhabu ya uchawi haipunguzi vitendo vya kichawi katika jamii ya abagusii mbali ni vitendo vya kikatili dhidi ya wanawake wazee.tabia hii ya kishenzi na ukatili kawaida huidhinishwa na baadhi ya wanajamii ambapo vitendo hivi vimekithiri.kutokana na data tuliyokusanya, wanafamilia wa maajuza hawa hushirikiana kuanzisha vurugu dhidi ya wanawake na hata mauaji ya maajuza hawa.vilevile, adhabu hii husababisha familia za maajuza hawa kutengwa na jamii na uharibifu wa mali pale ambapo adhabu inahusisha kuchomwa kwa maajuza hawa pamoja na mali yao. utekelezaji wa adhabu kwa wachawi maajuza katika jamii ya abagusii katika jamii ya abagusii adhabu kwa maajuza watuhumiwa wa uchawi hutekelezwa kwa njia mbalimbali. kama tulivyoshuhudia katika vyombo vya habari kumekuwapo na adhabu ya papo kwa hapo ya watuhumiwa wa uchawi. hali hii ni tofauti na ilivyokuwa katika historia na utamaduni ambapo washukiwa walipitia aina fulani za majaribio yaliyolenga kuthibitisha tuhuma zozote dhidi yao kabla ya kuadhibiwa.ni baada tu ya majaribio haya ndipo ambapo waliopatikana na hatia walipata adhabu yao. isitoshe hali hii si ya kipekee katika jamii hii ya ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 kiafrika kwani tunaona hali kama hii ikitokea ulimwenguni ambapo mashtaka ya uhalifu wa uchawi yalifikia kiwango cha juu kutoka mwaka wa 1580 hadi 1630. katika wakati wa kupambana na marekebisho ya vita vya dini ya ulaya, wakati takriban watu elfu hamsini waliuawa, na baadhi ya maeneo yakichomwa ambapo takriban asilimia themanini ya waliochomwa walikuwa wanawake waliokuwa na umri zaidi ya miaka arobaini. aidha kulikuwa na njia ainati kihistoria za kwaadhibu washutumiwa wa uchawi auwale waliopatikana wakishiriki uchawi. miongoni mwa adhabu hizo ni ile ya kifo, wengine kuchomwa,kunyongwa na hata kukatwa kichwa. tukirejelea jamii ya abagusii, tunapata kuwa miongoni mwa njiambalimbali zilizotumika katika kuwaadhibu wachawi ni kama ilivyoelezwa katika sehemu ifuatayo. i) uingizaji wa vifaa vyenye ncha kali katika sehemu za siri za watuhumiwa mojawapo ya aina kali ya adhabu ya uchawi ni jaribu linalohusisha kuingiza vifaa vyenye ncha kali kwenye sehemu za siri za washukiwa.mbali na ukali wake, aina hii ya adhabu inasemwa kuwa ya kufedhehesha sana.utekelezaji wake unahusisha kuingizwa kwa kitu chenye ncha kali, hasa kijiti chenye umbo la mshale ndani ya sehemu za siri za mwathiriwa.kifaa hiki kinaweza kuondolewa tu kwa njia ya upasuaji.kutokana na namna ambayo adhabu hii inatekelezwa, wahasiriwa wa adhabu hii ni nadra sana kuishi . washukiwa wa kiume pia wanaweza kuadhibiwa kwa njia hii pia pale ambapo vifaa vyenye ncha kali huingizwa kwenye sehemu zao za siri.njia hii inafedhehesha zaidi wakati inahusisha kiungo cha uzazi cha mwanamke.licha ya umuhimu wa kiungo hiki cha uzazi cha mwanamke katika kufanya mapenzi na kuendeleza ukoo na familia, kwa njia zingine uke hupewa mtazamo hasi. miongoni mwa abagusii ni mwiko kuitaja ile sehemu ya siri ya mwanamke (embere) hasa hadharani ikilinganishwa na ile ya mwanamume jambo ambalo linaweza kusemwa kuwa linajumuisha ubaguzi wa kijinsia dhidi ya wanawake.kwa hivyo,adhabu ya kuingiza kifaa chenye ncha kali katika uke wakati wa kuadhibiwa kwa mchawi inaonyesha jinsi wanaume wanavyowaona wake zao kama viumbe duni.kama aina nyingine ya adhabu wanazozipokea wanawake kwa madai ya uchawi, adhabu hii inajumuisha ubaguzi wa jinsia dhidi ya wanawake. kwa muda mrefu sasa, inaonekana kuwa adhabu ya uchawi katika jamii ya abagusii inaonyesha kuwa kuna misukosuko katika mahusiano kati ya jinsia ya kike na ile ya kiume pale ambapo ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 jinsia ya kiume imependelewa sana.kwa kweli, inaweza kusemwa kuwa, kuna mitazamo potovu kuhusu jinsia ya kike na hivyo basi majaribio ya uchawi ni njia tu ya kulazimisha mfumodume. kulingana na wahojiwa wetu, jamii ya abagusii huwachukulia wanawake kama watu ambao kila wakati wanasafiri (abaeti).jambo hili linamaanisha kwamba,wawe katika nyumba za wazazi wao au katika ndoa, hawana makazi maalumu.vilevile wanapoozwa na kwenda katika nyumba zao za ndoa,hubeba jina la wageni(abarwa isiko).jina hili hutumiwa kuonyesha kuwa, mwanamke ni mpita njia tu na kama watu wengine ambao hawahusiani na jamii ile, wanawake hawa hawapewi haki sawa na wenzao wa kiume. kwa jumla, wanawake wa abagusii huchukuliwa kuwa viumbe dhaifu na hali hii ya kuwakumbushwa kila wakati kwamba wao si sawa na wanaume imewafanya kujidumaza.kwa hivyo, dhuluma mbalimbali zinapofanywa dhidi yao, ni vigumu sana kuinua sauti zao kulalamika. i) wachawi kuchomwa kuwepo kwa wachawi bado ni imani ya kijamii inayoendeshwa na wazo ambalo limechukuliwa kuwa la kawaida katika jamii za kiafrika na jamii kadha nchini kenya.imani hizi za uchawi zimechochea adhabu kali ya wanaoshukiwa kuwa wachawi.hivyo basi kuchomwa kwa kwa watu wanaoshukiwa kuwa wachawi katika jamii ya abagusii ni jambo la kawida sana ambapo kesi hizi huripotiwa kwenye vyombo vya habari.serikali imeweka juhudi nyingi hili kuzuia mauaji haya ya watuhumiwa wa uchawi ila haijafua dafu.ingawa kitendo hiki cha kuwachoma watu kwa madai ya uchawi ni kitendo cha ukatili ambacho kinapaswa kuwa kimelaaniwa na jamii, hakuna suluhu yoyote imepatikana hadi sasa ili kukomesha kitendo hiki wimbi jipya la mashambulizi dhidi ya maajuza wanaoshukiwa kuwa wachawi katika kaunti ya kisii limezua wasisiwasi katika eneo hili.katika vyombo vya habari ni dhahiri kuwa maajuza huteketezwa kila kuchapo.wauaji wao hudai kuwa maajuza hao hushiriki uchawi.uchomaji wa wachawi hutumika kama njia ya kulipiza kisasi dhidi ya wanawake wazee jambo ambalo linaonekana kuleta vurugu. kulingana na habari kutoka gazeti la taifa leo,mnamo januari 14,wanawake wawili wazee walichomwa kiasi cha kutotambulika katika kijiji cha omokonge,kaunti ya nyamira, kwa tuhuma za uchawi.pauline mogambi,95, na bintiye rose mogambi,53, waliuawa na wanakijiji ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 wenye hasira.nyumba nane za watu wanaodaiwa kuwa wachawi pia zilichomwa moto.baadhi ya watu ambao huchomwa wanaweza kuwa hawana hatia.adhabu hii ni haramu kwani inamnyima mshukiwa haki ya kuishi. ingawa wanaume na wanawake hujihusisha katika shughuli za uchawi, kesi zilizoripotiwa kwenye vyombo vya habari zinaonyesha asilimia kubwa ya waathiriwa ni wanawake.mfumo wa jamii ya abagusii kimsingi ni mfumodume.wanaume tofauti na wanawake ni watu wanaoaminika kuwa wa kudumu katika jamii.ingawa wanawake wanaweza kuonekana kuwa watu wa jamii au ukoo ule kwa sababu ya kuzaa watoto, mara nyingi wanachukuliwa kuwa watu wasio na uhusiano wa moja kwa moja na jamii ile kwa sababu hawana uhusiano wa damu na jamaa zao wa ndoa.hivyo basi, wakati mwanamume ameshukiwa kufanya uchawi, ukoo unaweza kuzuiwa kumuua mwanamume yule kwa vikwazo vya uhusiano wa damu na hofu ya kumwaga damu ya jamaa yao. kutokana na utafiti huu,shutuma za uchawi zinazosababisha uteketezaji wa maajuza wanaoshukiwa kuwa wachawi ni tabia ya kishenzi ambayo huidhinishwa na baadhi ya wanajamii ambapo vitendo hivi vimekithiri.mauaji haya ambayo yamekuwa yakitokea kisii kwa miongo mingi si mila au desturi za kitamaduni za watu wa abagusii mbali ni vitendo vya ukatili uliokithiri vinavyochochewa na uchoyo, ubinafsi,chuki dhidi ya wanawake na dhana na maadili ya mfumo wa ubabedume ambao unashusha thamani maisha ya wanawake. ii) wachawi kufukuzwa kutoka koo zao adhabu hii uhusisha kutengwa kwa mtu au watu kutoka kwa kikundi fulani cha watu au jamii.adhabu hii hutokea kutokana na ukweli kwamba mtu au watu wamekiuka sharia za kikundi fulani au jamii hiyo.kutoroshwa katika jamii basi ni aina ya adhabu apatayo mtu aendeapo kinyume na matarajio ya jamii yao.miongoni mwa abagusii, washukiwa wa uchawi hulazimishwa kutoka katika koo zao au hata jamii zao.mara tu wanapofukuzwa kutoka koo zao, wao huwa kama wale watu waliougua ugonjwa wa ukoma katika biblia kwa maana kwamba hakuna mwanajamii angetaka kuonekana akishirikiana nao. watu hawa wanapotengwa na wanajamii inakuwa vigumu kushirikiana na wezao hivyo inawalazimu kuondoka kwa hiari yao wenyewe kwa sababu ya hisia za kukataliwa.watu hawa huishia na kukaa katika vijiji au koo za kigeni ambapo shughuli zao hazijulikani.jambo hili limetumika kama mojawapo ya sababu zinazoelezea ni kwa nini tunapata watu wengi kwa kijiji ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 kimoja ambao hawana nasaba zinazofanana.watu hawa kwa kawaida huitwa ‘abamenyi’.iwapo badaye kuna ushahidi wa kutosha kwamba wamerekebisha tabia zao, wanaweza kuruhusiwa kurudi kwenye jamii yao. hata hivyo, hali hii huweza kuwa tofauti pale ambapo mshukiwa anayefukuzwa hutokea kuwa mwanamke.mwanamke aliyetengwa na jamii, mara nyingi harudi katika boma ya wazaziwe mbali huchagua kuoleka katika jamii nyingine.imani za uchawi miongoni mwa abagusii ni sababu mojawapo ilitumika kueleza kwa nini wanawake wa jamii ya abagusii wameoleka katika jamii jirani kama vile wajaluo, wakipsigis na wamaasai. ni muhimu kutambua kwamba abagusii kama jamii nyingine za kiafrika hutawaliwa na mfumo dume.kwa hivyo, kumfukuza mwanamume kutoka jamii yake kuliaminika kuleta upungufu wa idadi ya watu katika ukoo huo haswa kama bado hao wanaume wana uwezo wa kuzalisha watoto.kwa hivyo, jamii haingemwadhibu vikali mwanamume aliyeshukiwa kuwa mchawi kwani walipoomba msamaha waliweza kupewa faini nyepesi na kusamehewa kwa onyo la kutojihusisha tena na uovu huo. mara kwa mara, wanaume wanaoshukiwa kuwa wachawi wanaweza kuwanyooshea kidole wake zao kwa lawama za kuwafundisha au kuwapa uchawi(kobaa rirogio) ambapo mwanamke huyo alilazimika kubeba hasira za wanajamii (nyagaka moraa).kwa kweli, wanaume walipata msamaha ikiwa wangetangaza hadharani kwamba wake zao waliwaathiri kwa kuwafanyia uchawi. katika tukio ambalo lilihusisha mwanamke kufukuzwa kutoka kwa nyumba yake kwa tuhuma za uchawi, hakuna hisia kali ya hasara inahisiwa ikilinganishwa na kumfukuza mwanamume ambaye anaonekana kama mzalishaji mali katika jamii.mtazamo kwamba wanawake ni viumbe dhaifu na wanyenyekevu hufanya iwe rahisi kwao kufukuzwa. katika jamii hii ya abagusii, wanawake wanaoshutumiwa kwa uchawi hutoroshwa kutoka kwa familia zao na kupelekwa katika ‘kijiji cha wachawi’ambacho wakisii huita ‘egetii kia abarogi’.wanawake pekee ndio hutoroshwa kwa sababu wao huonekana kama viumbe dhaifu ambao hawawezi kuzitetea haki zao.ubaguzi unaopelekea kufukuzwa miongoni mwa abagusii, ni ubaguzi wa kijinsia dhidi ya wanawake.hii kimsingi inatokana na dhana kwamba wanawake ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 huoleka kutoka ukoo mmoja kwenda mwingine na hivyo, ukoo utapoteza kidogo sana kwa kuwafukuza. madhara yanayotokana na adhabu wanazopokea maajuza, washutumiwa wa uchawi adhabu ya uchawi kwa maajuza wanaoshutumiwa yana athari mbaya si haba kwa mtuhumiwa na jamii kwa ujumla (sambe 2017;asamoah gyadu 2015).madhara haya yanaweza kuwa ya kijamii na kiuchumi na pia yanayoathiri maendeleo ya mtu binafsi kama ilivyofafanuliwa katika sehemu ifuatayo. i) athari za kijamii zinazotokana na adhabu ya uchawi kwa jnsia ya kike maajuza wanaotuhumiwa kuwa wachawi,haki zao za binadamu hukiukwa pakubwa.kulingana na igwe(2013) ukiukaji wa haki za binadamu ni silaha ya madaraka na utaratibu wa ukandamizaji wa wanawake walio katika nyadhifa dhaifu za kitamaduni katika jamii.unyanyasaji humfanya aliyeshutumiwa kutengwa na wezake katika jamii anamoishi.unyanyapaa hudumaza na kuzuia maendeleo ya kijamii na vilevile ya wanawake kwani wao hudharauliwa na watu wa familia zao. katika maeneo na nyanja ambazo uchawi unaaminika kurithiwa, husababisha unyanyapaa zaidi kwa watoto wa mtuhumiwa.watoto hawa hupokea dhihaka kutoka kwa wanajamii kuwa wao ni watoto wa mchawi na hata kuendeleza uchawi(quarmyne 2011).matokeo ya utafiti na pia mahojiano na wanawake ulidhibitisha madhara haya katika maisha ya walioshutumiwa pamoja na watoto wao. mmoja wa wanawake aliyehojiwa alisema kuwa;’kifo cha ghafla cha mtoto wa pekee wa mwenzangu wa nyumbani kililaumiwa juu yangu’. jambo ambalo lilisababisha unyanyapaa kwake na hata kwa watoto wake. matokeo ya utafiti huu ilionyesha kwamba adhabu ya uchawi husababisha kifo.kutokana na ukosefu wa taratibu sahihi na chanya za kuwaadhibu wanaoshtumiwa kuwa wachawi wananchi huchukua sheria mkononi jambo ambalo limesababisha kuuwawa kwa watuhumiwa kama inavyoripotiwa katika vyombo vya habari.njia hii ya kuwaadhibu wachawi husababisha matatizo ya kisaikolojia kwa wanafamilia wanaoshuhudia kitendo hiki kikitendewa mmoja wao. adhabu ya uchawi hufanya washutumiwa kukabiliwa na ukiukaji wa haki ambazo zinaanzia haki ya kuwa huru kutokana na unyanyasaji, haki ya kupata chakula, haki ya kuheshimu maoni ya ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 maajuza wanaotuhumiwa kuwa wachawi, haki ya malazi na kulindwa(foxcroft na secker,2010).maajuza hawa hukabiliwa na kifungo na kulazimishwa kushiriki katika sherehe za kufukuza pepo walio ndani yao jambo ambalo linawaaharibu kisaikolojia.kushindwa kwa serikali kutoa huduma mbadala za utunzaji kwa wale wanaotuhumiwa kwa shughuli za uchawi ni ukiukaji wa haki zao za kuhudumiwa au kulindwa zaidi ya hayo, adhabu ya uchawi huwafanya watuhumiwa kutelekezwa na watoto wao wenyewe, familia na wanajamii.jambo hili linawafanya kutopata huduma za kijamii(monyenye 1997).maajuza wengi walioshutumiwa kuwa wachawi wamekimbilia maeneo ya mjini ili kuepuka kutendewa mabaya zaidi.jambo hili limewasababishia matatizo makubwa ya afya ya akili katika kujaribu kukabiliana na ulimwengu sambamba na usasa.(di domenico,1982). vilevile, shutuma za uchawi husababisha kusambaratika kwa familia.kwa vile watuhumiwa wengi wa uchawi ni wanawake,wengi wao uhama vitongoji vyao ili kuepuka adhabu kali na ata kifo.katika hali hiyo, watuhumiwa hawa huweza kupoteza watoto wao na waume zao huweza kuwataliki ili kuepuka hofu ya kutambuliwa kama washiriki wa uchawi(monyenye 1977).hakika, kulingana na washiriki wetu, hii inaweza kueleza kuwepo kwa idadi kubwa ya wanawake waliotalikiwa na waume zao. zaidi ya hayo, mahusiano baina ya majirani na wanajamii humomonyoka.hii ni kwa sababu uchawi huonekana kuleta madhara kwa watu wengine katika jamii.kama ilivyobainishwa na asamoah gyadu(2015) majirani na marafiki humshuku na kumtuhumu kila mmoja wakati wanaposhindwa kuiendeleza maisha yao jambo ambalo huvuruga maisha na uhusiano mwema kati ya marafiki na jamaa. ii) athari za kiuchumi zinazotokana na adhabu ya uchawi athari kadhaa za uchawi zinapatikana kutokana na adhabu ya uchawi kwa maajuza katika jamii ya abagusii.ikizingatiwa kuwa wanawake wanaoadhibiwa kwa madai ya uchawi hunyanyapaliwa na kubaguliwa ambapo maendeleo yao ya kiuchumi na hadhi yao huathiriwa vibaya. katika baadhi ya matukio, watuhumiwa wa uchawi hulazimika kuhama makazi yao na kuacha mali zao nyuma na hata katika hali mbaya vitu vyao huchomwa na kuharibiwa(dovlo 2007).katika matukio mengine, mali binafsi ya watuhumiwa hutwaliwa na washtaki wao na ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 jamaa wengine wanaounga mkono mashtaka hayo.jambo hili hurudisha nyuma maendeleo ya kiuchumi ya wanawake hawa na watoto wao na kuwafanya kuwa maskini maishani mwao.ilibainishwa na mwanamke wakati wa mahojiano kuwa;’baada ya kushtakiwa kwa kumuua mtoto wa jirani yangu, nilidharauliwa na wanajamii kisha nikapoteza njia yangu ya mapato na biashara ndogo ndogo ambayo nilikuwa nikifanya kwa sababu watu walikataa kuninunulia kwa vile waliniona mchawi, hii ilisababisha kuhama kwangu’.kutokana na hili, inaweza kuonekana kuwa watuhumiwa wamewekwa katika hali ya kupoteza hadhi yao ya kiuchumi na njia zao za kujikimu kimaisha. hitimisho kwa ujumla, adhabu ya uchawi ina athari mbaya kwa ustawi miongoni mwa abagusii.kwa upande wa jinsia ni muhimu kutambua kuwa miongoni mwa abagusii wanawake wanajumuisha asilimia kubwa ya uzalishaji mali.kwa hivyo, kuwanyima kazi kupitia adhabu ya uchawi inapunguza kasi ya ukuaji wa uchumi na maendeleo kutokana na utafiti huu inaonekana kwamba, adhabu ya uchawi husababisha pengo la kiuchumi pale ambapo rasilimali na watu ambao wanaendeleza biashara hupotea.inabainika kwamba washutumiwa pamoja na familia zao hutia kikomo katika shughuli zao za biashara jambo ambalo linadunisha maendeleo ya uchumi katika jamii. aidha, kutokana na utafiti ilibainika kuwa,adhabu ya uchawi inarudisha nyuma na kuathiri vibaya tija ya kiuchumi.hii ni kwa sababu katika mazingira mengi ya kifamilia na maisha ya kijamii, wanawake wazee huchukua jukumu la kuwalea wajukuu wao jambo ambalo linaruhusu kizazi kipya kujihusisha na shughuli za kiuchumi ambazo zinawezesha uzalishaji na mapato ya familia(eboiyehi 2017).hata hivyo, kwa tuhuma zilizopo maajuza wanalazimishwa kuondoka kwao nyumbani na pia katika jamii na kuacha pengo kubwa katika tija ya kijamii na kiuchumi.hili lilithibitishwa na mwanamke mmoja katika mahojiano, ‘nilipotuhumiwa kuwa mchawi na kaka wa marehemu mume wangu na baadhi ya wanafamilia yao, ilinibidi kuondoka nyumbani na kumuacha binti yangu mkubwa akimlea na kumtunza mtoto wake peke yake’. utafiti pia umeonyesha kuwa miongoni mwa abagusii, wanawake wana jukumu muhimu katika uzalishaji wa mali.hakika wanawake ndio wanaojishughulisha zaidi kuliko wanaume kwa ajili ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ya kujikimu kimaisha.kwa hivyo, kuwanyima haki ya kujishughulisha za mambo ya kijamii kwa njia ya kuwaadhibu, kunainyang’anya jamii nguzo yake ya uzalishaji wa kiuchumi.kwa hivyo miongoni mwa abagusii, kuondolewa kwa wanawake katika jamii kwa madai ya uchawi husababisha hasara kubwa. utafiti huu pia umeonyesha kwamba umiliki wa mali miongoni mwa abagusii unahusishwa na wanaume mbali si wanawake.kwa hivyo, ikiwa mwanamke atajihusisha na uzalishaji wa mali yoyote hawezi kudai umiliki.hivyo, wanawake wanaozalisha mali kisha kudai umiliki wanadharauliwa na jamii.wanaonekana kuwa sio wa kawaida kisha kuitwa wachawi.hivyo basi,wanawake wengi wa abagusii huondoka kwa hofu ya kuadhibiwa.kimsingi, jambo hili linaua ile hamu ya kuzalisha mali miongoni mwa wanawake wa jamii ya abagusii.kwa upande wa jinsia inabainika kuwa wanawake ni wazalishaji mali na basi adhabu ya uchawi inapunguza kasi ya ukuaji wa uchumi na maendeleo kwa ujumla marejeleo acton, h. b. ed., 1961. the philosophy of punishment. london: macmillan. adegbola, a.a.e.ed.., 1983. traditional religion in west africa. ibadan: daystar press. akama, s. et. at (2006).ethnography of the gusii of western kenya.the edwin millen press.new york. akawa and kadayi (2006). alan macfarlane, witchcraft in tudor and stuart england, psychology press, 1999. ashforth, adam (2000). madumo, a man bewitched. university of chicago press. awolalu et.al. 1979. yoruba beliefs and sacrificial rites. london: longman. bahemuka, j (1982). our religious heritage.nairobi. thomas nelson and sons ltd. bogonko, s (1977). christian missionary education and its impact on the abagusii of western kenya 1909-1963 nairobi kenya crawford, j. r. 1967. witchcraft and sorcery in rhodesia.london: oxforduniversity press. beauchamp, t. 1982. philosophical ethics: an introduction to moral philosophy. new york: mc craw-hill publishing co. behringer, w.2004. witches and witch-hunts.a global history. malden massachusetts: polity press. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 bever, e (2002). “witchcraft, female aggression and power in the early modern community’’. in journal of social history. brooke, e. 1993. women healers through history. london: women’s press ltd. bryman, a. (2001).social research methods.new york: oxford university press. carlo, j.b. 1965. the world of witches.glendinning: the university of chicago press. crawford, j. r. 1967. witchcraft and sorcery in rhodesia.london: oxforduniversity press. cole, d.h. 1955. on the origin of equality. chicago: the great books foundations. daniel a. offiong. witchcraft, sorcery, magic, social order among the ibibio of nigeria. evans-prichard, e.e. 1937. witchcraft, oracles and magic among the azande. oxford: oxford favret-saada, jeannne (december 1980). deadly words: witchraftin the bocage. cambridge university press. federici, s. (2004). caliban and the witch. autonomedia. federici, s. (2018). witches, witch-hunting, and women. pm press. frankena, k.w. 1989. ethics. new delhi: prentice hall of india private ltd. gaskil, m. 1998. “the devil in the shape of a man: witchcraft, conflict and belief in jacobean england’’.in historical research. gehman, j.r. 1989. african traditional religion in biblical perspective. nairobi: kesho publications. gibblin, j. 2002. “the criminalization of witchcraft and the politics of chieftainship: a history of unyambuda in uwanji, southern tanzania’’. in crime in eastafrica: past and present perspectives. naivasha: the british institute of eastern africa. hayes s (1995). christians response to witchcraft and society in missionalia, vol.23(3 november. holmes, r (1974) witchcraft in british history.london. fredrick miller ltd. hutton, ronald (1999) the triumph of the moon: a history of modern pagan witchcraft, oxford, oup. julia, a. 1976. plato’s republic and feminism. new york: viking. keeling, m. 1970. morals in a free society. london: scm press ltd. kirby, j. (1994). „cultural change and religious conversion in west africa‟, in t.d. blakely et al, eds,.religion in africa.experience and expression,london, james currey. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 kothari, r. c. (2004). research methodology: methods and techniques, new delhi: new age international (p) limited publishers. kothari, r. c (2008). research methodology: methods and techniques, new delh: new age international publishing ltd. levack, brian p.ed.(2013) the oxford handbook of witchcraft in early modern europe and colonial america. mayer, u. p. (1954) witches grahamstown: rhodes univ.,inaugural lecture. magesa, laurenti, 1997; african religion: the moral traditions of abundant life; pauline publications africa, nairobi. marwick, m.g. 1982. witchcraft and sorcery.harmondsworth: penguin books. murimi j.n (2010) uchanganuzi wa maoni andishi ya walimu wa kiswahili kwenye insha za wanafunzi katika shule za upili wilayani transzoia magharibi.(tasnifu ya uzamili) haijachapishwa. ndeti k. (1972). the element of akamba life.nairobi east africa printing house nthamburi, z. (1991). from mission to church – a handbook of christianity in east africa.uzima pressnairobi. njogu, k. na chimera, r. (1999). ufundishaji wa fasihi: nadharia na mbinu. nairobi: jomo kenyatta foundation. offiong, d.a. 1991. witchcraft, sorcery, magic and social order among the ibibio of nigeria.enugu, nigeria: dimension publishing co. parrinder g. (1963) witchcraft: european and african. london: feber and faber. parrinder, g. 1963. witchcraft: european and african. london: faber and faber. ranger, t. (1978) „protestant missions in africa: the dialectic of conversion in the amec in eastern zimbabwe, 1900-1950‟, in religion in africa. ranger, t. (1980).„introduction‟.themes in the christian history of central africa. temples p. (1959) borton philosophy paris: presence african. tinga, k.k., (1998). cultural practice of the mijikenda at cross roads: divination, healing witchcraft and the statutory law. aap. thomson, j.j. 1994. “goodness and utilitarianism”. proceedings and addresses of the american philosophical association,67 (4):7-21 tuki, (2004), kamusi ya kiswahili sanifu: oxford university press. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 tuki, (2013), kamusi ya kiswahili sanifu (toleo la 3) nairobi: oxford university press. wamitila, k. (2008). kazi ya fasihi: misingi ya uchanganuzi wa fasihi. nairobi: vide~muwa publishers. wagner, g. 1970. the bantu of western kenya. london: oxford university press. walker, r. 1978 kant: the argument of philosophers. london: routledge and kegan paul. wanyeki, l. muthoni ed. (2003). women and land in africa: culture, religion and realizing womenn’s rights.london:zed books, 2003. winker, g. and degele, n. (2011). intersectionality as multi-level analysis: dealing with social inequality, european journal of women’s studies 18(1):51-66 women international league for peace and freedom (2017). outcome of cedaw review of nigeria-more action needed to implement the wps agebda wilpf. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | http://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 abstract 1.0 utangulizi utekelezaji wa adhabu kwa wachawi maajuza katika jamii ya abagusii i) uingizaji wa vifaa vyenye ncha kali katika sehemu za siri za watuhumiwa i) wachawi kuchomwa ii) wachawi kufukuzwa kutoka koo zao i) athari za kijamii zinazotokana na adhabu ya uchawi kwa jnsia ya kike ii) athari za kiuchumi zinazotokana na adhabu ya uchawi marejeleo i. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence a comparative investigation of family abstract:family acceptance plays a crucial role in shaping the self-esteem of lgbtq+ individuals. however, despite growing awareness of the challenges faced by lgbtq+ individuals, there is a notable lack of studies investigating the comparative impact of family acceptanceon their self-esteem. this study comparatively investigated the family acceptance of the 300 college and secondary highschool students who are part of the lgbtq+ community. the data collected through purposive sampling method using traditional survey questionnaire and google form. the result revealed that there is a significance differences between level of selfesteem on lgbtq+ students who are accepted and not accepted by their family. the study affirmed that both accepted (m= 1.97; sd= 0.44) and not accepted (m=1.73; sd= 0.43) had a result of low self-esteem. however, despite that both have low self-esteem, using the mann whitney u test, there is still a significant difference between their level of self-esteem (u= 0.89, z-score= 3.34, p= .000). in conclusion this study provides valuable insights of the importance of family acceptance and other factors that affects the self-esteem of lgbtq+ individuals. this study underscores the critical role of family acceptance and societal attitudes to promote the wellestablished self-esteem of lgbtq+ individuals as well as their overall well-being. the importance of this of this study willsupport future researchers in exploring further areas related to lgbtq+ issues including self-esteem and other wider societal adverse effects keywords: college students, secondary high school students, family acceptance, lgbtq+, self-esteem i. introduction members of the lgbtq+ community are constantly criticized, yet they are fighting for acceptance and equal rights. discrimination against lgbtq+ population is widespread, making it a serve issue (malviya, 2019). some teenagers who identify as lgbtq are more likely to suffer from sadness, hopelessness, thoughts of killing themselves, criminal conduct, academic failure, a lack of relationship and protection, and lack of determination to complete their education thantheirheterosexualpeers. according to chan et al., (2022) when there where variations depending on gender and sexual orientation, lgbtq youth experienced more abuse. family acceptance is among the best indicators of lgbtq+ young people’s wellness, mental health, and overall well-being. in addition, it takes time to become accepted, and the process of becoming so is often challenging and depends on parents having the support they require to deal with the stress of knowing that their child identifies as gay or lesbian (ghosh, 2020). according to alibudbud (2024), there is also proof of violence and discrimination towards filipinos which identify as queer, bisexual, or transgender. according to a 2018 human rights campaign survey, 70% of lgtqia+ young people reported feeling hopeless or useless in the previous week, even though 91% of them take pride in their identification. furthermore, 67% of participants said they had heard family members make antilgbtqia+ criticism reasons that lead to low self-esteem among lgbtqia+ youth (bhardan, 2021). negative reaction frequently leads to emotional distress parent-child disputes, and negative psychological outcomes like substance abuse, depression, and, in the worst situations, a higher risk of suicidal thoughts with low selfesteem. a study by tripathiet et al., (2022), looks at the difficulties and mental health problems lgbtq youth encounter as well as the importance of parental acceptance following coming out. moreover, bullying and rejection from family were linked to lower lgbtq identitypride, which in turn was linked to higher levels of depression and low self-esteem, according to the findings (chang et al., 2021) goal number five of the sdg is very helpful for human rights defenders and supporters because it has the most connections with lgbtq+ rights. it has been shown that violence against persons because of their perceived or actual sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, or sexual characteristics is common throughout acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence jezca desales1, jenne bee magalso1, angel kesiah sarcena1, niña chreisha espiritu1, marcc andrew mahusay1, jay louie masan1, marian joy batiancila1* 1department of arts and sciences, university of mindanao digos college, digos, davao del sur, philippines *correspondence: jezca desales1 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 mailto:jezcadesales4@gmail.com ii. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence the world. hence, we can take advantage of this chance to promote the inclusion and rights of lgbtq+ when states develop program or policies with the goal of fulfilling sdg #5 in order to guarantee that no one is left behind. a. research questions determining out whether lgbtq+ students’ selfesteem affects between those who are accepted by their families and those who are not is the primary objective of this study, following question among college and senior high school students: 1. what is the measured level of self-esteem among lgbtq+ young people who have family acceptance? 2. what is the measured level of self-esteem among lgbtq+ students whose families did not accept them? 3. does the level of self-esteem of lgbtq+ students who have family acceptance differ significantly from among those who do not? b. hypotheses the following hypothesis are formulated based on the statement of problem. h0: the confidence level of lgbtq+ students who had their family accept them and those who did not does not differ significantly h1: students who felt accepted by their families and those who were not have significantly different levels of selfesteem. c. conceptual framework figure 1. schematic diagram of the conceptual framework this study revolves around two variables level of selfesteem, which is the dependent variable and accepted and not accepted is the independent variable. ii. methods this section shows the methods that are used in this study in gathering data and analysis that are relevant to the research. the methodology area presents the research design, research respondents, research sampling, data collection, research instrument, statistical treatment, and ethical consideration a. research respondents this study involved 300 participants currently enrolled at the university of mindanao digos college and digos central adventist academy inc., all of whom are members of the lgbtq+ community. the participants were purposively selected based on their relevance to the research topic to provide valuable insights through the research questionnaire. the gender distribution among the respondents revealed that the majority identified as bisexual (f=151, 50%), followed by those identifying as gay (f=50, 17%), others (including pansexual, polysexual, androsexual, etc.) (f=49, 14%), lesbian (f=30, 10%), and transgender (f=13, 7%). most participants were senior high school students (91 respondents, 34%), followed by 1st-year students (73 respondents, 25%), 2nd-year students (55 respondents, 19%), and 4th-year students (20 respondents, 6%). the total number of respondents was 300, ensuring comprehensive representation of the lgbtq+ community. b. research sampling the researchers used purposive sampling to ensure that the participants are lesbian, gay, transgender, queer, and others (pan-sexual, adro-sexual, agender etc.) and the participants enrolled from university of mindanaodigos college and digos central adventist academy inc. are part of this lgbtq+ community. this diverse population of students are well-suited to investigate then significant difference between accepted and not accepted to the students’ level of self-esteem. according to andrade (2020) purposive sampling method has the characteristics that are defined for a specific purpose that is relevant to the study. the findings of a study that used convenience and purposive sampling can only be applied to the subpopulation from which the sample is taken from, not to the population as a whole. each sampling methods clearly identifies each study’s reliability for data collecting and analysis (campbell et al., 2020). c. data collection the researchers identified one questionnaire and gathered relevant literature of the study. it is structured into 2 dimensions: first dimensions consist of one question that can be answered yes or no about family acceptance; second dimension is related to overall feelings of self-esteem acceptance through rosenberg’s self-esteem scale with 10 items, to identify their level of self-esteem. by using the traditional data gathering questionnaire and google form, accepted not accepted self-esteem ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ii. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence the questionnaire was administered to the 300 chosen lgbtq+ students from the two school which in umdc and dcaa. d. research instrument the researchers collected data to accomplish the research objectives through survey questionnaires. the researchers used rosenberg self-esteem scale (rses) as an instrument to measure self-esteem. according to morris rosenberg (1975), the purpose of the rse scale is to measure self-esteem. originally the scale was specialized to measure the self-esteem of the college and senior high school students. however, since its development, the scale has been utilized with a wide range of population including adults, with norms available for many of those groups. the questionnaire consists of a 10-item likert scale. using a 5point likert scale, items 3,5,8,9, and 10 that ranges from 3= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 1= agree, 0= strongly agree. for items 1,2,4,6, and 7 that ranges from 3= strongly agree, 2= agree, 1= disagree, 0= strongly disagree. subsequently, the researcher conducted a reliability and validity test on rosenberg’s self-esteem scale, conducted at the university of mindanao digos college, specifically among the 50 lgbtq+ students from the bachelor of science in psychology using the traditional survey questionnaires. after collecting the data, the researchers utilized the “ibm spss statistics 25” application to assess the questionnaires’ reliability. the researcher also used pearson correlation coefficient to assess the validity of the questionnaires. the researchers found an overall value of alpha= 0.802, indicating a good reliability. this is supported by a study conducted by monuth (2022), where the cronbach’s alpha value was 0.91 in self-esteem, social contentedness and equality of life among the lgbtq+ community in south india. using the rosenberg’s self-esteem scale during their pilot testing, the researchers found out the an overall result on their validity which indicates an overall valid remark, this is supported by an article that published by gupta (2024), that states that the rosenberg’s self-esteem scale has a construct validity, which means it only measures what it is intended to measure and nothing more, dr. daramus (2024) added, that rosenberg’s self-esteem scale also has a concurrent validity, which means that your scores will be consistent with the scores of another valid self-esteem scale if you compare it. e. statistical treatment the researchers used kolmogorov-smirnov test to determine whether the data was normally distributed and whether the null hypotheses would be rejected. the test result (d= 0.064, p-value= 0.05) did noy show if the continuous variables have a normal distribution by assumption. the data were evaluated using ibm spss 25.0 and significance level was considered as p<0.05. yidirim (2022). to investigate the family acceptance on lgbtq+ level confidence, the researcher utilized the mann whitney u test. according to foster (2024), the mann whitney u test was used to determine the differences between primary groups. table 1: range of means and interpretation range of means score meaning qualitative description 1.00 – 1.80 very low the students have very low self-esteem 1.81 – 2.60 low the students have low self-esteem 2.61 – 3.20 moderate the students have moderate self-esteem 3.21 – 4.20 high the students have high self-esteem 4.21 – 5.00 very high the students have very high self-esteem f. ethical considerations for ethical research consideration, before the study will be conducted the researcher firstly ask the respondents about their gender identity and will receive briefing and key information about the purposed of the study. the researchers ensure that the information will be kept confidential and will not force them to answer the questionnaire. the benefits of survey participation could include feeling good about helping to increase understanding to the lgbtq+ people. to acknowledge the participation of the respondents, the researchers provide a token as a give thanks to their participation. iii. results and discussions this chapter presents the results and discussions of the study. it deals with the difference, between lgbtq+ students who are accepted and not accepted by their family. it also provides the analysis and interpretation of the data that has been gathered according to the research question enumerated. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ii. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence table 2: level of self-esteem onaccepted and not accepted self-esteem m sd interpretation accepted 1.97 0.44 low not accepted 1.71 0.43 very low the table 2 shows that students who are accepted by their family have a higher self-esteem score (m= 1.97) than those who are not accepted by their family. however, the data revealed that even the lgbtq+ students are accepted by their families, they still have low self-esteem. a study by nguyen et al., (2019) discovered that students’ poor self-esteem had a substantial impact to their quality of life. nguyen et al., (2019) also found that poor self-esteem was associated with anxiety, sadness, academic stress, and suicidal ideation. the researchers concluded that there may be other variables contributing to these lgbtq+ students’ poor self-esteem. according to taylor et al., (2019), their study adds significant knowledge to the literature regarding lgbtqia+ people are victims of violent hates crimes every year, including rape, burglary, severe beatings, emotional abuse and more (bardhan, 2020). being a victim or at danger of becoming one can led to low self-esteem and poor mental health and wellness. those who experience prejudice may suffer from stress, anxiety, sadness, suicidal thoughts, and social motivation, among other detrimental effects on their psychological health (chaw, 2023). low self-esteem and insecurity can also result from living in a condition of perpetual anxiety and upset. according to ridings (2020), lgbtq+ youth have not only experience discrimination based on their sexual identity and gender orientation but also face prejudice on the identities, which include national origin, race, ethnicity, religion, color and disability status. religion can also be one factors of why they have low self-esteem according to brandon (2020) previous literature addresses the ways that religion has attempted to understand the stigma surrounding lgbtq+ individuals. many faith-based universities that sexual and gender monitory (sgm) identities (e.g. lgbtq+) are sinful (i.e. morally wrong) and substandard to heterosexual and cisgender identities (kay, 2022). and in the school setting according to russel (2021) students may experience dangerous school situations, such as bullying and discrimination that roots from their sexual identity and gender orientation. unfavorable school environments and discriminatory interactions may jeopardize the well-being of the lgbtq+ teenagers. and according to bridge et al., (2022), young individuals who were a member of the lgbtq+ community are prone to face mental health problems than their heterosexual classmates. on average, they have lower self-esteem, which may contribute to the development have a complex viewpoint on self-esteem, underscoring the need for mor research for lgbtq+ and the affecting variable which is self-esteem. on the other hand, lgbtq+ students who are not accepted by their family scores (m= 1.73) a very low selfesteem. according to wilson (2024), people who lack confidence and have low self-esteem may have an imbalanced perception of themselves and question their skills or abilities. social interaction, building careers, and academic pursuits can all be affected by having low selfesteem and lack of confidence. in the absence of remedies, it might also negatively impact their physical and emotional well-being. according to grant (2018), people who identify as lgbtq+ are known to be especially vulnerable to poor self-esteem. and parental support was a key protective factor for lgbtq+ people since it allowed them to build their own identities, peer and romantic relationships, and views without relying in their parents. positive parental attitudes toward their children may assist young people avoid acquiring mental health problems (enverga university, 2023) and such as having low selfesteem. findings from a study by meanly et al., (2021), family support is positively connected with self-esteem, while family rejection is negatively associated with it. family rejection was statistically a significant moderator that reduces the relationship between familial bond and self-esteem. according to research, lgbtq+ young people who have positive relationship with their parents come out sooner and have more positive sexual identities than lgbtq+ children who have negative relationship with their parents (mills-koonce et al., (2023). in addition, according to amory et., (2022) lgbtq+ individuals who reported higher level of family acceptance are less likely to commit suicide, experience symptoms of depression, and to contract hiv. family rejections can take many forms, including complete removal of the child from the house and family and physical or psychological abuse, one should not undervalue the detrimental effects of rejection from family members (grubss, 2023). according to ryan et al., (2009), lgbtq+ young adults who are reported to experienced higher levels of family rejections during their teenage years were 5.9 times more likely to report higher level of depressive symptoms, 3.4 times more likely to use illegal drugs, and 8.4 times more likely to have engaged in unsafe sex than their peers from families that reported no or low level of family rejections. young lgbtq+ identity can have a huge impact on how their peers and family react to them, and it can directly lead to self-harming thoughts and experiences (williams, 2023) and such as low self-esteem. the result shot the family rejection has a greater impact ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ii. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence towards lgbtq+ self-esteem indicating that there are risks that can affect not just their self-esteem but as well as their mental health well-being. according to study by huand (2021), there is a higher likelihood of depression among lgbtq+ people. among lgbtq+ people, social pressure and family acceptance may be risk factors for depression. these existing factors can help future researchers on the other existing variables affecting the low self-esteem of lgbtq+ individuals. table 3: mann whitney u test null hypothesis u z-score sig. decision the distribution of selfesteem is the same across categories of family acceptance (1yes, 2 no) 0.89 -3.48 .000 reject the null hypothesis significance level is .05 a mann-whitney u test was utilized to compare scores of self-esteems between lgbtq+ students who are accepted and not accepted by their family. the result indicated (u= 0.89, z-scores= -3.34, p= .000). despite both of them has a low self-esteem, still lgbtq+ students who are accepted by their family has a higher scores of selfesteem than those who are not accepted by their family, indicating a (p= .000) result that suggests to reject the null hypothesis, meaning, there us still a significance difference between the level of self-esteem of the lgbtq+ students who are accepted and who are not accepted by their family. this statement was supportive by price (2019) which he stated that individual parental rejection who are facing mental health issues (lower self-esteem), whereas individuals who were supported by their parents report higher self-esteem and improved well-being. mccurdy et al., (2023) also added that young people who live in a household who receives negative reactions from their family had higher depressive symptoms and lower selfesteem compared to those youth who receives moderately positive or very positive reactions. a study by gattamorta et al. (2022) shows that the more individuals experience parental rejection based on their sexual identity the more they most likely to have a moderate to severe psychological distress, with social isolation and lgbtq+ identity concealment as the two significant predictors in the model. the results show whether they are accepted and not accepted the participants exhibit a lower level of selfesteem. however, both of them still have a significant difference which can help future researcher to dig deeper of what affects the self-esteem of the lgbtq+ aside from family acceptance. iv. conclusion and recommendation based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: the results for lgbtq+ who are accepted by their family indicates a total mean and a standard deviation of (m= 1.97; sd= 0.44) which indicates a low self-esteem for lgbtq+ who are accepted by their family. on the other hand, the result of lgbtq+ who are not accepted by their family indicates a total mean of and standard deviation of (m=1.73; sd= 0.43) which indicates a very low selfesteem. lastly, the result from the mann whitney u test (u= 8979.00, z-scores= -3.34, p= .000). the mann whitney u test suggests rejecting the null hypothesis with a (p= .000) indicates that there is a significant difference between the two groups, family accepted and not accepted. based on the findings of this study, the researchers indicated that establishing self-esteem should begin at home, as family plays an important role in developing an lgbtq+ individual’s self-worth and self-esteem. by offering supportive and caring relationships, an individual can create a strong foundation of self-esteem. as parent’s acceptance a positive outcome on the lgbtq+ selfesteem, the researchers also recommended that parents should give a widely understanding and acceptance to their children that are part of the lgbtq+ community as they are prone to have a low self-esteem and struggles with mental health well-being, the support from the family already had a significant impact on each lgbtq+ people’s lives as they face discrimination outside the family. and, because every lgbtq+ person faces discrimination outside their family, the researchers recommended that people should learn about what it means to be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer and other, in order to better comprehend their experiences. to end this prejudice and victimization, and to encourage people to engage in open discourse in order to minimize stigma and develop empathy, understanding, respect, and acceptance, all of which contribute to high levels of positive self-esteem. by ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ii. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jezca desales1, * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || a comparative investigation of family acceptance on lgbtq+ level of confidence implementing these principles, society can create an environment in which lgbtq+ people feel valued, respected, and empowered to live. finally, the researchers suggested that future researchers should investigate more areas connected to lgbtq+ concerns, self-esteem, and broader societal implications. these recommendations can assist future studies and get vital insights to promote and improve the lives of lgbtq+ people by encouraging social acceptance, mental well-being and long-term empowerment. references 1) a. gattamorta, k., salerno, j. p., & roman laporte, r. (2022). family rejection during covid-19: effects on sexual and gender minority stress and mental health among lgbtq university students. lgbtq+ family: an interdisciplinary journal, 18(4), 305-318. 2) andrade c. (2021). the inconvenient truth about convenience and purposive samples. indian journal of psychological medicine. 43(1):86-88. 3) bejakovich, t., & flett, r. (2018). “are you sure?”: relations between sexual identity, certainty, disclosure, and psychological well-being. journal of gay & lesbian mental health, 00-00. 4) bridge, j., et al. (2022). disparities in mental health outcomes among lgbtq+ individuals. journal of public health, 40(5), 56–73. 5) burnette cb, kwitowski ma, trujillo ma, perrin pb. (2019). body appreciation in lesbian, bisexual, and queer women: examining a model of social support, resilience, and self-esteem. health equity. 3(1):238245. doi: 10.1089/heq.2019.0003. pmid: 31289784; pmcid: pmc6608692. 6) camp, j., vitoratou, s., & rimes, k. a. 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(2020). relationships between transgender congruence, gender identity rumination, and self esteem in transgender and gender nonconforming individuals. psychology of sexual orientation and gender diversity, 7(2), 230– 235. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000357 44) what leads to low self-esteem in lgbtqia+ youth? (2020). https://mpowerminds.com/blog/low-selfesteem-in-lgbtqia# 45) wongpakaran t, wongpakaran n. (2012). a comparison of reliability and construct validity between the original and revised versions of the rosenberg self-esteem scale. psychiatry investig. (1):54-8. doi: 10.4306/pi.2012.9.1.54. epub 2012 jan 25. erratum in: psychiatry investig. 2012 jun;9(2):197. tinakon, wongpakaran [corrected to wongpakaran, tinakon]; nahathai, wongpakaran [corrected to wongpakaran, nahathai]. pmid: 22396685; pmcid: pmc3285741. 46) world health organization. maternal, newborn, child and adolescent health: adolescent development. retrieved 29/07, 2019, from https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/topics /adolescence/development/en/. 47) yean c, benau em, dakanalis a, hormes jm, perone j, timko ca. (2013). the relationship of sex and sexual orientation to self-esteem, body shape satisfaction, and eating disorder symptomatology. front psychol. 4:887. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00887. pmid: 24348441; pmcid: pmc3841718. 48) yildirim, a. (2022). investigation of the effect of 8week life kinetic training on self-confidence, attention and psychological skill levels in sedentary men students. education quarterly reviews, 5(3), 152-158. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 references ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success 1ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka, 2mrs chinyere isaac agilebu 1&2department of management, faculty of management sciences, university of port harcourt, rivers state, nigeria. abstract it is important here to mention the concept of such research which is mainly based on the development, composition, results, barriers, recommendations, and the newest tendencies related to the evolution of mis. the paper draws from three main sources: six historically approved theories, key contributors to the history of education, and successful case studies of implementation. the study systematically examines business optimization at different levels, including key statistics and decision-making processes. this section discusses the latest technology trends, focusing on system compatibility, integration, and data security from a technological perspective. by leveraging mis core values and technological advancements, companies can use mis as a powerful tool to drive sustainable growth, foster innovation, and achieve significant strategic success even in challenging business environments. key words: management information system (mis), data-driven business, data utilisation, business analytics, and cybersecurity. introduction the efficiency and accuracy of processes are crucial for an enterprise, and similarly, mis plays a vital role in implementing technologies like data collection, processing, and analysis for strategic decision-making and operational improvement. without mis in place, the absence of effective communication and utilization of gathered information can lead to challenges (obrien, 1999). the organisation will most likely lack competitiveness in the current dynamic environment and data-driven business era. through mis utilization, organizations can enhance their effectiveness by improving efficiency and innovation, leading to long-term positive outcomes (rêgo et al., 2021). moreover, mis is a tool that can enable companies to spot market trends, check what competitors do, and forecast what might be in demand in the future (tsiakis, 2015). this creates an opportunity for businesses to avoid unemployment risks and gain a competitive advantage, positioning them favorably in the competition (bilan & apostoaie, 2023). ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success the development of mis systems is becoming increasingly sophisticated and complex due to modern technological advancements. these advancements help organisations get the desired information and make decisions fast and accurately with the aid of real-time data. to sum up, an organisation can only grow, transform, and survive in a dynamic business environment through the creation of mis and its integration (marnewick, 2016). historical development of management information system the evolution of management information systems starts with the first introduction of machines in the workplace and moves on to the newest developments that are taking place in management information systems and the latest inventions in management information systems and their impacts on modern businesses (bocij, greasley & hickie, 2008). moreover, the history of mis began in the days of computing, when firms began to use computers for the processing of data and storing information. technological evolution brought about the development of mis software, adapting to enhance features and improve the capabilities of the systems to suit changing organisational requirements (gorry & morton, 1989; oz, 1999). currently, mis helps enterprises utilise data and identify processes that are becoming impediments to progress, increasing efficiency in the long run. the value of comprehending the evolution of mis lies in knowing how mis can be put into a better plan and lead to the success of business in this current cutthroat business environment (kroenke et al., 2013). one major thing that stands out in business success is the fact that businesses need to strive to be adaptable and innovative to keep up with the changing pace of technology so as to take advantage of mis capabilities, which serve as a basis for making decisions to spur growth (berkhout et al., 2011). by performing these kinds of functions as data collection, organisation, and analysis, mis offers businesses the opportunity to see the tendencies that are there, chances that are going to appear, and challenges that are ready to be solved in an immediate manner. primarily, on the realisation that mis has evolved, an organisation would be able to remain relevant, be competitive, and save itself from the disaster of becoming obsolete in the digital era if it accepted the transformation of mis (laudon & laudon, 2017; o'brien & marakas, 2006). ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success evolution of management information system over time, businesses have adapted management information systems (mis) to keep pace with the rapidly changing technological environment. witnessing the emergence of mis from simple data processing systems to advanced tools of analytics, this has radically altered facts about businesses and decision-making in organizations (raymond & bergeron, 2008). as big data and artificial intelligence take centre stage, mis also advances and goes on leading the approach of how companies take technology advantage as a way to move ahead of their competitors. with the ongoing trend of data-oriented insights for key business decision-making, the contribution of mis will gain importance to both managerial status and innovations driving success (kraus et al., 2021). with a growing question in the modern digital world, the need for professionals with management information systems (mis) talents will inevitably increase. firms trying to make their way to the top of the industry will definitely place a high priority on those candidates who are skilled in the use of the very latest technologies and trends in mis (bourgeois et al., 2019). with the right support and guidance, organisations, emphasising datadriven decision-making, can use mis for their daily activities to automate processes and consequently lead to efficiency and profitability in the dynamic and competitive business sphere (bosker et al., 2007). mis has advanced significantly since the 1950s thanks to the advent of computers, relational databases, and cloud computing. there will be more ai-powered and automated data analysis modules in mis in the future, which will increase employment opportunities (somogiy & galliers, 1987). for operational efficiency, businesses need qualified personnel to integrate technology, and embracing the newest advancements may provide them a competitive advantage. there will be an increase in the need for mis specialists, making education and training programmes essential for sustained success (silvius et al., 2009; rodriguez & walters, 2017; dyrbye et al., 2020). key contributors of management information system key contributors and their inputs will be significant determinants of the next century's most beneficial technologies for business. key facts from the work of elon musk, jeff bezos, and mark zuckerberg have already greatly contributed to the development of the field (park & wallace, 2020). therefore, i have no doubts that their contributions will play a critical role in future business technology growth. indeed, ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success succeeding in their innovations in various fields, like space missions, e-commerce, and social media, has displayed the future of mis, where it will occupy the place of leading developments in today's technologies. the use of data-driven decision-making will increase demand for skilled workers who have encountered mis. the call for a technology-fueled workforce necessitates adequate investment in trained personnel, along with the acceptance of new technological developments to remain relevant in the digital age (awan et al., 2021: diván, 2017). upon their implementation, it is maintaining to be on the edge of technological changes that is equated with getting an edge ahead of their competitors and, hence, staying ahead of the competition. this will mandate that efforts be made for regular and consistent training and development of workers, as well as having a receptive and accepting culture that accepts new technologies and methodologies. in the end, the businesses with the ability to efficiently use mis in order to further their development and achieve higher efficiency will be the top players on the increasingly dynamic business stage (jackson & carruthers, 2019). components of management information system the components of mis are the hardware, software, data resources, the regulatory and technical instructions and regulations, and the people. each component provides essential needs to collect, process, store, and distribute information within the organization. hardware is the main physical part of a computer, which provides a set of interface, data transmission, operation, input, and storage devices (nascimento et al., 2018). the software, on the other hand, includes the programmes and applications that aid in managing and analysing information. data sources are the raw material of a system that is processed into information, and rules are in place for continuous processing and security (bourgeois et al., 2019). along with that, the members of the organisation who utilise mis must do so in a manner that is effective in assisting them to arrive at informed decisions, thus ensuring organisational productivity and success. these are the main components of the overall system of information that support the knowledge process and sustain information flow within the organization (ahmad & al-shbiel, 2019). data handling and storage are enabled through the installation and operation of a combination of good hardware and software. the data assets that are gathered would then define scope for analysis, decisions, and insights (raptis et al., 2019). procedures and protocols help the majority of information be exactly and clean, while people are one of the most important actors in mis, using them to push the ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success organisation towards strategic initiatives and business success (zhang et al., 2015). in the final analysis, a mis with a good working platform is critically important for companies to stand out in the market and make adjustments in times of need to react quickly to a constantly changing business environment (street & meister, 2004). data collection and processing data collection and processing are clearly mis's duties. with the recognition of different sources without which the collection of data is not possible, the mis processes and computes information and transforms it into meaningful data used for decision-making (mithas, ramasubbu & sambamurthy, 2011). this type of data could draw attention, follow the rhythm, and provide strategic decision-makers with information. furthermore, mis allows for the precise organization and storage of data, making it easier to access and locate. in addition, the part of mis is to check the information precision and stability by means of verification and occurrence identification that leads to data precision and reliability (garg & pahuja, 2020). this, in turn, helps ensure that proper data is applied to the process of decision-making. for instance, a retail company can utilise mis to monitor sales trends of items in various categories and stores so that ineffective stocks can be removed at a moment and the remaining items in high demand can be given priority, thus optimising the operation (carillo et al., 2019; awan et al., 2021). this mis can be used to validate sales information, and all data provided through the sales process is accurate and reliable. this data in turn enables the company to have reliable information on their pricing, promotions, and product selection (benbya et al., 2019). storage and retrieval of data mis is accountable for storing and pulling this data, which is vital for sales modelling and trend analysis. it further allows companies to effectively execute and plan future projects as well as analyse past projects (asemi, 2011). in other words, mis can be the glue that makes departments not so distant from each other function according to the same script by having a unified forum for information distribution and the exposure of new insights (tripathi, 2011). via mis, organisations can use their operations and gain more over their competitors as the markets get quickly outdated. nowadays, managers have easy access to real-time data as well as tools via which they can promptly search for weakness points in the ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success organisation’s functioning and use opportunity to identify areas that need improvement to achieve the desired outcome (laudon & laudon, 2017). in the modern digital era, it is very important to have an mis system that is apt for the purpose of survival and able to meet the demands of clients. to illustrate, let's say a retailing company sets up a mis system and gathers sales data in real-time for the purpose of knowing which products are in-demand and what trends are here and now, so that it can adjust its stock levels in accordance with these important data and increase its profits (hasan et al., 2013). furthermore, by conducting an in-depth investigation of the customer data stemming from the mis system, the company can customise marketing campaigns dedicated to particular segments of the audience, which results in enhanced customer relationships and loyalty (guerola-navarro et al., 2021). information dissemination through management information system information distribution via the mis system is another crucial element of this change. employees can develop better judgement, and consequently, department efficiency increases, which is a great step for any company. thus, having a smart and integrated mis system that has been really designed to give an organisation an uncanny appearance that is friendly to the environment with a clear vision of its goals gives the company a clear edge in the market and helps it to adapt to changing situations in the business sector easily (karimi et al., 2001: choi et al., 2010). moreover, this information held by the mis can be used to spot the traction of customers as well as their demand for the products; thus, the business will know and engage the customers at the appropriate time, and the customer, in turn, will get satisfaction (thakur, 2019). hence, the company’s pro-concept strategy can help make it more competitive and improve its revenue base. through the adoption of cutting-edge technology and employing data analytics, companies can be one step ahead of their competitors and join the market leaders (sprongl, 2013). and finally, a presentation of the pros of the of the mis system makes the case more visible, as it allows for a shift in the way goods are handled and business conducted within the current business environment (marnewick, 2016). to highlight this example, a retail firm may employ their mis system to trace sales figures and customers’ choices of items. by doing so, the company can stock preferred and worthwhile products and simultaneously adjust their pricing accordingly. it quickens the process of customer satisfaction and loyalty, as a consequence of which the company is likely to experience a hike in sales and profits (alawamleh et al., 2021). ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success decision support systems integrated into the management information system integrated decision support systems in the mis also provide those priceless insights that can come in handy when it comes to strategic decision-making and making well-informed business choices that will lead to more growth and ultimate success. therefore, a strong mis system search provision can provide an edge in a company’s businesses and guarantee the organisation’s success in a continuously changing business environment (divan, 2017; brynjolfsson & mcelheran, 2016). utilising data and technologies timely and accurately, companies can reduce the complexity of their operations, make their business operations run smoothly and efficiently, and at the end, meet their objectives in an easy way (rejikumar et al., 2020). as technology grows and revitalises itself with new trends, it becomes crucial for enterprises to cope with the development by employing advanced management information systems and techniques. such systems can not only lead to efficient implementation of daily routines, but they can also be a means to find new avenues for growth and new ideas (jonasson, 2000). by incorporating information and technology, businesses can navigate changing market conditions and position themselves as industry leaders. in light of the contemporary competitive business situation that exists, the mention and fact of a fully integrated mis system are essential for businesses to do sustainably and also profitably (mcknight, 2013). performance monitoring and evaluation performance management and monitoring and evaluation were included in the list of key features that mis systems provided businesses with so as to enable them to track their progress and make strategic decisions. this was achieved with real-time data (phiri, 2015). through describing the most critical factors and using comparative values over time, products can track and modify weaknesses and, consequently, adjust operations to improve performance. in addition, the information systems in businesses make it possible for the business processes to be simplified, the costs to be reduced, and the overall efficiency of the business to be enhanced, ultimately leading to increased competitiveness on the market and the long-term success of the business (parmenter, 2015). however, the creation of a stable, scalable mis system will determine not only the long-term success of an organisation but also its growth and steadiness of development in different conditions (mikalsen et al., 2021). in this day and age when ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success technology advancements and data evolve faster and faster, companies must do their best to stay ahead of the competition by using mis systems and being up-to-date with the latest trends. these systems give a complete picture of how well the enterprise performs. with this information, the management can make more informed decisions and strategic plans (demian & walters, 2014; teittinen et al., 2013). by moving with the times and entering the data analytics arena, as well as embracing automation, businesses can remain flexible, cope with market changes straightforwardly, and stay one step ahead of their industry competitors. the current business atmosphere is fast-paced, so investing in an mis is not merely an advantage; it is inevitable, and this is the key to growth and sustainability (soltanifar, hughes & göcke, 2021). for instance, a retail outlet would be in a position to access sales data as they occur and be able to tell whether there are any trends that could help in recognising customer preferences so as to adjust the inventory in accordance with demand arising as a result of those trends. such a strategy will help the company develop its supply chain performance and avoid extra costs, leading to an increase in the overall company’s profitability (gunawan & sulaeman, 2020). management information system in organizational success mis plays a vital role in the achievement of an organisation's success by providing guidance in the realms of strategic decision-making, operational effectiveness, competitive advantage, innovation, adaptability, and measurement and improvement of organisational performance. with respect to business aspects, mis enables enterprises through the timely and accurateness of information used for decision-making (majchrzak & markus, 2012; wu & lederer, 2009). on this account, companies are in a strategic position to cope with the ever-rising competition, to locate the improvement areas, and to perform well on the market, as they do. through measuring and enhancing the performance of mis, businesses are enabled to reach their objectives as well as achieve desired results in the cutthroat world of modern business (madonsela, 2020). mis stands out as being the central element in dealing with industrial processes, especially in light of systematisation and efficiency, as well as the more effective usage of limited resources and ultimately productivity. through the automation of ordinary tasks and the instant precipitation of data, organisations will come up with more prompt and efficient decisions (mapiye et al., 2023). moreover, mis pursues discovering trends and indicating patterns in the data, which subsequently reveals to companies what is going on in the market and the forthcoming changes ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success and brings them to the nerves to do something with their strategies proactively (trucolo & digiampietri, 2017). mis is an essential tool that not only guarantees business stability in the face of a dynamic business environment but also assists enterprises towards success on a long-term basis. note that the mis will give companies an edge over other business operators in the field since it can forecast trends and market variations and respond cogently to the change, thereby enabling organisations to remain relevant (laudon & laudon, 2017). this provides businesses with a strategic edge because they can use timely and precise data as the basis of their decision-making, which is far more advantageous than their competitors, who are late in grasping the developments. in summary, mis has greater advantages than redundancy. among others, mis enhances the efficiency and productivity of organisations, and it empowers organisations to make informed decisions that will transform their growth and success in modern business. such as sales data and inventory signals in real-time can be tracked by a retail company (staples et al., 2002). this will enable them to adjust their stock levels and product pricing accordingly to eradicate instances of overstocking or understocking. this results in a continuous process where clients' needs are always satisfied on a regular basis and profits are maximized. furthermore, mis can also involve the use of customer analysis tools that examine their behaviours and preferences; hence, such information can help in targeting promotions or advertisements by identifying the appropriate demography (jalali et al., 2019: schulte & pibernik, 2017). implementation of management information system in place of mis, the process involves the planning of the mis system, analysis and design, its development, integration, training and support, evaluation, and feedback. planning is the first implementable process that requires determining the goals and allocating resources to achieve them. analysis is understanding the current state of an organisation by gathering data or information to get a better picture of the problem and to find solutions to improve it (sari & priantinah, 2019). it appears to concentrate on the design of a system that meets the requirements of the organisation and its users. development, however, involves building and verifying the system. integration does not inhibit mis from working smoothly with existing systems and processes, and training will prepare the users in due course to efficiently operate the system (castagna & bigelow, 2021). support is a must for the resolution of issues and the running of the system smoothly, while the evaluation and feedback fields help in ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success making it a more advanced system. informing is the final step in the process, where the mis is deployed to all users and turns out to be fully operational. this is done through the provision of the data, the training of the staff, and the field performance monitoring activities that will ensure the system is running smoothly (tilley & rosenblatt, 2017; glover et al., 2017). establishing systematic monitoring and evaluation is therefore critical for detecting any problems or imperfections that may occur in the process of implementation. through ongoing reviews and changes to mis, organisations are empowered to ensure the system constitutes the most reliable instrument for making decisions and managing resources. this cyclical process of improvement should therefore be taken very seriously in this age of rapid technological advances and shifting client preferences, which might render systems that were adopted some time ago a thing of the past (hubert & mulyungi, 2018). organisations can lead the competition, and they may be able to make competent decisions and use accurate and up-to-date data in real-time by using this proactive approach and staying alert. in the end, the mis that is in proper operation can become a worthwhile asset that results in increased efficiency, productivity, and competitiveness in the future (carillo et al., 2019; awan et al., 2021). challenges and limitations of management information system technological, managerial, human, security, privacy, and price issues come with integrating information systems into the organisational structure. the challenge for it is maintaining compatibility with the new software and hardware developments. from an organisational point of view, the integration of management information systems (mis) into current working flows and structures is quite complicated (bayo, 2019). problems may occur because of team uncertainty about making decisions or a lack of adequate training. privacy and security encapsulate protecting the privacy of sensitive data from unlawful access or breach. this is to say that data under such a category shall not be subjected to breaches or hacking. further, the expenses associated with the mis establishment can include the initial investment in the infrastructure and the recurring costs for upkeep and improvements (laurent & giannetsos, 2020). addressing these challenges is a complex mission because it requires a view that considers the interconnectedness of technology, people, processes, and resources. a recommended strategy can be security risk analysis and the roll-out of high-end security solutions, coupled with professional training and support on how to safeguard digital assets (baskerville, 2019). it could as well ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success be the case of the mis infrastructure inspection to guarantee that its condition and efficiency remain satisfactory. by being rational and taking a well-rounded and proactive approach to these challenges, organisations can fully utilise these mis systems to achieve maximum advantages and stay on the lead in a world dominated by digital reforms (alawamleh et al., 2021). integrating and applying innovative methods of the industry and staying abreast of new trends in the space can also ensure that organisations are constantly prepared to deal with dynamic threats and opportunities. through developing a culture where cybersecurity awareness and accountability thrive, organisations will essentially be handing over the responsibility of being the first lines of defence against various cyber breaches to their own employees. moreover, the creation and implementation of specific rules dealing with how data is retrieved and who gets physical access to the data store is an effective way to decrease the risks it presents and meet the set industry standards. finally, it is worth giving requisite attention to the management and maintenance of any good mis, as it remains critical for organisations to take them on a growth path in today's competitive marketplace (mayer et al., 2019). through constant monitoring of recently advanced cybersecurity protection methods and by implementing strong security procedures, organisations can ensure their sensitive data is safeguarded against various threats. ongoing training and working out roughly the latest cybersecurity techniques can additionally underpin the organisation's safety and reduce the danger of vulnerability ( happa et al., 2019). by practicing a mis defences-going strategy, organisations are able to protect their assets on time and, in addition, take advantage of digital changes now and in the future. for instance, a bank should regularly conduct pen testing that serves to identify and fasten the security weak points of the desired system before attackers could take advantage of them. these can include both the use of intelligent systems with real-time threat detection and quick reaction mechanisms to mitigate the harm of any given cyber incidents to their core work and clients. successful mis implementation case studies the mis of the organising body is linked to their achievement of success in those areas; they experienced higher efficiency, reduced cost, and efficient decisions. one case study might be an international big-brand company that revamped all the activities of their supply chain to make it more efficient by implementing a wide range of management information systems. such implementation ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success helped to accelerate lead times, improve inventory management, and thus finally boost customer satisfaction. another successful lesson for healthcare organisations is that they used mis to improve patient care by utilising electronic health records (ehrs) and data analytics tools (chinotaikul& vinayavekhin, 2020). this was the factor that led to better treatment outcomes and raised the patient satisfaction rate to higher levels. these case studies illustrate the potency of mis as a tool for optimising business performance, reaching new levels of efficiency and effectiveness. furthermore, a retail enterprise utilised mis in developing marketing strategies by pinpointing the specific clients corresponding to their data analysis. through the adaptation of the information on the mis, the company was able to customise promotions, communicate enjoyably with customers, and improve the result, which increased sales and customer loyalty. in these examples, the practicality and capability of mis in different industries are shown, which demonstrates the fact that the latter has the power to boost the economic growth of a business and create a competitive advantage (naim, 2021; haislip & richardson, 2017). organisations that achieve what is possible through mis put more emphasis on the use of technology as a tool that gives them a competitive advantage in the market. if the mis system is well-established and effectively used by a company, it can make the whole process smooth, support evidence-based judgement, and enable the participants to achieve their strategic objectives (wheelen, 2011; laudon & laudon, 2017). with technology on the move, the function of mis as a growth and innovation enabler for organisations in the business setting, with its dynamic nature, will also be of greater importance. in a rapidly changing market, one must be either ahead of or in the back with a difference. those companies that don't adapt to and invest in modern mis systems will most likely fall behind their competitors and miss the windows of growth. in the data-driven business environment of today, with constantly increasing speed, the ability to process information 'in the moment'—that i is, collect and analyse the data in real time and act on it immediately is crucial for companies to succeed (henke & jacques bughin, 2016; gourévitch et al., 2017). through the adoption of mis, organisations can implement a strategy to streamline their operations, and this can in turn boost strategic decision-making ability, which leads to overall success in their industry market. however, with the aid of the well-formulated ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success mis, it is obviously a compelling factor behind innovation and competitive edge in the modern business world (alter, 1976; chang, 2006; geraedts et al., 2016; bright & asare, 2019; landoll, 2021). best practices for maximising benefits. along with that, organisations should have enough funds to upgrade their technology and get access to data management systems. moreover, developing a work culture of lifelong learning and professional growth among personnel can also be a key to ensuring a productive mis implementation that will help push business growth (haleem et al., 2022). besides that, it is nothing but imperative to review and make some changes within the mis strategies and systems to be able to adjust to new market tendencies and be able to hold an advantage in the competitive environment. through the integration of these rules, mis can make the most of them in order to focus on innovation and achieve long-term competitiveness. it is attainable for companies to do so by always upgrading with technology, which includes modern and ongoing employee training (pascucci et al., 2023). through doing this, they will optimise their use of mis, which makes informed decisions and is quick in an environment that is dynamic. this forward-looking management strategy for mis is not only a smart approach to cost reduction but may even help organisational players seize the initiative and address market dangers right away (laudon & laudon, 2017). eventually, building a strong mis infrastructure and working towards an inspiring culture of innovation can lead a business in advance, survive the competition, and finally position this organisation for long-term success (tulenheimo, 2015). another advantage of the corporate mis system is that it offers a better chance for inter-departmental communication and management and therefore brings about higher efficacy and precision. also, by doing the analysis of the data and using the know-how tools of mis, organisations will be capable of having information about consumer behaviour, the occupational market, and final results and will be able to make a policy that increases growth and profitability (mithas et al., 2011; garg & pahuja, 2020). future trends in management information system as the technology is changing so fast, mis is undergoing a transformation, and this change can then have an impact on organisational and management dynamics. artificial intelligence and automation are the areas that are changing how businesses conduct their operations, and the outcome will be a speeding up of processes and an increase in production (cascio & montealegre, 2016). the introduction of these ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success technologies in an organisation is going to change the approach of the management, and they, along with the management team, will have to learn effective ways to make use of the tools in the right manner and stay competitive in the market. it remains, therefore, very important to stay well abreast of the new developments in mis to make innovative and proactive decisions and accordingly drive the growth of the organization (volberda et al., 2013). by taking into account the advantages of ai and automation, managers will be able to state positions where processes can be improved by streamlining and performance upon rising. furthermore, managers who remain well informed about the evolving nature of the technologies are given a chance to reflect on the possible risks and problems involved. finally, in the end, benefiting from these innovations in technology may mean that there is an agile and sophisticated organisation in the business world, where everything is changing every minute these days. integration of trending mis systems into managers’ hands can be a vital factor in achieving market dominance and strategic advantage. implementation of data-base monitoring and automation tools allows managers to provide equal quality to management decisions and efficiency of operations (mcknight, 2013). engaging in technological improvements as well as building an innovation approach will do a lot, not only to improve the organisation's productivity but also to establish an innovation culture, which will help the organisation grow sustainably in the long run. besides that, being proactive leads to being ahead of golden trends in the mis (keinänen, 2019). motivated by such foresight, it is possible to prevent getting caught up in market shifts and take advantage of emerging opportunities before competitors. quickly, a proactive strategy fits and gives the organisation's membership adaptability, providing them with a strategic advantage (iden et al., 2017). ultimately, tech adoption will cause a betterment of the business process as well as the creation of a culture that promotes constant learning, aiming for perpetual success and growth (ghobakhloo et al., 2012). conclusions and managerial implications management information systems (mis) are mind-blowing stuff that an organisation can use to conquer the challenges of the day. starting from their historical development and ending with future tendencies, the mis improvement of institutions information handling goes through numerous stages (spathis & ananiadis, 2005). institutes, after coupling information collection and processing systems with strategic analysis and operational efficiency technologies, have come to have great data informativeness power ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success (santa et al., 2011). the main players, pivotal moments, and parts in the history of this technology, among other things, have shaped the trajectory of mis, while the positive outcomes of up-to-date application in various sectors reflect the established usefulness of this technology. by the same token, they are facing technical complexities, organisational integration issues, human factors, security, and above all, cost containment (ehie, 2002). hence, proper strategies for managing and mitigating them become inevitable. nevertheless, by adopting accepted practices and developing new trends such as artificial intelligence and automation, lucrative opportunities can be accessed for competition and innovation (chen, 2019). based on the submissions above, the managerial implications are: i. organisations shall establish a meaningful scheme to implement mis within their operational systems and systems of making decisions so as to attain maximum results. in doing this, the company should align initiatives with strategic direction and develop an organisational culture that embraces data-informed decision-making. ii. given the rapid pace of technology, it is crucial for managers and employees to engage in continuous learning and development processes to stay up-to-date with the latest mis trends and tools. training and professional development programmes for practicing nurses and future nursing professionals, as well as continuous learning initiatives, are required to guarantee a high level of competency and flexibility. iii. risk mitigation strategies that are highly proactive should be integrated to fill the voids concerning cyber vulnerabilities, the privacy of data, and technological disruptions. this includes risk evaluation, comprehensive security, third-party assessment, and, most importantly, working under regulation. iv. the mis systems of the organisation should aim to have a smooth platform conducive to interactions among the varied aspects of the organization. through such actions as communication barrier removal, cooperation, and information sharing promotion, mis is able to add to the effectiveness and synergy of decision-making and coordination in the whole enterprise. v. organisations should be ready to become constant innovators and maintain the adaptability to explore and exploit mis fully. searching and implementing the latest technologies, exploring ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success uncharted territories, and fostering a work environment that views failures as essential steps towards success are all part of this process. vi. the managers should be able to foresee in the field of mis what the future holds and, at the same time, take advantage of all possibilities that are emerging by streamlining the organizations. being on the cutting edge means being a step ahead; futures are not only set to grow but to grow too, maintaining an edge and an active but competitive growth. reference alawamleh, h. a., alshibly, m. h. a. a., tommalieh, a. f. a., al-qaryouti, m. q. h., & ali, b. j. (2021). the challenges, barriers and advantages of management information system development: comprehensive review. academy of strategic management journal, 20(5), 1-8. alter, s. l. (1976). how effective managers use information systems. harvard business review, 54(6), 97-104. asemi, a., safari, a., & zavareh, a. a. (2011). the role of management information system (mis) and decision support system (dss) for manager’s decision making process. international journal of business and management, 6(7), 164-173. baskerville, r. (2019). information security: going digital (invited lecture). in ict education: 47th annual conference of the southern african computer lecturers' association, sacla 2018, gordon's bay, south africa, june 18–20, 2018, revised selected papers 47 (pp. 3-14). springer international publishing. bayo, p. l. (2019). technological challenges in management of organizations. international journal of business & law research, 7(2), 99-111. berkhout, a. j., hartmann, d., & trott, p. (2011). the role of entrepreneurship in innovation. international journal of entrepreneurship and innovation management, 14(1), 60-79. bocij, p., greasley, a., & hickie, s. (2008). business information systems: technology, development and management. pearson education. bosker, r. j., branderhorst, e. m., & visscher, a. j. (2007). improving the utilisation of management information systems in secondary schools. school effectiveness and school improvement, 18(4), 451-467. bourgeois, d. t., smith, j. l., wang, s., & mortati, j. (2019). information systems for business and beyond. bozdağ, a. a. (2023). semiotics of a rivalry: decoding the musk-zuckerberg phenomenon. the journal of communication and media studies, 8(2), 87. bright, a. a., & asare, g. (2019). the impact of management information system on university of education winneba, kumasi campus-ghana. european journal of research and reflection in management sciences vol, 7(1), 1-20. brynjolfsson, e., & mcelheran, k. (2016). the rapid adoption of data-driven decision-making. american economic review, 106(5), 133-139. ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success carillo, k. d. a., galy, n., guthrie, c., & vanhems, a. (2019). how to turn managers into data-driven decision makers: measuring attitudes towards business analytics. business process management journal, 25(3), 553-578. cascio, w. f., & montealegre, r. (2016). how technology is changing work and organizations. annual review of organizational psychology and organizational behavior, 3, 349-375. castagna, r., & bigelow, s. j. (2021). what is information technology? definition and examples. searchdatacenter, aug. chang, h. h. (2006). technical and management perceptions of enterprise information system importance, implementation and benefits. information systems journal, 16(3), 263-292. chen, h. (2019). success factors impacting artificial intelligence adoption: perspective from the telecom industry in china (doctoral dissertation, old dominion university). chinotaikul, p., & vinayavekhin, s. (2020, september). digital transformation in business and management research: bibliometric and co-word network analysis. in 2020 1st international conference on big data analytics and practices (ibdap) (pp. 1-5). ieee. choi, s. y., lee, h., & yoo, y. 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(2020). social media: concept, role, categories, trends, social media and ai, impact on youth, careers, recommendations. in managing social media practices in the digital economy (pp. 172-192). igi global. geraedts, r., olsson, n. o., & hansen, g. k. (2016). adaptability. in facilities management and corporate real estate management as value drivers (pp. 193-221). routledge. ghobakhloo, m., hong, t. s., sabouri, m. s., & zulkifli, n. (2012). strategies for successful information technology adoption in small and medium-sized enterprises. information, 3(1), 36-67. glover, j. d., overbye, t. j., & sarma, m. s. (2017). power system analysis & design. cengage learning. gorry, g. a., & morton, m. s. s. (1989). a framework for management information systems. mit sloan management review, 30(3), 49. gourévitch, a., fæste, l., baltassis, e., & marx, j. (2017). data-driven transformation. bcg perspectives, 5(17), 8. guerola-navarro, v., gil-gomez, h., oltra-badenes, r., & sendra-garcía, j. (2021). customer relationship management and its impact on innovation: a literature review. journal of business research, 129, 83-87. gunawan, g., & sulaeman, m. (2020). determining factors in the use of digital marketing and its effect on marketing performance in the creative industries in tasikmalaya. budapest international research and critics institute-journal (birci-journal), 3(3), 2543-2550. ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success happa, j., glencross, m., & steed, a. (2019). cyber security threats and challenges in collaborative mixed-reality. frontiers in ict, 6, 5. henke, n., & jacques bughin, l. (2016). the age of analytics: competing in a data-driven world. hubert, n., & mulyungi, p. (2018). influence of monitoring and evaluation planning on project performance in rwanda: a case of selected non governmental organisations in gasabo district. european journal of business and strategic management, 3(8), 1-16. iden, j., methlie, l. b., & christensen, g. e. (2017). the nature of strategic foresight research: a systematic literature review. technological forecasting and social change, 116, 87-97. jalali, h., carmen, r., van nieuwenhuyse, i., & boute, r. (2019). quality and pricing decisions in production/inventory systems. european journal of operational research, 272(1), 195-206. jonasson, i. (2000). developing the information systems of tomorrow: competencies and methodologies. institutionen för datavetenskap. karimi, j., somers, t. m., & gupta, y. p. (2001). impact of information technology management practices on customer service. journal of management information systems, 17(4), 125-158. kraus, s., jones, p., kailer, n., weinmann, a., chaparro-banegas, n., & roig-tierno, n. (2021). digital transformation: an overview of the current state of the art of research. sage open, 11(3), 21582440211047576. kroenke, d., bunker, d., & wilson, d. (2013). experiencing mis. pearson higher education au. landoll, d. (2021). the security risk assessment handbook: a complete guide for performing security risk assessments. crc press. laudon, k. c., & laudon, j. p. (2017). essentials of management information systems. pearson. laurent, m., & giannetsos, t. (2020). information security theory and practice. lecture notes in computer science. madonsela, n. s. (2020). integration of the management information system for competitive positioning. procedia manufacturing, 43, 375-382. majchrzak, a., & markus, m. l. (2012). technology affordances and constraints in management information systems (mis). encyclopedia of management theory, (ed: e. kessler), sage publications, forthcoming. marnewick, c. (2016). benefits of information system projects: the tale of two countries. international journal of project management, 34(4), 748-760. mayer, n., aubert, j., grandry, e., feltus, c., goettelmann, e., & wieringa, r. (2019). an integrated conceptual model for information system security risk management supported by enterprise architecture management. software & systems modeling, 18, 2285-2312. mcknight, w. (2013). information management: strategies for gaining a competitive advantage with data. newnes. mikalsen, m., moe, n. b., wong, s. i., & stray, v. (2021). agile information system development organizations transforming to large-scale collaboration. arxiv preprint arxiv:2111.06193. mithas, s., ramasubbu, n., & sambamurthy, v. (2011). how information management capability influences firm performance. mis quarterly, 237-256. naim, a. (2021). applications of mis in building electronic relationship with customers: a case-based study. periodica journal of modern philosophy, social sciences and humanities, 1, 1-8. ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success nascimento, a. m., da cunha, m. a. v. c., de souza meirelles, f., scornavacca jr, e., & de melo, v. v. (2018). a literature analysis of research on artificial intelligence in management information system (mis). in amcis. o’brien, j. (1999). managing information technology in the internet worked enterprise. o'brien, j. a., & marakas, g. m. (2006). management information systems (vol. 6). new york, ny, usa:: mcgraw-hill irwin. oz, e. (1999). management information systems. galgotia publications. parmenter, d. (2015). key performance indicators: developing, implementing, and using winning kpis. john wiley & sons. park, k. m., & wallace, f. (2020). leadership and power in the digital economic revolution. readings book, 69. phiri, b. (2015). influence of monitoring and evaluation on project performance: a case of african virtual university, kenya (doctoral dissertation, university of nairobi). raptis, t. p., passarella, a., & conti, m. (2019). data management in industry 4.0: state of the art and open challenges. ieee access, 7, 97052-97093. raymond, l., & bergeron, f. (2008). project management information systems: an empirical study of their impact on project managers and project success. international journal of project management, 26(2), 213-220. rêgo, b. s., jayantilal, s., ferreira, j. j., & carayannis, e. g. (2021). digital transformation and strategic management: a systematic review of the literature. journal of the knowledge economy, 1-28. rodriguez, j., & walters, k. (2017). the importance of training and development in employee performance and evaluation. world wide journal of multidisciplinary research and development, 3(10), 206-212. sari, e. n., & priantinah, d. (2019). managerial decision making with the role of management information systems (mis): what the literature says. petra international journal of business studies, 2(1), 53-58. schulte, b., & pibernik, r. (2017). profitability of service-level-based price differentiation with inventory rationing. production and operations management, 26(5), 903-923. silvius, a. j., de waal, b., & smit, j. (2009). business and it alignment; answers and remaining questions. pacis 2009 proceedings, 44. soltanifar, m., hughes, m., & göcke, l. (2021). digital entrepreneurship: impact on business and society (p. 327). springer nature. somogiy, k., & galliers, r. (1987). from data processing to strategic information systems. towards strategic information systems. spathis, c., & ananiadis, j. (2005). assessing the benefits of using an enterprise system in accounting information and management. journal of enterprise information management, 18(2), 195-210. sprongl, p. (2013). gaining competitive advantage through business analytics. acta universitatis agriculturae et silviculturae mendelianae brunensis, 61(7), 2779-2785. staples, d. s., wong, i., & seddon, p. b. (2002). having expectations of information systems benefits that match received benefits: does it really matter?. information & management, 40(2), 115-131. teittinen, h., pellinen, j., & järvenpää, m. (2013). erp in action—challenges and benefits for management control in sme context. international journal of accounting information systems, 14(4), 278-296. ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ofoegbu, wilson chukwuemeka* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 04 || issue 12 || december, 2021 || management information systems: a veritable tool for organizational success thakur, r. (2019). the moderating role of customer engagement experiences in customer satisfaction– loyalty relationship. european journal of marketing, 53(7), 1278-1310. tilley, s., & rosenblatt, h. j. (2017). systems analysis and design. cengage learning. trucolo, c. c., & digiampietri, l. a. (2017). improving trend analysis using social network features. journal of the brazilian computer society, 23, 1-10. tsiakis, t. (ed.). (2015). trends and innovations in marketing information systems. igi global. tulenheimo, r. (2015). challenges of implementing new technologies in the world of bim–case study from construction engineering industry in finland. procedia economics and finance, 21, 469-477. wheelen, t. l. (2011). concepts in strategic management and business policy. pearson education india. wu, j., & lederer, a. (2009). a meta-analysis of the role of environment-based voluntariness in information technology acceptance. mis quarterly, 419-432. zhang, h., chen, g., ooi, b. c., tan, k. l., & zhang, m. (2015). in-memory big data management and processing: a survey. ieee transactions on knowledge and data engineering, 27(7), 1920-1948. ijo journals volume 04 | issue 12 | december 2021 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times. chinyere phillis chikwendu department of history and international studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka jude a. asenime, ph.d. department of history and international studies, delta state university, abraka chukwuemeka o. ojieh, ph.d. department of history and international studies, delta state university, abraka abstract this article explores the intricate social and political dynamics shaping power relations between men and women traders in the vibrant commercial environments of onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets, two key economic hubs in south-eastern nigeria. a historical glace at the political development in the two markets under review show that power structures and decision-making processes in these markets are often dominated by the male gender, especially in respect to leadership positions, leaving the female gender with limited opportunities for advancement in such spheres. why? through qualitative interviews and field observations, the study examines how gender influences access to resources, decision-making processes, and market opportunities within these trading spaces. it highlights the historical context of women’s participation in trade, the challenges they face, including socio-cultural biases and economic disparities, and the strategies employed to navigate these barriers. the findings reveal a complex interplay of cooperation and competition between male and female traders, highlighting instances of solidarity as well as conflict. this research contributes to a deeper understanding of gendered power relations in informal economies, showcasing the resilience of women traders and their critical role in local economic development. the article ultimately calls for greater recognition of gender dynamics in policy formulation and market regulations to promote equity within the trading sector. keywords: gender, social, political, dynamics, and markets. introduction the economic landscape of nigeria is marked by vibrant marketplaces that serve not only as centres for trade but also as sites of intricate social and political interactions. among these marketplaces, onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets stand out due to their historical significance and the dynamic role they play in the regional economy of south-eastern nigeria. these markets embody the complexities of gender ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." relations, particularly the power dynamics between male and female traders. understanding these dynamics is crucial for grasping how gender influences economic participation and power structures in informal trading environments. in nigeria, women have increasingly taken on significant roles in trade, yet they often operate within a social framework that imposes particular constraints. while research indicates that women traders are pivotal to the country’s informal economic growth (nants, 2024);nonetheless, these women face systemic barriers, including limited access to capital, discriminatory practices, and socio-cultural biases that marginalise their contributions (ojinta, 2018, pp. 7-8), which has led to their zero representation in market union leadership positions within the period under review. men predominantly dominate political positions in these markets and command higher social status within trading hierarchies. women, on the other hand have created pathways to assert their agency in the marketplace (afolabi, 2008), especially through organised protests and demonstrations. this duality of cooperation and competition between genders forms the crux of this investigation into the power relations within these markets. onitsha, with its bustling port and historic trading traditions, and nkwo nnewi, a market deeply embedded in community life, present unique contexts for examining these relationships. both markets are characterized by a plurality of goods ranging from textiles to automotive parts, offering insight into the economic behaviours and strategies employed by traders. observational studies indicate that while women often dominate in the sale of certain commodities, their economic prowess is frequently undermined by social expectations that confine them to traditional gender roles (aliegba et al., 2025, p.439). such constraints not only hinder women's access to broader market networks but also affect their bargaining power in financial transactions. the social dynamics within these markets are also reflective of the broader political landscape in nigeria, where gender inequities persist despite progressive frameworks aimed at fostering gender equality. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." gender relations in the marketplace are influenced by cultural narratives that dictate the roles and responsibilities of men and women (ojinta, 2018; obienusi & chikwendu, 2020, p.176). women traders often find themselves navigating a dual reality—balancing their entrepreneurial endeavours with societal norms that discourage assertiveness and autonomy. this phenomenon fosters a unique form of negotiation where women traders must assert their demands while simultaneously engaging with the patriarchal structures that seek to limit their power (banco et al., 2017). however, the emergence of cooperative groups among women traders indicates a shift toward collective empowerment. these networks not only provide financial resources but also create platforms for sharing knowledge and strategies to effectively navigate the male-dominated marketplace (nwankwo, 2017, p. 25). this evolution showcases resilience and adaptability among women traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewimain markets, as they leverage their collective strength to challenge existing power dynamics. despite the socio-political challenges, it is evident that female traders are redefining their roles and negotiating power within the market space. the focus of this article, therefore, is to unpack the social and political dynamics that govern the relationships between male and female traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets. by employing a qualitative approach that includes interviews, participant observations, and extant literature, this study seeks to illuminate the complexities of these interactions and provide a holistic understanding of gendered power relations. furthermore, this research intends to highlight the implications of these dynamics for gender equality in nigeria's informal economy, offering insights that can inform policies aimed at promoting equitable access to economic opportunities. social and political dynamics/power relations in the markets, 1970 2022 the social and political dynamics within nkwo nnewi and onitsha main markets reflect the complex interplay of economic power, traditional hierarchies, and evolving political interests. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." these markets are not merely centres for trade; they are vibrant socio-political arenas where authority, identity, and influence intersect. at the heart of these dynamics are questions about who controls the space, who benefits from the institutional structures in place, and how decisions are made and contested. power in these markets is not evenly distributed. it flows through networks of associations, traditional authorities, market unions, and local government structures. as such, the marketplaces become mirrors of the broader society—reflecting existing hierarchies, contestations, and aspirations for inclusion. having discussed the operational structure of the markets and established the existence of various market associations, other governing bodies including the local, state and federal governments, saw to the daily activities of the markets within the period under review, through the appointment of caretakers within the market unions (innocent ezeoha, personal communication, 2024). in onitsha main market for instance, the onitsha main market amalgamated trade union (ommatu) was the apex market organisation basically in charge of governing market activities and representing traders' interests. however, more often than not, this union was dissuaded from organising periodical elections, because of the state government’s interest in the market, thus, giving room for the appointment of male caretakers as union leaders, to serve the socio-political and economic interests of these state stakeholders/politicians (henry ogbalu, personal communication, 2024).as has been established in the study, ommatu's influence extended to regulating trade practices, mediating disputes, and liaising with governmental authorities, thereby establishing a structured hierarchy within the market's socio-political framework.however, the leadership landscape has not been devoid of challenges and it is within these challenges that one can deduce the power relations in the ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." leadership structure. instances of internal discord have surfaced, exemplified by the crisis within the onitsha market in 2020. for example, the suspension of the secretary-general by the president-general over constitutional amendments without due process highlighted tensions regarding governance and transparency within market unions (ndukuba, 2020).such conflicts underscore the complexities inherent in the power dynamics of market leadership, where authority is continually negotiated and contested. there is also the question of gender roles in the power dynamics of onitsha main market.historically, men and women have been integral to onitsha market's socio-economic fabric, engaging actively in trade and contributing to the market's vibrancy. traditional structures encourage men roles in market governance, including responsibilities such as regulating prices and settling disputes (ciciliailo, personal communication, 2024). in onitsha, the economic activities of female traders are vital to the local economy, yet they often face systemic barriers within a patriarchal framework (uchenna ogba, personal communication, 2024). a glance at table 1, for instance, affirms that male traders typically dominate the leadership positions in the market. they also occupy most of the higher-value trades and have greater access to capital, which reinforces their power in setting market prices and determining trade norms; unlike the female traders (obiageri echeka, personal communication, 2024). this disparity reflects broader societal norms that prioritise male authority and limit women's access to resources, despite both gender’s contributions towards the development of the market. thus, the power dynamics in onitsha main market are influenced by cultural expectations surrounding gender roles; where women are often expected to fulfil traditional roles related to family and domestic responsibilities while simultaneously engaging in trade (pierotti et al., 2022). a respondent ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." asserted that the dual activity of domestic responsibility and trade often constrain women’s economic opportunities and limit their visibility in market governance structures (joseph okeke, personal communication, 2024). nevertheless, these female traders often engage in strategic protests to drive their points home, allowing for collective bargaining and increased visibility in decision-making processes within the marketplace (chisom ekwunife, personal communication, 2025). contemporary developments indicate that indeed, women traders, particularly widows, have faced challenges concerning power dynamics and access to resources in the market. a good example can be seen in 2022, when over 500 women traders protested against their ejection from pocket layout market, woliwo, onitsha, citing unauthorized demolitions and loss of livelihoods (vanguard news, 2022). these incidents reflect ongoing struggles for equitable representation and rights within the market's socio-political landscape. more details on the place of women and their activities in the markets under study are presented in the preceding section of the chapter. albeit these challenges, female traders have carved out significant roles in the market, often specialising in retailed fabric sales, perishable goods and consumer items where they can exert influence, contribute to the development of the state, and establish networks of support among their peers (chidozie okeke, personal communication, 2024).such organised protests provide a platform through which women advocate for their interests and challenge the patriarchal structures that seek to marginalize them. there are other areas of conflicts and disputes which mirror the social and political dynamics of the market and which underscore the power relations therein. worthy to note is that the sociopolitical landscape in onitsha main market is marked by both formal and informal power dynamics that emerge from the interactions between male and female traders. for example, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." while men may hold formal leadership roles, women often exert significant influence through informal networks and social capital, which in some cases subvert traditional power hierarchies (kenneth onyeka and oby ike, personal communications, 2024). during a personal interview with kenneth onyeka (one of the past caretakers at onitsha main market), he hinted that although most private land spaces in the market are controlled by the men–in respect to space/shop allocation, women often take advantage of their social network with their fathers, uncles, husbands, or male political acquaintances; to acquire these spaces in the markets. the ability of female traders to mobilise resources and support from their networks has been crucial in negotiating better trading conditions and asserting their position within the market. through such actions, they challenge oppressive norms and play a critical role in shaping the socioeconomic cum political landscape of the market (francis, 2022). this dynamic illustrates a nuanced interplay between gender and market politics, revealing that while patriarchal structures are pervasive, they are also contested and redefined through the actions and experiences of female traders. in fact, land ownership and infrastructural developments have been central to disputes within onitsha main market. in 2022, for example, clashes between market women and the ukwa family over land claims led to the destruction of goods and shops, highlighting the volatility of property rights and the impact on traders' livelihoods (punch newspapers, 2022). similarly, tensions arose in 2023 when traders protested against planned demolitions by local government authorities, fearing displacement and loss of economic stability (opinion nigeria, 2023). these conflicts underscore the intricate power relations involving traders, traditional landowners, and governmental bodies, each vying for control and influence over the market space. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." lastly, there is the link between political influence and market governance in the onitsha main market. the market's governance has been subject to political influences, with leadership transitions often reflecting broader political dynamics. innocent ezeoha, the current caretaker at onitsha main market, shared that the ommatu constitution which allows for a 3 years tenureship has continued to be overridden by various state government, with their constant appointment of caretakers as leaders of the union to oversee market activities, rather than follow the electioneering process stipulated by the ommatu constitution (ezeoha, personal communication, 2024). in 2021, for instance, former market leaders and stakeholders called for elections to replace caretaker committees, emphasising the need for democratically elected representatives to enhance legitimacy and address traders' concerns effectively (vanguard news, 2021). such calls indicate a push towards more transparent and accountable governance structures within the market, aiming to balance power relations and ensure that leadership reflects the collective will of the traders. in all, between 1970 and 2022, onitsha main market has navigated a multifaceted socio-political terrain characterised by evolving leadership structures, gender dynamics, land disputes, and political interventions. the market's resilience and adaptability amidst these challenges underscore its significance as a commercial nucleus in west africa. understanding these dynamics is crucial for formulating policies and interventions that promote equitable governance, protect traders' rights, and sustain the market's economic vitality. in nkwo nnewi main market, power relations are shaped by deeply entrenched social structures and trade-specific hierarchies. leaders of trade associations such as the agbo-edo motor spare parts dealers association (amspda), the agbo-edo timber dealers association, or the nkwo ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." nnewi butchers union, among others, play significant roles in controlling access to trade stalls, mediating disputes, and liaising with governmental and non-governmental actors. by constitution, the leaders of these associations are typically elected in a two years non-renewable tenure, but in practice, while the few cases of elections in the market were mostly influenced by social capital, ethnic affiliations, and economic clout; the state government prefers to appoint male union leaders, just like in the case of onitsha main market. a trader’s rise to leadership within the period under review often depended not just on competence, but also on their ability to forge alliances across various socio-economic networks (linus odo, personal communication, 2025). for instance, chairmen/caretakers of associations leverage their relationships with local government officials or traditional rulers to consolidate their influence. in this way, political power is both formal—through elections and constitutional roles—and informal—through personal connections and clienteles relationships (onuoha, 2014, p. 88). the political character of these markets becomes particularly pronounced during election periods. politicians, aware of the organisational strength and numerical size of market unions, often court their support in exchange for patronage or policy concessions. leaders of major market associations are known to mobilise their members for political campaigns, essentially transforming the market into a voting bloc (obiageri ike, personal communication, 2024). in return, these leaders receive political appointments or enjoy preferential access to government contracts and influence over local policy decisions. this transactional relationship blurs the lines between commerce and politics, turning market leadership into a politically strategic role rather than merely an administrative one (obiageri ike, personal communication, 2024). in some instances, this has led to the politicisation of internal market elections, where aspiring leaders ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." seek external political backing to secure positions—sometimes to the detriment of the market’s cohesion and autonomy (chukwu, 2019, p. 56).one notable instance occurred in 2018, when the new auto motorcycle spare parts (naspa) market faced a protracted leadership crisis. the market had been without elected executives since august 2017, leading to growing discontent among traders. in response, members under the aegis of the aspirants forum of naspa organized protests and submitted petitions to the public complaints commission (pcc), accusing the anambra state ministry of trade, commerce and wealth creation of frustrating efforts to conduct elections (ndukuba, 2018). they alleged that the caretaker committee chairman, mr. obinna okechukwu, was paying substantial sums to the ministry to perpetuate his stay in office and avoid elections, thereby exploiting traders and undermining democratic processes within the market (ndukuba, 2018). this mobilisation was not merely about internal market leadership but also reflected broader political tensions. the traders' (men and women) actions highlighted their desire for transparent and democratic governance, both within the market and in the wider political landscape. by protesting and seeking intervention from the pcc, the traders demonstrated their agency and willingness to challenge perceived injustices, signalling the influential role market leaders and traders can play in shaping political discourse and action in nkwo nnewi main market. social stratification within the markets also reflects broader societal divisions. class, gender, and generational differences play a central role in shaping the experience of traders and their access to opportunities. one key aspect of the socio-political dynamics in nkwo nnewi is the formation of women’s associations/cooperatives, such as the nnewi market women association, through which they carry out such protests. the group, within the period under review, served as ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." essential platforms for collective bargaining and negotiation. female traders band together through such groups to address common issues such as market security, price regulation, and access to resources (chinenye ukpo, personal communication, 2024). these cooperative efforts empower women by amplifying their voices in market governance, especially through protests, allowing them to advocate for conditions that better serve their interests while challenging the patriarchal norms that tend to marginalise them. by fostering solidarity, these associations not only strengthen the economic bargaining power of female traders but also promote social cohesion among women, leading to an increased sense of community and mutual support (krawcyzk et al., 2023). recent decades, have witnessed women traders in not just onitsha, but also in nnewi continue this legacy by organising protests against market levies, corruption in leadership elections, and exploitative regulations. these actions illustrate how social dynamics within the market can serve both to entrench inequality and to become sites of resistance and agency. power is thus negotiated continuously, with subordinate groups asserting their rights through both formal mechanisms and informal strategies of influence and protest (okeke, 2017, p. 43). in addition, the markets are sites where traditional authority and modern governance coexist, sometimes harmoniously, other times contentiously. in nnewi, the traditional ruler (igwe) plays a cultural and symbolic role in market affairs, often consulted during major conflicts or infrastructural decisions. the involvement of traditional authorities in market governance helps to maintain social order, but it can also complicate administrative processes when traditional prerogatives clash with democratic market union policies or statutory governmental directives. this dual authority structure underscores the hybrid nature of power in nigerian markets, where ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." modern democratic forms of organization coexist with customary governance systems. the balance of power between these institutions is often fluid, negotiated through constant interaction and compromise (ezeani, 2015, p. 112). another dimension of power relations in the markets is tied to spatial organization and access. physical space in both nkwo nnewi and onitsha main markets is a scarce and highly contested resource. the allocation of stalls and shops often reflects existing power dynamics. wealthier traders with better political connections or long-standing tenure are more likely to occupy prime locations with higher foot traffic. conversely, new entrants and smaller traders who are mostly the women are relegated to the peripheries or operate in temporary structures vulnerable to eviction. these spatial inequalities are further exacerbated by periodic demolitions and relocations, often justified in the name of modernisation or urban renewal but perceived by traders as punitive or exclusionary. thus, the spatial politics of the market also becomes a means through which social hierarchies are reproduced (nze, 2020, p. 74). be that as it may, the informal networks that women create play a crucial role in shaping market dynamics. through kinship ties and communal relationships, female traders leverage social capital to negotiate better prices and secure favourable trading conditions—practices often overlooked by male counterparts who dominate formal trade negotiations (obi ezigbogu, personal communication, 2024). this often include mutual support systems where traders share information about market trends, suppliers, and customer preferences, thereby enhancing their competitive edge and resilience against market fluctuations (martha chigbo, personal communication, 2024).despite the challenges posed by male dominance in market governance, the presence and active engagement of women traders contribute to shifting power dynamics. their growing visibility ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." and assertiveness in decision-making arenas catalyze broader discussions about gender roles and economic participation. both genders involvement in market politics, either formally or informally, challenges traditional norms or pushes for a re-evaluation of gendered expectations surrounding their contributions towards development. the study strongly posits that the growing recognition of women’s roles in the market laid foundations for the gradual transformation of power relations, encouraging a more equitable distribution of authority and resources. in a nutshell/conclusively, the informal power dynamics between male and female traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets significantly influence market governance and decision-making processes. in this case where formal leadership structures are often maledominated, female traders have developed nuanced strategies to exercise agency and influence within these frameworks. they often organise themselves into cooperatives/associations such as the onitsha women group under the aegis of onitsha leadership and entrepreneurship centre olec (oby ike, personal communication, 2024),and also engage in protests against unfavourable policies within the markets, providing a collective voice that can challenge male dominance in market governance (okon kwo, 2016). such groups enable these women to pool resources, share knowledge, and negotiate better trading conditions collectively. this collective action enhances their visibility and power in decision-making processes rather than relying on individual capital or standing. their organised efforts have been instrumental in advocating for policy changes that also benefit female traders, highlighting a structured form of informal influence that can counterbalance the dominating authority held by their male counter parts. moreover, the informal networks that women establish play a pivotal role in influencing transaction dynamics within the market. women frequently employ social capital, built through ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." kinship ties and communal relationships, to negotiate better prices and secure favourable trading conditions (ike egbuna, personal communication, 2024). for instance, women often rely on relationships with male traders to access goods that are in high demand or negotiate prices in ways that undercut the competitive edge typically held by male traders (chinyereikpe, personal communication, 2024). this informal bargaining power is crucial, as it allows female traders to navigate the patriarchal structures that would otherwise limit their economic agency (chinyereikpe, personal communication, 2024).in respect to ownership of stalls/shops, the patriarchal nature of property or land ownership in most igbo societies create male dominance of such structures in these markets. in fact, empirical data gotten from interviews and observation of sixty (60) randomly selected shops with female presence at both onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets buttressed that there were comparatively a handful of women traders with ownership to stalls/shops, or engaged in medium and high level capital expenditure category of retail trading. the sample size consisted of a total of thirty (30) shops, each, in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets, respectively. among the thirty women interviewed in each of the shops at onitsha main market, six of the women were female traders who claimed to have no level of financial ownership of their shops, which were just an extension of that of their husbands; thirteen of the women were sales girls who were either helping a male relative who owned the shop, or working to earn a living; eight of these women claimed part ownership with their husbands; two were widows who took control their husband’s businesses; and only one claimed to have set up her fabrics business by herself and had full ownership, although she hinted that she got the shop through the help of a friend who is a government official. in nkwo nnewi main market on the other hand, the thirty (30) random shops which had female presence, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." had the following data below: four of the females interviewed, worked with their husbands and claimed part ownership; ten females manned the shops for their husbands with the assistance of an apprentice; six claimed part ownership of the shops with their husbands, however, they also admitted that major financial decisions were made in conjunction with her husband; six of the female traders hinted that their husbands set up the shop originally, but, no longer demanded that they give account of the shop to him; three gained ownership of their shops through their male acquaintances– who still disguise as owners of the shops; and one inherited the shop from her late husband. the backdrop intimates the power dynamics that take place amongst gender in stall/shop ownerships in these markets, with the men having major control of the outcomes. these markets are not only economic spaces but also arenas of political negotiation and social contestation. power is exercised through formal institutions like market unions and informal networks based on kinship, patronage, and cultural authority. while these structures have enabled the markets to thrive and self-regulate, they have also generated exclusions and contestations that mirror the inequalities of the broader society. understanding these dynamics is critical for any intervention aimed at improving governance, promoting inclusivity, or enhancing the efficiency of these vital economic institutions. conclusion the exploration of social and political dynamics between male and female traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets reveals a multifaceted landscape marked by both collaborative enterprises and contentious power relations. this study has aimed to unpack the complexities inherent in these gender relationships, highlighting the plurality of experiences faced by women traders in a system that often privileges male actors. the intersection of gender, trade, and power ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." within these marketplaces serves not only as a reflection of broader societal norms but also as a critical lens through which to analyse the dynamics of nigeria’s informal economy. the findings of this research underscore the persistent challenges women traders face, including limited access to financial resources, meager participation in decision-making processes, and the burden of societal expectations (ojinta, 2018). yet, amidst these challenges, women demonstrate remarkable resilience and ingenuity, often creating alliances that allow for the negotiation of their roles within the market. this duality—of striving for empowerment while contending with entrenched gender norms—points to significant implications for the future of gender equality in nigeria’s economy. one of the key implications of these dynamics is the urgent need to recognise and address the structural inequalities that inhibit women traders from fully participating in the economic landscape. the informal economy, which is a significant component of nigeria’s overall economic activity, is often overlooked in policy discussions. yet, as evidenced by the experiences of traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main market, this sector is crucial to understanding gender dynamics. policymakers must therefore prioritise the informal economy in gender policy frameworks, not merely acknowledging women’s contributions but actively facilitating their access to resources and networks. to promote gender equality, policies must be tailored to dismantle barriers that women face in trading environments. it is essential to create more inclusive financial systems that recognise the unique situations of female traders (banco et al., 2017). for instance, microfinance initiatives should prioritise women’s access to credit and support services, offering tailored loan structures ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." that consider the realities of their businesses. moreover, providing training programs in financial literacy and business management would equip women with the necessary skills to navigate market dynamics effectively (nwankwo, 2017). initiatives that promote female entrepreneurship, such as incubation programs or grants targeted at women-owned businesses, could further bolster their financial independence. furthermore, it is imperative to foster collaborative approaches among female traders that can enhance their bargaining power and social networks. the emergence of cooperative societies among women traders is a vital step toward collective empowerment (nwankwo, 2017). policymakers and development practitioners should facilitate the establishment and sustenance of these cooperatives by providing training in cooperative management and advocacy, enabling women to articulate their collective needs in market negotiations more effectively. this could lead to more substantial impact in market policies that have historically favored male traders. in addition to economic strategies, there is a pressing need for cultural shifts that challenge existing stereotypes and gender norms. education plays a crucial role in this transformation. awareness campaigns that address gender biases and highlight the contributions of women traders can change societal perceptions and encourage a more equitable treatment of female traders (brendon et al., n.d.). incorporating gender studies into educational curricula can equip future generations with a stronger understanding of equity and the value of inclusivity in economic participation. crucially, the involvement of male traders in discussions about gender equality in the market can facilitate a more balanced power dynamic. creating forums where men and women traders can ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." engage in dialogue about challenges and opportunities for collaboration can foster understanding and reduce competition based on gender (ewell & rietveld, 2025). by advocating for shared values of respect and equity, traders can work together to create an environment where all actors, regardless of gender, can thrive. the implications of these social and political dynamics extend beyond the immediate context of onitsha and nkwo nnewi. they resonate throughout nigeria’s informal economy and inform the broader discourse on gender equality in africa. as nations across the continent grapple with the need for economic development, acknowledging the contributions of women in informal markets is essential. equitable access to economic opportunities not only empowers women but also catalyses overall economic growth. in other words, the power relations between male and female traders in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets serve as a microcosm of the broader gender dynamics within nigeria’s informal economy. the interplay of resistance and resilience exemplified by women traders is critical to the discourse on gender equality. as this study elucidates, addressing the systemic barriers women face, fostering collaborative networks, and encouraging cultural shifts are vital steps toward promoting equitable access to economic opportunities. a comprehensive approach that integrates policy initiatives, educational reforms, and community engagement can pave the way for a more inclusive economic future—one where the strengths of both male and female traders are recognised and valued in equal measure. therefore, it is imperative that stakeholders—from policymakers to community leaders and traders themselves—commit to fostering an environment that embraces gender equity as a cornerstone of economic development in nigeria. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." references afolabi, m. m. (2008). women as pillars of national economy in nigeria: a study of economic activities of rural women in six local government areas of ondo state. iaffe summer conference, international association for feminist economics, torino, italy. aliegba, b. a., adadu, y. & usman yusuf alhaji, u. y. (2025). impact of patriarchal norms on economic security of women in north central nigeria. kashere journal of politics and international relations. vol. 3(2): 439 – 452. bianco, m., lombe, m.&bolis, m. (2017). challenging gender norms and practices through women’s entrepreneurship. international journal of gender and entrepreneurship. no. 9. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320726334_challenging_gender_norms_and_p ractices_through_women’s_entrepreneurship brendon, p., gamberoni, e. & sear, c. (n.d.). women and trade in africa: realizing the potential. world bank. retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/115591468211805723/pdf/825200wp0wo men00box379865b00public0.pdf chukwu, m. o. (2019). gender, markets, and power: an ethnographic study of igbo urban trading spaces. enugu: fourth dimension publishing. chukwu, o. (2019). market politics in nigeria: the rise of the traders' voice. nsukka press. ewell, h. & rietveld, a. (2025). using theatre to help transform mindsets around power and gender relations. gender impact platform. retrieved from https://gender.cgiar.org/news/using-theatre-help-transform-mindsets-around-power-andgenderrelations#:~:text=the%20workshop%20topics%20addressed%20complex,and%20edited %20the%20blog%20afterwards ezeani, e. (2015). traditional authority and modern governance in igboland. awka: igbo studies press. francis, jane. (2022). female traders clash with landowners in onitsha. the easterner. retrieved from https://theeasterner.com/female-traders-clash-with-landowners-in-onitsha/ krawczyk, k.a., king, b.a., oeding, n., williams, s. (2023). the role of market associations in facilitating women’s informal political participation and economic development in ghana. in: krawczyk, k.a., king, b.a. (eds) women’s contributions to development in ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320726334_challenging_gender_norms_and_practices_through_women%e2%80%99s_entrepreneurship https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320726334_challenging_gender_norms_and_practices_through_women%e2%80%99s_entrepreneurship https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/115591468211805723/pdf/825200wp0women00box379865b00public0.pdf https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/115591468211805723/pdf/825200wp0women00box379865b00public0.pdf https://gender.cgiar.org/news/using-theatre-help-transform-mindsets-around-power-and-gender-relations https://gender.cgiar.org/news/using-theatre-help-transform-mindsets-around-power-and-gender-relations https://gender.cgiar.org/news/using-theatre-help-transform-mindsets-around-power-and-gender-relations https://gender.cgiar.org/news/using-theatre-help-transform-mindsets-around-power-and-gender-relations https://theeasterner.com/female-traders-clash-with-landowners-in-onitsha/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." west africa: globalization, urbanization and development in africa . singapore: palgrave macmillan. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8190-6_7 nants (2024). nants and the role of women in nigeria trade ecosystem. national association of nigerian traders. retrieved from https://nants.org/women-in-tradenigeria-nants-empowering-female-traders/ ndukuba, e. (2018). anambra traders protest against scuttling of election by government officials. business day. retrieved from https://businessday.ng/politics/article/anambratraders-protest-against-scuttling-of-election-by-government-officials/ ndukuba, e. (2020). onitsha electronics market union crisis deepens as secretary-general suspended. business day. retrieved from https://businessday.ng/news/articles/onitshaelectronic-market-union-crisis-deepens-as-secretary-general-suspended/ nwankwo, n. e. (2017). women’s economic empowerment? gendered strategies and institutions in oke arin market, lagos. school of international development, university of east anglia. retrieved from https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/66836/1/phd_thesis_submission_nkechi_nwankwo.pdf nze, c. (2020). urban planning and the politics of space in nigerian markets. lagos: lighthouse academic publishers. obienusi, i. e &chikwendu, c. p. (2020). patriarchy and culture: the position of women in the rural igbo community. odibendi. vol.1(1): 171 – 189. ojinta, r. i. (2018). barriers to women leadership of small and medium enterprises in nigeria. walden university scholarly works. retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/dissertations/arti cle/7360/&path_info=ojinta_waldenu_0543d_21631.pdf okeke, j. (2017). market women and the politics of resistance in southeastern nigeria. journal of gender and african studies, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 40–58. okeke, n. (2017). breaking the glass ceiling: women's political mobilization in nnewi. the vanguard, 24 july okonkwo, n. (2016). female traders continue protest in onitsha over closure of market. vanguard. retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/female-traderscontinue-protest-onitsha-closure-market/amp/ onuoha, i. (2014). leadership and power in nigerian informal economies. ibadan: spectrum books. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8190-6_7 https://nants.org/women-in-trade-nigeria-nants-empowering-female-traders/ https://nants.org/women-in-trade-nigeria-nants-empowering-female-traders/ https://businessday.ng/politics/article/anambra-traders-protest-against-scuttling-of-election-by-government-officials/ https://businessday.ng/politics/article/anambra-traders-protest-against-scuttling-of-election-by-government-officials/ https://businessday.ng/news/articles/onitsha-electronic-market-union-crisis-deepens-as-secretary-general-suspended/ https://businessday.ng/news/articles/onitsha-electronic-market-union-crisis-deepens-as-secretary-general-suspended/ https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/66836/1/phd_thesis_submission_nkechi_nwankwo.pdf https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/dissertations/article/7360/&path_info=ojinta_waldenu_0543d_21631.pdf https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/dissertations/article/7360/&path_info=ojinta_waldenu_0543d_21631.pdf https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/female-traders-continue-protest-onitsha-closure-market/amp/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/female-traders-continue-protest-onitsha-closure-market/amp/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) chinyere phillis chikwendu* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “gender and socio-political dynamics in onitsha and nkwo nnewi main markets in contemporary times." opinion nigeria. (2023). just in: tension in onitsha market over lga’s planned demolition of shops. opinion nigeria. retrieved from https://www.opinionnigeria.com/just-in-tensionin-onitsha-market-over-lgas-planned-demolition-of-shops/ pierotti, r. s., sophia friedson-ridenour, s. &olayiwola, o. (2022). women farm what they can manage: how time constraints affect the quantity and quality of labor for married women’s agricultural production in southwestern nigeria. world development. vol. 152. retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0305750x21004150 punch newspapers. (2022). market women, land owners clash in onitsha. punch newspapers. retrieved from https://punchng.com/market-women-landowners-clash-in-onitsha/ vanguard news. (2021). ex-leaders, stakeholders of onitsha main market call for election. vanguard. retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/09/ex-leadersstakeholders-of-onitsha-main-market-call-for-election/ vanguard news. (2022, july). market women protest displacement in onitsha. retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/07/market-women-protest-displacement vanguard. (2022). over 500 women protest ejection from onitsha market. vanguard news, 8 apr. vanguard. (2022). women’s role in market rebuilding: a case study of onitsha’s recovery efforts. retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/04/womens-role-marketrebuilding-onitsha/ ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 https://www.opinionnigeria.com/just-in-tension-in-onitsha-market-over-lgas-planned-demolition-of-shops/ https://www.opinionnigeria.com/just-in-tension-in-onitsha-market-over-lgas-planned-demolition-of-shops/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0305750x21004150 https://punchng.com/market-women-landowners-clash-in-onitsha/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/09/ex-leaders-stakeholders-of-onitsha-main-market-call-for-election/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/09/ex-leaders-stakeholders-of-onitsha-main-market-call-for-election/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/07/market-women-protest-displacement https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/04/womens-role-market-rebuilding-onitsha/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/04/womens-role-market-rebuilding-onitsha/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || accounting standard and quality of financial reports of quoted deposit money banks in nigeria solomon egbe department of accounting, faculty of management science, university of port harcourt, nigeria abstract banks play important roles in promoting national development. in order to provide efficient services and to perform their statutory roles effectively, banks are required to comply with established standards. this study empirically examined the relationship between accounting standards and quality of financial reports in nigeria. five (5) banks out of twenty two quoted banks were randomly selected for analysis over the period covering 2010 to 2017. data used in the study were sourced from the financial statements of the selected banks for the period under study. panel data analysis in the form of pooled ols analysis, fixed effect analysis and random effect analysis alongside post estimation test such as restricted f-test and hausman test were used. the results revealed that accounting standards measured in terms of ifrs13 ans ias18 exert positively on quality of financial reports of quoted banks. the result also revealed that quality of financial reports such as timeliness, relevance, and faithful representation exert significant influence on financial reporting quality of quoted bank's with reported coefficient estimates and probability values of 0.084159(p=0.0000), 059716(p=0.0009), 0.084159(p=0.0000) for timeliness, relevance, faithful representation respectively. the study concluded that the relationship between accounting standards and quality of financial reports of quoted banks in nigeria cannot be undermined, the study recommended that in order to enhance performance, nigerian banks must maintain adequate compliance with accounting standards, and take dose cognizance qualities of financial reports of as their relative significance on performance of nigerian banks cannot be undermined. key words: timeliness. relevance. faithful representation.quoted deposit money banks. introduction financial statements apart from stating position of an organization, provides other information such as the value added, changes in equity if any and cash flows of the enterprise within a defined period of time to which it relates (iyoha&faboyede, 2011).financial reports can only be regarded as useful if it represents the "economic substance" of an organization in terms of relevance, reliability, comparability and aids interpretation simplicity (penman, 1984).accounting standard can be defined as an information system through which financial and monetized information is generated ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || for economic, social and political decision (izedonmi, 2001).accounting standards were introduced to serve as a guide and to provide a framework in preparing and presenting financial reports and statements, the accounting standards are aimed at providing creditors and investors with quality information in relation to the iasb for the preparation and presentation of financial statement. the major objective of accounting standards is to ensures that important matters regarding preparation and presentation of financial statements as well as auditing same are not left to whim of the preparers and auditors. however, it is important to state that the rate at which existing and potential investors and business practitioners are disappointed in their investment decisions/ventures following corporate failures especially in the banking sector has raised unusual concerns among business practitioners. the general objective of this research is to examine the relationship between accounting standards and quality of financial reports of quoted banks in nigeria. literature review theoretical framework the decision usefulness theory this theory places that the best accounting standards are the ones giving the most valuable financial reports to clients in order to aid them in decision making. it endeavours to build up a logical and target strategy to help standard setters and clients in their decision of the best option of the estimation and presentation of accounting information. basically, this hypothesis expresses that accounting information should help providers in their capital allocation choice. accounting standards accounting standards can be defined as an information system through which financial and monetary information is generated for economic, social and political decision (izedonmi, 2001).according to the institute of chartered accountants of india, accounting standards (ass) are written policy documents issued by expert accounting body or by government or other regulatory body covering the aspects of recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of accounting transactions in the financial statements. the main purpose of the standard setting bodies is to promote the reporting of timely and useful financial information to investors and certain other parties having an interest in the company's economic performance. quality of financial reports ofurum et al, (2014) in accordance with the iasb stated that the qualitative characteristics of financial statements are understandability, relevance, reliability, and comparability. these qualitative characteristics are the attributes that makes the information provided in the financial statements useful to users. the usefulness of financial reports is confirmed when they can embody the economic realities of the organization in terms of relevance, reliability, comparability, and presented in a form that can be easily understood. (iasb, 2015). glautier&underdown (2001) posited ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || that the primary objective of financial reporting is to communicate information about the resources held by entity and performances of the reporting entity, useful to those having right to such information. nzotta (2008) opined that financial reports assist the users in evaluating the past and present performance of the organization and its ability to maximize the wealth of the shareholders. the primary objective of financial reporting is to provide high quality financial reporting information concerning economic entities, primarily financial in nature, useful for economic decision making (fasb, 1999; iasb, 2008). providing high quality financial reporting information is important because it will positively influence capital providers and other stakeholders in making investment, credit, and similar resource allocation decisions enhancing overall market efficiency (iasb, 2006; iasb, 2008).the importance of financial reports is affirmed when they can incorporate the economic realities in terms of relevance, reliability, timeliness and comparability and displayed in a form that can be readily understood. (iasb, 2015). empirical reviews biddle et al. (2009) evaluated the connection between financial reporting quality and investment productivity and found that organizations with higher communication quality had to bring down levels of mutilation from the anticipated business and were less touchy to changes in macroeconomic conditions (biddle et al. 2009). bushman & smith (2001) and lambert et al. (2007) looked at the connection between financial related reporting quality and investment and found that expansion in the financial reporting quality prompted increment in business proficiency (bushman & smith, 2001). jensen (1986) explored the financial related reporting quality and found that financial communication quality affected the attributes of firms, including financial use, business, evaluating quality and financial structures (jensen, 1986). li fengchen (2010) opined that the effect of financial communication quality on business costs, information vulnerability and organisation and found that brilliant financial related reporting lessened investment and office costs (fengchen et al. 2010). sajjadi et al. (2009) directed a review titled exploring the effect of non-financial related attributes on the financial reporting nature of recorded firms in tehran stock exchange and presumed that firm size, firm life and kind of industry had huge and positive organisation with the financial reporting quality and financial communication quality was adversely identified with the possession structure (sajjadi et al. 2009). methodology research design a total of twenty two commercial banks operate presently in nigeria, out of which five banks were selected for this study. the selected banks include first of nigeria bank pic. (fbn), united bank for africa pic. (uba), fidelity bank pic. (fb), zenith international bank pic. (zib), and access bank pic (abp). the basis for the selection rests on the facts provided by kolapo, ayeni and oke (2012) that these banks have ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || been rated as the topmost five nigerian banks by fitch rating and bankers' magazine of july 2012, they account for over fifty per cent of deposit liabilities in the nigerian banking sector, they have made the list of the first 25 and 500 banks in africa and the world respectively, their credit rating by fitch, standard and poors, and agusto and co have moved from stability to positive as at january 2012, they all have a large customer base and participate actively on the nigerian stock exchange (nse). the study made use of data obtained from the audited financial reports of the banks for a period of eight years (20102017). population for the study the population of this study covered 5 selected quoted banks listed on the nigerian stock exchange (nse) for the period of 8years (2010-2017).secondary data was extracted from the published financial statements/reports of the organisations as well as the banks' websites. nature/ sources of data secondary data was collected for the purpose of analysis from the published financial statements of the 5 selected quoted banks, uba, first bank, access bank, fidelity bank, zenith bank, listed on the nigerian stock exchange as well as the banks websites. method of data analysis this study adopted the pooled ordinary least square (panel least squares) regression technique to determine the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variables. the choice of the pooled ordinary least squares is mainly because it minimizes the error sum of squares and also it has a number of advantages such as unbiased, consistency, minimum variance and efficiency. this analysis was done by the use of e-views 8 software. model specification model specification is the expression of a relationship into precise mathematical form and then into an econometric form, capturing the effects of stochastic factors. the dependent variable .is financial reporting with its proxies as faithful representation, relevance and timelines while the independent variable also known as predictor variable is accounting standards, with its proxies as ifrs13 and ias18. in order to examine the functional relationship between the variables the model is expressed as follows: functional form dtm = f(rev, fvl) ................ (i). drv = f(rev, fvl) ........................... (ii) dfr = f(rev, fvl) ................. (iii) these are then transformed into mathematical models: ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || dtm = a0+ airev + a2fvl ............... (iv) drv = b0+ bi rev + a2fvl .............. (v) dfr = d0 + ciirev + a2fvl .............. (vi) further transformed into econometrics model: dtm ^ = aoit+ airevit + a2fvljt +//t (vii) drvit = b0it+ birevit + b2fvlit +£it ... (viii) dfr|t—ooit + qi revit+a2fvljt+fiit . .. (ix) where: dtmit=dummy variable for timeliness at time and across banks drvit= dummy variable for relevance at time and across banks dfrit=dummy variable for faithful representation at time and across banks revit= revenue standard (ias 18) at time and across banks fvlit= fair value standard (ifrs 13) at time and across banks u,£,h= error terms a0, bi, a0 = constant results and discussion table ipanel least squares result of accounting (revenue) standards and quality of financial reports (timeliness). dependent variable:' dtm method: panel least squares date: 09/12/18 time: 17:15 sample: 2010 2017 periods included: 8 cross-sections included: 5 totaljjanel (balan ced) obser •vations: 40 variable coeffici ent std. error t statistic prob. c 0.13948 0 0.026055 5.353263 0.0000 rev 0.08415 9' 0.001983 42.44040 0.0000 fvl 0.00508 6 0.001083 4.696937 0.0000 . . effects specificati on ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || cross-section fixed (dummy variables) — r-squared 0v98592 6 mean var dependent 0 .9 5 0 0 adjusted r squared 0.98336 8 s.d. var dependent 0.2207 21 s.e. of regression 0.02846 6 akaike criterion info 4.1225 99 sum squared resid 0.02674 0 schwarz criterion 3.8270 46 log likelihood 89.4519 9 hannan-quinn criter. 4.0157 37 f-statistic 385.301 2 durbin-watson stat 1.3729 40 prob(f-statistic) ° p b o o o o source: eviews 8 computation table 5 above is the panel least squares result for the first model of the implication of accounting standards and quality of financial reports of quoted banks in nigeria. from the table above, it is could be observed that revenue (ias 18) has a positive and significant relationship with timeliness as its coefficient is 0.084159 and its p-value is less than 5% level of significance (0.0000). however, the r-squared and adjusted rsquared are 0.985926 and 0.983368 respectively implying that about 98.33% of changes in timeliness (dtm) is explained by ifrs, while the other percentage is explained by other variables not captured in the model. a further investigation reveals the f-statistics of 385.3012 at a probability level of 0.000 which is lower than 0.05 level of significance shows that the goodness-of-fit of the model is acceptable. although, the durbin-was ton statistic is below the benchmark of 2 but could still be acceptable as it is clpse to 2 (1.372940). hausman test is done to select the appropriate model between the fixed effects and the random effects model. the value of chi-square statistics was 15.427378, chi-square d.f provided a value of 2,with a probability value of 0.0004. the null hypothesis is that the random effects model is appropriate and the alternate hypothesis is that the fixed effects model is appropriate. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || decision rule:if the chi-square probability value is less than 0.05 reject null hypothesis and accept alternate. from the table above it is observed that the chi-square statistics is 15.427378 and its probability value is 0.0004 which is less than 0.05 we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis of fixed effects mode being appropriate. discussion of findings the hypothesis seeks to examine the relationship between accounting standards and qualities of financial reports using e-views 8to test the null hypothesis. statistical evidence proves that the relationship between independent and dependent variables are significant and positive therefore, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternate hypothesis. conclusion in accordance with the research findings of the study, we can therefore conclude that accounting standards has the potential of increasing the quality of financial reports in nigeria. the overall empirical evidence generated from the findings showed that quoted banks do comply with the requirements of the accounting standards at different levels. there is a positive relationship between accounting standards and quality of financial reports of quoted banks in nigeria. recommendations. 0. in the long and short run, there should be enhancement of new standards and review of old standards with would bring about a positive effect on the qualities of financial reports. 1. in order’ to .enhance performance, nigerian banks must maintain adequate compliance with the statements of accounting standard especially those that enhance effective bank performance. 2. the nigerian stock exchange should ensure compliance with the accounting standards by suspending erring banks from trading on the stock exchange market for two consecutive years. 3. there should be regular training and re-training programs organized for staff on efficient and effective preparation of statements of accounts in line with national and international standards. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) solomon egbe * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 06 || issue 12 || december, 2023 || reference adebiyi, a. (2006)institutional or legal framework of financial reporting. the european journal of economics and finance, (221), 8. adekoya, o. (2011). similarities and differences, ifrs and nigeria gaap. lagos: price water house coopers international limited (pncil). ahmed, a. (2011). practical challenges of hrs implementation. "what bank regulators need to know" ifrs international conference nigeria. asika, n. (2009). research methodology in behavioural science, longman nigeria plc. azobu, m. (2010). adoption of ifrs in developing countries. international journal of business and management, 7(3), 155-157. ball, r. (2006). international financial reporting standards (ifrs) pros and cons for investors. accounting and business research-. international accounting policy forum. barry, j. e. (2009). the economic effect of ifrs adoption. the cpa journal. barth, m., landsman, w.r. & lang, m. (2008). international accounting standards and accounting quality. journal of accounting research, 46, 467-498. bello, m. s. (2006).emerging paradigm in financial reporting and the income smoothing behaviour of nigerian banks. nigerian journal of accounting research, (5), 84-94, department of accounting, ahmadu bello university, zaria. beest, f., braanri, g., &boelens, s. (2009). quality of financial reporting: measuring qualitative characteristics. nice. blanchette, m. &desfleurs, a. (2011). critical perspectives on the implementation of ifrs in canada. journal of global business administration, 3(1), 1-35. blanchette, m., racicot, f.e. & girard, j.y. (2011). the effects of ifrs on financial ratios: early evidence in canada. cga-canada, 55. canadian institute of chartered accountants (cica). (2009). the cica's guide to ifrs in canada. cica, 462-473. ijo journals volume 06 | issue 12 | december 2023 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/bm/index 31 accounting standard and quality of financial reports of quoted deposit money banks in nigeria solomon egbe abstract key words: timeliness. relevance. faithful representation.quoted deposit money banks. introduction literature review accounting standards quality of financial reports empirical reviews population for the study nature/ sources of data method of data analysis model specification functional form results and discussion discussion of findings conclusion recommendations. reference ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi jackline njeri murimi, chuo kikuu cha tom mboya na jude muli mukuta, chuo kikuu cha mount kenya ikisiri masuala ibuka ni mambo yanayoangaziwa na kupewa kipau mbele katika jamii ya leo na aghalabu yalipuuzwa katika miaka ya zamani. fasihi kama zao la wakati hubadilika jinsi jamii inavyobadilika ili iyamulike masuala mapya yanayoibuka katika jamii husika. masuala haya ni pamoja na usawa katika jamii, haki za binadamu na mengine mengi. utafiti huu umelenga kuonyesha jinsi haki za watoto zinavyokiukwa katika fasihi kupitia riwaya mbili teule ambazo ni:chozi la heri (2017) ya assumpta k.matei na nguu za jadi (2021) ya clara momanyi. ili kukamilisha lengo hili kuu, malengo mahususi matatu yalizingatiwa.malengo hayo ni pamoja na; kujadili jinsi ukiukaji wa haki za watoto unavyojitokeza katika riwaya teule,kutathmini madhara yanayotokana na ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya teule na kuchanganua njia mbadala zinazoweza kutumika ili kuondoa ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika jamii. utafiti huu uliongozwa na nadharia ya uhalisia ambapo mihimili ya nadharia hii ilitusaidia kufikia malengo ya utafiti huu.utafiti huu ulichukua muundo wa kimaelezo. data ilikusanywa kule maktabani pale ambapo riwaya teule zilisomwa pamoja na tasnifu mbalimbali ili kurutubisha utafiti. data ilichanganuliwa kwa njia ya kimaelezo kwa kuzingatia malengo na maswali ya utafiti pamoja na nadharia ya uhalisia.uteuzi wa kimakusudi ulitumika katika utafiti huu kuteua riwaya ya chozi la heri na nguu za jadi. utafiti huu utasaidia katika kuibua mapendekezo ambayo yatasaidia watengenezaji sera wanaojihusisha na suala la ukiukaji wa haki dhidi ya watoto,vilevile,utafiti huu utakuwa na mchango mkubwa katika taaluma ya elimu kwani utaihamasisha jamii kuhusu dhima ya fasihi ikiwemo kuyamulika matatizo yanayotokea katika jamii na kuyatafutia suluhu. zaidi ya hayo, utafiti huu utawanufaisha waandishi wa kazi za fasihi kwani utawasaidia katika kutambua masuala nyeti katika jamii na namna ya kuyatatua. usuli wa mada fasihi ni sanaa inayotumia lugha kwa ubunifu wa juu ili kuelezea ujuzi wa viwango mbalimbali vya wanajamii anamoishi msanii. njogu na chimerah (1999),wanadai kwamba,kazi za fasihi huwasilisha mivutano, mikinzano, hali na maingiliano mbalimbali ya maisha ya mwanadamu na mazingira anamoishi. msanii yeyote wa kazi ya fasihi huchota jumla ya mawazo anayotaka kuangazia kulingana na hali halisi za kisasa zinazomzunguka kiteknolojia,kiuchumi na kitamaduni.ni kupitia kazi hizi ambapo tunapata taswira kamili ya jamii.kwa jumla,fasihi kama sanaa ni zao halisi la jamii na haiwezi ibuka kutoka ombwe tupu.masuala yanayoibuliwa katika ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi chozi la heri ya assumpta k. matei na katika nguu za jadi ya clara momanyi haswa suala la ukiukaji wa haki dhidi ya watoto ni taswira kamili ya jamii ya kisasa. hunt (1994) anaeleza kuwa mtoto ni kiumbe ambaye bado hajakomaa kiakili na umri wake upo chini ya miaka kumi na minane.mtoto anafaa kulindwa dhidi ya dhuluma za aina yoyote.kulingana na katiba ya kenya (2010) mtoto ni mwanadamu yeyote aliye na umri wa chini ya miaka kumi na minane.vilevile,shirika la afya duniani (who) linamsawiri mtoto kama mtu ambaye umri wake uko chini ya miaka kumi na tisa. kila mtoto, bila kujali umri wake,rangi,jinsia au mahali alipozaliwa ana haki.haki hizi zimewekwa katika sheria za kimataifa katika mkataba wa haki za mtoto (crc).mkataba huu unatambua kwamba watoto wote lazima watendewe haki kwa usawa na kwa utu.sheria za mkataba wa haki za mtoto hazina ubaguzi na huwa kwa manufaa ya mtoto kila mara.haki hizi zinajuimsha haki ya kujieleza na kutoa maoni,haki ya usawa,afya,elimu,mazingira safi,mahali salama pa kuishi na kulindwa dhidi ya kila aina ya madhara.haki hizi zimeainishwa katika mkataba wa umoja wa mataifa wa haki za mtoto wa 1989 (uncrc), mkataba wa haki za binadamu ulioidhinishwa zaidi duniani. haki za watoto ni mojawapo ya masuala ibuka ambayo yamekuwa wakishughulikiwa na waandishi mbalimbali haswa katika karne hii ya ishirini na moja.kwa kipindi kirefu,watoto wamekuwa wakipuuzwa katika jamii na haki zao kukiukwa jambo ambalo limewapata waandishi mbalimbali hamu ya kumlika suala hili kupitia kazi zao za fasihi. aries 1962 na radbill 1968 wanadai kuwa ushahidi wa kihistoria unaonyesha kwamba,ukiukaji wa haki za watoto umekuwepo tangu mwanzo.watoto wamekuwa wakidhulumiwa na asasi mbalimbali za jamii zikiwemo utamaduni na dini.madai haja yanaungwa mkono na (burges 1979) anayesema kwamba, wazazi wamekuwa wakiwadhulumu watoto wao kwa muda mrefu sana.wakati wa zamani, nchini roma na jamii nyingi za kiafrika ziliwasawiri watoto kama mali ya wazazi wao pale ambapo watoto hawa waliweza kuuawa au kutendewa maovu na wazazi wao bila kuchukuliwa hatua yoyote ya sheria (cicchetti 1980).wazazi wengi hupata motisha ya kuwadhulumu watoto wao kwa madai kuwa biblia inapendekeza adhabu kali itolewe kwa watoto kama njia ya kuwaokoa kutokana na moto (methali 23:13-14). ukiukaji wa haki dhidi ya watoto,limekuwa tatizo sugu ambalo limesababisha kukatizwa kwa ndoto za watoto wengi duniani haswa kutokana na mahusiano ya kimapenzi pale ambapo wengi wao haswa wasichana hupata ujauzito na kuishia kuwacha shule.ripoti zimetolewa na mashirika mbalimbali kuhusu suala hili la mimba za mapema na mahusiano ya kimapenzi.kwa mfano, kutokana na data ya utafiti ya shirika la afya duniani (who, 2013) ni wazi kwamba, watoto wa kike hususan milioni kumi na sita ambao umri wao upo kati ya miaka kumi na tano hadi kumi na tisa na hata wengine ambao umri wao upo chini ya miaka kumi na mitano huathirika sana na mimba za mapema kila mwaka.idadi hii ni kubwa zaidi,tatizo ambalo linafaa kutafutiwa suluhu. kule afrika mashariki,ni wazi kwamba asilimia kubwa ya watoto hulazimishiwa ndoa za mapema.kutokana na taarifa ya shirika la umoja wa mataifa la kuhudumia watoto (unicef,2017),sudan kusini iliongoza kwa idadi ya juu zaidi ikiwa na asilimia 52,ikifuatwa na uganda ikiwa na asilimia 40,tanzania asilimia 28 na kenya asilimia 23.kuozwa kwa mtoto wa ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kike akiwa angali mdogo ni ukiukaji wa haki dhidi ya watoto tendo ambalo limechangia mimba za mapema. vilevile,licha ya maendeleo mengi katika miongo ya hivi karibuni,mamilioni ya watoto bado wanaishi bila haki zao za kimsingi.ulimwenguni, inakadiriwa kuwa watoto milioni mia nane wanaishi katika maeneo tete na yaliyoathiriwa na migogoro ambapo haki za watoto hukiukwa na watoto kuingizwa katika unyonyaji na utumwa(de young, kenardy na cobham 2011).kulingana na ripoti ya shirika la umoja wa mataifa la kuhudumia watoto (unicef) iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2022, kati ya mwaka wa 2005 na 2020, visa zaidi ya elfu mia mbili sitini na sita vya ukiukaji wa haki za watoto viliripotiwa barani afrika,asia,mashariki ya kati na amerika kusini.kutokana na ripoti hiyo, watoto laki moja walidhibitishwa kulemazwa, watoto elfu tisini wameajiriwa ili kutumikia jeshi,wengine kutekwa nyara,kubakwa na mengine mengi. hata hivyo, waandishi wa kazi za fasihi wamelishughulikiwa suala hili kwa kiasi fulani.katika kazi yake kavuria (2008), dhuluma dhidi ya watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili,alitoa maelezo kuhusu unyanyasaji wa kimapenzi kama aina moja ya dhuluma za watoto.alielezea zaidi kuwa, watoto wanapodhulumiwa kimapenzi mara nyingi haki huwa haipatikani kwani kesi zao hutupiliwa mbali. kwa mujibu wa kiarie (2005), ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika jamii ya leo husababishwa na tamaduni duni, msukumo wa wanarika na matumizi mabaya ya mitandao ya kijamii. hivyo basi, fasihi ya kiswahili hutumiwa na waandishi mbalimbali kama kurunzi ili kuyamulika mambo jinsi yalivyo katika jamii.kwa sababu hii, utafiti wetu ulijikita katika ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya mbili kuu za kiswahili;chozi la heri (2017) ya assumpta k. matei na nguu za jadi (2021) ya clara momanyi. tatizo la utafiti ukiukaji wa haki za watoto limekuwa ni donda sugu katika jamii kwa muda mrefu sasa.kila mtoto, bila kujali umri wake,rangi,jinsia au mahali alipozaliwa ana haki.haki hizi zimewekwa katika sheria za kimataifa katika mkataba wa haki za mtoto (crc).mkataba huu unatambua kwamba watoto wote lazima watendewe haki kwa usawa na kwa utu.sheria za mkataba wa haki za mtoto hazina ubaguzi na huwa kwa manufaa ya mtoto kila mara.haki hizi zinajumuisha haki ya kujieleza na kutoa maoni,haki ya usawa,afya,elimu,mazingira safi,mahala salama pa kuishi na kulindwa dhidi ya kila aina ya madhara.haki hizi zimeainishwa katika mkataba wa umoja wa mataifa wa haki za mtoto wa 1989 (uncrc), mkataba wa haki za binadamu ulioidhinishwa zaidi duniani. kulingana na ripoti ya shirika la umoja wa mataifa la kuhudumia watoto (unicef) iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2022, kati ya mwaka wa 2005 na 2020, visa zaidi ya elfu mia mbili sitini na sita vya ukiukaji wa haki za watoto viliripotiwa barani afrika,asia,mashariki ya kati na amerika kusini.kutokana na ripoti hiyo, watoto laki moja walidhibitishwa kulemazwa,watoto elfu tisini wameajiriwa ili kutumikia jeshi,wengine kutekwa nyara,kubakwa na mengine mengi.watoto ni amali muhimu ya jamii na hivyo ni wahusika wakuu katika fasihi ambayo ni kioo cha jamii.wanapoathirika bila shaka jamii kwa ujumla inaathirika.utafiti huu hivyo basi unanuia kulizama tatizo hili kwa kuangazia ukiukaji wa haki dhidi ya watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kama kipengele cha uhalisia, ambapo uhalisia katika maandishi ya kiubunifu hutumika kuendeleza maudhui mbalimbali ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya zachozi la heri na nguu za jadi mauaji kuua ni hali ya kutoa uhai wa kiumbe au mtu.haki ya kuishi inatokana na imani kwamba kila binadamu ana haki ya kuishi na haswa,hapaswi kuuawa na mtu au kitu kingine,ikiwa pamoja na serikali.kulingana na cucchetti 1989, nchini roma,wakati wa zamani pamoja na jamii nyingi za kiafrika, watoto walisawiriwa kama mali ya wazazi wao na wangeweza kuwatendea maovu mbalimbali na hata kuwaua bila kuchukuliwa hatua yoyote ya kisheria.vilevile, katika biblia, kuna visa mbalimbali vya mauaji ya watoto vilivyonakiliwa katika kitabu cha mathayo 2:16 na kutoka 1:15.kutokana na vitabu hivi, kiongozi angetoa amri ya kuwaua watoto hata bila kupingwa na jamii. riwayani, mauaji ya watoto yametokea pale ambapo mzee kedi analiteketeza jumba la ridhaa kutokana na tofauti zao za kisiasa.hii ni baada ya kutawazwa kwa kiongozi mpya mwekevu ambaye alipingwa na wengi ila ridhaa alimuunga mkono.wanaoangamia katika mkasa ule wa moto ni mjukuu wa ridhaa kwa jina becky,tila na mukeli bintize ridhaa.haya yanajitokeza kupitia kauli ifuatayo;”sasa ridhaa anatazamana na majivu ambayo bila shaka ni miili ya wanawe wawili,mkewe, mkaza mwanawe na mjukuu wake, becky” (uk 5).utafiti huu unaendana sambamba na taarifa iliyochapishwa mnamo januari 28,2008 na jeffrey gettleman.kutokana na taarifa hiyo, vurugu za kikabila ziliongezeka nchini kenya baada ya kuchaguliwa kwa kiongozi mpya na maafisa wa polisi walisema takriban watu kumi na tisa wakiwemo watoto kumi na mmoja walichomwa hadi kufa ndani ya nyumba na kundi la watu.hata jeshi la kenya lililotumwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuzuia wapinzani kushambuliana, lilishindwa kusitisha wimbi la mauaji ya kulipiza kisasi. vilevile, umati uliodai kuwa lemi kamwibia mama mmoja simu unamteketeza lemi vibaya.haya yanadhihirika katika usimulizi wa dick kisa ambacho anakitamba akilini mwake.katika kisa hiki,tindi dadake lemi anakwenda naye katika sherehe ili kusherehekea siku ya kuzaliwa kwa lemi.sherehe ilianza vyema,mtoto akala shibe yake,kisha akamwambia dadake waende nyumbani kwani usiku ulikuwa mpevu ila tindi alimwambia kuwa ilikuwa mapema na amwache asakate midundo miwili kisha waondoke.lemi alipelekwa kwenye chumba cha kutazamia runinga ili kusetiriwa asione asiyostahili kuona.binti yule aliingia uwanjani na kusakata midundo bila kujali mpito wa wakati,wala mtoto aliyekuwa chumbani peke yake.asubuhi jua lilipotaka kuchomoza tindi alimshika mnuna wake mkono wakaelekea nyumbani.hatua chache kabla ya lemi na dadake kufika kwao kulitokea vurumai pale ambapo mama mmoja ambaye alikuwa ameraukia matwana ya kumpeleka kazini alikuwa akipinga ukemi,amenyang’anywa rununu yake akawa anakimbia kuelekea walikokuwa lemi na dadake kwa msaada pasi na kujua alikuwa akiwaelekezea balaa.umati wa watu uliokuwa umesikia kamsa ya mama huyu uliwaelekea kina lemi na kutaka kuwavaa mawe na tairi.dadake alikimbia na kumwacha lemi ambaye alisalimiwa kwa mawe na mateke.baadaye alivikwa tairi kiunoni na kumwagiwa petroli na kutiwa moto (uk 120-122). kutokana na utafiti huu ni wazi kwamba watoto wanadhulumiwa haswa kwa madai ya wizi yasiyokuwa na ushahidi kisha kuchomwa na kupokonywa haki yao ya kuishi. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi dhuluma za kimapenzi kulingana na sneddon (2003), unyanyasaji wa mapenzi hutokea wakati mtoto anashirikishwa ngono.inaweza kujumuisha mtu mzima kutumia mtoto ili kujiridhisha kimapenzi.baadhi ya tabia za kujihusisha kimapenzi kati ya mtoto na mtoto au kati ya mtoto na mtu mzima huzingatiwa kuwa unyanyasaji wa kimapenzi.tabia hizi zinaweza kuhusisha mguso wa mwili na usio wa mwili kama vile kufichua sehemu za siri na matumizi ya maneno ya kushawishi mtoto kingono. mfano wa dhuluma za kimapenzi ni ubakaji.kubaka ni kitendo cha kushirikiana kimapaenzi au ngono na mtu bila hiari yake kwa kutumia nguvu.watoto ambao ni mali ya taifa ya nchi yetu wanahitaji kutunzwa na kulindwa kwani kuna ongezeko kubwa la ukiukaji wa haki zao za msingi.ubakaji au unyanyasaji wa kijinsi kwa watoto (csa) ni miongoni mwa aina za kutisha za ukiukaji wa haki zao.madhara ya unyanyasaji wa kijinsia kwa watoto huacha kovu kubwa ndani yao pale ambapo ustawi wao katika utu uzima huweza kusumbuliwa pakubwa.ripoti zinazotokana na vyombo vya habari na mijadala kuhusu unyanyasaji wa kijinsia kwa watoto zinaonyesha ongezeko la kitendo hiki kiovu ambacho kinahitaji kuchunguzwa kwa haraka.kazi za fasihi pia zimetumika kulimulika jambo hili kupitia waandishi mbalimbali.kwa mfano; assumpta k.matei katika riwaya yake chozi la heri amedhihirisha ubakaji katika dondoo hili;”baadaye genge hili la la mabarobaro watano lilifululiza hadi walipokuwa maskini mabinti wangu wawili, lime na mwanaheri.sikuweza kuvumilia kuona unyama waliotendewa.nilijaribu kwa jino na ukucha kuwaokoa lakini likawa suala la mume nguvuze! mahasimu hawa walitekeleza unyama wao na kuniacha bila kunigusa,niuguze majeraha ya moyo”(uk 25). kutokana na dondoo hili,lime na mwanaheri ni wahadhiriwa wa kitendo hiki cha ubakaji.wawili hawa ni wanawe kaizari.kaizari anamsimulia ridhaa katika kambi ya wakimbizi jinsi wanawe walivyobakwa na mabarobaro watano baada ya nchi ya wahafidhina kumtawaza kiongozi mwanamke.uhafidhina unawafanya baadhi kutokubali uamuzi huu.kaizari anaelezea kuwa, siku ya nane baada ya mapinduzi walisikia hodi mlangoni.mkewe subira alisalimiwa kwa kofi kubwa kisha akaulizwa wapi kile kidume chako kijoga ambacho kimetuuza kwa kumpigia kura mwekevu. ubakaji huu wa lime na mwanaheri unaonyesha jinsi tamaa ya uongozi inavyosambaratisha mshikamano wa kijamii.vijana wanatumiwa na viongozi kuendeleza njama zao ovu badala ya kuuwajibisha uongozi. vilevile,sauna anabakwa na bwana maya, baba yake wa kambo.kitendo hiki kinadhihirika kupitia dondoo lifuatalo;”mlaani shetani” sauna aliumbia moyo wake... “fikiria wewe, u kigoli, kifua ndio kinaanza kuvuvumka, kisha unaamka usiku kumpata baba yako, ba-ba-ya-ko, kwenye chumba chako cha malazi.anakutenda ya kutendwa.asubuhi huna hata uso wa kumtazamia yeyote,wala kinywa cha kumwambia mama yako kuhusu feli uliyotendewa”(uk 154). katika dondoo hili, sauna anazungumza moja kwa moja na moyo wake kana kwamba ni binadamu mwazake.sauna anaulalamikia moyo wake kuonyesha masikitiko aliyonayo baada ya kuvunjiwa heshima na baba yake wa kambo.kupitia maneno haya, ni wazi kwamba kitendo hiki cha ubakaji kinamsababishia sauna uchungu moyoni kitendo ambacho anakikashifu.kubakwa kwa sauna kunaonyesha jinsi kinababa wa kambo wanavyowadhulumu wanao wa kike badala ya ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kuwalinda.kauli hii inaendana moja kwa moja na utafiti wa sara scott,2023 septemba anapodai kuwa baba na baba wa kambo ndio jamaa wanaopatikana na hatia zaidi ya unyanyasaji wa kingono wa watoto katika familia.anaeleza kuwa,kutokana na kesi nyingi zinazoripotiwa ni wazi kwamba, wahalifu waliohukimiwa kwa kosa la ubakaji wa watoto asilimia kubwa ya wahalifu hao ni watu wa familia haswa kina baba wa kambo. vilevile,mwalimu fumba anamdhulumu mwanafunzi wake rehema kimapenzi.fumba anahusiana kimapenzi na mwanafunzi wake rehema kisha kumtunga mimba (uk 102103).pia,mwanaharakati analalamikia kulawitiwa kwa wavulana.katika usemi anauliza kuwa “lakini ni wangapi wanaokumbuka kuwa hata maghulamu wanalawitiwa?”(uk.17).vilevile,katika nguu za jadi,wasichana wadogo wanazalishwa wakiwa bado hawajatimiza umri wa kujitwika majukumu kama hayo (uk.137-138).hili linajitokeza kupitia taswira anayochora mwandishi kuhusu watoto wenye umri mdogo. ndoa za mapema na za lazima ndoa ya mapema ni ndoa ya kulazimishwa ya mtoto, ambaye kwa kawaida hufafanuliwa kama mtu aliye chini ya umri wa miaka kumi na minane (encyclopedia of violence,peace & conflict toleo la tatu, 2022).ndoa za mapema hutokana na ukosefu wa usawa wa jinsia pale ambapo mtoto wa kike ndiye huathirika zaidi ikilinganishwa na yule wa kiume.vilevile, ndoa za mapema zimethihirishwa katika chozi la heri kupitia mhusika pete ambaye alilazimishwa kuolewa kama mke wa nne kwa mzee fungo.licha ya rai za nyanya yake kwamba aachwe afuatilie elimu, maneno hayo yaliangukia masikio yaliyotiwa uziwi kwani mama na ndugu zake pete walikuwa wameamua kumuoza pete kwani waliamini kuwa alikuwa ashaingia utuuzima baada ya kupashwa tohara.haya yanathihirika kupitia dondoo lifuatalo; “maisha yangu yalichukua mkondo mwingine nilipojiunga na darasa la saba.katika jamii yangu, inaamiwa kuwa msichana akiisha kupashwa tohara, ameingia utuuzima, hivyo ataipaka familia yake tope ikiwa ataendelea kuozea kwao bila mume.wajomba zangu hawakuchelea kupokea posa na baadaye mahari kutoka kwa buda mmoja ambaye alinioa kama mke wa nne” (148). kutokana na dondoo hili,tunagundua kwamba, pete anaozwa akiwa na umri mdogo kwani alikuwa katika darasa la saba.pete anaozwa kama mke wa nne kwa mzee fungo.ndoa hii ya pete kwa mzee fungo inasababishwa na imani potovu za jamii ile pale ambapo wanaamini kwamba wakati msichana anapashwa tohara anafaa kuolewa. kukatizwa elimu kila mtoto ana haki ya kupata elimu.elimu ni taaluma inayomsaidia mwanadamu kujiendeleza kimaarifa na kiutafiti.kwa mujibu wa meyer (1977), elimu ni asasi iliyo na athari ya kuendeleza mitagusano ya watu katika jamii.elimu huwafanya watu kujitegemea na kujikomboa kimawazo.elimu huwapa vijana maadili na maarifa ifaayo katika jamii kwani baadae vijana hawa huweza kuajiriwa au kujiajiri.elimu ni suala muhimu sana miongoni mwa vijana kwani huwatoa katika hali duni ya maisha.kulingana na taarifa ya shirika la umoja wa mataifa la kuhudumia watoto (unicef 2023) kila mtoto ana haki ya kupata elimu bila kujali asili yake,jinsia au kabila. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi vilevile, waandishi mbalimbali wa kazi za fasihi za kiswahili wameliangazia suala hili.kwa mfano,assumpta k matei ameliwasilisha suala hili kupitia mhusika pete.pete anakatiziwa elimu yake akiwa darasa la saba.pete analazimishwa kuolewa na mzee fungo kwa hofu kuwa ataipaka familia yake tope ikiwa ataendelea kuozea kwao bila mume licha ya nyanya yake kupinga kitendo cha mama na wajomba wake kumwoza kabla ya kukamilisha elimu. hili linathihirika kupitia dondoo lifuatalo; “huyu mtoto ni mbichi mno,”...’hatuwezi kumkabidhi mzee wetu huyu kifaranga kiteketeke hivi, tutakuwa tunampangaza ulezi.isitoshe, pete mwenyewe ana hamu kuu ya kufuatilia elimu, tumwache aizime kiu yake.akiisha kutimiza maazimio yake,atajichagulia kijana mwenzake wafunge nakidi’ (uk 148). kutokana na dondoo hili, elimu ya pete inakatizwa ili aozwe kwa mzee fungo.ingawa pete ana hamu kuu ya kufuatilia elimu, tamaduni na imani potovu zinamfanya kukatiziwa elimu yake akiwa darasa la saba.mara nyingi, ndoa huthaminiwa sana kuliko elimu.elimu kwa wasichana hupewa thamani ya chini . vilevile, mhusika zohali analazishwa kuacha masomo yake baada ya kupata ujauzito akiwa katika kidato cha pili.katika masimulizi yake anaeleza kuwa, maisha yake yalianza kwenda tenge alipojiunga na kidato cha pili.anazidi kueleza kwamba, hali ya mtafaruku wa hisia iliyowapata vijana katika umri huo aliikumbatia kwa papara za ujana ndipo akajipata ameambulia ujauzito.mwalimu mkuu alitoa hukumu kwamba zohali arejeshwe nyumbani na baada ya kujifungua wazazi wake wamtafutie shule nyingine.hili linathihirika kupitia dondoo ifuatayo; “dadake zohali,samahani sana lakini uchunguzi unabainisha kwamba zohali ni mjamzito.nimekuita hapa ili uweze kumrejesha nyumbani.akijifungua wazazi wake wanaweza kumtafutia shule nyingine” (uk 99). kutokana na dondoo hili, mwalimu mkuu alitoa hukuma kwa zohali kurejeshwa nyumbani baada ya kuambulia ujauzito na baadaye kutafutiwa shule nyingine akishaajifungua.kutokana na hukumu hii ya mwalimu mkuu ni wazi kwamba zohali anakatiziwa masomo yake.vilevile, ami za lucia na akelo wanapinga elimu yao na kudai kuwa kuwaelimisha wasichana ni kufisidi rasilimali.hili linathihirika kupitia kauli ifuatayo; “...si nyinyi mliokuwa hata mkipinga elimu ya mabinti hawa? hamkusema kwamba kuwapeleka shuleni ni kufisidi rasilimali?” (uk 66) kutokana na kauli hii ni wazi kuwa, ami za lucia na akelo hawamthamini mtoto wa kike na elimu yake.kwao kumsomesha msichana ni kuifisidi rasilimali ajira kwa watoto ajira kwa watoto hurejelea unyonyaji wa watoto kupitia aina yoyote ya kazi ambayo inawanyima utoto wao,inaingilia uwezo wao wa kuhudhuria shule ya kawaida na inawadhuru kimwili,kiakili,kimaadili na kijamii. ripoti ya shirika la kazi duniani ya mwaka 2021 inaonyesha jumla ya watoto milioni 3.3 wako katika hali ya kutumikishwa kwa ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kulazimishwa.vilevile, katika riwaya ya chozi la heri,ajira kwa watoto imeendelezwa kupitia wahusika kama vile sauna pale ambapo mhusika huyu anaajiriwa kwenye machimbo ya mawe,kuuza maji na hata pombe baani.hii ni baada ya kupoteza matumaini na hamu ya kuendeleza masomo yake baada ya kuhujumiwa kimapenzi na kihisia.suala hili linathihirika kupitia dondoo ifuatayo; “nimefanya kazi katika machimbo ya mawe, nimewahudumia waungwana kwa namna zote katika majumba ya kuuzia pombe, nimeuza maji ya mito na madimbwi yaliyotiwa kwenye chupa zenye vibandiko vya kuvutia, ati ni mineral water...” (uk 156). vilevile chandachema anahusishwa katika ujira wa uchunaji wa majani chai akiwa mtoto wa darasa la tano kwenye shirika la chai la tengenea.chandachema alianza kuchuna majanichai kwa malipo kidogo ili kuwatua bi.kimai na bw.tenge mzigo wa kumnunulia sare na madaftari.hili linathihirika kupitia kauli ifuatayo; “nilianza kuchuna majanichai kwa malipo kidogo nikiwa katika darasa la tano.wakati mwingine ningerauka alfajiri na mapema kufanya kazi kabla ya kwenda shuleni saa kumi na mbili asubuhi”(uk 106-107). vilevile,katika nguu za jadi,ajira kwa watoto inadhihirika kupitia vitendo vya sihaba.sihaba anawaajiri wasichana wadogo kufanya biashara ya ukahaba ili ajinufaishe kifedha.hili linadhihirika kupitia kauli ifuatayo;sihaba alitupwa korokoroni asubiri mashtaka ya kuwaajiri watoto wadogo kufanya biashara ya ukahaba(uk 143).sihaba aliendeleza biashara hii kwa muda mrefu jambo ambalo lilijulikana na wengi ila waliogopa kutoa habari hii kwani walimwogopa sihaba sana.hivyo, wakamwacha kuendeleza hujuma yake. ni haki ya watoto kulindwa dhidi ya unyanyasaji wa kiuchumi na ajira ambayo inatatiza ukuaji wao kimaadili,kiakili na kiafya.ni jukumu la serikali kutoa masharti ya kazi.nchini kenya, watoto wengi huajiriwa katika mashamba ya majani chai, kahawa, migodi na mikonge ambao umri wao upo chini ya miaka kumi na sita.watoto hawa hupokea ujira mdogo usioweza kuyakidhi mahitaji yao licha ya kazi za sulubu wanazofanya. watoto kutelekezwa na wazazi wao kutelekeza mtoto hufafanuliwa kama kutofaulu kwa mzazi au mtu mwingine mwenye wajibu kwa mtoto kumpa chakula kinachohitajika,mavazi,makazi,matibabu na ustawi unaostahili (benedictis na wengineo 2006).kutowatelekeza watoto huwasaidia kukua vyema.wajibu wa wazazi kuwafunza watoto wao maadili mema hutokea wakati huu.watoto ambao hawatunzwi vyema katika utoto wao huishia kukosa maadili mema na wengi wao huingilia matendo maovu (ciccheti 1983).kuwaonyesha watoto mapenzi ili wahisi wako salama ni mojawapo ya utunzaji wa watoto. katika riwaya ya chozi la heri, pete anatelekezwa na mama yake mzazi.pete analelewa na bibi mzaa mama yake baada ya mtafaruku kati ya baba na mama yake kutokea.pete anapata kujua kuwa chanzo cha mama yake kumtelekeza kwa kwa nyanya yake ni kuwa hakuwa na mshabaha na baba yake.katika usimulizi wake, pete anasema; ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi “mara tu macho yangu makinda yalipoanza kuutambua ulimwengu,nilijipata kwenye boma la bibi mzaa mama,kisa na maana, kumetokea mtafaruku fulani kati ya baba na mama.sijui ni mtafaruku wa aina gani, ila katika pitapita zangu kijijini mwa bibi, alitokea domo kaya fulani akaninong’onezea kwamba sikuwa na mshabaha hata chembe na baba” (uk 147). kutelekezwa kwa pete na mamaye kunapelekea pete kukosa vitu vya kimsingi.kwa mfano, pete anakosa sodo baada ya kukabiliana ana kwa ana na hedhi yake ya kwanza jambo ambalo linamfanya nyanya yake kumtafutia tambara la blanketi kwani ndilo lilikuwa fimbo ya karibu. vilevile, subira mkewe kaizari anawatelekeza wanawe.subira baada ya kutofautiana na mavyaa zake anaondoka na kuwaacha lime na mwanaheri bila kujali huzuni atakayowasababishia.mwanaheri anaeleza kuwa,mama yake alitoka katika jamii ya bamwezi jambo lililomsababishia mama yake kuchukuliwa kama mgeni katika boma yao na hata kijijini chao.anaeleza kuwa, “haikuwa ibra kumsikia nyanya yao akimrejelea mama yao subira kama múki,yaani ‘huyo wa kuja’na kusema kwamba msichana wa bamwezi, hata akiwa na umri wa miaka tisini ni msichana wa bamwezi tu”(uk 94).maneno hayo ya nyanya yake mwanaheri yalikuwa ya kumkumbusha subira kwamba yeye hakuwa wa ukoo hule. vilevile, riwayani, vitoto vidogo vinatelekezwa na mama zao baada ya kuzaliwa.haya yanatokea pale ambapo baada ya kuzaliwa vitoto hivi vinatupwa.neema anamwokoa mtoto aliyetupwa jalalani na kumpeleka kwenye kituo cha polisi.neema anasimulia na kusema, “nilipokaribia biwi hili, nilisikia sauti fulani dhaifu mawazoni mwangu, ‘ng’aa! ng’aa!’niliipuuza sauti hii, nikidhani kuwa huu ni mwangwi wa sauti ya kitoto cha jirani yangu ambacho kilikuwa na mazoea ya kulia usiku kucha.mara sauti hiyo ilisikika tena, ikanituma kutazama kando.hapo hapo katikati mwa kilima hiki cha taka, niliona karatasi ya sandarusi ikifurukuta katikati ya fondogoo la kila aina.kufurukuta huku kuliandamana na kilio kile hafifu...”(uk 161).aidha, mtawa cizarina anasema kwamba “kuna mtoto aliyetupwa langoni mwa kituo cha watoto cha benefactor akiwa amefungwa kijiblanketi kikuukuu” (uk 162). kutokana na suala hili, ni wazi kwamba binadamu amezika hadhi na utakatifu wa maisha ya mja katika kaburi la sahau.utafiti huu unaenda sambamba na ule wa (kalume 2014) anapoeleza kwamba kitoto cha siku moja kilipatikana katika biwi la taka kule lamu.anayefanya kitendo kile anashtumiwa na wananchi.kitoto kile kinapelekwa katika kituo cha kuvilea vitoto vilivyotelekezwa. vilevile, babake kairu anamtelekeza kairu kwani hamsaidii mkewe katika malezi jambo ambalo halimpi amani kairu katika masomo yake.hili linatokea baada ya mama yake kairu kuhusiana kimapenzi na baba yake kairu japo ana familia nyingine.kairu anazaliwa nje ya ndoa na kunyimwa nafasi ya kutunzwa na baba yake (uk 93). chandachema anatelekezwa na wazazi wake mwalimu fumba na rehema.chandachema analelewa na nyanya yake baada ya baba yake fumba, kumtelekezea huko.katika usimulizi wake,chandachema anasema kuwa maisha yake yalijaa shubiri tangu utotoni.hakumbuki akimwona mama yake (uk 102|).kutokana na maelezo anayopewa na katini,fumba alimtunga mimba rehema, mama yake chandachema akiwa kidato cha tatu.wazazi wa rehema wanapinga ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi ndoa kati ya rehema na fumba na kumletea fumba mtoto wake alee.fumba anamwacha chandachema alelewe na nyanya hadi kifo cha nyanya yake. vilevile,katika riwaya ya nguu za jadi,mrima anawatelekeza wanawe wawili sayore na kajewa.haya yanatokea baada ya sagilu kumnyemelea na kumzuga mrima kwa kutumia pesa kiasi kwamba mrima anaisahau familia yake huku mangwasha mkewe anaangaika na wanawe peke yake bila baba yao (uk 1).riwayani tunajuzwa kuwa,sagilu anamtaka mangwasha kimapenzi licha ya kujua kwamba msichana huyu alikuwa na mchumba na baada ya kukataliwa anaweka kisasi dhidi yake.mrima anazugwa pesa na sagilu jambo lilnalomfanya kuingilia ulevi hadi kuisahau familia yake.riwayani,tunajuzwa kuwa wana hawa hawakuwa na habari kuhusu baba yao(uk.1).pia,mangwasha mkewe mrima anamweleza rafiki yake mbungulu yote yaliyomsibu.alimweleza jinsi anavyojitwika jukumu la kuwasomesha,kuwalisha na kuwavisha watoto hawa peke yake (uk 29).hivyo,kutokana na utafiti huu,ni wazi kwamba mrima haonekani kujitwika majukumu yake ya unyumba.anakesha na kuamkia ulevini.hana habari tena kuhusu familia yake. kutokana na visa hivi vya kuwatelekeza watoto,ukweli ni kwamba watoto wanaozaliwa nje au ndani ya ndoa wana haki sawa.wazazi wote wanajukumu la kuwashughulikia na kuwatunza wanao iwe wameona au la. ubaguzi wa watoto kumbagua mtu au mtoto kuna maana ya kumtendea mtu huyo kwa njia ambayo haifai au kwa njia tofauti kwa sababu fulani.kulingana na katiba ya kenya ilioidhinishwa 2010 katika kifungu cha 27; kila mtu ni sawa mbele ya sheria na ana haki ya kulindwa na kupata manufaa sawa ya sheria.usawa unajumuisha kupata haki na uhuru wote wa kimsingi kwa njia iliyo kamili na sawa.kutokana na kifungu hiki, mtu hatakuwa na ubaguzi dhidi ya mwingine kwa njia ya moja kwa moja au vinginevyo. vilevile, kifungu cha tano cha sheria ya watoto kinasema kwamba hakuna mtoto anayepaswa kubaguliwa kwa misingi ya asili,jinsia,dini,imani,desturi,lugha,maoni,dhamira,rangi,kuzaliwa kijamii,kisiasa,kiuchumi au hali nyingine.riwayani, pete anabaguliwa na mama na wajomba zake pale ambapo wanamwoza kwa lazima kwa mzee fungo kama mke wa nne.wanafanya hivi ili wapewe mahari itakayotumiwa kuwaelimisha ndugu zake watano wa kiume.hili linadhihirika kupitia kauli ya mzee fungo anapomwuliza pete,”utawezaje kujitunza wewe na mtoto wako na hali bibi yako ndiye huyo,hana hanani,na wazazi wako walafi walikuuza kwangu ili wapate pesa za kuwasomesha ndugu wako watano wa kiume?” (uk 149). ubaguzi huu kwa pete una msingi wake katika tamaduni ambazo zinamwona mtoto wa kiume kama mrithi wa familia.kitendo anachofanyiwa pete kinatokana na imani ya kitamaduni kwamba watoto wa jinsia moja ni bora kuliko wengine.tamaduni zinazombagua mtoto wa kike zimepitwa na wakati na zinafaa kutupiliwa mbali. utafiti huu unaendana sawia na ule wa dauda (2008), anaposema kwamba ufaulu wa elimu ya mtoto wa kike ni mdogo kwani tafiti zimeonyesha kuwa wasichana wachache wanaenda shuleni kuliko wavulana.alibainisha kuwa hii ni kwa sababu mtoto wa kike hajabahatika kuenziwa, ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kulindwa na kupendwa katika jamii kutokana na mila fulani, imani potofu za kitamaduni na kidini ambazo zinamweka katika hatari ya kunyanyaswa na kutelekezwa. uavyaji mimba uavyaji mimba ni kitendo cha hiari cha kuua mimba kabla ya kijusi kuwa na uwezo wa kuishi.lewis na tamparo (2007) wanadai kuwa, kulingana na kamati ya kitaifa ya kuzuia unyanyasaji wa watoto, zaidi ya watoto elfu moja wanaavywa kila kuchao.dkt.richard krugman wa kituo cha kitaifa cha kuzuia unyanyasaji na utelekezwaji wa watoto wa denver kempe, anaweka idadi hiyo kuwa kubwa zaidi ya mimba zinazoavywa ambayo ni kutoka mimba elfu mbili hadi elfu tano kwa mwaka.tunaweza kujua kwamba, thamani ya nafsi ni kuu machoni pa mungu lakini hali za kisasa na shinikizo za jamii zimepofusha watu wengi kutokana na ujuzi huu wa kina.kwa sababu hiyo, chaguzi zinafanywa ulimwenguni kote ambazo zinapuuza thamani ya uhai wa mwanadamu na mojawapo ni utoaji mimba. vilevile, kulingana na katiba ya kenya kifungu cha 26, kila mtu anahaki ya kuishi.maisha ya mtu huanza baada ya mimba kutungwa.uavyaji mimba hauruhusiwi isipokuwa kwa maoni ya mtaalamu wa masuala ya afya.riwayani, mamake sauna anamsaidia kuavya kitoto chake.anafanya hivi kwa kumwogopa bw.maya ambaye ni baba wa kambo wa sauna aliyemnajisi sauna.jambo hili linadhihirika kupitia dondoo ifuatayo;”...sikuweza kuamini kwamba mama yangu angekuwa amrijeshi wa mauaji.maskini kitoto changu kilitunguliwa kabla hata hakijaumbika” (uk 155). kutokana na suala hili ni wazi kwamba watoto wa kike wananyanyaswa na wazazi wao haswa kina baba wa kambo jambo ambalo linapelekea wao kuwa na ujauzito katika umri mdogo kisha kutafuta suluhu ya ujauzito hule ambayo ni kutungua ile mimba. wizi wa watoto wizi wa watoto ni hatua au desturi ya kupata na kuhamisha watoto kutoka mazingira yao salama kinyume cha sheria kwa madhumuni ya kazi za kuwalazimisha au unyanyasaji wa kingono.wizi wa watoto umekuwa suala la ulimwengu mzima katika miaka michache iliyopita.ingawa hakuna takwimu sahihi zilizopo, mkataba wa ilo(mwaka wa 2005) ulikadiria kuwa watoto 980,000 hadi 1,225,000 wavulana na wasichana wako katika hali ya kulazimishwa kufanya kazi.aina hizi za kazi ni pamoja na usafirishaji wa dawa za kulevya,ajira ya watoto nyumbani,kuhusisha watoto katika ukahaba na zingine nyingi jambo ambalo ni kinyume cha sheria.kulingana na katiba ya kenya, iliyoidhinishwa mwaka wa 2010 katika kifungu cha 30, mtu hatahitajika kufanya kazi ya kulazimishwa. riwayani, assumpta k.matei amelishughulikia suala hili kwa kupitia mhusika sauna na bi.kangara.sauna aliyekuwa kijakazi nyumbani mwa lunga na naomi anawaiba dick na mwaliko.hii ni baada ya naomi mkewe lunga kumwacha lunga na watoto wake baada ya lunga kufilisika.hali hii inamfanya lunga augue shinikizo la damu na hatimaye kufa huku akiwaacha wanawe chini ya ulinzi wa kijakazi yao sauna.sauna anapata upenyu wa kuwaiba dick na mwaliko.sauna anamuuza dick kwa buda pale ambapo buda anamwigiza dick katika matumizi na ulanguzi wa dawa za kulevya.haya yanadhihirika kupitia dondoo ifuatayo;”siku ile baada ya kuibwa na kijakazi sauna,dickson alipelekewa baba mmoja tajiri ambaye alijitia ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kumpeleka shuleni.kumbe alikuwa kapelekwa katika chuo cha kuhitimu kama mvunja sheria!...tajiri wake huyu, kwa lakabu buda,alimfunza mbinu za kujikimu,akamwingiza katika biashara hii (uk 120). vilevile, bi. kangara kupitia kwa juhudi za sauna na wengine, alifanikiwa kupata wasichana wa kuuza katika madanguro,wavulana wa kuwapelekea matajiri ambao walishiriki katika ulanguzi wa dawa za kulevya na wafanyakazi katika makasri ya matajiri na katika mashamba ya mikahawa na michai.aidha, wengine walisafirishwa ughaibuni ambako waliahidiwa kazi na walipofika kule ughaibuni walipata kwamba kazi zenyewe ni za kujidhalilisha (uk 158). watoto kunyimwa haki ya kujua usuli wao na kutagusana na baba zao. taarifa kuhusu asili ya mtu inajumuisha utambulisho wa wazazi wake na hali yake ya kuzaliwa na hata malezi.kila mtoto ana haki ya kupata maelezo kuhusu asili yake ambayo yanaweza kumwongoza kugundua ukweli kuhusu vipengele muhimu vya utambulisho wake wa kibinafsi na kifamilia.katika mkataba wa haki za watoto (crc) kila mtoto ana haki ya utambulisho wake mwenyewe,rekodi rasmi ya yeye ni nani ambayo inajumuisha jina lake,utaifa na mahusiano ya familia.hakuna mtu anafaa kuichukua haki hii kutoka kwake na ikiwa hili litatokea,serikali lazima isaidie mtoto kurejesha utambulisho wake haraka. katika riwaya ya chozi la heri,kairu anaeleza kwamba alipokosa karo aliwahi kumwuliza mama yake kwa nini asimwombe baba,ambaye anasikia ni mwenye chake na lake,amlipie karo.hata hivyo,mama yake huwa hamjibu,anachompa ni mtazamo unaouliza swali,’nitamwambia vipi mtu mwenye familia yake kumkimu mtoto aliyezaliwa nje ya ndoa?’(uk.93).hivyo,kutokana na usemi huu ni wazi kwamba mama yake anajaribu kumwambia kairu kwamba hawezi kumwomba baba yake amlipie karo kwani yeye amezaliwa nje ya ndoa.jmbo hili linamyima kairu haki ya kumjua baba yake mzazi na hata kutagusana naye. vilevile,katika chozi la heri,mama yake kipanga hamwelezi wazi kwamba baba yake mlezi hakuwa baba.katika masimulizi yake pale kituoni cha mwanzo mpya,kipanga yu hospitalini anaponusurika kifo kutokana na kangara iliyowaua watu sabini kutokana na matumizi ya vileo.kipanga anasema kwamba,alianza kuchovya vileo akiwa kidato cha pili baada ya aliyedhania kuwa baba yake kumkana, na kulazimika kuhama alikoita kwao,yeye,mama yake na mnuna wake ambaye alisemekana ndiye mwana halisi wa baba yake.kipanga anasema kwamba lililomuuma zaidi ni kwamba alipomtaka mama yake kumwambia ukweli,mama mtu hakumpa jawabu la kuridhisha.alichosema ni,’yapo mambo ambayo mtu hawi na uso wa kumtazamia mwanawe kwayo.aliyekulea ndiye mzazi wako,mradi tu akubali kuwajibikia ulezi’(uk.143). kutokana na utafiti huu ni wazi kwamba watoto wananyimwa haki ya kujua usuli wao na hasa kutagusana na baba zao haswa wakati ambao wamezaliwa nje ndoa.kuwanyima watoto haki hii kunaweza kuwasababishia matatizo ya kisaikolojia pale ambapo wengi wao huishia kutafuta mbinu mbaya za kukabiliana na tatizo hili kama vile kipanga. madhara yanayotokana na ukiukaji wa haki za watoto ukiukaji wa haki za watoto husababisha anuwai ya athari mbaya kwa mwathiriwa na jamii kwa ujumla. madhara haya yanaweza kuwa ya kijamii na pia yanayoathiri maendeleo ya mtu binafsi. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kukimbia nyumbani watoto wote wanahitaji na wanastahili usalama na hali ya kuhusishwa.kutoroka nyumbani ni ishara kwamba watoto hawapati mahitaji muhimu nyumbani.ili kuepukana na dhuluma zinazomkosesha mtoto utulivu na amani, watoto wengi huonelea ni vyema kukimbia nyumbani na kwenda mahali pengine angalau penye usalama na utulivu.hii ndiyo hatua ya mwisho ambayo mtoto huchukua baada ya juhudi zote za uvumilivu kugonga mwamba. mhusika zohali katika chozi la heri anakimbia nyumbani kwao baada ya baba yake kumdhalilisha baada ya kupata ujauzito akiwa kidato cha pili bila utetezi wowote wa mama yake.zohali anapoona kwamba maisha nyumbani kwao yamekuwa magumu, anatorokea mtaani ambako anaishi maisha duni ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya hadi pale ambapo wenzake wanapompeleka kwenye wakfu wa mama paulina ambapo anapewa hifadhi na kujifungulia hapo.zohali anamdanganya mtawa pacha kwamba ni yatima. katika usimulizi wake, zohali aliwaelezea wenzake madhila aliyoyapitia nyumbani kwao.haya yanathihirika kupitia dondoo ifuatayo;”baba alisema kwamba hakuwa na pesa za kumlipa kijakazi tena.kazi za nyumbani ziliniangukia mimi.si kufua,si kupiga deki,si kupika...almuradi kila siku ilikuwa na adha zake” (uk 101). kutokana na utafiti huu ni wazi kwamba,madhila aliyopitia yalimtia zohali uchungu na unyanyapaa ambao ulimfanya awafishe wazazi wake wakiwa wangali hai.hata hivyo, kupitia usimulizi wake tunapata kujua baba yake alijawa na majuto baadaye na akaanza kumtafuta mara tu baada ya kugubdua ametoroka (uk 101). kutatizika kimasomo unyanyasaji na kutelekezwa kwa watoto huongeza hatari ya watoto kupata matatizo ya kielimu (briere et al.,1996; johnson-reid et al;2004;nikulina et al;2011).watoto ni wanajamii ambao wanapenda kuona haki ikitekelezwa.watoto huwa na imani kwamba,haki ikitekelezwa baadhi ya matatizo kama vile,ubaguzi,dhuluma na maonevu husuluhishwa.aidha palipo na haki pana usawa na amani. fasili kuhusu ndoa za utotoni inasisitiza kwamba, watoto wanapoolewa mapema,elimu yao rasmi mara nyingi hukatizwa.kukatizwa kwa elimu hii huzuia kupata maarifa na ujuzi unaowapa nafasi ya ajira(wiliamson 2012).madhara mbalimbali ya ndoa za utotoni na kuachishwa shule yameonyeshwa pale ambapo waathiriwa wanapata nafasi ndogo za ushiriki na maamuzi na hata hatari ya kufanyiwa vurugu. mhusika pete katika chozi la heri anaozwa kwa mzee fungo akiwa darasa la saba ili mahari itayopatikana iwasomeshe ndugu zake wa kiume tendo linaloashiria ubaguzi.kutokana na ndoa hii ya lazima, masomo ya pete yanafikia kikomo kwani hakufaulu kuizima kiu yake ya elimu (uk 148).katika ndoa yake, pete hana amani kamwe kwani anasema kuwa,”ule unene wake mzee fungo,lile kutuzi lililotoka kwenye makwapa yake makuza na kufudikiza kote chumbani,ule wivu wa mke mwenzangu wa pili,kule kukemewa na kuchekwa na wana wa mke wa kwanza...yote yalininyong’onyeza na kuniumbua” (uk 149). tunaweza kusema kuwa,kama pete hangelazimishwa kuolewa na mzee fungo,angeizima kiu yake ya masomo kwani kutokana na kauli ya nyanya yake ni wazi kwamba pete alikuwa na ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi hamu kuu ya kufuatilia elimu na wakati ambapo angetimiza azimio yake angejichagulia kijana mwenzake wafunge nakidi. ukosefu wa mahitaji ya kimsingi aina nyingine ya athari za ukiukaji wa haki za watoto ni ukosefu wa mahitaji ya kimsingi kwa watoto.makuzi sahihi ya watoto,afya,elimu na ulinzi wa sheria ni mahitaji ya kimsingi ya watoto. riwayani,pete anakosa mahitaji ya kimsingi baada ya mama yake kumtelekezea kwa nyanya yake.katika masimulizi yake,pete anaeleza kuwa hakudiriki kuonja tamu ya kupendwa na wazazi wake.anaendelea na kusema kuwa, hakumbuki hata siku moja akiulizwa kuhusu neema na mashaka yake shuleni.hata baada ya mamake kuona kwamba bibi anamtaka kununua sare nyingine kila baada ya miezi michache,haikumpa kuwaza kuwa kima cha mwanawe kimeanza kuwanda,nayo maumbile yameanza kufanya kazi yake (uk 147). vilevile,pete anakosa sodo baada ya kupata hedhi.anaelezea kwamba, anapata hedhi yake ya kwanza baada ya kuingia darasa la sita.tatizo ni kwamba, hakuwa na mama wala dada wa kumjuza ya kufanya litokeapo la kutokea jambo ambalo linamfanya kumwendea ajuza wake ambaye amejiinamia kwa uzee.kutokana na yale mazoea yao ya jadi, ajuza huyu alimtafutia tambara la blanketi alitumie kama sodo.anazidi kueleza kuwa, tambara lile halikufaa kitu kwani alihitajika kutafuta njia nyingine ya kujikuna ajipatapo. zaidi ya hayo, kutokana na mahangaiko hayo,juma zima lilikuwa limepita kama darasa halijakilimbuka hata kivuli chake (uk 148). vilevile,katika masimulizi yake chandachema ni wazi kwamba baba yake hakuwa akituma mahitaji ya mwanae chandachema baada ya kumtelekeza kwa nyanyake jambo ambalo linamlazimu nyanyake chandachema kutumia kidogo alichokuwa analetewa na dada zake kumtunza yule mtoto (uk 102). hivyo basi, hali ya watoto kukosa mahitaji ya kimsingi ni jambo la kihalisia kulingana na nadharia ya uhalisia.jambo hili hufanyika katika ulimwengu halisi na ulimwengu wa kawaida.watoto waliotelekezwa huteseka sana kutokana na mapuuza ya mahitaji yao.utafiti huu unaenda sambamba na ule wa abashula,jibat na ayele (2014) nchini ethiopia unaobaini kuwa watoto waliotelekezwa na wazazi wao hukumbana na matatizo mengi kama vile kukosa mavazi,elimu,chakula na mahitaji mengine ya kimsingi na ukosefu wa mapenzi ya wazazi huwasababishia msongo wa mawazo. watoto kuishi katika mazingira yasiyokuwa na amani na hatarishi mkataba wa watoto (2001) huwalinda watoto ambao umri wao upo chini ya miaka kumi na minane.watoto hupata haki ya kulindwa na hali ambazo zinayaweka maisha yao hatarini kutoka kwa mkataba huu.watoto waliotelekezwa na wazazi wao huishi katika mazingira ambayo yamejaa changamoto.riwayani,baada ya nyanya yake chandachema kufariki,chandachema analazimika kuhamia kwa jirani yao satua.satua alimwonyesha waziwazi kwamba hamtaki.hali hii inadhihirika zaidi mwandishi anapoeleza kuwa,baada ya chandachema kuishi kwa satua kwa miezi miwili alianza kuona mabadiliko.uchangamfu aliokuwa nao satua uliyeyuka ghafla kwani alianza kulalamikia kuisha haraka kwa sukari,alilalamikia matumizi kiholela ya sabuni ya ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi kuogea na pia alinung’unika kuhusu kubanana kwa jeshi la watoto kwenye chumba cha malazi (uk103).chandachema alichukizwa na malamishi hayo na kulazimika kufunganya kidogo alichokuwa nacho na kuondoka. vilevile, baada ya chandachema kuondoka kutoka kwa jirani yao satua,alipewa hifadhi na bw.tenge na bi.kimai pale ambapo alilelewa pamoja na watoto wao watano.katika masimulizi yake,chandachema anaeleza kuwa chumba cha wafadhili wake kilikuwa kimoja;ndicho cha malazi,ndicho cha mapokezi,ndicho jikoni.sebule na chumba cha malazi viligawanywa na shuka moja nyepesi.usiku watoto walilala juu ya vigodoro ambavyo ni kama viliwekwa mvunguni mwa kitanda cha wazazi.zaidi ya hayo,wakati bi.kimai alienda mashambani,chumba kile kiligeuka na kuwa danguro.bw.tenge alikuwa akimleta mwanamke mmoja baada ya mwingine hapo hapo mbele ya wanawe.kitendo hiki cha ukware cha bw.tenge kilimpa chandachema dhiki za kisaikolojia (uk 106). hivyo basi, ni haki ya watoto kuishi katika mazingira ambayo hayaatarishi maisha yao.ni jukumu la serikali na wazazi kuhakikisha kwamba mazingira ambayo watoto wanaishi yana utulivu na amani.watoto huathirika kiakili na kitabia iwapo watalelewa katika mazingira yaliyojaa fujo na migogoro kwani wao huyaiga na kuyatilia maanani mambo ambayo wanatendewa na watu wazima. matumizi ya dawa za kulevya tatizo la dawa za kulevya linaendelea na limekuwa suala nyeti duniani.kulingana na ripoti zilizopo ulimwenguni kuhusu dawa (2018),watu wengi wameadhiriwa sana na dawa za kulevya.suala la matumizi ya vileo limechangiwa sana na utelekezwaji wa watoto.watoto hutumia vileo hili kujisahaulisha na hali ngumu ya maisha inayowakabili. watoto wanapokabiliana na changamoto katika maisha huanza kutumia dawa za kulevya ili tu wajiliwaze kutokana na madhila ambayo wanapitia.katika riwaya ya nguu za jadi,wasichana wadogo waliozalishwa wakiwa wadogo wanaonekana wakinusa gundi chini ya viambaza vya maduka(uk 137). vilevile,katika riwaya ya chozi la heri,dick analazimika kuzitumia dawa za kulevya wakati wa kuzilangua kwa miaka kumi baada ya kutekwa nyara na sauna na kuuzwa kwa mzee buda.pia,kipanga anaishia kutumia vileo ili kujisahaulisha kusambaritika kwa familia yao.kipanga alianza kuchovya kidogokidogo akiwa kidato cha pili baada ya aliyedhania kuwa baba yake kumkana (uk 143). mapendekezoya kukabiliana na ukiukaji wa haki za watoto assumpta k.matei na clara momanyi wanapendekeza baadhi ya hatua zinazoweza kutumika ili kutatua tatizo hili la ukiukaji wa haki za watoto.kulingana na goldstorm(1979:340), suluhisho la tatizo huwa bora katika kuimarisha maisha ya watoto katika jamii. miongoni mwa mapendekezo yaliyotolewa na waandishi hawa wawili ni pamoja na nafasi ya maafisa wa polisi kukabiliana na wale ambao wanakiuka haki za watoto. polisi wana wajibu wa kuchunguza makosa yote ya jinai.makosa yanayotendewa watoto huwa nyeti sana na mara nyingi huhitaji polisi kufanya kazi na mashirika mengine katika kufanya uchunguzi.hatua ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi inayochukuliwa na maafisi wa polisi ya kuwakamata sauna na bi.kangara na kuwashtaki kwa ulanguzi wa binadamu kisha kufungwa jela miaka kadha na kazi ngumu inayaokoa maisha ya watoto waliodhulumiwa na wawili hao (uk.158).pia,polisi wanamwokoa mwaliko kutoka kwa bi.kangara na kumkabidhi kwenye kituo cha benefactor (uk.159).vilevile,katika nguu za jadi,polisi wanamkamata sihaba kwa kuwahusisha wasichana wadogo katika biashara ya ukahaba kwa manufaa yake.vilevile,maafisa wa polisi wanawaandama wazazi wa wasichana waliotumika katika ukahaba ili kuchukuliwa hatua za kisheria. pili,ni wajibu wa wanajamii kuwasaidia watoto wanaodhulumiwa.hatua iliyochukuliwa na bi.kimai na bw.tenge katika chozi la heri ya kumchukua chandachema kama mwana wao baada ya kukosa hisani kwa satua inamsaidia sana kwani anapata kuishi na wawili hawa na kulelewa kama mwanao.pia,neema anachukua wajibu wa kukiokota kitoto kilichokuwa kimetupwa kwenye jaa la taka,anakipeleka katika kituo cha polisi na baadaye katika makao ya watoto mayatima ya benefactor (uk.161). tatu,waandishi wanapendekeza kuwepo kwa vituo vya watoto.vituo hivi vikiwepo huweza kuwaokoa watoto kutokana na vitendo viovu.katika chozi la heri,mwandishi amefaulu kutumia kituo cha benefactor katika kuendeleza hoja hii.watoto wanaookolewa kutokana dhuluma wanazozipitia kama vile mwaliko kutekwa nyara na sauna kisha kuokolewa na maafisa wa polisi anapelekwa katika kituo hiki (uk.159).vilevile,kitoto kilichookotwa na neema kutoka jaani la taka anakipeleka katika kituo hiki cha benefactor (uk.161) ambacho ni makao ya watoto wa mayatima.vilevile,katika nguu za jadi,watoto waliookolewa baada ya kutoroka shuleni ili kufanya biashara ya ukahaba na kukosa mahali pa kwenda waliwekwa kwenye makao ya watoto (uk.143). nne,ni wajibu wa mashirika ya kidini kuwasaidia watoto wanaodhulumiwa.hatua inayochukuliwa na shirika la kidini la hakikisho la haki na utulivu ya kumpeleka chandachema kwenye makao ya watoto mayatima ya jeshi la wajane wa kristu inamsaidia sana.chandachema anapata kuishi kule kama vile nyumbani kwao huku akiendelea na masomo katika shule ya tangamano (uk.108). tano,ni wajibu wa jamii kuvipinga vitendo vya ukiukaji wa haki za watoto.wajibu huu unahusisha wakubwa na wadogo.assumpta k.matei katika chozi la heri anatoa mfano wa bibi yake pete anapojaribu kupinga kuozwa kwa pete kwa mzee fungo kwa kumwona bado mtoto anayestahili nafasi ya kukua,kupata masomo na baadaye kujichagulia mchumba (uk.148),japo bado pete anaozwa na mama na wajomba wake. sita,waandishi wanapendekeza kuwa ni jukumu la watoto kuzipinga dhuluma zinazowakabili.assumpta k.matei anamtumia mtoto dick anayeamua kuyabadilisha maisha yake.baada ya miaka mitano ya kulangua dawa za kulevya.dick anafanya uamuzi wa kuacha biashara hii haramu na kufungua biashara ya kuuza vifaa vya simu (uk.110). hatimaye,waandishi wanapendekeza kuwa ni wajibu wa serikali kuwasaidia watoto ambao haki zao zinakiukwa.clara momanyi anatoa mfano wa serikali ikihimizwa kuwasaidia wasichana ambao walihusishwa katika biashara ya ukahaba na sihaba ili warudi shuleni (uk. 143) ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi hitimisho kwa ujumla, ukiukaji wa haki za watoto una athari mbaya kwa ustawi miongoni mwa jamii.ni muhimu kutambua kuwa,watoto ni amali ya jamii na wanapaswa kulindwa dhidi ya dhuluma zozote zile. kutokana na mapendekezo yaliyotolewa,wanajamii,maafisa wa usalama na mashirika mbalimbali yana wajibu wa kuzilinda haki za watoto.vilevile,watoto wana jukumu la kupinga dhuluma ambazo wanatendewa. marejeleo amulenga, c.m. na amulenga, a.v. (2009) solving problems occuring in early marriages. nairobi: focus publishers atieno, w. (2014) ‘mama ajifungua ndani ya tuktuk’. taifa leo, septemba 9, kur.1,2 bakize, l.. (2014). utangulizi wa fasihi ya watoto. dar es salaam: maccony printing press. behnam, n. (2008) ‘kikanda, jamii na watoto’:ripoti ya kikanda ya kuanza kujifunza:kuwawezesha jamii kuhusu ustawi wa watoto.washington,dc. boss, p. (1998) family stress management. newbury park, california: sage publications. burke, c. (1999) covenanted happiness, love and commitment in mariage, 2nd ed. new jersey: screptree publishers. bronfenbrenner,u.(1979).’elimu ya ustawi na uhusiano wa binadamu na mazingira’.asili na desturi ya kutathmini vijiji kushiriki.cambridge,ma:uandishi wa chuo kikuu cha harvard. cancer global statistics (2014).www.int/media centre/factsheets/fs297/en/. chambers,r. (1994).’asili na desturi ya kutathmini vijiji kushiriki’.maendeleo duniani, 22.953969’. chapman, r. (1982) the language of english literature. london: edward arnold publishers. de genors, m.k (2008) inmate, relationship, marriage and families. seventh edition.new york:mc grace hill. drabble, m. (1995) the oxford companion to english literature.new york: oxford university press. farouk, m.t. (1974) uchambuzi wa maandishi ya kiswahili. nairobi: oxford university press. gitau, e. (2014) ‘unyanyasaji dhidi ya wanaume katika fasihi andishi ya kiswahili’.tasnifu ya uzamili chuo kikuu cha kenyatta. habwe, j.h. (2005) paradiso. nairobi: jomo kenyatta foundation. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 http://www.int/media centre/factsheets/fs297/en/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi johnson, t. (2002) “ violence and abuse of women and girls in kenya, population communication africa.nairobi: new world printers. karanja, d.w. (2008). usawiri wa masuala-ibuka katika hadithi za watoto.tasnifu ya uzamili. chuo kikuu cha kenyatta. khamis, s.a. (2012) “ riwaya mpya ya kiswahili. utandawazi au utandawizi? lugha ya riwaya mpya ya kiswahili inavyodai”. bayreuth university. krueger, a. thompson, g. na crispin, v. (2013).’kufijunza kutoka kwa mifumo ramani ya kulinda watoto na uchambuzi katika afrika magharibi’: maana ya utafiti na sera.sera za kimataifa,5,47-55. mckay, s., na mazurana, d. (2004).’wako wapi wasichana?’ montreal, canada: kituo cha kimataifa kwa haki za binadamu na maendeleo ya kidemokrasia. panter-brick, c., na leckman, j. (2013). tangazo mfululizo la mhariri: kuimarisha kwa ustawi wa mtoto –njia zilizounganika kwa hali njema.jarida la saikolojia na taaluma,tiba ya ugonjwa wa akili kwa watoto, 54,333-336. thompstone, g. (2010). mapping na uchambuzi wa mfumo wa kulinda watoto nchini sierra leone.hong kong,china: watoto wa mpakani (child frontiers). unpd. (2013) dalili za umaskini na maendeleo, sierra leone.imepatikana kutoka hdstats.undp.org unicef. (2013). ukeketaji na kutahiri wanawake : maelezo ya takwimu na ugunduzi wa mienendo ya mabadiliko.new york, ny: mwandishi. unicef,unhcr,kulinda watoto (save the children), na maono duniani (maono ya dunia).(2013).njia bora ya kuwalinda watoto wote: nadharia na mazoea ya mfumo ya kulinda watoto,ripoti ya mkutano.new delhi, india: mwandishi. wessells, m.g. (2006). wanajeshi watoto: kutoka kwa vurugu hadi kulindwa. cambridge, ma: uandishi wa chuo kikuu cha harvard. wessells, m.g. (2009a). je, tunajifunza nini kuhusu kulinda watoto katika jamii? kikanda cha mapitio ya ushahidi juu ya jamii kuhusu utaratibu wa kulinda watoto katika mazingira ya kibinadamu na maendeleo.london, england: kulinda watoto (save the children). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya za kiswahili:mfano wa chozi la heri na nguu za jadi whitney,s.d., tajima, e.a.,herrenkohl,t.i.,& huang, b. (2006). defining child abuse: exploring variations in ratings of discipline severity among child welfare practotioners. child and adolescent social work journal, 23, 316-342. yeo.l.s., & choi, p.m. (2011). cognitive-behavioural therapy for children with behavioural difficulties in the singapore mainstream school setting. school psychology international,32,616631. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 jackline njeri murimi, chuo kikuu cha tom mboya ikisiri usuli wa mada tatizo la utafiti ukiukaji wa haki za watoto katika riwaya zachozi la heri na nguu za jadi mauaji ndoa za mapema na za lazima kukatizwa elimu ubaguzi wa watoto uavyaji mimba madhara yanayotokana na ukiukaji wa haki za watoto kukimbia nyumbani kutatizika kimasomo ukosefu wa mahitaji ya kimsingi watoto kuishi katika mazingira yasiyokuwa na amani na hatarishi matumizi ya dawa za kulevya mapendekezoya kukabiliana na ukiukaji wa haki za watoto hitimisho marejeleo https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction and ayanabia aaron phd department of sociology university of port harcourt abstract the challenge is illicit drugs use and addiction can not be over emphasised in our society today, based on this study drug addiction was found to be prevalent among road transport workers. this is in agreement with the respondents’ responses from the in depth interview conducted by the researcher the influence drug addiction were found to include peer/co-worker influence, depression, stress, frustration, family background, low self-esteem, desire to stay active etcfactors that influence drug addiction were found to include peer/co-worker influence, depression, stress, frustration, family background, low self-esteem, desire to stay active etc. this finding is supported by responses from the in-depth interview and also by the works of other scholars. findings from the study influenced the study recommendations amongst which it identified provision of rehabilitative programs to affected members, sanctioning of drivers under the influence of substance, restricting the advertisement and availability of these products in their place of work and enlightening them on the health hazards as the various strategies that can be applied to curb drug addiction among road transport operators. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 by dr.gbenemene kpae department of sociology university of portharcourt ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." introduction drug addiction is defined as the compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences (malenka, nestler, and hyman, 2009). drug addiction also refers to a “chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. it is considered a brain disease because drugs change the brain, they change its structure and how it works. these changes can be long lasting and can lead to many harmful effects, often self-destructing behaviours” (nida, 2016). drug addiction, also called substance dependence or dependence syndrome, is a condition where a person feels a strong need to take a drug examples of the substances includes opium, marijuana, cannabis, kola nut, cigarette and central nervous system (cns) agent like amphetamines etc (adekoya, adepoju, owoeye, 2011).in the history of drug addiction, it has been a problem from the beginning. before the 19th century, drugs that are commonly used or abuse were related to plants that helped reduce feelings of pain. in modern times, we have harmful synthetic drugs, but even the primitive forms of drug abuse in the past were dangerous. even when natural substances are being abused, the body can experience addiction (aforeverrecovery.com, 2018). we cannot therefore talk about the history of drug abuse without giving reference to drug use and abuse, as it is through drug use or abuse that one gets addicted to such drugs. the united states of america, for instance, before the civil war did not entirely understood the effects of drugs and their addictive qualities. this was an issue as since many soldiers of the civil war were given drugs for pain and became addicted to them. in the 1800s, morphine, codeine and cocaine were developed and unregulated. the wide availability of these newly developed drugs made it easier for many people to try and become addicted (aforeverrecovery.com, 2018). addiction to psychoactive substance by vehicle drivers is a common occurrence globally. this practice involves the use of virtually all substances known today (okpataku, 2017). most commercial vehicle drivers believe that the use of such substances such as cigarette, marijuana etc, will improve their performance and keep sleep at a far reach for as long as possible (akpan and ikorok, 2014). addiction to these substances is due to some reasons. in most situations, due to the nature of their job which mainly involves multiple trips with little time for rest, quite ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." a number of these drivers believe that amplifying, augmenting or enhancing their strength with the use of certain substance will aid in long hours of effective performance (usman and ipinmoye, 2015). drug addiction is a problem that has been increasing immensely among our society today (mega essays.com,2017). drug addiction hinders us from accomplishing our goals or dreams in life. people sometimes feel they are too bright, too powerful, too much in control to become addictive. addiction can trap anyone. it can lead to harming one’s body, causing problems in family structure, and contribute to the delinquency in society.drug addiction continues to be a problem among youths and adult citizens across countries and communities globally, of which road transport workers are included. according to the national institute on drug abuse (2014), people who suffer from addiction often have one or more accompanying medical issues, which may include lung or cardiovascular diseases, stroke, cancer and mental disorders. research has shown that tobacco smoke causes cancer of the mouth, throat, larynx, blood, lungs, stomach, pancreas, kidney, bladder and cervix. in addition, some drugs of addiction such as inhalants, are toxic to the nerve cells and may damage or destroy them either in the brain or peripheral nervous system (aremu, 2010).drug addiction and mental illness co-exists. in some cases, mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia, may precede addiction; in other cases, drug addiction may trigger or exacerbate those mental disorders, particular in people with specific vulnerabilities (national institute of drug abuse, 2014). beyond the harmful consequences for the person with the addiction, drug addiction can cause serious health problems for others. three of the more devastating and troubling consequences of addiction on others include the national institute on drug abuse (nida, 2016) provides a comprehensive definition of drug addiction, stating, “addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences.” addiction is recognized as a brain disease because drugs literally cause changes to the brain. the initial decision to take drugs is mostly voluntary. however, when addiction takes over, a person’s ability to exert self-control can become seriously impaired. brain-imaging studies from people ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." addicted to drugs show physical changes in areas of the brain that are critical for judgment, decision making, learning, memory, and behaviour control (nida, 2016). when people first use a drug, they may perceive what seem to be positive effects; they also may believe that they can control their use. however, drugs can quickly take over a person’s life. over time, if drug use continues, other pleasurable activities become less pleasurable, and taking the drug becomes necessary for the user just to feel “normal.” they may then compulsively seek and take drugs even though it causes tremendous problems for themselves and their loved ones. some people may start to feel the need to take higher or more frequent doses, even in the early stages of their drug use. these are the telltale signs of an addiction (nida, 2014).according to ohanyere (2012), the status of drug addiction or dependency is not acquired or developed suddenly. it is by the process of gradual and habitual intake or consumption of drugs. however, the very first use of addictive drugs in most cases, signals the beginning of a dangerous journey whose end the user may not have contemplated and the consequences of which he could never have imagined (ohanyere, 2012). there are different stages and processes of getting into drug addiction. some may actually seem normal and harmless, but consistent indulgence in them results in addiction. the following are identifiable processes or stages:  use of gateway drugs: gateway drugs are socially accepted drugs. although these drugs have milder effects, prolonged use of such drug would either have dangerous effects on the user or lead him to the use of more drugs (ohanyere, 2012). when the drug no longer creates the desired effect on the individual’s body due to consistent use, the victim goes for something stronger. gateway drugs are drugs that introduce the victim to drugs of addiction. these drugs are used at social functions and for entertainment notwithstanding that they possess some inherent dangers. according to ohanyere (2012), these drugs include kola nuts, cigarettes etc. there are other substances that are taken for acceptable reasons but could lead to drug addiction. they include; coffee, sleeping pills like valium five and benylin syrups. these substances are socially acceptable because when taken moderately taken, they may not be harmful. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." however consistent use or abuse of any of them leads to deeper and more dangerous drug habits. they are the starting point for most addicts.  habitual stage: when a drug user develops appetite for drugs, as a result of prolonged practice or habit drug use, he becomes a habitual user. at this stage, he desires and hungers for drugs from time to time, spending money to buy the drug for his use. at this stage also, he uses the drug as a result of need because his appetite calls for it (ohanyere, 2012). a habitual drug user is already into a serious situation, but his case can still be remedied if he is willing. a habitual drug user could spend the bulk of his resources to sustain and satisfy his drug desires. habitual drug users in most cases end up as drug addicts.  drug dependent persons/addicts: when a habitual and prolonged use of drug lead to a situation where the user can no longer do without it, such person is described as a drug addict. when he reaches a stage where he cannot function properly without the use of the drug, he is considered a drug dependent person. the daily functioning of such person is only aided and influenced by his daily drug use (ohanyere, 2012). when a person is drug dependent, he loses the capacity to think for himself, exercise his will, and have moral judgement. his physical, mental and emotional capacity is determined by drugs. when the drug content in his body expires, he becomes desperate and demonstrates the feat of craving. this makes him tremble and his entire body will be disorganized and disorientated until he takes another dose of drug. people who reach this level often die suddenly if help and rehabilitation are not available to them on time. factors responsible for drug addiction among road transport workers the prevalence of psychoactive substances addiction has been hung on socio-demographics, psychological, environmental and socio-cultural factors such as: low socio-economic status (rozi, butt, &akhtar, 2007; mergen, mergen, tavil, ongel& tan, 2011; thakur, prinja, bhatnagar&sinha, 2013); being a male (sen&basu, 2000; peltzer, 2001; sinha& gupta, 2007); older age (peltzer, 2001); depression and anxiety (halperin, smith, heiligenstein, brown & fleming, 2010; saravana&heldhy, 2014; and breslau, kilbey&andreski, 1991); violence ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." experience including intimate partner violence (caleyachetty, echouffo-tcheugui, stephenson &muennig, 2014); obesity (ansari, labeeb&kotb, 2012); peer pressure and polygamous family background (aina&olorunshola, 2008); desire to remain awake at night (rasheed, 2010) and broken homes (haukkala, utela, vartiainen, mcalister&knekt, 2000; mee, 2014; and didilescu, inagaki, sfeateu, hanganu& virtanen, 2014). apart from these, industrialization, urbanization and increased exposure to western life style have also been found to contribute to the increasing trend of drug addiction with alcohol and cigarette acting as gateway drugs to the use of other substances such as cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, inhalants and hallucinogens (abiodun, adelekan, ogunremi, oni &obayan, 1994). consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers drug addiction occurs most frequently among young people in the 15-35 age group, with a particular concentration in the 18-25 age group. it thus includes those who have entered or who are just about to enter the workforce. the effect of drugs on productivity is a function of the type and quantities of drugs consumed, as well as of the performance requirements of the jobs in question. tasks that require higher-level judgement, constant attention, immediate memory and fine motor skills are obviously more easily disrupted by drugs than physical labour (undcp, 2006). gupta (2012), in study on “drug/alcohol addiction in india–disturbing trends” found that drug addiction is becoming a major health problem in india and the association between drug addiction and hiv/aids has been a prime concern for health authorities in india. the drug problem and its consequences have been particularly alarming in the north-eastern states. in some states of north-east 80% of all injectable drug users were hiv positive.drug addiction always takes an immense financial toll on a person’s life. as a person’s use increases, the monetary demands rise as well—the financial strife can extend into almost every area of their life, affecting not only their economic well-being, but that of their family, as well. the cost of buying drugs adds up fast, especially for a person who is using on a daily basis; as their tolerance increases, the amount they need to achieve the desired effect rises, thus requiring a ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." larger payout. if the drug user has a joint banking account with a loved one, such as a checking, savings, or credit card account, they may spend large amounts of money or max the cards out in their pursuit to use; in worst-case scenarios this can cause bankruptcy or foreclosure as people struggle to make ends meet (www.rehabcenter.net). drugs affect perception, attention, cognition, coordination and reaction time, among other neurological functions, which affect safe driving. cannabis is the most prevalent illicit drug detected in drivers in canada and the united states and europe and oceania. research has found that habitual cannabis use is linked to a 9.5-fold greater risk of driving accidents, cocaine and benzodiazepines increase the risk 2-10 times, amphetamines or multiple drug use increase the risk 5-30 times, and alcohol in combination with drugs increases the risk of getting seriously injured or killed while driving by a factor of 20-200. that increased risk also has consequences for passengers and others on the road, who may become victims of drug-affected driving. strategies to curb drug addiction among road transport workers macionis (2001) states that re-socialization means radically changing an inmate’s personality through carefully controlling the environment. resocialization is a two-part process. first, the staff breaks down the new inmate’s existing identity, using what goffman describes as “abasements, degradations, humiliations, and profanations of self.” in the second part of the resocialization process, the staff tries to build a new self in the inmate through a system of reward and punishments. re-socialization can bring about considerable change in an inmate, but total institutions affect different people in different ways (macionis, 2001). while some inmatesare considered ‘rehabilitated’ or recovered, other may change little. rao (2004) views socialization as a process whereby an individual becomes a functioning member of the society. the individual becomes socialized by learning the rules and practices of social groups. by this process the individual develops a personality of his own. peter worsley explains socialization as the process of “transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups”. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* http://www.rehabcenter.net/ https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers craig (2013) studied the economic consequences of drug addiction in georgia, united states of america. he used the sample size of 125. the result of craig’s (2002) showed the relationship between drug addiction and accidents while driving. addiction to cannabis accounts for a 9.5 higher risk of accident while cocaine and benzodiazepines increase the possibility by 2-10 times. intake of more than one drug increases the danger of road accidents by 5-30 times, and the mixture of alcohol with drugs by 2-200 (craig, 2013). similarly, studying the prevalence of substance use among commercial motorcyclists in zaria, nigeria. alti-muazu and aliyu (2008) employed a sample of 200. in the study, they found that 59% accidents among motorcyclists are linked to the use of psychoactive substances. the study also noted the major types of injuries sustained from drug induced accidents among motorcycle riders. they include lacerations (62.5%) and fractures of the upper and lower limbs (10.5%) (alti-muazu&aliyu, 2008).ajibade and adefoloju (2017) employed a cross-sectional survey design in their study of the rationale and implication of substance use among commercial road transport workers in lokoja. using the sample size of 180 respondents, the result of their study revealed that due to the altering effects these drugs have on individuals, road transport workers under the influence of drugs often get into trouble with road safety officials as well as experience marital problems, health issues, psychological traumas etc. (ajibade&adefoloju, 2017). drug abuse and addiction is the result of the incongruence b/w culturally defined goals and the socially approved means for attaining these goals (i.e. anomie).the use of drugs is an escape from the pressures of not reaching and obtaining what society dictates they should. goals need to be realistic and society needs to have the means for individual to meet their goals. the means for reaching goals needs to be equal for everyone. because when people do not reach their goals they can turn to alcohol or drugs to experience the “highs” and “good feelings” as a substitute for their failures. this theory is also reinforced by merton’s stain theory where he states, “retreatism is the adaptation of those who give up not only the goals but also the ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." means. they often retreat into the world of alcoholism and drug addiction. they escape into a non-productive, non-striving lifestyle” (sociologypapers.com, 2017). when merton was developing his theory on deviance, he analyzed american culture, structure, and anomie. merton believed that all united states citizens believed and strived for the “american dream”; however, the ways in which citizens obtain the “american dream” of success are not the same, simply because not all citizens have the same opportunities and advantages. merton believed that this leads to deviance in achieving the “american dream” by some who turn to illegal activity while still believing in the dream of success but using illegal means to obtain the dream by such activity as illegal drug dealing to achieve financial success. melton also suggested that for some they drop out of society becoming drug addicts or drifters realizing the “american dream” is unattainable for them and this can lead to deviant behavior. however, robert merton's influential theory of deviant behavior was the target of criticism by a number of sociologists and criminologists. many of these critics went on to propose alternative theories designed to strengthen or transcend limitations of merton's formulation. one critique of anomie theory is that it overemphasizes the role of social class in crime and deviance (brym and lie, 2007). anomie theory applies best to lower class as they struggle most with the lack of resources to reconcile their goals. however, if we examine the wide spectrum of deviant and criminal act, anomie theory accounts inadequately for crimes beyond the narrow scope of street crimes. research hypotheses the following hypotheses were formulated to guide this study. 1. drug addiction is more likely to be higher among motorcycle riders than among other road transport workers in onitsha north lga. 2. truck drivers are more likely to be influenced into drug addiction than other road transport workers in onitsha northlga. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." personal data of respondents are presented in table 1. table 1: personal data of respondents variable response frequency percent distribution of respondents by sex male 180 97.8 no response 4 2.2 total 184 100.0 distribution of respondents by sex 20 – 29 52 28.3 30 – 39 71 38.6 40 – 49 44 23.9 50 – 59 15 8.2 60 and above 2 1.1 total 184 100.0 distribution of respondents by marital status single 108 58.7 married 71 38.6 separated 2 1.1 widowed 1 .5 divorced 1 .5 no response 1 .5 total 184 100.0 distribution of respondents by religious affiliation christianity 163 88.6 islam 7 3.8 african traditional religion 6 3.3 no response 8 4.3 total 184 100.0 distribution of respondents by levels of education no formal education 5 2.7 fslc 18 9.8 ssce/wasce 94 51.1 nce/ond 44 23.9 hnd/b. sc 20 10.9 m.sc./phd 1 .5 no response 2 1.1 total 184 100.0 distribution of respondents by occupation bus driver 76 41.3 motorcycle rider 40 21.7 lorry/trailer driver 24 13.0 tricycle driver 44 23.9 total 184 100.0 field survey 2020 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." table 1 indicates that all the respondents are male. this is actually the expected because virtually all the drivers of commercial vehicle in the local government area are males. distribution of the respondents by age shows that it has a mean age of 35.91 years, a standard error of mean of .653, a median age of 35 years and a modal age of 32 years. the distribution also has a standard deviation of 8.859, a minimum age of 20 years and a maximum age of 62 years. table 1 also shows that 71 (38.6%) of the respondents are 30-39 years old while 2 (1.1%) of the respondents are 60 years and above. table 1 shows that 108 (58.7%) of the respondents are single while 1 (.5%) of the respondents are both widowed and divorced. this infers that majority of the respondents are single. based on religious affiliation, the table shows that 163 (88.6%) of the respondents are christians while 6 (3.3%) of them are african traditional worshippers. also in the table above, distribution of respondents by educational qualification shows that 94 (51.1%) of the respondents are ssce/wasce holders while 5 (2.7%) respondents have no formal education. finally, in the above table, distribution of respondents according to occupation shows that 76 (41.3%) of the respondents are bus drivers while 24 (13.0%) of them are lorry and trailer drivers. analysis of research questions the research asked four questions to guide his work. the questions were restated and analysed accordingly. research question 1: how prevalent is drug addiction among road transport workers? questionnaire items 7,8 and 9 were designed to provide answers to the research question 1 and the findings are shown in tables 2,3 and 4 respectively ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." table 2: respondents’ view on drug addiction among road transport workers response frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid the excessive intake of drugs among drivers 68 37.0 37.0 37.0 the use of drugs by road transport workers for a long period of time 53 28.8 28.8 65.8 the overdependence on certain drugs by road transport workers 53 28.8 28.8 94.6 the overuse of harmful drugs by road transport workers 10 5.4 5.4 100.0 total 184 100.0 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 2 shows that 68 (37.0%) of the respondents hold the view that drug addiction is the excessive intake of drugs among drivers, while 10 (5.4%) of the respondents, view drug addiction as the overuse of harmful drugs by road transport workers. table 3: respondents’ views on the frequency at which road transport workers get addicted to drugs in onitsha north lga frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid very high 135 73.4 73.4 73.4 high 24 13.0 13.0 86.4 low 17 9.2 9.2 95.7 very low 8 4.3 4.3 100.0 total 184 100.0 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 3 shows that 135 (73.4%) respondents stressed that the frequency of addiction to drugs is very high while 8 (4.3%) of the respondents emphasized that it is very low. most participants from the in depth interview conducted stated that drug addiction is rampant and on the high side. however, a 40-year-old male bus driver from woliwo stated; ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." it is very high. most of my colleagues usually drive around every day carrying one or two bottles of whiskey. if you ask them the reason for it, they will say that it is used for assistance. most of these young drivers and conductors take drugs every time. table 4: respondents’ views on whether or not they have preference to a particular drug frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid yes 112 60.9 61.5 61.5 no 70 38.0 38.5 100.0 total 182 98.9 100 no response 2 1.1 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 4 shows that 112 (60.9%) of the respondents stated that they have preference to a particular drug while 70 (38.0%) of them have no preference to a particular drug. research question 2: what are the various factors responsible for drug addiction among road transport workers in onitsha north lga? questionnaire items 10, 11, 12, and 13 were designed to provide answer to research question 2 and the findings are shown in tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 respectively. table 5: respondents’ views on whether there are situations when they will like to take drugs frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid yes 152 82.6 83.5 83.5 no 30 16.3 16.5 100.0 total 182 98.9 100 no response 2 1.1 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." table 5 shows that 152 (82.6%) of the respondents stressed that they are situations when they take drugs while 30 (16.3%) of them stated that there is no situation when they will like to drugs table 6: respondents’ views on what condition they would like to take drugs frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid when i am depressed 68 37.0 44.2 44.2 when i desire to stay awake while driving 29 15.8 18.8 63.0 when i am in the midst of my peers 38 20.7 24.7 87.7 availability of such drugs at my place of work 19 10.3 12.3 100.0 total 154 83.7 100.0 missing not applicable 30 16.3 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 in table 6, 68 (37.0%) of the respondents stated that they take drugs when they are depressed while 19 (10.3%) of them stressed that they take drugs due to its availability in their place of work. table 7: respondents’ views on whether or not drug addiction influence deviant behaviour frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid yes 155 84.2 91.2 91.2 no 15 8.2 8.8 100.0 total 170 92.4 100 no response 14 7.6 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 7 shows that 155 (84.2%) respondents agreed that drug addiction influences deviant behaviour while 15 (8.2%) of them made it known that drug addiction does not influence deviant behaviour. however, a 39 year old female administrator from omagba phase 1 stated: most of the conductors (driver’s boy) as well as drivers constituting nuisance and causing trouble here and in other parks are regular drug ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." users. they get into fights often and always destroy properties in the process. in fact, they are one of our biggest problems here. table 8: respondents’ views on other factors that contribute to drug addiction among road transport workers frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid low self esteem 36 19.6 20.3 20.3 family instability 58 31.5 32.8 53.1 poor educational background 32 17.4 18.1 71.2 media influence 23 12.5 13.0 84.2 work stress 28 15.2 15.8 100.0 total 177 96.2 100.0 no response 7 3.8 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 in table 8, 58 (31.5%) of the respondents attributed the factors of drug addiction among road transport workers to family instability, while 23 (12.5%) of them reported media influence as the factor influencing drug addiction among road transport workers. research question 3: what are the consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers in onitsha north lga? questionnaire items 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23 were designed to answer this research question 3 and the findings are shown in tables 9, 10, 11,12, 13, and 14 respectively. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." table 9: respondents’ views on whether there are socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid yes 173 94.0 94.5 94.5 no 10 5.4 5.5 100.0 total 1183 99.5 100 no response 1 .5 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 in table 9, a greater number of 173 (94%) respondents agreed that there are socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers while 10 (5.4%) of them said that there are no socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers. table 10: respondents’ views on how they rate the consequences of drug addiction frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid very high 120 65.2 71.4 71.4 high 38 20.7 22.6 94.0 low 7 3.8 4.2 98.2 very low 3 1.6 1.8 100.0 total 168 91.3 100 missing not applicable 10 5.4 no response 6 3.3 total 16 8.7 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 in table 10, 120 (65.2%) of the respondents stressed that the rate of these consequences of drug addiction is very high while 3 (1.6%) of them stated that the rate is very low. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." table 11: respondents’ views on the socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid it leads to financial strife 24 13.0 13.9 13.9 it leads to family crisis 77 41.8 44.5 58.4 it disrupt focus, ambition and thinking skills 27 14.7 15.6 74.0 it leads to the involvement in criminal activities 32 17.4 18.5 92.5 reduction in productivity 13 7.1 7.5 100.0 total 173 94.0 100.0 missing not applicable 10 5.4 no response 1 .5 total 11 6.0 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 11 shows that 77 (41.8%) respondents stressed on family crisis as one of the socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction while 13 (7.1%) of them stated reduction in productivity as one of the consequences of drug addiction. many participants in the in depth interview pointed to the family of the addict as the victim of the addict’s behaviour. however, a 61 year old male trailer driver from inland town stated; yes. it is the family of the addict that suffers the most. we do hear of some of our colleagues turning their wives to punching bags due to drug influence. some of them no longer take care of their wives and children as they spend most of what they earn on buying these drugs. table 12: respondents’ views on whether drug addiction affects driving frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid positively 17 9.2 9.5 9.5 negatively 162 88.0 90.5 100.0 total 179 97.3 100.0 no response 5 2.7 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." in table 12, 162 (88.0%) of the respondents stressed that drug addiction affects driving negatively while 17 (9.2%) of them holds claim that it affects driving positively. table 13: respondents’ views on the positive effects of drug addiction frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid it makes one feel relaxed while driving 7 3.8 38.9 38.9 it boost ones sight 1 5 5.6 44.4 it makes driving less tiring 2 1.1 11.1 55.6 it reduces stress associated with the job 6 3.3 33.3 88.9 it makes one concentrated while driving 2 1.1 11.1 100.0 total 18 9.8 100.0 missing not applicable 162 88.0 no response 4 2.2 total 166 90.2 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 13 shows that 7 (3.8%) of the respondents stated that drug addiction makes one feel relaxed while driving while 1(.5%) of them said drug addiction boosts one’s sight while driving. table 14: respondents’ views on the negative consequences of drug addiction frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid it leads to accidents 129 70.1 79.1 79.1 it makes them prone to anger with passengers and other drivers 12 6.5 7.4 88.5 it causes drowsiness and makes drivers lose focus 12 6.5 7.4 93.9 it weakens the body 10 5.4 6.1 100.0 total 163 86.6 100.0 missing not applicable 20 10.9 no response 1 .5 total 21 11.4 total 184 100.0 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." field survey, 2020 on the negative consequences of drug addiction on road transport workers, table 14 shows that 129 (70.1%) respondents stated that drug addiction leads to accidents while 10 (5.4%) of them stated that drug addiction weakens the body. research question 4: what strategies can be applied to control drug addiction among road transport workers in onitsha north lga? questionnaire items 28 and 29 were designed to answer research question 4 and the findings are shown in tables 15 and 16 respectively. table 15: respondents’ views on whether drug addiction among road transport workers can be ameliorated frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid yes 178 96.7 100.0 100.0 no response 6 3.3 total 184 100.0 field survey, 2020 table 15 shows that of 184 respondents, 178 (96.7%) of them stated that drug addiction can be ameliorated while 6 (3.3%) respondents claimed that drug addiction among road transport workers cannot be ameliorated. table 16: respondents’ views on the measures that can be applied to curb drug addiction among road transport workers frequency percent valid percentage cumulative percentage valid effective rehabilitative programs should be available for the affected members 86 46.7 47.3 47.3 road transport workers should be enlightened on the health hazards of addiction to these substances 41 22.3 22.5 69.8 road transport workers who are addicts should be sanctioned by the nurtw 37 20.1 20.3 90.1 there should policies enacted to reduce the products in their places of work 18 9.8 9.9 100.0 total 182 98.9 100.0 no response 4 1.1 total 184 100.0 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." field survey, 2020 in table 16, 86 (46.7%) of the respondents agreed that effective rehabilitative programmes should be made available for affected members while 18 (9.8%) stated that there should be policies enacted to reduce the products in their places of work. most of the participants for the in-depth interview carried out stated that nurtw can help reduce the prevalence of drug addiction among road transport workers by stopping addicted members from driving, placing a ban on sales of these drugs around the park and also fining defaulters. test of hypotheses the researcher tested the two hypotheses postulated for this study. the hypotheses were restated and test as follows; hypotheses 1: drug addiction is more likely to be higher among motorcycle riders than among other road transport workers in the onitsha north lga. data in table 17 formed the basis for testing hypotheses 1 table 17: one way anova testing the relationship between occupation and drug addiction descriptives drug addiction n mean std. deviation std. error 95% confidence interval for mean minimum maximum lower bound upper bound bus driver 75 13.48 4.551 .526 12.43 14.53 4 20 motorcycle rider 38 15.18 4.248 .689 13.79 16.58 4 20 lorry/trailer driver 24 14.46 3.176 .648 13.12 15.80 7 19 tricycle driver 44 12.93 4.516 .681 11.56 14.30 5 20 total 181 13.83 4.367 .325 13.19 14.47 4 20 field survey, 2020 table18: anova table anova drug addiction sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 123.843 3 41.281 2.208 .089 within groups 3309.184 177 18.696 total 3433.028 180 field survey, 2020 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." no significant relationship was observed between occupation and drug addiction among road transport workers at p=.089 in onitsha north lga. the mean scores of the independent variables were compared using the scheffe test and no significant difference was observed. it then implies that drug addiction is not more likely to be higher among motorcycle riders than among other road transport workers in the onitsha north lga. hypothesis 2: truck drivers are more likely to be influenced into drug addiction than other road transport workers in the onitsha north lga. data in table 19 formed the basis for testing hypothesis 2 table 19: one way anova testing the relationship between occupation and being influenced into drug addiction descriptives influence of drug on driving n mean std. deviation std. error 95% confidence interval for mean minimum maximum lower bound upper bound bus driver 75 13.49 5.257 .607 12.28 14.70 4 20 motorcycle rider 40 15.93 4.451 .704 14.50 17.35 4 20 lorry/trailer driver 24 15.00 4.374 .893 13.15 16.85 7 20 tricycle driver 44 13.20 4.835 .729 11.73 14.67 4 20 total 183 14.15 4.960 .367 13.43 14.88 4 20 field survey, 2020 table 20: anova table anova influence of drug on driving sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 215.035 3 71.678 3.010 .032 within groups 4262.681 179 23.814 total 4477.716 182 field survey, 2020 a significant relationship was observed between occupation and being influenced into drug addiction among road transport workers at p=.032 in onitsha north lga. the mean scores of the independent variables were compared using the scheffe test and significant difference was ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." observed. it follows that truck drivers are more likely to be influenced into drug addiction than other road transport workers in the onitsha north lga. finally, it was found that possible measures can be taken or put in place so as to curb drug addiction and which is in line with the responses gotten from the in-depth interview such as sanctioning, restriction of these products at their places of work and also enlightening them on the health hazards of these substances. this finding is consistent with bobo and husten (2000) who suggested that policies should be made so as to restrict the advertisement and sale of drug beverages and also carry out campaigns that would educate the general public on the consequences of substance dependence. conclusion following the major findings of this study, it is evident that peers, work stress, and the desire to remain awake and active while driving, are the important factors on which most of the drug use initiation is based, and on which this habit starts. most drug addiction started with the use of soft categories of drugs, and later develops to the use of the hard categories. continuation of the use of drugs is a pivotal problem for other social and economic troubles for the individual and the society.this research work on the socioeconomic consequences of drug addiction among road transport workers in onitsha north lgatried to examine the frequency of drug addiction, the socio-cultural factors influencing drug addiction, the consequences and possible strategies to curb drug addiction. from the study, one can deduce that most road transport workers get addicted to certain drugs because of their ready availability in their places of work, and due to the belief that without taking these drugs on a daily basis, these road transport workers may not be able to function more productively and stay active while driving. regular use of these drugs leads to a state of compulsive and out of control drug habits even in the face of negative consequences of these drugs on driving. however, despite the commendable efforts directed towards curbing the menace of drug addiction, consumption of illicit drugs is still on the high side. this is, in fact, one of the major problems facing the road transport workers in onitsha north lga in particular and nigeria in general. recommendation ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been given as the potential ways to curb the problems of drug addiction among road transport workers. 1. effective rehabilitation centres should be established and adequately financed to aid in the reorientation and re-socialization of affected members into the society. 2. there is need for stronger emotional and familial attachment between parents or guardians and their children. the family as a basic social institution is responsible for the socialization of their children into the society as people for decent homes are less likely to become dependent on drugs. 3. restriction should be placed on the availability and access to drugs in their places of work. this goes to greater extent in reducing the rate of addiction of these substances among road transport workers. 4. public enlightenment and education on drug abuse should include reducing the harm of the society on the rehabilitated drug addicts, which is perpetrated through suspicions, discrimination and denials of rights. under the public enlightenment, there should be a focus on peer education and management, as the peers were found to be the most consistent source of initiation to drugs among others. references adekoya, b.j., adekoya, a.o., adepoju, f.g &owoeye, j, f.a. (2011). driving under influence among long distance commercial drivers in ilorin, nigeria, international journal of biological and medical research, 2(4), 870-873 ajibade d. and adefolaju t., (2017). rationale and implications of psychoactive substances use among commercial road transport workers in lokoja, nigeria. mediterranean journal of social sciences 8 (5) 143-157. ajibade, b.l, uvomata, m.ebele, akinpelu, a.o., adeleke, m.a., fabiyi b.o., akinlabi, tosin, (2016). factors influencing substance abuse amongst selected commercialmotorcyclists in ogbomoso metropolis, oyo state, nigeria. international journal ofhealth and psychology research, 4 (3) 1-27. alexander a.o, (2013). exploring peer influence as a pathway to adolescent substance abuseinnigeria. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." alti-muazu m, aliyu aa., (2008). use of psychoactive substances among commercialmotorcyclists in zaria, nigeria. ann afr med.;7(2):67-71. department of social development, (2008). drug use and misuse. private bag publisher.limpopo province. fareo, d., (2012). drug abuse among nigeria adolescents strategies for counselling. the journal of international social research, 5(20) 341-347. fekjaer, h., (1992). alcohol as an intoxicant. world health forum. international journal of health development, 13: 366. girotto e., mesas, a.e., deandrade, s.m &birolim. m. m (2014). psychoactive substance use by truck drivers: a systematic review,occupational and environmental medicine,71, 71-76 girotto, e., deandrade, s.m., mesas, a.e., gonzalez, a.d &guidoni, c.m (2015). workingconditions and illicit psychoactive substance use among truck drivers in brazil,occupational and environmental medicine, 72,764-9. grace, a. & maria, i. (2014) prevalence of alcohol consumption among commercial drivers.journal of sports and physical education. 1 (5) 47-51 gupta a (2012). drug/alcohol addiction in india–disturbing trends. online available on:http://www.gatewayforindia.com/articles/addiction.htm. kingsley m., gabriel n., olubukola o., kenneth y., (2017). psychoactive substance use in asample of community outreach participants; prevalence, correlates and ease of incorporating care. international journal of research in medical sciences 5(7):28452853. lasebikan, v. and baiyewu, o., (2009). profile of problems associated with psychoactive substance use among long distance commercial automobile drivers in ibadan. nigerian journal of psychiatry. 7, p 9-13. lone and mircha, (2013). drug addiction and the awareness regarding its possible treatment and rehabilitation of young drug users in kashmir. international ngo journal,8 (4), pp. 80-85 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." marian jeˆdrzejczak, and marian jeˆdrzejczak, (2005). family and environmental factors of drug addiction among young recruits. journal of military medicine.170, p 688 671. naqshbandi mm, (2012). drug addiction and youth of kashmir. int. ngo j. 7(5):84-90. doi:10.5897/ingoj12.022. national institute of on drug abuse, (2007). drugs, brains and addiction: the science of addiction. nih publishers. rockville. national institute on drug abuse (nida) (2009). principles of drug addiction treatment-a researchbased guide. (revised, 2009). national institute of health, u.s. department of health and human services. obioha, e., (2002). drug addiction and social rehabilitation: a case study of lagos, nigeria. okpatakuc.i, kw.anashie h.o, ejiofor j.i, olisah v.o. (2014). prevalence and socio demographic risk factors associated with psychoactive substance use in psychiatric out-patients of a tertiaryhospital in nigeria. nigerian med j. 55(6):460. okpataku, c.i. (2015). pattern and reasons for substance use among long distance commercial drivers in a nigerian city, indian journal of public health, 59(4), 259 63, october-november, doi: 10.4103/0019-557x.169649 okpataku, c.i. (2016). socio-demographic correlates of substance use among long distance commercial vehicle drivers, journal of medicine in the tropics, 18(1), 6-18. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “illicit drug use and the challenges of addiction." olaniyi, d. t. (2016). substance abuse and violent crimes among the commercial vehicle drivers in lagos state. unpublished master of science (m.sc.) thesis. department of sociology, university of lagos, akoka, yaba, lagos state. rogala-obłeˆkowska j: młodziez˙ inarkotyki: rodzinneczynnikiryzykanałogu., (2001). young people and narcotics: family factors of addiction, pp 51, 104–9, 208–11. roman e. (2002). drug abuse. greenhaven press. usa. saheed, o.u. and ipinmoye, t.o (2015). driving under influence among long distance commercial drivers. journal of environmental and occupational science. ude-akpeh c., (2017). evaluation of ndlea radio campaign influence on drug abuse among youths in onitsha metropolis. international journal of humanities and social scienceinvention6 (5) pp 80-87. usman, s.o &ipinmoye, t.o. (2015). driving under influence among long distance commercial drivers in akure, south west region, nigeria, journal of environmental andoccupational science, 4(3), 128-131, doi: 10.5455/jeos.20150630111726 welcome n, pereverzew o (2010). socio-demographic correlates of substance use among long distance commercial vehicle drivers, journal of medicine in the tropics, 18, 6-18. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || beach resources and sustainable development in bayelsa state, nigeria. abstract this study sought to examine the relationship between beach resources and sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. this was against the backdrop of a number of concerns threatening the sustainable development of tourism industry in bayelsa that solutions were sought through this study. to achieve the aim of the study, beach resources was studied for its impact on three measure of sustainable tourism development. the data for the study was gathered via the use of questionnaire distributed to the sampled beach/water tourist sites, using a sample random sampling technique, a total of 400 questionnaires was distributed, out of which 296 were used for analysis. with pearson moment correlation andsimple regression, the study found that beach resources is significant predictor of sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. consequently, the entire null hypothesis were rejected. on the basis of conclusion, recommendations were offered. among other recommendation, the need for deliberate and collaborative efforts between private tourism practitioners, government and host communities towards the development of tourism sector was emphasized. key words: beach resources. economic development. socio-cultural development. environmental development. introduction the tourism sector has witnessed consistent development and expansion for decades. we may anticipate further progress over the next 20 years. tourism is the second-largest business in the world, after agriculture, and contributes 9.8% of the global gdp, according to estimates from the united nations world tourism organization (unwto) (7.2billion usd). tourism accounts for ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 69 subai, tonbara & ndu, eugene chigozie, phd. department of hospitality and tourism management, university of port harcourt. mailto:eugene.ndu@uniport.edu.ng ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || 7% (1.5 trillion usd) of the world's exports of goods and services, whereas in many developing nations it is the largest source of export amongst several industries. at the same time, it generates over 284 million employment opportunities; this connotes that tourism creates 1 in every 11 jobs across the globe. the increase in travellers from 25 million in 1950 to 1186 million in 2015 is evidence that travel is becoming more popular worldwide (unwto, 2016). due to the world's increasing economic expansion, beach resources are crucial both in bayelsa state and other parts of nigeria. despite these enormous potentials tourism wields, incessant governments pay little attention to the growth of tourism as a strategic source of economic independency and diversification, which is typically a source of worry to economic experts and tourism practitioners. the strategies to promote and market the touristic potentials of beach resources and tourism in bayelsa state still suffer incoherence and inconsistency. how to incorporate tourism development within the scope of integrated beach resources and improve the one of the major obstacles facing the state's tourist sector is the probability of long-term sustainability.due to negligence, many rivers, lakes, oceans, beaches, and other water resources have become havens for kidnappers, terrorists, and oftentimes serve as a haven or escape route for unscrupulous characters. meanwhile, some individuals utilize the waterways and locations as public restrooms, places to dispose of their sewage, and abandon rickety ships and boats. people avoid visiting beaches, lakes, and rivers because of all these fears. the lack of sufficient restrooms and trash disposal facilities, as well as the lack of adequate safety and security measures, are additional difficulties that bayelsa state's beaches still contend with. some regions of the country lack the necessary modern infrastructure, and there are severe underdevelopment and poverty issues that many potential tourists may not want to encounter. these issues can be resolved if beach resources are good and appealing with clear, white sand beaches, manageable waves, and hills surrounded by lush vegetation. if these conditions are met, the area has the potential to draw in a lot of local and foreign tourists through the use of water resources, beach destinations, and adventure beaches, among other things. based on this context, the study set out to determine how beach resources and tourism growth interacted in bayelsa state. aim and objectives of the study the aim of this study is to empirically examine the relationship between beach resources and sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. the specific objectives are; 1. to examine if there is any relationship between sand resource and economic development in bayelsa state. 2. to examine if there is any relationship that between sand resource and environmental development in bayelsa state. 3. to examine if there is any relationship between sand resource and sociocultural development. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 70 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || literaturereview theoretical foundations systems theory ludwig von bertalanffy was the one who initially propounded the system theory. according to him, a system is "a collection of interrelated and inter-dependent components. a systemstheoretic point of view is offered in leiper (1990). he suggested that it was a collection of parts, bodies, or pieces that were held together by at least one distinguishing quality. it is a unique concept that brings everyone together. because there are systems inside systems, this denotes that everything is interconnected, has an effect on other things, and is impacted by other things. according to easton (1953), the system does not have to respond to turbulence by simply oscillating or moving relative to its previous point of equilibrium in order for it to be seen as having done so. one strategy for lowering arousal levels is to work toward changing the environment in such a way that there is no longer a link between the individual and the environment that is both stressful and adaptive. systems theory provides a unique way of knowing, which makes it useful in a wide variety of research initiatives and disciplines of study. because it has an effect on both cognition and practice in all of these areas, as well as disciplines in many more, it is also highly useful in the instruction of practical interdisciplinary subjects. as a result of this, its application to tourism research as well as the travel and tourism industry is expansive and multifaceted. general systems theory has as one of its primary goals the investigation and resolution of challenges and notions that appear challenging to an organization in the service of achieving a more extensive purpose. the goal is to simplify things as much as possible, which will have the positive side effect of making things and ideas less difficult to grasp, deal with, and control (emery, 1981). the system method also has the advantage that academics can consider how such changes would affect the tourism system and predict how they will affect other sectors. this is a benefit that the system method offers. the experience is encapsulated inside the structure (page & connell, 2006). when it comes to tourism systems, one of the most essential points to bear in mind is that whatever takes happening in one location will almost certainly have repercussions in other locations. leiper (1990) proceeded by determining the principles of the subsequent tourism system. travellers; areas that benefit economically from tourism a path that passengers use to go from their starting location to the travel and tourism sector (including places to stay, modes of transportation, and companies and organizations that provide services and commodities to travellers); according to this research, transportation is an essential component of the tourism system, as it links regions of production to destinations that are represented in terms of the number of travellers that visit them. the beaches of bayelsa cannot sustain or cultivate their own growth on their own. to get the full experience of the area, guests from all over the world need to go here. in order for this area to be classified as a "beach resort," it is necessary to include some extra man-made or cultural attractions. it is important to keep the transportation routes that go to this place and other locations of bayelsa state in good condition in case tourists are interested in investigating such areas. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 71 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || conceptual review beach resources resources, according to okpoko (2002), are money and materials that are available to people or nations and may be used to accomplish goals. another definition of resource is something set aside or reserved that he can use when things go tough. there are essentially two types of materials with regard to this study in particular. natural and cultural resources might be included. natural resources might be those that nature has made accessible and usable. forests, wildlife, lakes, streams, mountains, mineral ores, petroleum, and gas are a few of them. cultural resources might be created from natural resources. whatever originates from nature and is made up of different elements like land, mountains, valleys, rivers, waterfalls, rain, etc. is referred to as a resource since it may be used to satisfy demands and enhance the welfare of living creatures (hendrymahendra, 2017).beach resources relate to the kind of beach tourism that occurs (page & connell, 2006). all tourism-, leisure-, and recreation-related activities that take place in the coastal zone and offshore coastal waters are included in the definition of beach resources. the beach resource is built on a special resource combination at the boundary between the land and sea environments: sun, water, beaches, breathtakingly vistas, a diverse range of living things (birds, whales, corals, and so on), seafood, and a decent transit system. it is a type of land formation found beside an ocean, sea, lake, or river. it typically consists of loose particles, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, or cobblestones, which are frequently made of rock. sometimes biological materials like mollusc shells or coralline algae make up the beach's particles. sand and other loose sediments that make up the beach are moved by waves or currents while they are kept in suspension, creating beaches. the pressures of waves and currents cause the rock elements to move on shore, offshore, or along shore. the majority of beach materials are the results of erosive weathering. sand, sun, and sea are the three ss that define the beach, and each beach has a profile and a berm. the beach's topography—both above and below the water—is described in the beach profile. it transitions from season to season as a result of the fluctuating wave energy that is felt during the summer and winter seasons, but is felt more frequently during the summer as a result of the gentle wave action. on the contrary, the beach berm is the portion of the beach that is generally above water (depending on the tide) and is more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide. this portion of the beach is known as the beach berm. the vegetation in the intertidal zone, which may include trees, shrubs, or grasses; the type of sand and rock; and the height of the tidesfound there are among the areas above the water. beaches are a component of coastal regions, which act as transitional zones between terrestrial and marine ecosystems and are impacted by changes in both the land and the sea. commercial, cultural, and entertainment functions are brought about by development in beach areas. coastal, marine, and small island resources also play a significant role in development(suratiniet.at, 2019). ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 72 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || beach resources include coastal elements like sand, forests, mangroves, water flora and fauna, cliffs, contours, and shade are all found in the surrounding area of the beach, and vistas that need to be developed and preserved, according to suratini et al. (2019). the beach's inherent potential for scenery can be seen in the beach panorama. there are numerous types or forms of beaches. beach resources are factors that affect the growth of coastal tourism where there are potential drivers or things that tend to have weaknesses so that they can impede the growth of coastal tourism (oktaviani and suryana, 2006 as cited in suratini et al., 2019). beaches are an interface or meeting zone between land and water. they are dynamic traits that are frequently influenced by a variety of processes and circumstances, all of which are dynamic in their own right. these consist of oceanic, geological, and climatic processes. beaches are significant from an ecological and monetary standpoint. sand beaches, for instance, are crucial for sea turtles' ability to lay their eggs. additionally, beaches provide leisure opportunities for both locals and visitors. muddy beaches are home to a variety of benthic species, which is consumed by a range of migratory and permanent birds. beaches also provide coastal towns with places to work, beautiful, calming settings, and a way to make money through tourism. many human activities have an impact on beaches, some of which result in issues with beach erosion, inaccessibility for locals if the beaches have been privatized, and disturbance of the nesting places. the greatest risks to beaches include sand removal and blockage, deterioration of protective ecosystems, and building on the beaches. sustainable tourism development according to the world tourism organization (unwto), tourism is "a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon involving the travel, for pleasure or commercial purposes, of humans to sites beyond their customary surroundings." this definition is widely accepted today. these individuals, who might be visitors, excursionists, locals, or even people from out of town, take part in activities that entail spending money on tourism-related activities (united nations world tourism organization, 2008). according to the world travel & tourism council(2017), the tourism industry is continuing to experience phenomenal expansion, outpacing the growth of a number of other industries that make significant contributions to the economy of the entire world, such as the production of food, automobiles, and oil (unwto, 2016). as a result, it is essential to develop the tourist business in regions that have promise in order to capitalize on the benefits associated with doing so. the generation of profits in foreign currency, the attraction of foreign investment, the increase in tax revenues, and the creation of extra job opportunities are all ways in which tourism contributes to the expansion of the economy (alam, &paramati, 2016). the huge economic importance of the tourism sector is demonstrated by the repercussions of its activities. the expansion of tourism has piqued the interest of a number of governments, regional and municipal authorities, commercial investors, and other parties due to the industry's capacity to generate income and employment opportunities while also contributing significantly to a number of countries' overall contributions to their respective balances of payments. in a fundamental research that was published in 1961, kraph claimed that tourism in underdeveloped nations serves a function that is distinct from any other industry. he referred to these responsibilities as "economic imperatives" in his statement (kraph, 1961). utilizing the country's ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 73 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || natural resources, being internationally competitive due to favourable trade circumstances, being able to produce the bulk of necessary goods and services domestically, and improving the country's overall payments balance are all goals that need to be accomplished. the benefits of tourism investment to society include job creation, the generation of multiplier effects, and the maintenance of balanced expansion. according to kraph (1961), the tourism sector has seemed to possess the ability to generate substantial capital from reasonable investments in plant and infrastructure. this assertion comes from the author's examination of the industry. after that, the money could be redistributed to various other sectors of the economy and could result in further development since. in no time the country would begin to notice the multiplier effect of tourism investments in other areas like employment creation, educational growth, improved public transportation system, improved reputation of the country, foreign direct investment through foreign exchange opportunities amidst host of other benefits. when promoting tourism in a way that is sustainable, the needs of both present visitors and the communities that host them are given priority, all while chances for the future are preserved and developed. this is expected to lead to the management of all resources in a way that meets economic, social, and artistic objectives while also preserving cultural integrity, basic ecological processes, biological diversity, and the system that sustains life.therefore, it is a good idea to develop tourism in a way that is ethically and socially responsible, as well as financially and ecologically viable. the three measures of sustainable tourism development used in the study are economic, socio-cultural and environmental development. economic development: this connotes the economic activities associated with tourism activities that engenders economic development in a tourism destination. it involves the creation of tourism infrastructure that leads to the maximisation of resource efficiency and minimize negative environmental impact. other evidence of economic development includes job creation, and growth and development of the local economy, improved personal standards of living. socio-cultural development: this connotes activities that engenders quality of life of the local people in a tourism destination. evidence of socio-cultural development includes healthy internal environment, provision of social amenities and recreational facilities, safety (personal, household and environmental), and having access to jobs. environmental sustainability – connotes preserving the environment throughenergy efficiency, water efficiency/conservation, pollution prevention, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions , waste management / recycling material efficiency, protect and enhance biodiversity, etc. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 74 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || empirical review discussion on tourism development has for long been of great concern to scholars and other stakeholders in the tourism industry. for example, a few studies have attempted to explain sustainable development from several perspectives. the social, economic, and tourist satisfaction levels of alpha beach were investigated and assessed by ajani et al. (2016). structured questionnaires were distributed to two tiers of stakeholders, including 100 locals who were willing to participate and 101 tourists, in order to collect information on socio-demographic characteristics, economic advantages, the condition of the infrastructure, the attraction of tourists to the resort centre, level of satisfaction, and likelihood of return. there was no correlation found between the ages of the respondents, their genders, or their levels of schooling. there is no statistically significant correlation between the alpha beach resort's tourist attraction and the level of satisfaction felt by the hotel's guests. in ghana, eshun et al. (2019) highlights how important it is to maintain the cleanliness of ghana's beaches in order to maintain a successful and long-term coastal tourism industry. the participation of stakeholders, promotional efforts, policies to ensure clean beaches, and sanitation challenges impacting ghanaian beaches were the primary focuses of the study's main objectives. the results revealed that there are some policies and procedures in place to keep beaches clean, particularly in accra. akendoretal. (2003)in south-south nigeria, used a sample of twenty-six (26) different tourist attractions located in the south-south area of nigeriacomprising the states of akwa ibom, bayelsa, cross river, delta, edo, and rivers. the study found a relationship that is significant and positive between marketing efforts and the growth of tourist destinations in south south, nigeria; there is a relationship that is positive but not significant between destination attributes and this growth; and there is a relationship that is negative but not significant between demand variation management and this growth. suratini et al. (2019) investigated beach development strategy as it relates to tourism destinations in tabanan bali. because of its exceptional potential for growth as a tourist attraction, pasut beach in tibubiu village, kerambitan district, tabanan was selected as the venue for the study using purposeful sampling. their decision was made because pasut beach is located in tabanan. the sample for this research consisted of a total of 49 people, including representatives from various levels of government, prominent community figures, and actors in the tourist industry. in addition to using a swot analysis, this research also makes use of qualitative analysis, which provides evaluations and interpretations of the acquired data that are much more in-depth. in addition, the ife matrix and the efe matrix are applied in the swot method in order to determine the weight, rating, and score, in addition to the strategy and placement of beach quadrant. in addition to that, models such as efas and ifas are used. pas po has moved into quadrant i of the s-o matrix, which indicates that both its strength and opportunity values are strong. this was accomplished by improving the quality of its human resources, particularly in the areas of technology, communication, and information mastery. oron and itu are both communities that can be found in akwa, which is a state in nigeria. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 75 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || okhiria et al. (2014) carried out a research with the purpose of investigating the effects that tourism has on native ways of life, natural environments, and human societies in these two communities. for the purpose of data collection, questionnaires that had been field-tested and validated were distributed at random to employees, merchants, and residents of the tourist areas. in all, there were 150 people who answered the survey. the analysis of the data used the concepts of simple frequency and mean scores. despite the fact that tourism is demonstrated to be beneficial to the communities that host visitors, the research demonstrates that there are also negative ramifications that should be a matter for concern. deterioration of the environment, eviction from agricultural land, theft of genetic material from native species, unfair labour and pay practices, and other issues are included in this category of dangers. rutty and scott conducted a study in 2013 on the issue of the varied climatic preferences of beachgoers from across the world. an examination of the climatic preferences of important tourist market sectors in the caribbean islands of barbados, saint lucia, and tobago is based on the findings of a research that involved the participation of 472 beachgoers. the primary results suggest that visitors coming from tropical regions have greater temperature preferences and tolerances than those coming from countries with a more moderate climate. in addition, a statistically significant difference was found between people living in regions with temperate and tropical climates for every single climatic variable that was examined (p 0.05); these include temperature, amount of precipitation, wind, and overall weather. ijeomah et al. (2020) conducted a study utilizing field research and in-depth interviews to investigate the tourist destinations and activities in some coastal districts of nigeria's niger delta. these locations are popular tourist attractions. finima nature park, bomadi beach, lake efi,opukuma beach, seigbenogugu lake, port harcourt tourist beach, river ethiopia, and rivotel river resort are some of the most popular places to visit along this stretch of coast. the most common types of visitor activities in these locations are swimming, picnics, boating, sport fishing, breathing in the salty air of the ocean, sunbathing, and participating in local cultural celebrations. one of the most popular activities that visitors to the rivotel river resort may participate in is the boat rental trip. as a direct consequence of this, the following hypotheses were formulated: ho1: there is no significant relationship between sand resource and economic development in bayelsa state. ho2: there is no significant relationship between sand resource and environmental development in bayelsa state. ho3: there is no significant relationship between sand resource and sociocultural development in bayelsa state. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 76 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || methodology this study adopteda quasi-experimental research design. this method was considered most appropriate since the object of the study involves humans; unlike animals, plants or other object whose actions can be completely put under the control of the researcher.the study's population consists of adults in the bayelsa east senatorial district. the nigerian census figures from the national population commission were utilized in the study (npc). bayelsa state's population is expected to reach 2,537,400 by 2022, according to npc figures. consequently, the 2, 537, 400 individuals of bayelsa state served as the study's population sample. the researcher used tarotamane formula for sample size determination to obtain a sample size of 400. the beaches where the study was conducted are listed in table 1. table 1: beaches in bayelsa state s/n beach address(lga) 1 okpoama beach brass lga 2 odioma beach brass lga 3 bayelsa ferry terminal and resorts nembe lga 4 polaku beach yenegoa lga 5 famgbe beach yenegoa lga 6 sagbama beach sagbama lga 7 koluama beach southern ijaw lga 8 agei palm beach ekeremor lga 9 foropa beach southern ijaw lga 10 opokuma beach akarabiri town in opokuma clan kolokuma opokuma lga source: nigerian directory, 2021 considering the objectivist position to this study, primary data shall be collected from all the ten (10) selected beaches in bayelsa state aided by structured copies of questionnaire. the unit of analysis in this study are top management and other staff of beach sites in bayelsa state. in this regard, forty (40) copies of structured questionnaire were hand delivered to these respondents representing four hundred (400) copies of questionnaire. for the questionnaire's "beach sand resources and tourism development" variables, a 5-point likert scale format (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = undecided, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree) was derived from kigenyi (2017) and modified in line with the goals of this study. the likert-type scale of measuring variables was chosen.beach sandresources was the predictor variable (adapted from arcana &wiweka, 2015;dantata, 2011). on the other hand, the dependent variable tourism development was measured with economic development, sociocultural development and environment development (adapted from dantata, 2011; sharpley & telfer, 2002). ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 77 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || the instrument used in this study was a structured questionnaire. the questionnaire was divided into four (4) sections (section a-d) containing twenty-one (33) item questions in all. section a has five (5) questions on the demographics characteristics of the participating respondents. in section b, twelve (4) questions were generated regarding beach resources dimensions;section c was made-up of the same eight (8) questions on the measures of sustainable tourism development while section. a 5-point likert measurement scale was used in weighting the responses.the face and content validity were confirmed by experts in the field of tourism. in terms of reliability,the cronbach alpha test with a threshold of 0.7 was employed to measure dependability. the value of .823 showed that the research instrument achieved internal consistency. results table 2: questionnaire distribution and retrieval questionnaire frequency percent distributed 400 100% not retrieved 23 5.75% retrieved 377 94.25% useful response 296 74.00% not used nil the table above shows the distribution of questionnaire to respondents and retrieval. four hundred questionnaires were administered, while three hundred and seventy seven (377) copies (91.2%) were retrieved. a total of twenty three 23 (5.75%) copies distributed questionnaire were not retrieved. the two hundred and ninety six (296) questionnaires were all useful. data collected from respondents were statistically treated as indicated on the table 3 below: ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 78 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || table 3: demographic profile of respondents s/no demographic variables no percent 1 gender male 118 39.8 female 178 60.2 total 296 100.0 3 age 20-30years 72 24.3 31-40years 98 33.1 41-50years 78 26.3 51& above 48 16.3 total 296 100 3 marital status married 132 44.6 single 148 49.3 divorced/separated 16 6.1 total 296 100 4 educational background ssce 24 8.1 ond/nce 58 19.6 degree/hnd 111 37.5 m.sc/mba 72 24.3 ph.d/dba 31 10.5 total 296 100 section 1 of table 3 shows the gender of respondents. 118 respondents (39.8%) were male, while 178 respondents (60.2%) were female. this information implies that majority of the respondents were female.section 2 of table 3 above shows the information on age brackets of the respondents. 72 respondents (24.3%), were within 20-30 years, 98 respondents (33.1%) were within 31–40 years, 78 respondents (26.3%) were within 41–50 years, while 48 respondents (16.3%) were greater than 51 years. this information shows that majority of the respondents were within the ages of 31 – 40 years. section 3 of table 3 shows the marital status of respondents. 132 respondents (44.6%) were married, 148 respondents (49.3%) were single, 16 respondents (6.1%) were divorced/separated. this information implies that majority of the respondents were single. section 5 of table 3 shows the educational background of respondents. ssce (24) (8.1%), ond/nce (58) (19.6%), degree/hnd (111) (37.5%), m.sc/mba (72) (24.3%), ph.d/dba (31) (10.5%). from the information it shows that respondents with b.sc are of the majority. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 79 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || test of hypotheses pearson correlation coefficient for this study, pearson order correlation coefficient analysis was performed to predict the extent of sustainable tourism development in terms of qualitative and quantitative attributes: economic development and socio-economic development and environmental development. correlation analysis decision rule if pv < 0.05 = reject ho pv >0.05 = accept ho beach sand resources and economic development ho1: there is no significant relationship betweenbeach sand resources and economic development table 4: beach sand resources and economic development correlations beach sand resources economic development beach sand resources pearson correlation 1 .918 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 economic development pearson correlation .918 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the information in table 4 above shows the result of pearson correlation coefficient analysis. the correlation coefficient (r) =0.918. this value indicates that strong relationship exists between beach sand resources and economic development. the positive sign of the correlation coefficient is an indication that a direct association exist between beach sand resources and economic development. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 80 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || table 5 model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .918 a .843 .837 .084 a. predictors: (constant), beach sand resources table 6: coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.695 .158 17.089 .000 beach sand resources .032 .060 .918 .538 .000 a. dependent variable: economic development the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between the constructs, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.843 shows that beach sand resources is a high predictor of economic development as it boast of 85.0% predictive capacity on economic development. this implies that beach sand resources can predict economic development to the tune of 84.3%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.918 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =2.695+.0.918*bsr. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationshipbetween beach sand resources and economic development. beach sand resources and environmental development ho3: there is no significant relationship betweenbeach sand resources and environmental development table 7: beach sand resourcesand environmental development correlations beach sand resources environmental development beach sand resources pearson correlation 1 .946 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 environmental development pearson correlation .946 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the information in table 7 above shows the result of pearson correlation coefficient analysis. the correlation coefficient (r) =0.946. this value indicates that strong relationship exists between beach sand resources and environmental development. the positive sign of the correlation coefficient is an indication that a direct association exist between beach sand ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 81 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || resources and environmental development. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below. table 8 model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .946 a .894 .889 .736 a. predictors: (constant), beach sand resources table 9 coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.244 .252 4.938 .000 beach sand resources .608 .098 .946 6.199 .000 a. dependent variable: environmental development the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between the constructs, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.894 shows that beach sand resources is a high predictor of environmental development as it boast of 89.4% predictive capacity on environmental development. this implies that beach sand resources can predict environmental development to the tune of 89.4%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.946 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =1.244+.0.946*bsr. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationshipbetween beach sand resources and environmentaldevelopment. beach sand resources and socio-cultural development. ho3: there is no significant relationship between beach sand resources and socio-cultural development. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 82 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || table 10: beach sand resources and socio-cultural development. correlations beach sand resources socio-cultural development beach sand resources pearson correlation 1 .890 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 socio-cultural development pearson correlation .890 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 296 296 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the information in table 10 above shows the result of pearson correlation coefficient analysis. the correlation coefficient (r) =0.890. this value indicates that strong relationship exists between beach sand resources and socio-cultural development. the positive sign of the correlation coefficient is an indication that a direct association exist between beach sand resources and socio-cultural development. the extent of this relationship is shown in the regression result below. table 11 model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .890 a .792 .779 .947 a. predictors: (constant), beach sand resources table 12 coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.248 .324 3.852 .000 beach sand resources .573 .126 .890 4.543 .000 a. dependent variable: socio-cultural development the table above shows the model summary and coefficients of the regression analysis. while correlation establishes that there is a significant relationship between the constructs, regression analysis shows the magnitude of the relationship. thus from the result, r2 value of 0.792 shows that beach sand resources is a high predictor of socio-cultural development as it boast of 79.2% predictive capacity on socio-cultural development. this implies that beach sand resources can predict socio-cultural development to the tune of 79.2%. the result also reflects a beta value β of 0.890 (p-value 0.000). the regression models becomes =1.248+.0.890*bsr. since the p-value 0.000 is less than the level of significance (0.005), the null hypothesis h0 is not upheld. therefore the alternative hypothesis is which states that there is a significant relationshipbetween beach sand resources and socioculturaldevelopment. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 83 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || discussion of findings the findings of the study emanated from the result of hypotheses testing which had the objective to examine the relationship beach sand resources and the measures of sustainable tourism development; which are economic, environmental and socio-cultural developments.the study found that there is a significant relationship between beach sand resources and the sustainable tourism development. specifically, the result showed a value of (r=.918, 946, 890 atp=000<.050) for economic development, environmental development and socio-cultural development respectively.the result is consistent with previous studies such as simpeh and amonsah-tawiah (2011), and milliman (2002) who found in their study that the business developed to offer relaxation and entertainment at the beaches enhances the organisational performance of the firms concerned as well as development of new businesses. these businesses does not only generate wealth to the owner, it also create employment opportunities to the host communities; giving them avenue for an improved economic welfare. the serene environment offered by the beach will continue to engender business growth which empowers the local people economically. beach sand resources will continue to enhance the preservation of the environment through a good environmental programme by the tourism stakeholders. this involves managing coastal risks to maintain a pleasant and safe recreational environment, clean water and air quality, and healthy coastal ecosystems. a better environment will be provided for present generation and the future ones via good coastal management methods, especially with respect to the appropriate site of tourist infrastructure (milliman, 2002).similarlysuratini et al (2019) explained in support of the finding that the economic empowerment arising from business opportunities makes it possible for the quality of life of the local people to improve. also, the beach sand resources offer recreational ground for the local people to socialise with foreign tourists and language exchange/education. on contrary, eshun et al. (2019) targeted the supply of clean beaches in ghana as the primary focus of their research in order to encourage the robust and sustainable growth of coastal tourism. the engagement of stakeholders, promotional activities, and policies to maintain clean beaches, and sanitation difficulties influencing ghanaian beaches were the primary focuses of the study. during the course of the investigation, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were used. a total of 150 residents in the area under investigation were chosen at random to fill out semjkvi-structured questionnaires, and the sample method used was convenience sampling. the results revealed that there are some policies and procedures in place to keep beaches clean, particularly in accra. however, concerns such as low local participation in beach cleaning, poor image at certain sites due to inadequate sanitation, inferior facilities, and insufficient stakeholder collaboration need to be addressed in order for ghana to achieve sustainable coastal tourism. ajani et al. (2016) in their study also found that the community is not very satisfied with the socio-economic impact of private beach in their communities. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 84 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || conclusion overall, this study examined the relationship between beach sand resources and sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. in achieving this purpose, beach sand resources (water resources was adopted against the three pillars of sustainable tourism development (economic, environmental and socio-cultural development). the result showed that beach resources is significant predictor of sustainable tourism development in bayelsa.thus the study was concluded that there is need for collaborative efforts between private tourism business and other public stake holders like state and federal government and host communities in order to foster sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. recommendations the following are recommendation of the study; i. beach site managers should endeavour to ensure that sustainable planning strategies are put in place to protect and maintain the beach sand and other resources at the beach; poor state of beach facilities can dissuade tourist and this would not be healthy for the attainment of sustainable tourism development ii. the study also recommends that there is need for collaborative efforts between private tourism business and other public stake holders like state and federal government and host communities to come up with policies that will enhance the growth of tourism activities in order to foster sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state. suggestion for further research this study is focused on the relationship between beach resources and sustainable tourism development in bayelsa state which is conducted on the broad tourism sector. therefore, future researchers could consider adopting a longitudinal design with a lot more time allotted to particular tourist beach sites. this will enable them understand the dynamics and interplay of the phenomena under consideration. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 85 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || .references ajani, f., fadairo,o.s., oyebanji,h.o. 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(2008). understanding tourism: basic glossary.retrieved from http://media.unwto.org/en/content/understanding-tourismbasicglossary unitednationsenvironment programme (2002).environmentalimpacts of tourism. march 14, 2007.retrieved from:http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust-tourism/home.htm unwto (1993). report on world tourism day and adoption of themes for 1994 and 1995. a/10/161993 (1) citation pdf (275 kb) unwto (2016).definitions committee on tourism and competitiveness (ctc).http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/ctcdefinitionsenweb.pdf unwto (2018).report on tourism and culture synergies. unwto. unwto (the world tourismorganization), (2019). sustainable development of tourism.[www document]. url. http://sdt.unwto.org/es/content/definicion accessed: 1.30.19. unwto. (2016). tourism highlights. retrieved from http://www.eunwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284418145 world tourism organization (2016). mekong river-based tourism product development, unwto, madrid. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 88 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) ndu, eugene chigozie, phd.* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 05 || issue 12 || december, 2022 || world travel & tourism council. (2017). travel and tourism economic impact 2017 world.retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic impactresearch/regions-2017/world2017.pdf wyles, k.j., pahl, s., holland., m. & thompson, r.c. (2017). can beach cleans do more thanclean-up litter? comparing beach cleans to other coastal activities. environment and behavior,49(5), 509-535. wyles, k.j., white, m.p., hattam, c., pahl, s., king, h. & austen, m. (2019). are some naturalenvironments more psychologically beneficial than others? the importance of type and qualityon connectedness to nature and psychological restoration.environment and behavior, 51(2),111-143. xue, s., &wang, z. (2013). protection and exploitation of marine resources based on sustainable development. chinese fisheries economics,31(06), 152-156. yasa, i. (2020). community empowerment in tourism development during the digital era in north badung. south east asia journal of contemporary business, economics and law, 21(5).retrieved from: http://seajbel.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/ seajbel21265.pdf yasong, a. w. (2008). residents' attitudes toward tourism and perceived personal benefits in a rural community. travel research, 47, 84-93. zhang, f. (2009).discussion on the construction of the relationship model between local governments in regional ocean management. xiamen university, 2009. ijo journals volume 05 | issue 12 | december 2022 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 89 https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economicimpactresearch/ https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economicimpactresearch/ http://seajbel.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/ seajbel21265.pdf http://seajbel.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/ seajbel21265.pdf ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrance abstract this study examines the prerequisites and challenges associated with implementing artificial intelligence (ai) in nigerian academic libraries. through an exploratory research approach and a comprehensive literature review, the study identifies key factors necessary for the adoption of ai, including policy frameworks, digital infrastructure, human capital development, and data security. the study reveals significant challenges, such as high implementation costs, technical skill gaps, and infrastructure deficiencies. recommendations include government and university support for ai implementation and targeted training for librarians to ensure the successful integration of ai technology. keywords: ai in academic libraries, adoption challenges, digital infrastructure, human capital development, machine learning applications. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 abdrahman atanda moustapha1, mohammed lawal akanbi2, ganiyat olayinka bello3,and basirat raji 4 1kwara state university, nigeria 2kwara state university of education, ilorin 3kwara state university, nigeria (4kwara state university, nigeria) ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." introduction. the advent of information and communication technology (ict) and subsequent technological innovations have consistently driven transformative changes in library operations and services. as a vital component of academic institutions, libraries play a crucial role in supporting scholarly pursuits by providing seamless access to information. to remain relevant and effective in facilitating teaching, learning, and research, modern academic libraries must continually adapt to the rapidly evolving technological landscape. the increasing adoption of digital technologies in libraries has led to significant shifts in information service delivery, primarily through automation. according to memela (2023), the evolution of academic library automation has progressed from traditional card systems to computerisation, digitisation, electronic resources, radio frequency identification (rfid), and most recently, artificial intelligence (ai). this technological progression has significantly enhanced the efficiency and effectiveness of library operations and services, setting a new standard for excellence in the field. the integration of artificial intelligence (ai), the latest milestone in technological development, has revolutionised library operations and services. as a result, ai adoption has emerged as a strategic imperative for academic libraries worldwide, enabling enhanced efficiency and effectiveness in their functions (eiriemiokhale & sulyman, 2023). the rapid evolution of ai technologies necessitates that librarians remain abreast of these advancements and adapt library processes and services accordingly. to achieve this, librarians must demonstrate a high degree of dedication to service design and delivery while also embracing proactive and innovative approaches to their work. by doing so, libraries can harness the full potential of ai to drive transformative change and improve user experiences. the adoption of artificial intelligence (ai) in nigerian libraries is presently limited, with recent studies (odeyemi, 2019; ajani et al., 2022; yusuf et al., 2022; oyekale, 2023) highlighting the need for further investigation. the slow pace of adoption raises concerns about the ability of ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." academic libraries to remain competitive and keep pace with global trends in information access initiatives. in response, this research aims to conduct a comprehensive examination of the requirements and challenges associated with the successful adoption of ai in academic library operations and services in nigeria. specifically, the study will focus on identifying the key issues that impact ai adoption in nigerian libraries by exploring these issues. foundational frameworks of artificial intelligence: principles, concepts, and paradigms artificial intelligence (ai) is a multifaceted and dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of technologies, including machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, and robotics (lowendal & calhoun williams, 2018). according to bughin et al. (2018), ai capabilities comprise various components, such as machine learning, natural language text understanding, virtual agents, and autonomous vehicles. these descriptions underscore the broad scope of ai, which draws upon multidisciplinary concepts, theories, and practices from fields such as philosophy, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, and computer science (amudha, 2022). at its core, ai involves the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as decision-making, object detection, and complex problemsolving (memela, 2023). this necessitates a high level of intelligence, akin to human capabilities, in areas such as thinking, reasoning, comprehension, learning, judgement, and inference. by combining these attributes, ai systems can mimic human-like intelligence, enabling them to make informed decisions and solve complex problems. though the use of ai has not gained much popularity in nigeria, it is regarded as part of the 4th industrial revolution (park, 2019) and originated from the assumption of john mccarthy in 1956, who stated that every aspect of learning and other forms of intelligence can be simulated through the use of machines (wang, 2018). the originator further defines ai as the ‘science and engineering of making intelligent machines, particularly intelligent ones’ to use the computer to study the intelligence and associated decision-making skills of humans (amudha, 2022). theoretically, the emergence of the field of ai stems from the recognition that computers, initially designed for digital ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." computing, can be leveraged to perform complex cognitive tasks such as theorem proving and strategic play, thus facilitating the exploration of human intelligence and decision-making processes through computational modelling (amudha, 2022). theoretical. this implies that the theory of artificial intelligence is centred on the mix between human intelligence and computer intelligence. ai in academic libraries: strategic objectives, potential benefits, and anticipated impacts of ai integration in academic libraries the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in academic libraries has been recognised as a transformative force, revolutionising library processes and services (halburagi, suryakanth, & mukarambi, 2023). the strategic objectives of ai adoption in libraries include improved search and discovery of materials, personalised library services, digitisation and preservation of library materials, and enhanced accessibility of library resources. according to cox (2022), ai plays a crucial role in mining published literature, enabling researchers to efficiently navigate vast amounts of literature. ai-powered machine learning algorithms facilitate seamless navigation of library collections, eliminating the need for manual searching (cox, 2022). the potential benefits of ai in academic libraries are multifaceted. memela (2023) describes ai as a "new hope" for libraries, enabling the provision of automated services and playing a major role in the upcoming 5th industrial revolution. studies have shown that ai can increase productivity, improve customer satisfaction, enhance information accessibility, and facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing (ogwo, ibegbulem, & nwachukwu, 2023). ai can also simplify library functions, enhance librarian efficiency, and promote quality service delivery (olayode, 2023). furthermore, ai can provide error-free operations, work around the clock without fatigue, and free librarians to focus on more demanding tasks (omame & alex-nmecha, 2020). the impact of artificial intelligence on library operations and services is profound. ai can analyse texts, create knowledge models, and make decisions using machine learning algorithms. ai chat ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." bots, such as chat gpt, can be integrated into daily library workflows, providing practical tools for specific tasks. the capabilities of ai include robotic process automation, computer vision, machine learning, natural language text understanding, and virtual agents/conversational interfaces (bughin et al., 2018). according to balsubramanian and tamilselvan (2023), the impact of ai on library operations and services manifests in various ways, including: optimised search and discovery capabilities: artificial intelligence (ai) powered search systems revolutionise the way users discover relevant resources by leveraging advanced algorithms and machine learning techniques. these systems analyse user search behaviour, identify patterns, and suggest pertinent resources, ensuring a more efficient and personalised experience. strategic collection development and management: artificial intelligence (ai) can significantly enhance collection management in libraries by leveraging data-driven insights to inform selection and acquisition decisions. by analysing usage data, identifying popular items, and predicting future demand, ai can enable libraries to make more informed decisions about resource allocation and procurement. efficient processing and organisation of library resources: artificial intelligence (ai) revolutionises the processing and organisation of library resources by streamlining cataloguing and classification workflows. by leveraging ai-powered technologies, libraries can significantly reduce the time and effort required to handle and arrange collections, thereby enhancing operational efficiency and productivity. enhancing inclusive information accessibility: artificial intelligence (ai) plays a pivotal role in promoting inclusive information accessibility, particularly for individuals with disabilities, by providing innovative solutions that bridge the accessibility gap. by leveraging ai-powered technologies, libraries can offer a range of assistive features that facilitate equal access to resources and services. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." digital preservation and conservation of library resources: artificial intelligence (ai) plays a vital role in the preservation of library resources, enabling the digitisation and conservation of fragile, rare, or deteriorating materials. by leveraging ai-powered technologies, libraries can mitigate the risk of loss or damage to physical documents while also enhancing their accessibility and usability for future generations. data-driven insights and decision making: artificial intelligence (ai) empowers libraries to extract valuable insights from complex data sets, enabling data-driven decision making and service enhancement. by leveraging ai-powered analytics, libraries can evaluate circulation statistics, user activity, and resource utilisation to identify patterns, trends, and correlations. in conclusion, recent research by subaveerapandiyan (2023) underscores the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (ai) in library settings. the study reveals that ai can significantly enhance information retrieval, automate routine tasks, and personalise user interactions, thereby elevating the overall user experience. furthermore, ai-powered chatbots, such as chatgpt, demonstrate exceptional efficacy in addressing user queries and providing instant assistance, resulting in improved user satisfaction. these findings highlight the critical role that ai can play in modernising library services, streamlining operations, and fostering a more usercentric approach. by leveraging ai-driven solutions, libraries can optimise their services, improve user engagement, and remain relevant in an increasingly digital landscape. modes of artificial intelligence application in academic library services: the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in academic libraries can be achieved through various modes, as identified by multiple studies (yu et al., 2019; ali et al., 2020; omame & alex-nmecha, 2020; olayode, 2022). these modes encompass a range of technologies, including ai-powered robots for tasks such as book sorting and retrieval, chatbots like chatgpt for rapid and accurate responses to user queries, expert systems for specialised knowledge and support, facial recognition for enhanced security and user authentication, cloud computing for large-scale data storage and analysis, big data analytics for insights into user behaviour, and rfid technology for ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." streamlined inventory management. notably, recent research by adetayo (2023) underscores the potential of chatbots, particularly chatgpt, as a valuable tool for library service delivery, offering advanced language processing capabilities and human-like responses to user queries. by harnessing these ai applications, libraries can significantly enhance user experiences, improve operational efficiency, and provide innovative services that support research and learning. recent studies have highlighted the diverse applications of artificial intelligence (ai) in library services and operations. according to nawaz, gomez, and saldin (2020) and moustapha and yusuf (2023), ai can be utilised in various areas, including automation of library routines, user identification, monitoring user activity, reference services, library security, teaching, and online messaging. additionally, ai-powered tutorials can keep users informed about the latest developments in their field. in technical services, ai can be applied to tasks such as assigning and creating subject headings, taxonomies, and metadata descriptions, with librarians playing a crucial role in moderating metadata ethics and privacy (corrado, 2021). furthermore, aipowered expert systems can support research, indexing, online reference, and technical services, including acquisition, cataloguing, and classification (mughalu, 2019). the strategic integration of artificial intelligence (ai) applications in libraries can significantly augment user experiences, optimise operational efficiency, and facilitate the development of innovative services, thereby redefining the contours of library services and user engagement. recent studies by lie et al. (2019), kaushal and yadav (2022), balsubramanian and tamilselvan (2023), and halburagi and mukarambi (2023) have elucidated the multifaceted applications of artificial intelligence (ai) in library operations and services. these applications include the deployment of chatbots as virtual assistants, providing rapid support and referrals to users while minimising staff workload. ai-powered algorithms can analyse user behaviour and preferences, enable personalised recommendations, and enhance user satisfaction. additionally, ai-assisted systems can automate tasks such as cataloguing, classification, and indexing, ensuring accurate and efficient processing of library materials. furthermore, ai-driven analytics can provide valuable insights into user interactions with library resources, informing service improvements ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." and tailored offerings. ai technology also plays a critical role in digital preservation, facilitating the detection and repair of faulty files, optimising storage, and ensuring the long-term conservation of digital materials. by leveraging these ai applications, libraries can significantly enhance user experiences, improve operational efficiency, and provide innovative services that support research and learning. the successful implementation of artificial intelligence (ai) in academic libraries necessitates careful preparation and consideration of key factors. according to weija (2022), as cited by subaveerapandiyan (2023), leadership, expertise in ai applications, acceptance of ai, awareness of ai, and an innovative environment are essential elements that influence libraries' preparedness to adopt ai. to ensure a seamless integration, library management should remain abreast of the latest developments and regularly assess the library's readiness for ai adoption. furthermore, library personnel require a high level of awareness, comprehensive training, and a supportive environment that fosters innovation, encouraging staff to explore the potential of ai integration. by prioritising these factors, libraries can effectively harness the benefits of ai, enhancing user experiences, improving operational efficiency, and driving innovation in academic libraries. requirements for ai applications in the library: the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in libraries necessitates careful consideration of several key requirements. research by martinez-plumed et al. (2021), qomariyah et al. (2020), decker (2015), odeyemi (2019), and owolabi et al. (2022) highlights the essential elements for ai application in libraries, including a policy document or framework, robust digital infrastructure, strong internet connectivity, expertise and skills in operating technology, human capacity and training, and sufficient data generation and organisation. notably, ai relies on human-generated data, underscoring the importance of librarians' role in data creation and organisation. consequently, librarians must possess data literacy skills, including understanding data types, sources, quality, privacy concerns, and ethical considerations, as neuman et al. (2022), lund and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." wang (2023), and oyetola et al. (2023) have emphasised.furthermore, librarians should be proficient in digital tools and technologies, including coding languages. halburagi and mukarambi (2023) provide additional insights into specific ai requirements for libraries, reinforcing the need for a comprehensive approach to ai adoption. by addressing these requirements, libraries can harness the potential of ai to enhance user experiences, improve operational efficiency, and drive innovation. the successful implementation of artificial intelligence (ai) in libraries requires careful consideration of several key factors. a well-organised and easily accessible database of collections and user information is essential to support ai applications, which can be achieved through digitisation of library resources and thorough data capture. a robust ai infrastructure, comprising computer hardware, software, and reliable internet connectivity, is also crucial. furthermore, expertise in ai development is necessary to build and maintain the ai system, requiring professionals with knowledge of ai programming languages, data analytics, machine learning algorithms, and related tools. highquality data sets are also vital for training ai models, and robust data privacy and security measures must be implemented to protect user data and ensure compliance with data protection regulations. additionally, specific areas of ai application should be identified, and ai technology should be integrated with existing library systems to minimise operational disruption. ultimately, user training is a critical necessity for successful ai implementation, requiring education and training for both library personnel and patrons to ensure proper deployment and utilisation of the technology. the imperative of addressing institutional challenges in ai adoption: the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) technology in nigerian libraries is beset by substantial challenges, as corroborated by recent empirical studies. notably, research conducted by rotimi et al. (2022), owolabi et al. (2022), and adeyeye et al. (2023) reveals a conspicuously low level of ai adoption in library operations and services, characterised by the predominance of ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." manual processes and a marked lack of preparedness to integrate emerging technologies. this scenario highlights the limitations of ai adoption prospects in these libraries, which are likely attributable to institutional deficiencies. institutional concerns as a barrier to ai adoption the findings of bawack and nkolo (2018) and tella (2020) further reinforce the notion that institutional concerns constitute a significant impediment to ai deployment in libraries, particularly in african countries. these concerns necessitate urgent attention to unlock the transformative potential of ai in enhancing library services and operations. key implications 1. addressing institutional inadequacies: nigerian libraries must prioritise addressing institutional challenges to facilitate successful ai adoption. 2. capacity building: librarians require training and development to integrate ai technologies into library services effectively. 3. strategic planning: libraries need to develop strategic plans to harness the potential of ai, ensuring alignment with institutional goals and objectives. by acknowledging and addressing these challenges, nigerian libraries can navigate the complexities of ai adoption and harness its potential to enhance user experiences, improve operational efficiency, and drive innovation. several factors, including the lack of necessary facilities, inadequate policies, and ineffective library management, hinder the implementation of artificial intelligence (ai) technology in nigerian libraries. studies by odeyemi reveal a low level of readiness for ai adoption, attributing it to financial uncertainties, incomplete automation, skill gaps, fear of job loss, inadequate technological infrastructure, and unreliable power supply. additional challenges include ethical concerns, privacy issues, high system development and maintenance costs, and limited ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." availability of ai experts. these factors underscore the importance of sufficient financial provision for successful ai implementation. given the current economic realities and low financial allocation to education in nigeria, the prospect of fully implementing ai in the education system appears to be challenging, highlighting the need for strategic planning and resource allocation to overcome these challenges. conclusion and future directions: this study explores the feasibility of adopting artificial intelligence (ai) technology in nigerian academic libraries, recognising the pervasive presence of ai in various aspects of modern life. as ai has become an integral part of personal devices, its potential applications in libraries warrant examination. this research focuses on identifying the key requirements for successful ai implementation in academic libraries, including policy frameworks, digital infrastructure, human capacity development, data for training, and data privacy and security. additionally, the study highlights the challenges associated with ai adoption, primarily related to financial constraints, which are contingent upon institutional and political will. by understanding these requirements and challenges, libraries can better navigate the complexities of ai integration and harness its potential to enhance services and operations. recommendations based on the study's findings, the following recommendations are proposed to facilitate the successful adoption of artificial intelligence (ai) technology in nigerian academic libraries: 1. adequate financial provision: the government should allocate sufficient funds to institutions of higher learning to support the development and implementation of ai technology, particularly for providing ai-related infrastructural facilities in libraries and other relevant administrative functions. 2. diversification of funding sources: university authorities and library administrations should explore additional funding opportunities beyond tetfund, such as grants, philanthropic support, and partnerships with non-governmental organisations, to supplement financial resources for ai adoption. 3. staff training and development: library administrations should prioritise staff training and professional development to ensure a seamless transition to ai-enhanced operations and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." services. this should include technology literacy, hands-on experience with ai tools, and proficiency in digital tools and technologies. 4. digital literacy and ai competence: librarians should possess fundamental knowledge of ai, including its capabilities, limitations, and techniques such as machine learning, natural language processing, and data mining, as well as proficiency in coding languages. 5. data protection and security: libraries should implement robust data protection measures to safeguard user privacy, ensuring the security of patron data and biographical information. by implementing these recommendations, nigerian academic libraries can effectively harness the potential of ai technology to enhance services, improve efficiency, and support research and learning. references (1) adeyeye, sophia vivian. & oladokun, taofeek abiodun (2023) application of emerging technologies for research support in nigerian academic libraries: trends, problems and prospects, iassist quarterly 47(3-4), pp1-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.29173/iq1069 (2) adetayo, a. j. (2023). artificial intelligence chatbots in academic libraries: the rise of chatgpt. library hi tech news, 40(3), 18–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/lhtn-01 2023-0007 (3) ajani, y. a., tella, a., salawu, k. y and abdullahi. f (2022): perspectives of librarians on awareness and readiness of academic libraries to integrate artificial intelligence for library operations and services in nigeria, internet reference services quarterly, doi 10.1080/10875301.2022.2086196 (4) ali, m. y., naeem, s. b., bhatti, r., & richardson, j. (2022). artificial intelligence application in university libraries of pakistan: swot analysis and implications. global knowledge, memory and communication, ahead-of-print (ahead-ofhttps://doi.org/10.1108/gkmc-12-2021-0203 print). (5) amudha, t. (2022). artificial intelligence: a complete insight. in p. kaliraj and t. dev. artificial intelligence theory, models and application. london: crc press(pp.1-24). (6) balasubramanian, s & tamilselvan, n. 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(2018). skill shift: automation and the future of the workforce. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured insights/future-ofwork/skill-shift-automation-and-the-future-of-the-workforce (9) cox, a (2023). how artificial intelligence might change academic library work: applying the competencies literature and the theory of the professions. journal of the association for information science and technology 74(3), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24635. (10) enakrire, r. t and oladokun, b. d (2023) artificial intelligence as enabler of future library services: how prepared are librarians in african university libraries. library hi-tech news doi 10.1108/lhtn09-2023-0173 (11) halburagi, s, & mukarambi, p (2023). use of artificial intelligence (ai) technology futures in library. international journal of research in library science (ijrls) 9(2): 14-19 doi: 1 0.26761/ijrls.9.2.2023.1642. (12) liu, g. (2011). the application of intelligent agents in libraries: a survey. program, 45(1), 78 97. (13) lund, b. d & wang, t. (2023). chatting about chatgpt: how may ai and gpt impact academia and libraries. library hi-tech news 40(3). doi:10.2139/ssm.4333415. (14) memela, m.a. (2023). artificial intelligence (ai): enlightening academic libraries on the phenomenon. journal of information https://doi.org/10.13140/rg.2.2.32481.89443 processing, 2(3), 1-10. (15) moustapha, a. a. & yusuf, i. o. (2023) artificial intelligence adoption and utilization by librarians in university libraries in kwara state, nigeria. library philosophy and practice (ejournal). https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7917 (16) nawaz, n., & saldeen, m.a. (2020). artificial intelligence chatbots for library reference services journal of management information and decision sciences, 23, 442-449 (17) neumann, o, guirguis, k & steiner, r, (2022). exploring artificial intelligence adoption in public organization: a comparative case study. public management review. doi: 10.108/14719037. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24635 https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7917 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." (18) odeyemi, s. o. (2019) robots in nigerian academic libraries: investigating infrastructural readiness and potential for library services. paper presented at ifla information technology satellite meeting held on 21-22 august at the technical university of applied sciences wildau, germany. (19) ogwo, u, ibegbulem, f & nwachukwu, v. (2023 applications and perceived impact of artificial intelligence in academic libraries in nigeria. library philosophy and practice (e-journal). 7907. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7907 (20) olayode, m. m. (2022). role of technological innovations and the adoption of artificial intelligence in contemporary library service delivery. retrieved from https://nioaim.org/wpcontent/uploads/2022/06/role-of-technological-innovations-and adoption-of-artificial.pdf (21) omame, i.m. and alex-nmecha, j.c. (2020), “artificial intelligence in libraries”, in osuigwe, n. (ed.), managing and adapting library information services for future users, igi global, pp. 120-144, doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1116-9.ch008. (22) owolabi, k.a., adenekan, f.n., adeleke, o.a., ajayi, t.a. and adesina, o. (2020), awareness and perception of the artificial intelligence in the management of university libraries in nigeria, journal of interlibrary loan, document delivery and electronic reserve, vol. 29 nos 1-2, pp. 1328. (23) qomariyah, a., mursidah, g. and wahyun, d. (2020), analysis of organizational readiness towards library 4.0: a case study at x library. record and library journal, 6(2): 1-23. (24) rotimi et al, (2022), rotimi adesina egunjobi, d., ogunniyi, s.o. and ajakaye, j.e., 2022. challenges and prospects of reference services in federal university libraries in south west, nigeria. library philosophy and practice (25) subaveerapandiyan a. (2023), application of artificial intelligence (ai) in libraries and its impact on library operations review. library philosophy and practice (e-journal). 7828. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7828 (26) tella (2020) tella a. robots are coming to the libraries: are librarians ready to accommodate them? library hi tech news 2020; 37:13-7. https://doi.org/10.1108/lhtn-05-2020 0047. (27) wang, p. (2018). on defining artificial intelligence. journal of artificial general intelligence, 10(2), 1–37. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7907 https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7828 https://doi.org/10.1108/lhtn-05-2020 0047 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." (28) yusuf, t, adebayo, o, bello, l & kayode j. (2022) adoption of artificial intelligence for effective library service delivery in academic libraries in nigeria. library philosophy and practice (e-journal) 2022:6804. authors short biography: (1) abdrahman atanda moustapha is a distinguished librarian and information professional with expertise in cataloging and classification, as well as information management. he currently serves as a cataloguer at the kwara state university library in nigeria and adjunct mosque librarian at the ilorin central jum’mat mosque library. as an active member of the chartered librarian of nigeria (cln) and the nigerian library association (nla), he has demonstrated a strong commitment to the library and information science profession. (2) dr. muhammed lawal akanbi is a distinguished academic and library professional, currently serving as the university librarian at kwara state university of education. with a strong background in library and information science, he is chartered with the librarians registration council of nigeria (lrcn) since 2005. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “adoption of artificial intelligence technology in academic libraries in nigeria: an analysis of need and hindrances." (3) ganiyat olayinka bello is a distinguished library professional and certified librarian of nigeria (cln). she holds a first-class degree in library and information science, demonstrating her academic excellence and commitment to the field. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 (4) basirat raji is a dedicated professional librarian serving at kwara state university library, where she leverages her expertise in library and information science to deliver exceptional services. holding a bachelor's and master's degree in library and information science, mrs basirat has developed a strong foundation in the technical aspects of librarianship. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn 2811-2466) alaba lawrence aladejana*, https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 03 || march, 2024 || effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria alaba lawrence aladejana department of science education, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. abstract the study examined the effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement in physics s through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in ekiti state, nigeria. this study adopted a pre-test post-test quasi experimental control group design. the sample for this study consisted of one hundred and thirty three (40 males and 93 females) students selected from six (6) senior secondary schools across the three senatorial districts of the state through purposive sampling technique. analysis of covariance (ancova) and estimated marginal means (emm) were used to analyze the data obtained at significant level of 0.05. the findings of this study revealed that there was no significant effect of gender on students’ achievement in physics through mind-mapping based and visual imagery strategies. however, further emms showed that male students had the higher adjusted mean score in their post-achievement in physics (15.161) than female students (13.294). keywords: gender, achievement, physics, mind mapping-based and visual imagery. introduction science, according to britannica, (2024) is concerned with the body of knowledge that focus on physical world and phenomena that comprise bias-less observations and well organized experimentation, categorically, science is grouped into applied and pure science, this pure science is made up of biology, chemistry and physics. in nigeria, physics is taught in senior secondary schools through various strategies such as mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies. in executing aforementioned strategies, gender is an additional aspect that play significant role in academic accomplishment (aladejana, 2024). brain imaging and psycho-physiological research have shown that there is a gender difference in the visual cortex between male and female learners (sabatianelli, flaisch, fitzsimmons & lang, 2004). the discovered discrepancy has the potential to impact how physics learners conceptualize various concepts, which might improve their ability to solve problems and use their knowledge. the moderating influence of gender on academic accomplishment can account for the situation under investigation. trevor, navid & prasanna (2020) proposed that the visual cortex is the principal cortical region inside the brain that is responsible for the processing, integration, and manipulation of visual information derived from the retinas. the posterior, or furthest, region of the brain contains the occipital lobe of the main cerebral cortex. because of functional and structural factors, the visual cortex is divided into five distinct regions, designated as v1 through v5. before reaching the visual cortex from the retinas, visual information must first pass through the thalamus, where it forms synapses in a nucleus known as the lateral geniculate. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn 2811-2466) alaba lawrence aladejana*, https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 03 || march, 2024 || effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria figure 1: parts of brain source: google.com after leaving the lateral geniculate, the previously described data travels to the first region of the visual cortex, or v1. the calcarine sulcus area contains v1, also referred to as the primary visual cortex (tran et al., 2019). a visual cortex is found in each hemisphere of the brain, and it gets information from the opposing eye. information from the left eye is processed by the cortical regions of the right eye, while information from the right eye is processed by the cortical areas of the left eye. the reception, separation, and integration of visual information are the main functions of the visual cortex. after the visual cortex has completed processing the data, it is then sent to other areas of the brain for further examination and application. because of its highly specialised function, the brain can quickly recognise objects and patterns without requiring a lot of conscious effort. according to goodale (2011), one important benefit of this specialization is that it increases the amount of calculations that can be done by other brain areas. the brain areas that are being examined include those associated with executive function and decision-making. it is crucial to remember that the majority of visual processing is unconscious, which might result in incorrect interpretations of visual data. this is seen by how effective visual illusions may be. learners' perception and comprehension of physics ideas are significantly impacted by gender differences in the visual brain. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journa (issn 2811-2466) https://ijojournals.com/ effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping figure 2: visual cortex of male and female source: google.com 160 distinct pictures were examined by orientation (64 male and were gathered and broke down using land's assessment sheet and z information found that females show more clear scattering conduct (4.49583 mean, 2.32482 standard deviation, and 5.40481 difference) than m deviation, and 3.92614), while females display more grounded visual aversion to the photos. semela (2010) defines orientation as the organic split among males and females. yang (2010) defines orientation as the social a recognizable proof as male or female. it additionally portrays the connections that exist among people, as well as young males and young females, and how they are mingled. semela (2010) proceeded to say that the hole in interest between sexual orientations might be appropriately explained by the commonness of orientation generalizations held by young males and young females. these thoughts affect their scholastic exhibition and spsip. literature review bello & famakinwa (2014) stated that orientation is a significant point in science education, particularly given the growing accentuation on systems to expand the labor force for mechanical progression and increase female portrayal in science and innov in a similar line, samtrock (2005) accepts that orientation directs the kind of role ways of behaving that people are supposed to show in their thinking, activities, and feelings. albeit a few countries all through the world have accomplishe education, the objective presently can't seem to be by and large met in postnsecondary institutions (agu & omenyi, 2013; unesco, 2018; oludayo et al, 2019). orientation assumes a significant part in logical education on supplementing the labor force for mechanical forward leaps and increasing the presence of females in science and innovation fields. orientation bias continues to be a significant issue international journal of social science and humanities resea alaba lawrence aladejana* volume 07 || issue 03 || march effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria figure 2: visual cortex of male and female 160 distinct pictures were examined by orientation (64 male and 84 female), and information were gathered and broke down using land's assessment sheet and z-test, individually. the information found that females show more clear scattering conduct (4.49583 mean, 2.32482 standard deviation, and 5.40481 difference) than males (4.90233 mean, 1.98145 standard deviation, and 3.92614), while females display more grounded visual aversion to the photos. semela (2010) defines orientation as the organic split among males and females. yang (2010) defines orientation as the social attributes and conceivable outcomes associated with one's recognizable proof as male or female. it additionally portrays the connections that exist among people, as well as young males and young females, and how they are mingled. semela say that the hole in interest between sexual orientations might be appropriately explained by the commonness of orientation generalizations held by young males and young females. these thoughts affect their scholastic exhibition and spsip. famakinwa (2014) stated that orientation is a significant point in science education, particularly given the growing accentuation on systems to expand the labor force for mechanical progression and increase female portrayal in science and innov in a similar line, samtrock (2005) accepts that orientation directs the kind of role ways of behaving that people are supposed to show in their thinking, activities, and feelings. albeit a few countries all through the world have accomplished orientation uniformity in rudimentary education, the objective presently can't seem to be by and large met in postnsecondary omenyi, 2013; unesco, 2018; oludayo et al, 2019). orientation assumes a significant part in logical education, particularly with the increased accentuation on supplementing the labor force for mechanical forward leaps and increasing the presence of females in science and innovation fields. orientation bias continues to be a significant issue and humanities research alaba lawrence aladejana*, 03 || march, 2024 || based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria 84 female), and information test, individually. the information found that females show more clear scattering conduct (4.49583 mean, 2.32482 ales (4.90233 mean, 1.98145 standard deviation, and 3.92614), while females display more grounded visual aversion to the photos. semela (2010) defines orientation as the organic split among males and females. yang (2010) ttributes and conceivable outcomes associated with one's recognizable proof as male or female. it additionally portrays the connections that exist among people, as well as young males and young females, and how they are mingled. semela say that the hole in interest between sexual orientations might be appropriately explained by the commonness of orientation generalizations held by young males and young females. these thoughts affect their scholastic exhibition and spsip. famakinwa (2014) stated that orientation is a significant point in science education, particularly given the growing accentuation on systems to expand the labor force for mechanical progression and increase female portrayal in science and innovation domains. in a similar line, samtrock (2005) accepts that orientation directs the kind of role ways of behaving that people are supposed to show in their thinking, activities, and feelings. albeit a d orientation uniformity in rudimentary education, the objective presently can't seem to be by and large met in postnsecondary omenyi, 2013; unesco, 2018; oludayo et al, 2019). orientation , particularly with the increased accentuation on supplementing the labor force for mechanical forward leaps and increasing the presence of females in science and innovation fields. orientation bias continues to be a significant issue ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn 2811-2466) alaba lawrence aladejana*, https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 03 || march, 2024 || effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria in nigeria, and perhaps in africa in general. a few scholastics accept that there are no orientation variations in learners' exhibition in science, while others conflict. alokan (2010) found in his study that orientation (sex) and school area have no influence on scholarly achievement. in a similar vien, aweriale (2008) found that orientation affects physics execution when the two males and females are shown under the indistinguishable settings. egwuchukwu (2007) likewise expressed that lately, a few guardians pick vocations for their children to fulfill their childish self image, make up for a shortcoming they left in their own time, because of orientation generalizations, disregarding the youngsters' interests and capacities, as well as the outcomes of such a decision on children and society at large. according to adeyemo (2010), female learners will generally float into or are directed towards female-dominated fields of study like teaching, nursing, library, workmanship, and secretarial studies, while shying endlessly or being deterred from fields like engineering, medicine, and so on. she guarantees that this prompts minimal support in sciences, innovation, and professional education in light of the fact that these fields are exclusively for males. also, according to ajao & aina (2005), there is a critical error between certification learners attending school, which prompts variations in the courses given. female minds are inclined toward less economically practical courses, leaving men to seek after subjects like engineering, medicine, and math. amusat & awoyemi (2007) recommended that distinctions in sexual orientation influence learners' intellectual achievement in school. research hypotheses the following hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance: ho1: there is no significant main effect of gender on learners’ achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies ho2:there is no significant difference in mean scores of male and female learners’ postachievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies research design the study used a pretest-posttest conventional group quasi-experimental design. selection of participants the population for the study comprised all senior secondary schools(sss) ii learners offering physics in ekiti state. six ssss were randomly selected across the three senatorial districts that make up the state. research instruments physics achievement test (pat), training manual for mmbs strategy, training manual for vis strategy, instructional guide for the conventional method were the instruments used for this research work to obtain the data. methods of data analysis analysis of covariance (ancova) and estimated marginal means(emms) were utilised in analysing the obtained data. results and discussion ho1: there is no significant main effect of gender on learners’ achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn 2811-2466) alaba lawrence aladejana*, https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 03 || march, 2024 || effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria table 1: analysis of covariance (ancova) of post-achievement by gender source type iii ss df ms f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 1355.761 17 79.751 5.104 0.000 0.430 intercept 1832.675 1 1832.675 117.280 0.000 0.505 pre achievement 106.628 1 106.628 6.824 0.010 0.056 treatment 485.200 2 242.600 15.525 0.000* 0.213 gender 10.604 1 10.604 0.679 0.412 0.006 error 1797.051 115 15.627 total 26496.000 133 corrected total 3152.812 132 r squared = 0.43 (adjusted r squared = 0.35) * denotes significant p<0.05 the results shown in table 1 showed that there was no significant main effect of gender on learners’ achievement in physics (f(1, 132) = 0.68; p>0.05, partial η2 = 0.01). therefore, hypothesis 1 was not rejected. this means that students’ gender had no effect on their achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies. ho2: there is no significant difference in mean scores of male and female learners’ postachievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies table 2: estimated marginal means for post achievement by gender gender x ̄ sd 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound male 15.161 .811 13.555 16.767 female 13.294 .693 11.921 14.667 table 2 revealed that male students had higher adjusted mean score in their postachievement in physics (15.161) than female learners (13.294). this means that male students outperformed their female counterparts post achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies discussion of findings the result showed that there was no significant main effect of gender on learners’ achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies. this shows that the learners’ sex had no effect on their achievement in physics. this means that gender difference in the visual cortex of male and female does not resultantly aid their achievement in physics. this result is in support of earlier findings of agommuoh & nzewi (2003); arigbabu & mji (2004); abakpa & iji (2011) and ogunleye & babajide (2011) that revealed that effect of gender on learners’ achievement in science and mathematics was not substantial. however, the result contradicts the findings of sabatinelli, flaisch, fitzsimmons and lang (2004) that brain imaging and psychophysiological studies revealed that difference in the visual cortex of may affect visulization of various concepts in the mind of learners. also, the finding is in disagreement with the findings of ; akinsola & awofala (2009); awofala (2010) & awofala (2011a) that showed gender’s effect on learners’ achievement in science was substantial with boys outperforming their girls counterparts. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research (issn 2811-2466) alaba lawrence aladejana*, https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 03 || march, 2024 || effects of gender on senior secondary schools students’ achievement through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies in physics in ekiti state, nigeria conclusion gender has no significant effect on senior secondary school students’ achievement in physics through mind mapping-based and visual imagery strategies. however, male students outperformed their female counterparts post achievement in physics through mind mappingbased and visual imagery strategies. references adeyemo, s.a. (2010). the relationship between students’ participation in school based extracurricular activities and their achievement in physics. international journal of science and technology education research, 1, 111-117. agu, n.n. & omenyi, a.s. (2013). gender enrolment status in higher education courses: a situation assessment and analysis of south eastern federal university. procediasocial and behavioral sciences 46 (4125-4129). ajao, c & aina, j. (2005). easy come, easy go? journal of physics teacher education 1,(2) 1-2. aladejana, a. l. (2024). mind mapping-based and visual imagery instructional strategies as determinants of senior secondary school students’ achievement and practical skills in physics in ekiti state, nigeria. unpublished ph.d thesis submitted to the department of science and technology education, university of ibadan. amusat, t.o & awoyemi, a. f. (2007). twenty-one years of stan. bello t. o. & famakinwa, a. (2014).location and gender of the students of biology department and prospective biology teachers in turkey and their relationship with some demographic variables. universal. journal of educational research. 6 (3), 366 377. britannical (2024). meaning of science. https://www.britannical.com/science goodale m.a. (2011). transforming vision into action. vision res.51 (13), 67-87. google (2024). parts of brain, visual cortex of male and female oludayo, o.a, popoola, s.i, akanbi, c.o & atayero, a.a. (2019). enrolment in higher institutions. science direct sabatinelli,, d. flaisch,t., fitzsimmons, & lang, p.j. (2004).the neutral basis of narrative imagery: emotion and action. progress in brain research, 156, 93-103 santrock, j. n. (2005). adolescence. 10th edition. ny: mcgraw hill. schools. an experience with sex grouping for practical chemistry. american journal of the science 37. 1 and 2 semela, o. a. (2010). educational administration. ilesa: ray books ltd. educational testing service (ets). gre bulletin. princeton: e.t.s. p.15. www.ets.org/s/gre/pdf/. physics. 2020. in britannical.com retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/dictionary on february 2, 2020. tran a, maclean m. w, hadid v, lazzouni l, nguyen dk, tremblay j, dehaes m & lepore f. (2019). neuronal mechanisms of motion detection underlying blind sight assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri). neuropsychologia, 128, 187-197. unesco, (2018). gender review: meeting our commitment gender equality in education. global education monitoring report. retrieved from http://en.unesco/gem_report/ 2018 gender review on january 28, 2020. yang, d.h. (2010). sex and learning. neuropsychologia. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 03 | march 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 http://www.ets.org/s/gre/pdf/ http://www.britannica.com/ http://en.unesco/gem-report/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. by pauline chinasa nwizu school of general studies alvan ikoku federal university of education owerri. vivian, c. chibundu school of general studies alvan ikoku federal university of education owerri. ụmị nchọcha a na-eleba anya n’ụfọdụ ihe nramaahụ di n’echimechi ọzọ dị ka o si metụta mmekọrịta mmadụ, omenala nakwa akụnaụba n’oge ugbu a. nchọcha a kpợmkwem na-akọwa usoro dị iche iche e si echi ọzọ n’ebenatợ ọlụ gedegwum, nke dị n’ochichi ime obodo ọlụ. e lebakwara anya n’uru na nsọ dị n’echimechi ọzọ, kọwakwaa ugwu na nsợpụrụ a na-enye onye chiri ọzọ n’ala ebenatọ-ọlụ gedegwum. usoro nnweta njantụle (data) bụ site n’ajụjụ ọnụ a gbara ndị nze anọ nakwa ihe nlereanya ebe a na-echi ọzọ. atụtụ e jiri mee nchọcha bụ atụtụ marxist nke karl marx na friedrich engels tụpụtara n’ime afọ cenchuri iri na itolu, nke kọwara etu ego si achi ụwa. site na ntọsasi njantule enwetagasiri, a chọpụtara na ọzọ bu nnukwu echichi e ji ama onye nwere akụnaụba, ugwu na nsopụrụ n’ala igbo. a chọpụtakwara na oke mmefu akụnaụba di n’echichi ọzọ, ebe a na-esi, anu nakwa nnukwu isi ego a na-akwu ndi ọzọ ga-ekeri, oke iwu na nsợ dị iche iche dikwa na ya, okpukpere chi ọlọrọọhụrụ socha n’ihe na-achịrị echimeche ọzọ akamgba n’ebenatọọlụ. a tụrụ elo ka ewebilata oke mmemme na oriri a na-akpợ ugboro ugboro na usoro di iche iche di n’echimechi ọzọ nke na-ewe ọtụtụ akụnaụba onye nwere mmasị ichi ọzọ. a tụkwara elo ka e wepụga ụfợdụ nsợ ndị megidere ụka na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya n’echimechi ọzọ. e mee nke a, ọtụtụ ihe nramaahu di n’echimechi ọzọ ga-ebelata, ọtụtụ mmadụ ga-enwekwa mmasị n’ichi ọzọ. nke a ga-akwalite ợnợdụ obibi ndu, ezi mmekọrịta nakwa mbawanye akụnaụba nke mba ụwa n’oge ugbu a. ọkpụrụkpụ okwu: ọzợ, omenala, akamgba. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. abstract this research looks into the challenges of ọzọ title as it affects the relationship between individuals, culture and socio-economic disposition of the citizens in the society. specifically the paper explains the meaning of ọzọ, stages of ọzọ title taking in ebenato orlu gedegwum in orlu local government area of imo state. it also examines the benefits and privileges enjoyed by the ọzọ title holders in orlu gedegwum. data for the analysis were collected through oral interviews and researchers observation. the analysis was guided by marxist theory, propounded by karl marx and friedrich engels in the 19th century which explains how people own and control the distribution of wealth in the society. from the analysis, it was observed that ọzọ title is a prestigious and highly recognized title in igbo land. it was also observed that a lot of wealth is wasted on the initiation into ọzọ title due to long process of ceremonies which involve cooking, drinking and paying heavy amount of money to be shared by old members, excessive laws and rites are given and to be observed by the ọzọ title holders. it was also discovered that modern ways of worship (christianity) also affects the membership into the ọzọ title in ebenato orlu. finally, it was suggested that excessive merriment, cooking, eating and drinking characterized with ọzọ title be reduced, it was also suggested that some laws affecting the members of the ọzọ title be modernised to enable young men who are willing to join do so. this will promote relationship, peace and harmony in the state, thereby bringing unity to the whole world. key words: ọzọ, culture, challenge. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. mmalite ọzọ bụ otu n’ime echichi e nwere n’ala igbo nke ndi na-echi ya bụ ợgaranya, nwere akụ naụba, onye nwere ọnụ nakwa onye ndụ ya kwụ ọtọ. ọzọ bụ otu na-akwalite omenala, ọchịchị, ibi ezi ndụ nakwa akụnaụba nke obodo ndị chiri ya. ọzọ bụ ihe ukwu. ya mere o jiri dọrọ ugwu na nsọpụrụ karia echichi ndị ọzọ. ọ bụ echichi ndị chiri ya ji egosi nkarị na inwe oke ego n’ala igbo. ya mere ndị igbo ji ekwu si ihe nwa jiri kara ibe ya bụ ọzọ. (nze okereke 2023) ọ bụghị naanị inwe ego, onye na echi ọzọ ga-enwe mmụọ oriri na inyere ndị mmadụ aka maka na mmemme na oriri dị n’ichi ọzọ dị ọtụtụ. ọ bụ nannị diala na onye ndụ ya kpakọrọ ọnụ na-echi ọzọ, ya mere e jikwa asị na ofeke lịa ọzọ ya chienu. nke a pụtara na ofeke anaghị echi ọzọ.(nze uzoukwu 2023) n’oge gboo, a hụrụ echichi ọzọ dị ka echichi di nsọ nke onye a na-enyo enyo n’obodo agaghị echi ya ọzọ, onye na-erijughị afọ anaghị echi ya ọzọ maka mmefu ego dị na ya buru ibu. nze ụzọukwu, n’ajụjụ ọnụ a gbara ya kọwara na a na-enyocha onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ nke ọma tupu anabata ya. ọzọ dịka anyi si kwuo na mbụ so n’otu na-akwalite omenala, ợchịchị, ikpenkwumuọtọ, akụnaụba nke obodo nakwa ibi ezi ndụ n’oge gboo, mana etu ọ di taa, echichi ọzọ na-alazi azụ, omenala na ibi ezi ndụ kọziri ọkọchi n’ime obodo anyị. ihe kpatara ọnọdu di etu a ka ederede a na-eleba anya na ya, iji chọpụta ihe nramaahụ na ndọla azụ di n’ebe echichi ọzọ nọ n’oge ugbu a, ka e nwee ike wepụ aka enwe n’ofe tupu ọ ghọọ aka mmadụ. ọzọ bụ echichi kachasi echichi niile n’ala igbo. ya mere e ji enye ndị chiri ya ugwu na nsọpụrụ pụrụ iche n’ala igbo. ọzọ bụ ihe ukwu dịka nze simon ụzọukwu kwupụtara, anaghị ahapụ ebe a na-echi ọzọ gawa ebe a na-arụ agwụ. onye ọ bụla chiri ọzọ, abụrụla onye nze, ha na-ezere ihe ọjọọ. nze anaghị ekwo ekwo. nze bu ọjị ma ọ bụ ụdara, ọ bụghị n’ala niile ka ọ na-epu. onye ọbụla ga-echi ọzọ ga-abụrịrị onye obodo na-enye nsọpụrụ na ugwu, dịka onye adịghị enyo enyo, onye kpatara ego, nwekwa ike ịchikọta ezinaụlọ ya nke ọma. nwata biwe ndu ọjọọ, e chie ya ọzọ, maka na a tụrụ anya na ndi e chiri ọzọ na-ebi ezi ndụ kwesiri nṅomi. onye nwere ike idebe iwu nze, ga-enwe ike idebe iwu chukwu maka na iwu ndi nze di ọtụtụ. nwata anaghị ekpu okpu nze n’ihu nna ya. ọ bụrụ onye na-anọghị n’ụlọ, o nwere ike ikpu okpu nze ebe o bi mana ọ lọta n’obodo nna ya, o kpupu ya. ndi nze na-akụrụ n’aka ugboro atọ ma ha na-ekele onwe ha. ha na ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 49 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. akụrụ, ha na-ekwu ‘onye nze karoo…zeroo, onye nze zeroo…karoo. nwata bụ nze agaghịkwa akụrụ atọ n’ihu nna ya. omenala: omenala bụ etu agbụrụ si ebi ndụ ma o bụ akpa agwa nke onye ọ bụla jiri mara ha. (nwizu 2014) na nkowa ha, omenala gụnyere etu obodo ma ọ bụ agbụrụ si efe ofufe, ejiji ha, alụmalụ, egwu, ikwa ozu, igba alụkwaghim, izụ ahia, erimeri, nkwenye, echichi, akaọrụ, agụmagụ dgz. n’ụzọ di nkenke, ọzọ nke bu isi dọkpụ n’ederede a bụ omenala igbo nke batara n’ọnọdu ngalaba echichi/echimechi. akamgba: akamgba bụ ọdachi ma ọ bụ ihe mkpobiụkwụ nyere agamnihu njem ma ọ bụ ihe. n’ikọwa akamgba n’ụzo ọzọ, e nwere ike isi na ọ bụ ihe nramaahụ n’ebe ihe ụtọ di, ọnọdụ ndọla azụ n’iga n’ihu. akamgba a na-ekwu maka ya ebe a bụ ọnọdụ ndi ahụ na-eme ka echimechi ọzọ na-ala azụ. mgba bụ inwale ike mba abụọ ka a mara nke bụ oke. akamgba bụkwazi imanye mmadụ aka n’anya, iji kwatuo onye ahụ n’aha mmeri. ebe nchọcha e mere nchọcha a n’ọlụ gedegwum. ọlụ gedegwum nọ n’okpuru ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ. dịka nze simon ụzọkwu siri kwuo, ọkwaraugwuele bụ nna ọlụ. ọ lụrụ ụmụnwaanyị abụọ. nke mbụ mụtara ụmụ anọ: 1) eluama 2) ụmụdiatọ 3) ụmụire 4) ndịowere. nwanyị nke abụọ mụtara ụmụ atọ ndị a: 1) ụmụọkwara 2) ụmụafọr 3) ụmụdihe. ọnụmara atọ a bụ ndị mebere ebenatọ ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 50 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. site n’ebenatọ ka e si kewapụta ọnụmara ndị a: ụmụeleke, ụmụndule, okpuruogwe, ishigwenne, okwu na duruezeugwu. ebe nchọcha a gbadoro ụkwụ bụ n’ebenatọ dị n’ ọlụ gedegwum. usoro e si echi ọzọ n’ebenatợ ọlụ. ọzọ bụ ihe ụlọ di ka nze uzoukwu siri kwuo. a na-esi n’ụlọ mara mma pụwa ama. nke a pụtara na a na-esi n’ogbe obodo onye ahụ na-echi ọzọ siri pụta ebido echichi ọzọ. nze nnanyere ugo cypria okereke, kọwara na ọ dị ụzọ abụọ e si echi ọzọ: 1. igbukwa agada 2. ichi ọzọ dịka omenala echichi ọzọ siri di igbukwa adada ịgbụkwa agada bụ ọkpara iweghara mkpara nna ya dika onye nze mgbe e lichara nna ya. onye nna ya bụ nze nwụo, nwa ya nwoke ga-agwa ndi nze obodo ha na ya ga-eweghara ọkwa nna ya dịka onye nze. ọ bụ ọnọdụ a ka a na-akpọ igbukwa agada. ozugbo elichara onye nze nwụrụ anwụ, a ga-enye nwa ya nwoke otu afọ iji mee mmemme igbukwa agada. nke a pụtara na onye ahụ chọrọ ịnọchi ọnọdụ nna ya. ọ bụrụ na o meghi ya otu afọ agachaa, a naasị na ọzọ nna ya adanyela n’ọbụ/olu nke pụtara na o fuole. nke a bụ akụ ịla n’iyi n’ihi oge ọ bụla o chọrọ ichi ọzọ na ndụ ya, o ga-ebido n’isi mewe mmemme di n’ichi ọzọ nke na-ewe ọtụtụ ego. igbukwa agada na nkenke bụ ọkpụkpọ ọkụ onye nna ya bụ nze na-akpọ ndị nze ozugbo o lichara nna ya, iji kọwaa ebumnuche ya n’ịga n’ihu ịbụ otu n’ime ndị otu nze nna ya bu. onye ahụ gbuoro ndị nze ewu (igbunye ewu) a mata na o kwele nkwa imezu ihe ndị ọzọ eji egbukwa agada nke bụzi ọkara ọkara n’ihe ndi a na-eji echi ọzọ. a ga-enye ya otu afọ imezu ihe igbukwa agada a n’ihi onye liri ozu ọzọ anaghị awalite nze n’ike. ichi ọzọ dịka omenala echichi ọzọ siri dị agba nke mbụ: ikwupụta ebunuche onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ ga-ebu ụzọ gakwuru onye isi okenye bụ nze n’ogbe ya, kọọrọ ya ebumuche ya. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 51 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. ihe ndị ọ ga-eji aga ije ahụ gụnyere 1. ose ọjị asatọ 2. ọjị asatọ 3. mmanya nkwụ mgbe ọ kọchara onye isi nze ogbe ya ebumuche ya, onye nze ga-asị ya lawa na ọ ga-akpọ ya oku. agba nke abụọ: ịkpọ ndị nze oku onye isi ndi nze ogbe ahụ ga-akpọ ndi nze ibe ya, wee kọọrọ ha ihe onye di etu a kwuru. onye nze a, ga-ewerekwa ụfọdụ ihe onyinye onye ahụ jiri bịa na mbụ cheere ndị nze ibe ya ọjị. ndị nze ga-ebido jụwa ase banyere onye ahụ chọrọ ichi ọzọ. ịjụ ase a nwere ike iwe ihe dịka otu ọnwa ma ọ bụ otu afọ. ọ bụrụ ma nchọcha ha mere ma ọ bụ ase ha jụrụ gara nke ọma, onye isi nze ga-akpọzi onye ahụ na-achọ ichi ọzọ oku iji kọọrọ ya ihe bụ mkpebi ndị nze. agba nke atọ: ịgba ajụjụ ọnụ ọ bụrụ ma ndị nze hụta na onye ahụ bịara maka ịnabata ya n’echiche ọzọ bụ ezigbo mmadụ, o nweghị ihe ọjọọ ha nyopụtara n’ebe ọ nọ, ndị nze ga-akpọ ya jụkwa ya ajụjụ ọnụ iji mata ma obi ọ kara ya ịga n’ihu ichi echichi ahụ. dịka nze ugochinyere okere kwụpara, ọ bụ ụbọchị ekeukwu ka a na-eme ihe ọ bụla gbasara echichi ọzọ ihe ndị onye ahụ ga-eji abịa ije a gụnyere 1. ose ọji asatọ 2. ọji asatọ 3. ite mmanya nkwụ asatọ ha ga-agwazi ya na site na nchọcha ha mere, ya gaa n’ihu kwado maka echichi ọzọ. onye ahụ n’onwe ya ga-enwe obi anụri n’ihi ọ bụ ịgosipụta na arịrịọ ya ịbụ onye nze, na a nabatara ya, mana ọ bụrụ na a chọpụtara ihe adịghị mma, agaghị akpọ ya oku. agba nke anọ: igbunye ewu nze simon ụzọukwu mekwara ka a mata n’agba nke a, onye isi ndi nze ga-akpọ ndị nze oku n’ụlọ onye ahụ chọrọ ichi echimechi ọzọ. ihe ndị ọ ga-ewpụta, iji gọọ ha ọji gụnyere: ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 52 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. a. otu ewu nke ndị nze tụrụ aka, ka ọ ga-azụ (oje ozi ndị nze ga-eme nke a) b. ose ọji asatọ c. ọji asatọ d. ite mmanya nkwụ asatọ e. ji asatọ mgbe ụfọdụ, ha nwere ike mee ihe ndị a n’ego. ọ bụrụ na anaghị eme ya n’ego, ndị nze na-eji aka ha gaa ahịa, tụọ ewu ha chọrọ onye ahụ ga-azụta aka. ọ bụ nke a ka ana-akpọ igbunye ewu. ndị nze ga-egbu ewu ahụ kee onwe ha, nakwa ihe ndị ọzọ o wepụtaara ha, onye isi nze ga-agọzi ya ma gọkwaara ya ọfọ gbasara ije a ọ bidoro, na ọ ga ejeru ya n’isi n’ihi ụfọdụ mmadụ nwere ike nọrọ na echichi ọzọ nwụọ, agaghị ekwukwa na onye ahụ bụ nze. agba nke ise: isi ego n’oge a, onye na-echi ọzọ ga-enye ndị nze otu narị naịra ma ọ bụ karịa. ndị nze niile nọ n’ogbe ya ga-eketa oke n’ime ego a. ọ na-abụ ụbọchị ekeukwu dika nze ugochinyere okere kọwapụtara ka a na-eme emume echichi ọzọ nke a na-akpọ ịkwụ ishi ego. ihe ọ ga-eji bịa ije a gụnyere 1. ite mmanya nkwụ asatọ 2. ose ọjị asatọ 3. ji asatọ 4. ọjị asatọ ihe nze na-aga elu elu ọ naghị adatu ala. ọ ga-ebunye ndị nze ahụ mmanye n’isi n’isi, keere ha ego ahụ (otu naira ahụ) ọ jiri bịa. ọ bụrụ na ndị nze ahụ nọ n’ogbe ahụ lawa, onye ahụ na-achọ ichi ọzọ ga-enye ha naịra iri iri n’otu n’otu. nke a bụ maka ndị nze si ogbe onye na-echi ọzọ. (ndị nze ụlọ) agba nke isii: ibu mmanye n’ogbe ndị ọzọ onye na-achọ ichi ọzọ ga-ebutere ndị ọnụmara ọzọ dịkwa n’ime obodo mmanye iji mee ka ha mata na ya chọrọ iso bụrụ otu n’ime ha. dịka nze cyprian ugochukwunyere kọwapụtara, ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 53 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. e nwere ọnụmara atọ na ebenatọ, ọ bụ ọnụmara atọ a ka onye ahụ ga-aga bugara mmanya n’isi n’isi. ihe ndị ọ ga-eji gaa ije a gụnyere a. ọji asatọ b. ose ọji asatọ c. ji asatọ d. ite mmanya nkwụ na ite mmanya ngwọ e. ego (n10,000) f. otu igbe mọltụ, otu igbe bịa, otu igbe stawụtụ ndị nze ga-anara onyinye ndị a, ma gozie ya. agba nke asaa: ịnyụ mmamịrị n’obi/ ịgba mmanya ozuzugbo nze simon uzoukwu kọwara na onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ ga-akwado nke ọma n’emume ịnyụ mamịrị n’obi. ịnyụ mamiri n’obi bụ ụbọchi a na-agbara ọnụmara niile di n’ọlụ mmanya maka echichi ọzọ. ọ na-abụ nnukwu emume nke na-adịkwa n’ụbọchi eke ukwu dịka omenala ndị nze di n’ọlụ siri hazie ya. a na-adakwa abali tupu e chiwe ọzọ. oge a ka a ga-eji gụsịara ya iwu na nsọ di n’echichi ọzọ, oriri na ọṅụṅụ na-arịkwa ibe ya elu. ihe onye na-echi ọzọ ga-eji abịa ije a gụnyere: a. ji iri na isii b. ose iri na isii c. ọji iri na isii d. ite mmanya nkwụ iri na isii e. ite mmanya ngwọ iri na isii f. otu nde naịra (#1,000,000) g. otu ehi n’ụbọchi ahụ ka a ga-ekpube ya okpu ọzọ, bụrụkwa ụbọchi a na-enye ya aha ọzọ ya; ọ ga-egbukwa otu ehi ọ ga-enye ndị nze niile bịara ebe ahụ. o ga-enyekwa ha otu ehi na ndụ ha gaeji aka ha esi, gbukwa ehi nke ọ ga-eji akwọ ndị ọbia ga-abịa n’ụbọchi ahụ. ihe oriri na ihe ọṅụṅụ dị iche iche ga-adị. ndị nze niile bịara ebe ahụ ga-eji ọdụ nze ha abịa, ọ bụ ihe ha ga-eji ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 54 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. fụọ opi mgbe oge nke ahụ ruo. tupu e kpuwe onye nze okpu, onye isi ndi nze ga-etinye ya okpu n’isi, a gụọ otu, a tụkwasị ya n’ubu, a gụọ, ruo mgbe a gụruru iteghete, e kpuwezie ya okpu nze ya. okpu nze pụtara na ọ ga-akaruo zeruo. ngwa njike ndi ọzọ onye chiri ọzọ na-eyi bụ esuru nze, nke pụtara ezi ndụ na eziokwu, akpa nze bụkwa ebe ọ ga na-afọnye ihe ọ bụla ọ kpatara, akụfe nzeo ji akụfu ihe ọjọọ, werekwa ya ekute ihe ọma, ọdụ nze nke onye nze ọ bụla kwesiri inwe. agba nke asatọ-ikpofu ntụ mgbe onye ahụ mechara emume ịnyụ mmamiri, ndị nze ga-ezukọ n’ekeukwu ọzọ maka emume nke a kpọrọ ikwofu ntụ. dịka nze simon uzoukwu kọwara, ọ bụ oge onye ahụ e chiri ọzọ ga-akpọku ndị ọnụmara nke ya, nyekwa ha ụdị ihe ndị ahụ o bunyere ndị ọnụmara ndị ọzọ. ihe ndị a ka ọ ga-ebunye ha. a) otu oke ewu b. otu ite mmanya ngwọ/nkwụ c. ji asatọ d. ọji asatọ e. ose asatọ ọ ga-enye ndị nze obodo ya ihe niile ọ nyere ndị nze onodo ndị ọzọ dika nze cypria nnanyereugo okere kwupụtara. ọ ga-enyekwa ndị obodo ya ahụ narị puku naịra abụọ (#200,000) nke ndị nze niile ga-eketa oke na ya. nke a mere e ji ekwu na onye chiri ọzọ bụ o ji akụ bụrụ okenye n’ihi ọ kezuola akụ na ụba ya. mgbe ha mechara ihe ndị a dịka omenala ha si di, a gaagba egbe, egwu na aṅụrị naejupụta ebe niile iji gosi na onye ahụ emezuola ihe niile di na echichi ọzọ, onye ahụ abụrụla ọ ji akụ bụrụ okenye. nchọcha e merela banyere isiokwu e meele ọtụtụ nchọcha n’isiokwu a bụ ọzọ n’ala igbo n’ụzọ dị iche iche. odigbo (2023) mere nchọcha nke isiokwu ya bụ ‘ọzọ ihe ngosi akụnanụba n’ala igbo’. ọ hụtara ọzọ dịka echichi ndị gbasiri ike n’ọrụ, kpata ego n’obodo, bịa jirikwa akụnaụba ha were kwado ndị obodo ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 55 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. n’ụzọ dị iche iche. na nchikọta nchọcha ya, ọ chọpụtara na ọzọ abụghị ihe e ji amata onye nwere akụnaụba. mmadu nwere ike ịkwụrụ onye ọzọ ụgwọ ka e echie ya ọzọ. ndịiche nchọcha odigbo na nke a bụ, ebe odigbo na-achọ ịma ma ọzọ ọ bụ ihe nchọta akụnaụba, nchọcha nke a na-achọ ịma ihe ndị chere echichi ọzọ akamgba n’oge ugbu a. ntụlegharị edemede ọtụtụ ndị odee edeela edemede banyere ọzọ na ọtụtụ ihe ndị gbara ya gburu gburu. ahamefule (2020) kwuru na ọzọ bụ otu n’ime echichi kpụ ọkụ n’ọnụ n’ala igbo nke na-akwado mmekọrịta na mwụlite akụnaụba nke ndị otu ya. uru na ihe nrite si na ya apụta na-adigide, site na nna fere na nwa. mmemme dị n’ichi ọzọ na-efu oke ego, nke na onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ na-emefu ọtụtụ ego. ego ndị a dịka ego a tụnyere n’ụlọ nchekwa aku ebe ọ ga-emechaa mụta nwa. nke a mere ka ego onye ọhụrụ kwụrụ ghara ịbụ ihe ntufu maka na ọ ga-eketakwa oke na nke ndị ọhụrụ ga-abata n’otu ọzọ. ndị chiri ọzọ na-enweta ego site n’ego onye na-abata ọhụrụ kwụrụ. ego a onye ọhụrụ kwụrụ ka ndị ochie ga-ekeri. ọ bụ site n’ụzọ dị etua ka ndị ọzọ si enweta ego ha mefuru oge ha na-abata n’otu ndị ọzọ. (nze uzoukwu) anikwe (2019) kọwapụtara na tupu e chie mmadụ ozo n’oge gboo, ọ ga-abụriri onye nwere akụnaụba. ọ bụ ọba ji mmadụ nwere, na nkwụ na ụkwa ya ka e ji atụle akụnaụba ya. ma n’oge ugbu a mmepe obodo batara, ọ bụghịzị sọsọ ihe si n’ala ka eji atụle akụnaụba mmadụ. nke a na akwado ilu ndị igbo na “ihe nwa jiri kara ibe ya bụ ọzọ’ maka na onye chiri ọzọ bụ ọgaranya. odigbo (2023) kọwara ntephe (1995) siri na onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ ga-enweju akụnaụba afọ n’onwe ya, bịa nwekwaa nke ọ ga-eji azụ ndị obodo ya. ọnọdụ dị etu a bụ ahụghị ebụle ma elighị dike n’echichi ọzọ. ọdigbo (2012) kwukwara na ọzọ so n’echichi kachasị ndị ọzọ n’ala igbo. anaghị eji ọnụ akụrụ nze, anaghịkwa esi na mkposhi azụ ụlọ abata na nze. ọdigbo kọwara na ọ dị ọtụtụ ihe a na-eme tupu anabata onye chọrọ ichi nze. ọ kwuru na mmadụ anaghị ewepụta onwe ya, na ya chọrọ ichi ọzọ, ndị obodo onye ahụ ga-aka ama onye zuru ezu ma wepụta onye ahụ maka echichi ọzọ ma ọ bụrụ na onye ahụ zuo oke na echimechi ọzọ. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 56 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. onye chọrọ ichi ọzọ ga-akpọ ndị obodo ya oriri. o ga-abịakwa kpọ ndị ọzọ ndị ọzọ oriri ebe ọ di ukwuu, bịa nyekwaa ọtụtụ ihe ha ga-eji ala. nke a bụ ụzọ ndị chiri ọzọ si enwetaghachi ihe ha mefuru oge ha na-echi ọzọ. ngwu (2011) kwukwara na usoro e si echi ọzọ n’ukehe dịkwa ọtụtụ ma bụrụ ụsọrọ a kọwaburu na mbụ. iwu/nsọ dị n’ichi ọzọ 1. onye ọ bụla echiri ọzọ na-abụ ezigbo mmadụ, anaghị enyo ndụ onye ọzọ/nze enyo. 2. onye nze ọ bụla nwere ike inwe karịa otu nwanyị ma sọ otu n’ime ụmụnwanyị ndị a gaabụ lọlọ ya. (lọlọ e jiri chi ọzọ) 3. ndị chiri ọzọ adịghị eri nri n’ọha, a na-akpọba ha n’ime ụlọ were nye ha ihe oriri. 4. onye nze adịghị agba asụ ebe a na-eli onye nze ibe ya, ọ bụrụgodi na ozu onye nze ahụ na-esi nsi. 5. ndị nze bụ ndị eji ikwu eziokwu mara n’ihi na onye nze ọ bụla kpere ikpe ọjọọ, ndị mmụọ na-akụgbu ya ozugbo. onye nze kwesiri ya bie ikpe; o buru oche ya laa. nke a pụtara na ọ gaghị ele anya ọjị ma ọ bụ ego, ma ọ bụghị etu a, ọ tọ n’ọgbọ ikpe. 6. onye chiri ọzọ adịghị eri nri nwanyị nọ na nsọ siri. nke a mere ndị nze na nwunye ha adịghị ebiko n’otu ụlọ. 7. nwata anaghị ekpu okpu nze n’ihu nna ya. ọ bụrụ onye na-anọghị n’ụlọ, o nwere ike ikpu okpu nze ebe o bi mana ọ lọta n’obodo nna ya, o kpupu ya. 8. nwata bụ nze agaghịkwa akụrụ atọ n’ihu nna ya. uru echichi ọzọ bara 1. a na-akwanyere ndị nze ugwu nke ukwu n’ihi ọnọdụ ha n’obodo dịka nze cyprin nnanyereugo siri kọwaa. 2. n’obodo ọlụ, ọ bụ ndị chiri ọzọ na-ebi ikpe n’ihi e weere ha (ndị chiri ọzọ) dịka ndị naekwu eziokwu. 3. ichi ọzọ bụ ụzọ nchekwa akụ 4. ọ na-enye ndị chiri ọzọ akụnaụba site n’ikete oke n’ihe ndị na-abata ọhụrụ na-eweta. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 57 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. 5. e ji ichi ọzọ eriju afọ. 6. a na-eji ya amata ezigbo mmadụ na onye na-ekwu eziokwu maka na onye ndụ ya di ghara ghara anaghị echi ya ọzọ. 7. a na-eji ndị chiri ọzọ edozi okwu na ụka n’ihi a maara ha ka ndị ikpe nkwumụọtọ. 8. a na-enye ndị chiri ọzọ ugwu na nsopụrụ pụrụ iche n’obodo. ekele ndị ọzọ 1. ndị nze anaghị ekwe n’aka, ka ma ha na-akụchara n’aka ugboro atọ. 2. ndi nze na-akụrụ n’aka ugboro atọ ka ha na-ekele onwe ha. ha na-akụrụ, ha na-ekwu. onye nze: onye nze karuooooo! nzaghachi: zeruo oooo! onye nze: onye nze zeruo ooo! nzaghachi: karuoooo! onye nze: onye nze karuoooo! nzaghachi: zeruooooo. nwata bụ nze agaghịkwa akụrụ atọ n’ihu nna ya. ọnwụ onye nze dịka nze simon uzoukwu kwuru, onye nze enweghị ike ịgba asụ ebe a na eli onye nze ibe ya, ọ bụladi na ozu ya na-esi isi. anaghị ebe akwa ebe onye nze nwụrụ n’ihi onye nze anaghi anwụ anwụ, a naasị na ọ gara n’ụfọ. a na-elikarị ozu onye nze ụbọchi eke ukwu dị ka e siri chie ya ọzọ ụbọchi eke ukwu ma ọ bụrụ na ha emesia mmeme niile dịka iwu ndi nze ọlụ siri dị. anaghị eli onye chiri ọzọ mgbe a na-eme oriri ọ bụla dịka mgboọnwanu, iri ji nakwa ịgba ọfala. agada onye ọzọ dị n’ụra, n’ihi ya anaghị eli onye ọzọ mgbe a na-eme oriri ma ọ bụ agụgọ maka onye nze bụ onye agụgọ n’onwe ya. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 58 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. ejiji onye chiri ọzọ na mpụtara ejiji onye chiri ọzọ na-apụ iche, ma dịkwa asọ dị ka omenala ndị igbo siri dị. ofeke jiri ejiji ndị chiri ọzọ mere onwe ya arụsị apịara apịa n’ihi ndị nze ga-ada ya nha ma napụta ya ngwa ejiji ndị ahụ. ụfọdụ n’ime ejiji ndị nze na mpụtara ha: 1. okpu ndị ọzọ: okpu ọzọ/nze pụtara na ọ ga-akaruo zeruo. ndị nze nwere ụzọ dị iche ha si ekpu okpu nke na-egosi ọnọdụ dị iche iche ha hụrụ onwe ha. a. okpu aka nri: nke a na-ezipụta na ihe a na-eme bụ okwu ọma, okwu udo, ha ga-ekpula okpu ahụ aka nri b. okpu aka ekpe: nke a na-ezipụta na ihe a na-eme maọbụ a na-ekwu enweghị isi, mgbe nsogbu na-ada elu elu, ha nwere ike kpugharịa okpu ha n’aka ekpe. c. okpu nọrọ n’azụ: nke a na-ezipụta ihe ọjọọ, ọnwụ maọbụ mgbe ha gara ebe mmadụ nwụrụ, onye nze ọ bụla nọ ebe ahụ ga-ekpula okpu ya azụ d. okpu nọrọ n’ihụ: o zipụtara na onye nze na-aga ikpe udo, ma ọ bụ ihe ọ bụla bụ ihe ọma. 2. ndị nze na-agba njata eriri n’ụkwụ n’olu, na n’aka. 3 akụpe: nke ha ji efepu ihe ọjọọ ma febata ihe ọma 7. ọdụ onye nze: nke a bụ opi ha ji ekele onwe ha tụmadị mgbe onye otu ha n’echi echimechi. 8. agada: nke a bụ ọche onye nze na-eji aga nzukọ maọbụ ikpe. 9. akpa onye nze: ha na-eji akpa nke gọsiri na onye nze kpeta ikpe ọma, ya fọnye n’akpa ya, ya kpeta ịkpe ọjọọ ha fọnyekwa n’akpa ya. nze na ọzọ: n’ikwu eziokwu, nze na ọzọ bụ otu ihe. onye chiri ọzọ abụrula nze. nze na-eze ihi, ya bụ ize ihe ọjọọ, ọzọ na nze na-aga, ebe nze na-eze ihe ọjọọ, ọzọ na-azọkwa ndụ. onye chiri ọzọ ka a na-akpọ onye nze. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 59 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. ihe ọghọm di n’echimechi ọzọ a chọpụtara: ọzọ bụ ọdinala, bụrụkwa omenala igbo kara aka mere o jiri bụrụ ihe no a nọ tupu ndị ọcha abịa. ọzọ bụ echichi kacha nwee ugwu na nsopụrụ n’ala igbo nke mere igbo ji asi na ofeke lia ozọ ya chienu. ọtụtụ ihe nramahụ maọbụ ihe mkpọbi ụkwụ chere echichi ọzọ aka mgba ndi a chọpụtara gụnyere. 1. iwu na nsọ di n’echichi ọzọ kariri akari, nke a mere ọtụtụ mmadụ adịghị enwe ike idebe iwu ndi a atụrụ anya ka ha dobe. 2. ego a na-emefu n’echichi ọzọ di ọtụtụ. 3. a na-ele anya nke ọma tupu a nabata mmadu n’ihi ndị ọzọ bụ ndị a maara bụ ndị eziokwu, naadịghị eri ngari. 3. ọtụtụ nnyọcha a, na-eru otu afọ maọbụ karịa. (iwe ọtutu oge) 4. omenala din a ya di otụtụ. 5. adịghị eji ọnụ akụta ọkwa ọzọ nke mere ndị ọzọ adịghị adị ubara. 7. ụfọdụ na-ebido emume ichi ọzọ, ha agaghị echicha ya ha anwụọ n’ihi ogologo oge ọ naenwe. 8. mgbe ụfọdụ ọzo na-abụkwa nsogbu nye ndị ezinaụlọ, o nwere ike bụtere ha ọnwụ n’ihi mmụọ na-eso ha tụmadị mgbe ha na-eme nke ọjọọ. nchikọta nchọcha a gbaliri imejupụta ebumnuche ya, site n’inye nkọwa rijuru afọ banyere ọzọ na usoro echichi ya. o gakwara n’ihu kọwachaa uru echichi ọzọ bara, ugwu na nsọpụrụ a na-enye onye chiri ọzọ nakwa nsọ di n’echichi ọzọ. ederede a lebakwara anya n’ihe ndi ọzọ banyere ọzọ dika ekele onye chiri ọzọ, ekike onye chiri ọzọ, ọnwụ na olili onye chiri ọzọ. n’ikpeazụ, nchọcha a chọpụtara ihe ndi ahụ chere echichi ọzọ akamgba nke bụ isi a hụrụ kwaba okpu dika: igbu ewu ndi okenye, iga na dibie ajụ ase ma ọ bụrụ onye na-akpa agwa di anaa, imefu ọtụtụ ego site n’ikpọ oke oriri na ọnụnụ, igba njata, ida mmiri, igbu ichi, erighi nri nwaanyi nọ na nsọ siri, erighi nri n’ama, inwe ezigbo ego nakwa inwe mmụọ e ji eri ego. ihe ndi a bụ akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ala igbo. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 60 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) pauline chinasa nwizu * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || akamgba chere echichi ọzọ n’ụzọ mmekọrịta omenala na akụnaụba n’ala igbo dị ka o siri metụta ndị ọlụ gedegwum n’ọchịchị ime obodo ọlụ n’oge ugbu a. a tụkwara elo ka e webilata ụfợdụ nsợ ndị a megidere mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya n’echimechi ọzọ nakwa oke mmefu ego di na ya. e mee nke a, ọtụtụ ndi mmadụ ga-enwe mmasị n’ichi ọzọ. nke a ga-akwalite ợnợdụ obibi ndu, ezi mmekọrịta nakwa mbawanye akụnaụba nke mba ụwa n’oge ugbu a. nrụaka ahamefule, i.c. (2015). ọzọ title and indigenous capital formation in igbo society, southeast nigeria, 1900-2015 anikwe, f.i. (2019). the value of ọzọ insitution: template for new igbo civilization. in n. omenka, i. ani & k. obodoagu, (the relevence of higher education to human and national development in nigeria (pp 225-237). enugu: jomap press. ngwu, i. (2011). ukehe, origin and genelogy, culture, growth and development. nsukka, chinedu printing press. nwizu, p.c. obiakor, e.e. egonu, n.g. (2014) nghota asụsụ igbo. a second language learning (l2) owerri: hysab prints & publishers ltd. odigbo, i. (2012) aspect of igbo cultures and traditions: from the prospective of ụmụlumgbe town enugu: dulac press. odigbo, i.m. (2023). ọzọ title and socio-economic recogniton in igboland: a philosophical analysis sapietia. journal of philosophy, 17. ndi a gbara ajụjụ ọnụ aha afọ steeti aka ọrụ ụbọchi 1. nze barr fide agusiegbe 89 imo retired 20/12/21 2. nze semeon ụzọukwu 64 imo transporter 12/07/2023 3. nze cyprian okereke 70 imo farmer 15/072023 4. nze sergius ọhanenye 65 imo trader 20/08/2023 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 61 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach graham nicholson phd, retired lawyer, baha’i abstract this article examines the relevance of the concept described since the 19th century as “survival of the fittest”. it does so in relation to the one human race, homo sapiens, and examines its application thereto from a spiritual point of view, in contrast to those theories based on forms of scientific materialism. it notes that much of the life, philosophy and practices in contemporary society still carry baggage derived from or reflective of this concept. when taken to the extreme or when applied with vigour, it can result in a great deal of human suffering and injustice. it argues that the thinking based on this concept is not inherent to the human condition but is the result of inculcation through life experiences and education, and can be changed by right education. the remedy, it argues, lies in a spiritual education, an education that postulates changes in thinking and practices to emphasize our common spiritual links as one interdependent human race on one small planetary homeland. what is “survival of the fittest?” this concept has no precise meaning. but it is perhaps more than the inherent will to live which every organism has. and it must be more than just striving for excellence, or for a “fair go” for the individual concerned, without regard to others. one simple definition that has been given is: “you can use the survival of the fittest to refer to a situation in which only the strongest people or things continue to live or be successful, while the others die or fail.”1 this can refer to any organism. in this wider form it refers primarily to the use of the organism’s physical strength to live in a certain way in relation to another. without the “other” it does not seem to meet the definition. that is, it can sometimes be used to refer to the exercise of the strength and capacity by one in 1 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/survival-of-the-fittest ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/survival https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/refer https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/continue https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/successful https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/fail ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." order to subordinate another in a competitive or forceful way. it may be seen as being primarily a masculine thing, although not necessarily so. it of course can extend to the use of overbearing techniques and practices that do not amount to actual direct physical force. it carries in its extreme form an intent to live by total domination or superior overwhelming force, even in some cases to the point of leading to the death of the “other”. and it can be used either with reference to individuals that seek to survive and prosper over others, or to groups such as tribes or nations that seek to survive and prosper as such over other groups. in relation to nations, brown wrote: “according to this idea, it is natural and desirable for one nation to behave aggressively toward another and to dominate it for its own benefit”2 it can also extend not only to the struggle to survive by an organism but also for it to reproduce. thus it can refer to the struggle to survive within the same species, the struggle carrying with it the ability to reproduce as an aspect of natural selection. on the views of malthus3, organisms had to over reproduce in order for a species to survive, leading to the struggle that is at the heart of the concept. the term, as will be discussed later, has come to be associated with the darwinian concept of evolution. and in this context a somewhat different definition of the term is sometimes advanced. for example, the following quote was attributed to darwin, and perhaps briefly summarizes his position even if not an accurate darwinian quote: “it is not the strongest of the species that survives, not the most intelligent that survives. it is the one that is the most adaptable to change.” in this sense it must still be part of the struggle to survive and reproduce, even if by adaptation. the ancient history the debate is ongoing as to the nature of the ancient human in primitive society, and how the struggle to live impacted on that person. it ranges from a view 2 keven brown, evolution &baha’i belief, (2001) kalimat press, 112. 3 thomas robert malthus, 1766-1834. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." that envisaged a brutal competitive human in early society4, to a more peaceful, human nature that was basically good, but which became corrupted by society5. some have argued, including hobbes, that humans were inherently selfish and aggressive in nature, perhaps in response the rigours of survival in earlier times. but increasingly of late, emphasis has also been placed more on the cooperative factor in early human nature, including as it impacted upon human evolution.6it seems that humans are capable of both aggression and cooperation, depending on the context and motivations. on this last point it is suggested that ancient humans did develop sophisticated systems of cooperation. one comment is as follows: “approaches to survival with all the signs of injury, disease, and death, one might wonder how our early ancestors survived at all. but this gives the wrong picture. although early hominins may have been relatively defenceless from a physical standpoint, part of their primate heritage included impressive defenses against predators, including being social and vocal. primates in social groups keep watch over each other. together, they can stay aware of predators and may gang up to scare them away. many primates have warning calls as well; some are specific to attacks from birds, snakes, and leopards. social and vocal behaviors like these may have made it reasonably safe for our ancestors to venture away from the trees in the first place. throwing stones and using weapons were important additions to selfand group defense. there is also clear evidence that by about 800,000 years ago some hominins had controlled fire and built well-defined hearths. most animals have an innate fear of fire and would be likely to have kept their distance from a campfire. the light from the 4thomas hobbes. “ hobbes believed that it was human nature to be in a state of war, where every person was in a permanent state of conflict with every other person for the limited resources available “ (stephen olynyk, “ convenient fictions: a comparisonand critical analysisof hobbes’ and locke’s social contract theories”, the western australian jurist vol. 1, 2010 132). hobbes stated that existence was “bellum omnium contra omnes”. 5 jean j rousseau. “one day in 1749, at age 37, while walking to the bastille to see his imprisoned friend, the major enlightenment-era philosopher, diderot, rousseau saw an ad for an essay contest, hosted by the academy of dijon, asking a simple question: has science made us better or worse, more or less moral?as rousseau tells it, he fell asleep in the park, had a vision, awoke in tears, and started to write hisdiscourse on the sciences and arts.he won the contest, instantly rose to fame, and forever changed the way humans see what it means to be human.his basic thesis: man is naturally good, and anything that is not natural has corrupted us from this natural state.”<uidaho.edu/engl_258/lecture%20notes/man_is_naturally_good.htm?ref=stanfordreview.org> 6 smithsonian’s human origins, <https://humanorigins.si.edu/sites/default/files/ho_044_055_chap_3.pdf> ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." campfire would also have helped our ancestors avoid surprise attacks. between 800,000 and 400,000 years ago, when we see strong evidence for building both shelters and hearths, the level of human social cooperation had reached a crucial milestone.”7 but at least in ancient human times, the struggle for existence must have often been a primary feature of primitive human life in response to the many threats to their existence. while within a particular small human group there may well have been a measure of cooperative conduct, as against other people outside the group and against all other threats, organic or otherwise, there would no doubt have been a struggle to survive, often against the other. this struggle must have depended in large measure on human physical capacity, even with such limited defences and other innovative means of support. it may well have extended in some cases to struggles between particular primitive tribal peoples against other such peoples, or against other hominids, sufficient to be described as a survival of the fittest. it has been suggested that this could have included engaging in war, killing and shedding of blood, burning and pillaging the homes of each other and living in conditions of the utmost debasement and immorality, reducing them to being lower and more brutal than animals8 in animals, by way of comparison, self-preservation is essentially the process that prevents them from being harmed or killed and is generally considered a basic instinct of animals, whether inherent or learned. this appears to override other instincts, at least when threatened. the animal naturally seeks to maximize the use its physical capacities to survive and reproduce, although examples of cooperation do exist at least among particular species. consequently, in nature in the wild, it can be argued that animals are predominantly governed by the imperative of the survival of the fittest. as human societal development advanced beyond the primitive stages, extending to settled societies, it would seem that the struggle for survival may have sometimes been modified somewhat within those societies to be rather less confrontational and aggressive. settled societies would no doubt have 7 ibid. 8 abdu’l-baha, talk recorded in the promulgation of universal peace, (7 november 1912 at washington dc), baha’i publishing trust, 400..the seriously violent conduct of some more modern leaders and combatants might perhaps also warrant this same description. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." developed rules to control, to some extent at least, aggressive or dominating conduct within those societies. external threats to the survival of those societies may have become of more concern rather than threats within the same society. this is to some extent reflected in the old testament. thus the concept of an eye for an eye is set out in leviticus9, but more in terms of a punishment for the taking of another life. the many battles and conflicts that are described in the old testament, some said to be with divine endorsement, indicate a lengthy struggle for existence on the part of the israelites against external threats and challenges. perhaps the new testament reflects a different approach within societies. the new teaching in the gospels is to turn the other cheek in the face of violence10 and a rejection of idea of eye for an eye, with a command to love thine enemy11. this can be seen by some as a refutation of the concept of the survival of the fittest. the subsequent christian history has, it can be said, not always conformed to this new teaching. the enunciation of the concept of ‘survival of the fittest’ when we look at the brutality and competitiveness of much of human history, it does seem to support the view that humans were frequently governed by selfinterest and the quest for personal survival. this was particularly so at least where the interests and survival of one group, tribe or nation were pitted against another. in this sense, it might have seemed that there was not a great deal of difference between the approaches of the people and nations involved in the struggle for life and that of the animals in this regard12. warfare and violence 9 old testament, leviticus 24:17-22. a similar approach is taken in the holy quran 5:45. 10“you have heard that it was said, ‘eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.’[but i tell you, do not resist an evil person. if anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also. and if anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, hand over your coat as well.” (new testament, st matthew 5:3840) 11 new testament, st matthew 5:43-48. 12 although animals are generally only aggressive when they have a need to be as a matter of survival. some humans have shown a propensity for aggression and self interested actions even where there is no need for it.abdu’l-baha wrote: “ferocity has characterized men even more than animals. the lion, tiger, bear and wolf are ferocious because of their needs. unless they are fierce, cruel and unrelenting, they will die of starvation. the lion cannot graze; its teeth are fitted only for food of flesh. this is also true of other wild animals. ferocity is natural to themas their means of subsistence; but human ferocity proceeds from selfishness, greed and oppression. it springs from no ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." are part of the historical record. humans are still quite capable, even today, of using physical force or other competitive means to protect their own perceived self interests, hopefully in the domestic situation mitigated by the controls of the domestic law and law enforcement. that capacity is even more obvious in the ongoing competition and confrontation between different empires and nations, absent any effective controls at international law. the evidences of a long history of ongoing violent human conflict in the world makes this obvious, still common today. some commentators might consider that the older religions did sometimes provide some semblance of restraint in the actions and responses of people and nations in terms of a more moralistic and less competitive or confrontational approach. but then the history of disagreement and violence between and against different religions and sects and their adherents, and the capacity of people and nations to ignore or reinterpret their own religious restraints, does not allow this view to be taken too far. most religious people historically would probably never have questioned the view that life was inherently and primarily a struggle to survive, both individually and as part of society. historically it was not labelled as “survival of the fittest” by name, but it did seem to often exhibit the characteristics of that approach even if not named as such. in terms of nomenclature, the fact is that the concept of the “survival of the fittest”, as a term of use, was not expressly enunciated as such until in the last few centuries. the phrase originated with the philosopher herbert spencer, as indicated in the following quote “the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ is often incorrectly attributed to darwin. in fact, it was coined by the philosopher herbert spencer in response to reading“origin of species” five years after the first edition was published. alfred russel wallace, whose own theory about the mechanics of evolution was almost identical to darwin's, wrote to darwin in 1866 with a lengthy criticism of darwin’s term ‘natural selection’ and pleaded with him to minimise confusion by adopting 'survival of the fittest'. darwin introduced the phrase in a few places in his works from 5th edition of origin in 1869. however, he never natural necessity.” (`abdu'l-baha, talk recorded in thepromulgation of universal peace,(6 may 1912 at cleveland, ohio),103) ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." abandoned the term ‘natural selection’ and only saw ‘survival of the fittest’ as a synonym or auxiliary phrase to help make his meaning clear to his readers.”13 reflecting the influence of malthus on the limits to population increases, darwin wrote in the origin of the species: “a struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase. every being, which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, must suffer destruction during some period of its life, and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product. hence, as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life. it is the doctrine of malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage. although some species may be now increasing, more or less rapidly, in numbers, all cannot do so, for the world would not hold them.”14 darwin could recognise what he saw to be the elevated station of the human being, but still felt that they were constrained by their basic natural instincts: “man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar systemwith all these exalted powersman still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.”15 as a result, some have thought that darwin applied the full force of the survival of the fittest to the human being as well as to animals, but this may be a 13 <https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/survival-fittest> 14http://www.literaturepage.com/read/darwin-origin-of-species-66.html 15 darwin, the descent of man (1871) ch. xxi. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." misrepresentation16. it is said that darwin did not believe that humans were violent and competitive in their natural state. elsewhere the doctrine has been extended by some writers to the human being on the basis that there is no difference between that human being and the animal. in fact the view was promulgated that the human being was just another evolved animal. thus thomas huxley believed that humans were just another animal descended from the apes. he wrote: “i have endeavoured to show that no absolute structural line of demarcation, wider than that between the animals which immediately succeed us in the scale, can be drawn between the animal world and ourselves; and i may add the expression of my belief that the attempt to draw a physical distinction is equally futile, and that even the highest faculties of feeling and of intellect begin to germinate in lower forms of life.”17 herbert spencer was another advocate of the idea of the survival of the fittest. of darwin, spencer wrote:“this survival of the fittest, which i have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which mr. darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."18 commenting on spencer it was stated: “spencer decried attempts to equalize society’s playing field. it would be counterproductive, he felt, for the “fit” to feel any obligation toward the “unfit”. in dense tomes that sold hundreds of thousands of copies, he said of the poor that ‘the whole effort of nature is to get rid of such, to clear the world of them, and make room for better”19 the 19th century enunciation of this concept by spencer and others was not expressed to be as a new development in human relations; rather it was using the phrase in a descriptive sense to describe the alleged nature of past human 16 keltner stated“we so often assume both in the scientific community, and in our culture at large, that darwin thought humans were violent and competitive and self-interested in their natural state. that is a misrepresentation of what darwin actually believed, and where the evolutionary study of human goodness is going.”in conversation with daviddisalvo, forget survival of the fittest: it is kindness that counts, <https://www.dailygood.org/story/579/kindness-emotions-david-disalvo> 17t huxley, man's place in nature, (1863) ch.2, p. 129. 18herbert spencer, principles of biology (1864) 19 frans de waal, the age of empathy, souvenir press, (2009),28. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." nature and relations, a characteristic that was said to be a primary motivation in human affairs. it was said to be a self interested and aggressive characteristic. and as an alleged inherent motivation, it can be deduced that the writers were asserting a continuation of that characteristic into the future of humanity, with little or no hope of a change in the future to a more peaceful, compassionate, cooperative, unifying approach. humanity, they seemed to be saying, is destined for ever more to be stuck with a struggle for survival, for the benefit of the one over and at the expense of the other. speaking of this concept, esslemont wrote: “during the past century scientists have devoted and immense amount of study to the struggle for existence in the plant and animal world, and, amid the perplexities of social life, many have turned for guidance to the principles which have been found to hold good in the lower world of nature. in this way they have come to regard rivalry and conflict as necessities of life, and the ruthless killing out of the weaker members of society as a legitimate or even necessary means of improving the race.”20 but some evolutionary scientists since darwin have taken the view that humans are not entirely controlled by the self-interested concept of survival of the fittest and are capable, for example, of altruistic behaviour. thus de beer wrote: “from earliest human times, the survival value of altruistic behaviour has been enhanced because of the prolongation of childhood and the consolidation of the family that have characterized the evolution of man. the size of the unit within which altruistic behaviour conferred survival -value has grown progressively larger, but fitfully, as history and anthropology have shown, from the family to the clan, the tribe and the nation. in this manner, ethical standards of conduct and morality have arisen which can be seen to develop in individuals and have been seen to evolve in societies….. with the development of man’s higher mental faculties, the pooling of experience by speech-communication and its storage in memory, conscious choice and purposiveness became factors in evolution. hence his subsequent psycho-social evolution has been of a nature different from that of other organisms, because it is no longer governed solely by natural selection and therefore involved purposes outside the scope of natural selection”.21 20j e esslemont, baha’u’llah and the new era,(1923), baha’i publishing trust, 147. 21 gavin de beer, a handbook on evolution , trustees of the british museum, 1970, 21. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." consequences of theories of evolution and survival of the fittest while darwin did not abandon all notions of a deity, the consequences of his theory on the beliefs and practices of the wider society, in conjunction with advances in science generally, have been profound. there has been a significant rise in what might be described as a philosophy of scientific materialism, not dependent on religion or on a theistic view of existence. the widespread dispersion of the philosophy expressly in name as the “survival of the fittest” would appear to have had an influence on many peoples in giving support to their views and in affecting their actions. such views have often been based on strong prejudices such as to race, religion, ethnicity, etc., and have sometimes lead to violence the struggle for existence may now be sometimes emphasised by some as a matter of assumed basic principle that characterises human life and society. this in turn has had a profound influence on the nature of society and the thinking of individuals within it, sometimes described as a “dog-eat-dog” attitude. together with the spread of scientific materialism and the decline in organised religion, the human being came to be increasingly seen as just another animal, albeit a biologically advanced animal, and subject to much the same physical conditions and actions as an animal. one critical commentator wrote: “a hideous revolution took place in the sciences and in our culture during the latter part of the nineteenth century, which had the aim of remaking the selfconception of the human species from that of a cognitive and creative being made in the image of the creator, to that of an instinct-driven ape-like creature. this hideous cultural and scientific revolution has been so successful, that while we live in a world of potentially unlimited scientific progress, our descent into a totally bestial view of man has created both an inability to realize this potential, and with it an existential crisis for the human race.”22 but is there an opposite view to that of humans being basically competitive and self interested, even though the latter view still commands a lot of support? to a large extent it can be argued that modern society, particularly on the capitalist model, which emphasises the rights of the individual to a substantial degree of freedom, largely unimpeded by the state, is based on the survival of the fittest 22 paul glumaz,the hideous revolution: the british malthusian, <http://www.literaturepage.com/read/darwin-origin-of-species-66.html#google_vignette> ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." view. competition may be seen by some as necessary for the progress and wellbeing of society. carnegie wrote: “the price which society pays for the law of competition, like the price it pays for cheap comforts and luxuries, is great; but the advantages of this law are also greater still than its cost / for it is to this law that we owe our wonderful material development, which brings improved conditions in its train. but, whether the law be benign or not, we must say of it: it is here; we cannot evade it; no substitutes for it have been found; and while the law may be sometimes hard for the individual, it is best for the race, because it ensures the survival of the fittest in every department.”23 potentially such an approach, whilst perhaps offering the potential for more efficient results in the purely material terms of production and overall wealth, can open the door to all kind of unjust results if selectively or ruthlessly applied. whilst wealth is not bad per se, many industrialists, economists, politicians and others, for example, appear to have been influenced by the concept of survival of the fittest in a belief in the centrality of a prosperous material economy based on competition and substantial inequality24. commonly, this approach has often been associated with a resultant great disparities of wealth. at the nation state level, the pursuit of the perceived self interests of the state are invariably given top priority in international relations, extending to fierce competition and in many cases to confrontation and war. the global society has as yet been unable to develop a global system that is capable of bringing a just and lasting peace between nations. nation states still claim and often act as though they have absolute rights of sovereignty within their own territories and areas of influence and over their own and sometimes other peoples, even with the increasing levels of global inter dependence. their perceived interests can be aggressively sought and applied. the result is a great deal of global inequity and injustice. the real danger is that the concept of survival of the fittest may be taken to an extreme level, both in relation to the individual and at the nation state level. this has already happened, as witness the doctrines of aggressive racial and 23 andrew carnegie, the gospel of wealth, no. cccxci, (june, 1889). to be fair, carnegie was a great benefactor with his wealth. 24 the legislatures in many countries have found it necessary to legislatively intervene to outlaw the worst excesses of the free market in relation to such things as monopolies and combines, restrictive and dishonest trade practices, etc. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." national superiority with national socialism, and in events and practices such as gross exploitation of workers, of the abuse of colonial subjects and of minorities, and in slavery, genocide and other gross human rights abuses. the application of eugenics is another example. if science is left unchallenged, the concept can be expressed in such developments between nation states as in the development of weapons of mass destruction and other abusive and destructive methods. morality and ethics can be devalued in the struggle for survival under such a philosophy, whilst undesirable conduct such as crime and corruption may well be given an opportunity to spread, the only fault being to be caught. limits to the survival of the fittest historically, there has often been thought given in recorded history to the possibility of limits to human selfish, competitive, or aggressive behaviour. thus aristotle contended that human beings are not naturally good but amoral, although they can be led to be good in the society through education. the great religions of antiquity asserted that certain standards of moral conduct were necessary for the good of society. reference has already been made to the teachings of the new testament. other religions had similar principles, such as in the golden rule of “do unto others…etc.”most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moralvalue. buddhism, christianity, hinduism, islam, jainism, judaism, and sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality25.it was generally assumed in the religious context that morally worthy behaviour such as cooperation and altruism, the opposite of the survival of the fittest approach, could be learned through religious belief and association. this has lead to theological debate within christianity, for example, given the tension between the survival of the fittest concept as already discussed on the one hand, and the view taken from the new testament teachings that the one supreme god cares for all the creation on the other hand, including for the downtrodden and disposed in society, those that might be considered unfit. “if christians confess that god cares for the weak, how does that relate to 25 wikipedia,<wikipedia.org/wiki/altruism>/ ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/buddhism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/christianity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hinduism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/islam https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jainism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/judaism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sikhism ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." the darwinian struggle for survival? is caring for the weak, poor and oppressed merely a requisite corrective to guard against the excesses of the strong? or is god’s care for the weak the heart of the christian faith – as suggested by the notion of the preferential option for the poor in liberation theology and by a concern for god’s justice in the confession of belhar26? on this question there remain deep ecumenical divides….”27 the tendency within some religious thought has been to either reinterpret the survival of the fittest concept, including by way of emphasising cooperation and altruism in human nature, or to reject the concept, at least in its more extreme and more abusive and exploitative forms. moral principles may be invoked, it often being asserted that moral have a direct links to organised religion. the position is complex as it tends to be interconnected with the long debate between evolution and divine creation. some christians that have considered the concept may reject it and argue that one should rely on faith and trust in the divine, arguing that in that faith and trust the weak are protected. some christian sects may, on the other hand, have chosen not to approach the topic in any detail and to simply adopt an apocalyptic view of a future end to the earth and humanity due to its decadence, perhaps upon a miraculous return of their promised saviour, the chosen believers taking comfort in the belief that they will be taken up to a better place. the place of cooperation and altruism in human nature and practice has received increasing recent attention in the literature. there is a now a body of literature on this topic. this is sometimes used to balance the view that humans are self interested and aggressive. in some cases it is seen that these features are not necessarily devoid of self interest28, as distinct from pure self sacrifice or altruism without any expectations. but at least the element of cooperation usually does not have the combination of domination or control to be found in the survival of the fittest, that is, unless there are ulterior motives. cooperation 26 the belhar confession has its roots in the struggle against apartheid in southern africa. it was first drafted in 1982 by the dutch reformed mission church, now the new uniting reformed church in southern africa, and formally adopted in 1986. 27 ernst m. conradie, “the christian faith and evolution: an evolving, unresolved debate”, verbum et ecclesia 39(1), (june 2018) 28eg: robert axelrod, the evolution of cooperation, (1984) basic books, chapters 5 and 7; michael karlberg, beyond the culture of contest,(2004), george ronald. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." and altruism are often seen as being connected to a moral/ethical position. kropotkin wrote: “and man is …guided in his acts, not merely by love, which is always personal, or at the best tribal, but by the perception of his oneness with each human being. in the practice of mutual aid, which we can retrace to the earliest beginnings of evolution, we thus find the positive and undoubted origin of our ethical conceptions; and we can affirm that in the ethical progress of man, mutual support not mutual struggle -has had the leading part. in its wide extension, even at the present time, we also see the best guarantee of a still loftier evolution of our race. ”29 martin luther king took a moral standpoint in that he saw the concept of survival of the fittest as being undermined. he stated: “midnight is the hour when men desperately seek to obey the eleventh commandment, "thou shalt not get caught." according to the ethic of midnight, the cardinal sin is to be caught and the cardinal virtue is to get by. it is all right to lie, but one must lie with real finesse. it is all right to steal, if one is so dignified that, if caught, the charge becomes embezzlement, not robbery. it is permissible even to hate, if one so dresses his hating in the garments of love that hating appears to be loving. the darwinian concept of the survival of the fittest has been substituted by a philosophy of the survival of the slickest. this mentality has brought a tragic breakdown of moral standards, and the midnight of moral degeneration deepens.”30 religious revision but in some religious teachings there is an express total rejection of the value of the concept of survival of the fittest in its alleged inherent application to human beings. this is most pronounced in the teachings of the baha’i faith. this is worth particular consideration, as it is the only independent religion in which its sacred writings specifically deal with this topic by name.31 29 peter kropotkin,mutual aid: a factor of evolution, (1902) 30 martin luther king, speech “a knock at midnight” (14 september 1958) 31abdu’l-baha (1844-1921), the eldest son of the founder/prophet of the faith, baha’u’llah, and whose writings are regarded as part of the corpus of the baha’i sacred writings, specifically uses the term “survival of the fittest” in theearly 20thcentury – see divine philosophy(1918), 12.he also mentioned the topic by name in some of his talks,reproduced in the promulgation of universal peace, baha’i publishing trust (8 october 1912 at leland stanford junior universitypalo alto, california) at 353, and (7 november 1912, talk at home of mr. and mrs. arthur j. parsons, washington, d.c), at 400. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." abdu’l-baha noted in a letter that the present organisation of the planet into separate nations lies at the base of the problem. he stated: “..all the nations are thinking of how to advance their own interests while working against the best interests of other nations. they desire their own personal advantage while seeking to undermine affairs in other countries. they call this the "struggle for survival" (tan‡zu'-ibaq‡), and assert that it is innate to human nature. but this is a grievous error; nay, there is no error greater than this. gracious god! even in the animal kingdom cooperation and mutual assistance for survival are observed among some species, especially in the case of danger to the whole group. … insofar as animals display such noble sentiments, how much more should man, who is the noblest of creatures; and how much more fitting it is in particular that, in view of the divine teachings and heavenly ordinances, man should be obliged to attain this excellence. in the estimation of god, distinctions of race, divisions of borders, favoring one people over another, and all individual limitations are unworthy and rejected. all the prophets of god were sent down and all the sacred books were revealed for the purpose of assisting man to achieve this heavenly grace and this divine virtue. all the divine teachings can be summarized as this: that these thoughts singling out advantages to one group may be banished from our midst, that human character may be improved, that equality and fellowship may be established amongst all mankind, until every individual is ready to sacrifice himself for the sake of his fellowman. this is the divine foundation. this is the law come down from heaven. such a firm foundation cannot be impregnated into human consciousness save by one universal and all-pervasive power, for every other power is helpless except for the power of the holy spirit. the outpourings of the holy spirit are such that they can transform man, imbuing him with all the virtues, bestowing upon him the second birth, baptizing him with the fire of the love of god, which is love for all created things, and quickening him with the water of eternal life, and the holy spirit itself.”32 but as already noted, the concept of the survival of the fittest has at its root the idea that humans are inherently selfish and aggressive, both individually and in 32letter by abdu’l-baha, provisional translation by keven brown, lawh-i-tan‡zu'-ibaq, cited in evolution & baha’i belief, (2001) kalimat press, at 112-114. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." society. writing of this, the universal house of justice, the ruling body of the baha’i faith, wrote: “….aparalyzing contradiction has developed in human affairs. on the one hand, people of all nations proclaim not only their readiness but their longing for peace and harmony, for an end to the harrowing apprehensions tormenting their daily lives. on the other, uncritical assent is given to the proposition that human beings are incorrigibly selfish and aggressive and thus incapable of erecting a social system at once progressive and peaceful, dynamic and harmonious, a system giving free play to individual creativity and initiative but based on co-operation and reciprocity. ”33 in the baha’i faith, the philosophy that says that humans are incapable of looking beyond their own selfishness is rejected, to be replaced by a new, more spiritual approach to human society, one that advocates a new commitment to a much more principled, spiritually guided and less self-centred orientation in life. this is seen as being a matter of free choice for each individual with appropriate education. in this regard, humans are perceived as having the spiritual and intellectual capacity to make such a choice between the two approaches, rather than being inherently tied to the one self-centered approach. to achieve that, right education with a global basis is required. the baha’i writings accept that the nature of animals is largely based on the survival for existence. but it teaches that human beings are not just animals; rather they have certain intellectual and spiritual qualities that differentiate them from animals. in this sense nature is seen as being inherently defective due to the struggle for life, and that it is the task facing humans to use their god-given gifts to rise above this struggle. the writings envisage the human being as essentially being social beings and as having, with the right education, guidance and inspiration, special abilities and spiritual capacities to develop their character and conduct over time so as to transcend this struggle. they postulate thatthe thinking based on this concept of survival of the fittest, whereby one person must struggle against other persons in order to survive, is not inherent to the human condition but is the result of inculcation through life experiences and inadequate education, and can be changed by right education. the remedy, it argues, lies in a spiritual education, an education that postulates changes in thinking and practices to emphasize our common spiritual links as one 33 universal house of justice, the promise of world peace, (1985) baha’i publishing trust. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." interdependent human race on one small planetary homeland. as a corollary, the writings unequivocally teach the need for humanity to acquire and practice the divine virtues of perfection as revealed by the founder/manifestations of the great religions in order to create a peaceful, united and fair society. the acquisition by humanity of these virtues is seen as a fundamental aspect of the revelation of their founder baha’u’llah34, abdu’l-baha wrote: “some animals are isolated and lead a separate existence away from their kind. but this is impossible for man. in his life and being cooperation and association are essential. through association and meeting we find happiness and development, individual and collective.”35 “the supreme need of humanity is cooperation and reciprocity. the stronger the ties of fellowship and solidarity amongst men, the greater will be the power of constructiveness and accomplishment in all the planes of human activity.”36 and to achieve this, the writings assert the need for a new, globally united society free of the limitations imposed by the divisions of the planet into separate, competing nation-states. by humanity spiritually evolving and working cooperatively together in the global society as one united human race in this way, it is seen as the way forward for a divided humanity over time to heal the problems plaguing a very divided global society as it exists at present. the aim and purpose in this life is argued to be to achieve a unity in human diversity on a global basis. it should immediately be stated that this is not to advocate some form of communistic approach to society based on the theoretical equality of every person in a compulsory global collective. nor is it to advocate a purely materialistic approach to the issue. the individual is seen in baha’i as having a critical role in society in order to freely make decisions as to spiritual beliefs and principles and to take responsibility therefore, to apply the divine virtues including by way of service to others, to exercise individual initiative and free 34 baha’u’llah (1819 – 1892) is regarded by baha’is as the manifestation of god for this age and the promised one of all the great religions. 35 ‘abdu’l-bahá, talk recorded in “the promulgation of universal peace”, baha’i publishing trust (20 april 1912 at washington dc), 35. 36‘abdu’l-bahá, talk recorded in “the promulgation of universal peace”, baha’i publishing trust (25 september 1912 at denver, colorado), 338. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." choices, to acquire an education, etc. at the same time the individual is encouraged to act in consultation and to seek cooperation and unity, to act with justice and moderation and be of useful service to humanity. charity and sharing are endorsed. there has to be, on this view, a balance between the material and the spiritual to achieve this. a purely materialistic philosophy will not suffice. it is said that humanity needs to move away from a narrow view of individuals as profit-maximizing to a broader view of material and spiritual prosperity, expressed for example in community building projects and undertakings that bring people together. such efforts should provide insight into how service to one’s fellow human beings can foster economic and other relationships based on cooperation rather than competition, and service to others rather than narrow self-interest.”37 the universal house of justice, the ruling body of the baha’i faith, spoke of the need for a peaceful, united world order in which all prejudices and forms of discrimination, including those that are generated by the concept of the survival of the fittest, are replaced by a new spiritual unity. it added: “the primary question to be resolved is how the present world, with its entrenched pattern of conflict, can change to a world in which harmony and cooperation will prevail. world order can be founded only on an unshakeable consciousness of the oneness of mankind, a spiritual truth which all the human sciences confirm. anthropology, physiology, psychology, recognize only one human species, albeit infinitely varied in the secondary aspects of life. recognition of this truth requires abandonment of prejudice--prejudice of every kind--race, class, colour, creed, nation, sex, degree of material civilization, everything which enables people to consider themselves superior to others.”38 speaking of the rejection of any concept of superiority amongst different humans, esslemont wrote: “the bahá'í doctrine of the unity of mankind strikes at the root of another cause of war, namely, racial prejudice. certain races have assumed themselves to be superior to others and have taken for granted, on the principle of "survival of 37 india: transforming economic structures to build a more caring society, (8 january, 2025), <https://news.bahai.org/story/1775/> 38 universal house of justice, the promise of world peace (1985) baha’i publishing trust, 28 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." the fittest," that this superiority gives them the right to exploit for their own advantage, or even to exterminate, weaker races. many of the blackest pages in the world's history are examples of the pitiless application of this principle. according to the bahá'í view people of every race are of equal value in the sight of god. all have wonderful innate capacities which only require suitable education for their development, and each can play a part, which, instead of impoverishing, will enrich and complete the life of all the other members of the body of humanity.”39 the aim then of the faith is to create a human brotherhood and sisterhood comprising all humanity under the one supreme deity of all. abdu’l-baha wrote: “human brotherhood is, likewise, as clear and evident as the sun, for all are servants of one god, belong to one humankind, inhabit the same globe, are sheltered beneath the overshadowing dome of heaven and submerged in the sea of divine mercy. human brotherhood and dependence exist because mutual helpfulness and cooperation are the two necessary principles underlying human welfare. this is the physical relationship of mankind. there is another brotherhood -the spiritual -which is higher, holier and superior to all others. it is heavenly; it emanates from the breaths of the holy spirit and the effulgence of merciful attributes; it is founded upon spiritual susceptibilities. this brotherhood is established by the manifestations of the holy one.” 40 thus if we are to achieve a just and peaceful global society and put an end to the wars and conflicts that plague the planet, it is argued that there has to be a new, uniting standard universally applied in human society. it is essentially a spiritual approach that involves the recasting of that society and the individuals within it based on the new standard of the recognition of the oneness of humanity under the one supreme deity of all. in such a society, the concept of 39 j e esslemont, baha’u’llah and the new era, baha’i publishing trust, (1923), 150. he was an early baha’i. 40abdu'l-baha, talk recorded in the promulgation of universal peace, baha’i publishing trust, (28 may 1912 at new york), 150. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." the survival of the fittest, as interpreted in a materialistic, self interested manner, is seen as not being acceptable. on this view being advanced, the standard cannot be that of the animal. on the baha’i view, it must be the standard advanced by the founders of the great religions, the divine manifestations or prophets. this standard is the very antithesis of those characterized by the animal struggle for self-preservation and survival, and humans must choose between the two contrasting approaches, for they cannot be reconciled. the ruling concept in a fair global society can no longer be survival of the fittest. in its place, the principles of unity, concord and compassion must be elevated to a new pinnacle as taught by those prophets. violence and force, constraint and oppression, must one and all be condemned. cooperation must receive a new emphasis in the place of competition. individual initiative and excellence would still have a place, but tempered by the obligation to be of service and to act in the best interests of humanity. comments in response of course implementation of the baha’i approach amounts to a huge challenge, not to be achieved even in the short term. for many it may seem to be totally beyond practical achievement, given the fractured nature of present world society. many people may not be able to conceive of a global society that transcends the divisions and prejudices of that society at present, given the frailties of human nature. that view is made even more compelling by the predominantly materialistic approach of many people to life, devoid of any spiritual content. and given the many divisions existing among religions and sects, even those who claim to have strong religious or spiritual beliefs may not be able to surmount the thinking that prevails against a more universalistic and less sectarian approach to the future. it can be argued that both the materialistic and the religious or spiritual perspectives are strongly influenced by the prejudices and divisions that presently influence or control human thinking. thus the materialist may simply accept that human society is irretrievably and permanently burdened with a world of divided and contending nation states, each of which lays the emphasis on its own materialistic wellbeing and in which the individual members of each place the emphasis on their own materialistic well being. any radical change in the nature of the global society could be seen as a threat to their present priorities. and many of those of areligious or spiritual inclination may well be content to preserve and defend the fractured or sectarian nature of their own religious or spiritual connections and their favoured ideas, hatreds, dogmas and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 07 || july, 2025 || “a critique of survival of the fittest and the human: a spiritual approach." traditions and be opposed to any concept of a comprehensive spiritual reconciliation in the wider interests of all humanity, even in the form of a new divine revelation. this is not to diminish the extent of the challenge posed by the suggested creation of a new and much fairer and more united global society in which the concept of the survival of the fittest has a much reduced influence. of course the challenge to achieve this is immense. but then it can be argued that humanity in its present very divided state is now facing unprecedented threats to its proper functioning and long term survival. the threats are many, are serious and are increasingly global in nature, arguably only capable of being effectively addressed on a global, cooperative basis. both communism and capitalism are now often not seen as having all the right answers. the concept of survival of the fittest, as applied in the present very divisive system of international relations, sometimes resulting in mass violence, may increasingly be recognised as being unsustainable. in an increasingly globalised world, there may be some concern and perhaps seven pressure to find new solutions for the benefit of all humanity and for the planet as a whole. there is at the same time an increasing interest among many in spiritual solutions. in this scenario, the prospect of enormous trials and calamities arising to drastically disrupt the present global order, with resultant moves to replace it with a fairer and more harmonious global system, cannot be dismissed. radical change usually comes with great trials and challenges. when bahá’u’lláh first proclaimed some decades ago, “this is the hour of the coming together of all the races and nations and classes. this is the hour of unity among the sons of men,” the prophecy was a far fetched ideal to the world of jealous politics and cultural isolation which received it. but it can be argued that the unity of humanity today is no mere social ideal. arguably human secular and religious disunity and strife has (today)made it a social necessity.41 41 the baha’i world, in social basis of world unity, 21 april 1946, <https://bahaiworld.bahai.org/library/social-basis-of-world-unity/>, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 07 | july 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development peter archibong essoh 1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, ¹department of sociology and anthropology, university of uyo, nigeria ²department of sociology and anthropology, akwa ibom state university, nigeria ³department of sociology and anthropology, akwa ibom state university, nigeria abstract: nigeria is faced with the problem of corruption. successive governments in the country had established several anti-corruption agencies to investigate, prosecute and prevent corrupt practices across the public and private sectors. nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies include the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc), independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc), code of conduct tribunal (cct), code of conduct bureau (ccb) and others. this paper assessed the challenges confronting anti-corruption agencies in nigeria and the implications of these challenges for national development. using secondary sources, such as internet, academic journals, textbooks, legal statutes, government publications, periodicals and policy documents, the data were analysed using thematic-content analysis. the findings indicated that nigeria’s anti-graft institutions face deep-rooted structural and operational challenges that severely limit their effectiveness, especially in handling high-profile corruption cases. these limitations not only encourage impunity and diminish public trust in the justice system but also lead to the mismanagement of public resources, poor governance, and service delivery failures. consequently, corruption becomes entrenched, exacerbating poverty, inequality, and underdevelopment across key sectors, while also undermining investor confidence, weakening democratic institutions, and endangering the country’s socio-economic stability and development. the paper recommended comprehensive reforms to strengthen nigeria’s anti-graft efforts by ensuring the autonomy and capacity of agencies like the efcc and icpc through legal protections, adequate funding, and modern investigative tools. it also calls for an overhaul of the judicial system to expedite corruption cases, including the creation of special courts, strict case timelines, and improved judicial accountability, all aimed at restoring public trust and reinforcing the rule of law. keywords: anti-corruption agencies, challenges, implications, national development i.introduction corruption continues to pose a serious threat globally (igwe, 2025; babasola, 2020). the first pension custodian (2022) conceptualised corruption as any form of abuse of entrusted power for personal gain and may include but is not limited to bribery.in africa, especially in nigeria, corruption has deeply infiltrated nearly every aspect of national life (nnorom, 2019), weakening institutional performance, eroding public confidence, and hindering development (igwe, 2025; adamaagashiet al., 2023). it stands as nigeria’s most pressing obstacle to sustainable development (asangausung & brown, 2025; ikpeze, 2013).although various anti-corruption bodies like the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc), the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc), and the code of conduct bureau (ccb) have been established, corruption remains widespread and often goes unaddressed (azeez &ajibowu-yekini, 2018). these agencies were designed to investigate, prosecute, and prevent corrupt activities (jamiu, 2021), yet their effectiveness has been compromised by structural weaknesses, operational inefficiencies, and political interference (ikpeze, 2013). reflecting this ongoing challenge, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" nigeria ranked 140th out of 180 countries on the 2024 corruption perceptions index published by transparency international (igwe, 2025). the persistence of high-profile corruption cases and the apparent inability of anti-graft agencies to secure timely and effective prosecutions raise serious concerns about the institutional capacity and integrity of nigeria’s anti-corruption framework (adamaagashi et al., 2023). to fight against corruption, successive governments have established the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) and independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc). other agencies include the code of conduct bureau (ccb), bureau of public procurement (bpp), nigerian extractive industries transparency initiative (neiti) and public complaints commission. these agencies play a crucial role in preventing, investigating and prosecuting corruption cases in nigeria. the icpc and efcc, in particular, have been established to address corruption within the public sector and the private sector, respectively. the icpc, for instance, has the power to seize assets of public officials accused of corruption and to demand financial information (asangausung and brown, 2025). the establishment of these agencies is a testament to nigeria’s commitment to combating corruption, a challenge that has long been a concern for the country. while these agencies have made strides in addressing corruption, challenges remain and ongoing efforts are needed to further strengthen anticorruption measures and promote a culture of integrity.recently, sanni (2021) reported that over the last two decades, nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies have arrested, investigated and prosecuted suspects and recovered roughly n900 billion (about $2.2 billion) in stolen assets. this effort is not enough compared to the level of corruption in the country. scholars such as ekweremadu (2021) have argued that despite formal legal mandates, anti-graft agencies suffer from chronic underfunding, lack of skilled personnel and weak enforcement capacity. these limitations are compounded by the politicisation of anti-corruption efforts, which often results in selective investigations and prosecutions based on political interests rather than legal merit.azeez and ajibowuyekini (2018) affirm that while the efcc and code of conduct bureau have recorded notable achievements, the icpc’s relatively sluggish approach underscores the uneven performance among anticorruption institutions. this disparity reflects deeper systemic issues including overlapping mandates, inter-agency rivalry and lack of a unified strategy in combating graft. ewaet al. (2019) highlights internal weaknesses such as poor commitment to ethical standards, accountability and transparency within the agencies themselves—factors that erode public trust and limit the scope for institutional reform. furthermore, external societal dynamics and institutional shortcomings continue to constrain anti-graft efforts. nnado and ugwu (2015) observe that public apathy, lack of civic engagement and limited whistle-blower protections discourage citizens from reporting corruption. the absence of an effective witness protection system and the risk of victimisation have further curtailed public cooperation. umoru-oki (2019), in his comparative study of nigeria and uganda, contends that anticorruption frameworks in both countries often fail due to weak policy implementation and a lack of sustained political will. the impact of corruption extends beyond institutional inefficiencies to broader developmental consequences. abu (2022) and nwosu (2023) argue that the gap between nigeria’s robust legal frameworks and weak enforcement mechanisms renders anti-corruption efforts largely symbolic. this gap allows public officials to embezzle resources meant for critical sectors like education, healthcare and infrastructure, exacerbating poverty, inequality and underdevelopment. from a legal standpoint, the jigawa state ministry of justice (2023) underscores how corruption compromises judicial integrity, delays https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" justice delivery and contributes to insecurity by weakening the rule of law. moreover, olujobi (2023) highlights that even in revenue-generating sectors such as petroleum, anti-corruption statutes are ineffectively enforced, reflecting the larger problem of political interference and regulatory failure. abomaye-nimenibo (2022) adds that corruption perpetuates poor governance, moral decay and leadership failure, all of which inhibit economic growth and social stability. against this backdrop, this study addressed a critical gap in the literature by assessing the challenges confronting anti-graft institutions and assess their implications for national development, using recent secondary data. while existing studies have explored various structural, operational and societal obstacles to effective anti-corruption efforts, they often do so within specific institutional or temporal confines, lacking a unified framework that connects these challenges directly to national development outcomes. moreover, much of the prior research predates recent policy shifts, institutional reforms and socio-political developments that may have reshaped the anti-corruption landscape. by focusing on the current dynamics and integrating institutional analysis with developmental impact, this study moves beyond isolated critiques of agency performance to examine how systemic limitations, such as politicisation, inter-agency rivalry and legal enforcement gaps, collectively undermine governance, economic progress and social stability. in doing so, the study provides a timely and comprehensive reassessment of anti-graft efforts, offering fresh insights into how entrenched weaknesses in institutional frameworks are impeding nigeria’s developmental trajectory. this integrative and updated perspective is largely missing from earlier works, thereby positioning the study to make a valuable contribution to both academic discourse and policy formulation. ii. conceptualisation and literature review anti-corruption agencies nigeria operates a multi-agency framework for combating corruption, with various institutions established to investigate, prosecute and prevent corrupt practices across the public and private sectors. anticorruption is defined as all measures and mechanisms for controlling corruption (babasola, 2020). these measures and mechanisms include the establishment of anti-corruption agencies such as the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc), independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc), code of conduct bureau (ccb), code of conduct tribunal (cct) and nigerian financial intelligence unit (nfiu). others include, the public complaints commission (pcc), special investigation panel (sip), bureau of public procurement (bpp), servicom (civil service reform), due process review and public procurement (dprpp) and the nigeria extractive industries transparency initiative (neiti). these agencies function based on distinct statutory mandates but are united in their objective of promoting ethical governance, transparency and accountability. their core responsibilities include investigating financial crimes, prosecuting offenders, sanctioning defaulters and periodically conducting research to identify corruption risks. this enables the development of targeted strategies for curbing financial misconduct and enhancing integrity in public administration (ayozie, 2025; asangausung et al., 2024; abu, 2022). in addition to enforcement, these agencies play a preventive and advisory role by formulating anticorruption policies, monitoring compliance with due process in procurement and fostering public awareness and education on the consequences of corruption. through these functions, they contribute to strengthening governance institutions and improving public trust in the nigerian state. however, as ikpeze https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" (2013) observes, several challenges impede the effectiveness of these agencies. key issues include human rights abuses, disobedience to court orders, executive manipulation through function-switching and a lack of inter-agency coordination, which often results in overlapping functions, duplication of efforts and institutional conflicts. corruption babasola (2020) observes that the concept of corruption is difficult to define. he defined corruption as an abuse of power for private gain. scholars posited that the term corruption includes ‘all the forms of improper or selfish exercise of power and influence attached to a public as well as private office’. the corrupt practices and other related offences act (lfn, 2000), submitted that corruption include bribery, fraud and other related offences. offences punishable include: willful giving and receipt of bribes and gratification to influence a public duty, fraudulent acquisition and receipt of properties, deliberate frustration of investigation by the anti-corruption commission (icpc), making false returns, making of false or misleading statements to the anti-corruption commission, attempts, conspiracies and abetments of offences under the act. national development national development is a comprehensive, holistic and dynamic process aimed at improving the overall well-being of a nation’s citizens across multiple dimensions. it encompasses balanced progress in the economic, political, social, cultural, scientific, technological and ecological spheres of national life. according to khosla (2019), it involves enhancing both individual and societal welfare through advancements in sectors such as industry, agriculture, education, health and governance. as defined by india free notes (2019), national development includes integrated growth in public welfare, infrastructure and governance, tailored to a country’s unique needs and contexts. this development process is not static but evolves with changing national goals and priorities. adagbabiri and okolie (2016) highlight the importance of sustainability and human dignity, arguing that national development should lead to both material and spiritual betterment, underpinned by the effective utilisation of a nation’s resources for the common good. idike (2014) underscores that national development must lead to a reduction in inequality and promote the security of lives and property, ensuring that the majority of citizens experience tangible improvements in their quality of life. similarly, okeke and idike (2016) stress that national development should foster social harmony, including the elimination of inter-ethnic antagonisms and the promotion of peaceful intergroup relations. therefore, in the context of this study, national development refers to progressive and sustainable transformations in all critical facets of a nation’s existence; economic, social, political, demographic, cultural, technological and ecological achieved in a way that safeguards both present and future generations. challenges of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies and implications for national development the role of anti-corruption agencies in nigeria has attracted considerable scholarly attention due to the centrality of corruption in undermining national development. although successive governments have established and empowered institutions such as the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc), the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc) and the code of conduct bureau (ccb), evidence suggests that these agencies face significant structural, operational and political constraints that impair their effectiveness. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" ekweremadu (2021) highlights capacity challenges as major limitations to the effectiveness of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies. despite their formal powers to investigate and prosecute corrupt individuals, persistent corruption continues unabated due to legal loopholes, poor funding, inadequate personnel and the pervasive politicisation of anti-corruption efforts, which undermines the legitimacy of these institutions. in a similar vein, azeez and ajibowu-yekini (2018) affirm the significance of anti-corruption agencies in combating graft, noting that while the efcc and the code of conduct bureau have made meaningful impacts, the icpc has been less effective due to operational sluggishness. their study, grounded in survey research, supports the notion that institutional performance varies, but the overall role of these bodies remains essential. ewaet al. (2019) further problematise the effectiveness of anti-graft agencies, citing widespread deficiencies such as lack of commitment to ethical standards, rule of law, transparency and accountability. these internal governance issues have eroded public trust and limited the agencies’ ability to effect systemic change. umoru-oki’s (2019) comparative study of nigeria and uganda underscores the defective nature of anti-corruption frameworks in both countries. his findings, based on world governance indicators, point to the inadequacy of policy measures, which are often fraught with inconsistencies and lack real impact in curbing corruption. abu (2022) and nwosu (2023) both emphasize the disconnection between legal frameworks and practical implementation. while nigeria has enacted numerous anticorruption laws, enforcement remains weak due to political interference, inadequate resources and inefficiencies in the justice system. these gaps make the legal regime more symbolic than effective. nnado and ugwu (2015) shed light on external societal and internal organisational factors that hinder the efcc’s performance, including lack of public cooperation, poor staff capacity and systemic disorder. these findings align with those of awopeju (2022), who observed that despite playing advisory roles and participating in policy implementation, the overall impact of anti-corruption agencies on governance remains limited due to weak institutional relevance in shaping policy outcomes. in the context of specific sectors, olujobi (2023) reveals that in nigeria’s upstream petroleum industry, anti-corruption statutes are largely ineffective. the study attributes this to feeble enforcement, lack of political will and nonimplementation of regulations, further affirming the systemic challenges confronting the anti-graft fight. from a broader developmental perspective, abomaye-nimenibo (2022) argues that corruption negatively affects economic development by promoting bad governance, poor infrastructure, moral decay and leadership failure, which collectively stunt national growth. the jigawa state ministry of justice (2023) adds a legal dimension, asserting that corruption undermines public trust in the justice system, contributes to insecurity, discourages investment and delays judicial processes. this erosion of justice has grave implications for societal stability and economic progress, thereby further hindering national development. in summary, key challenges identified include, legal and constitutional loopholes, insufficient funding and personnel, politicisation of anti-corruption efforts, weak judicial system and enforcement mechanisms, public apathy and lack of societal cooperation, poor governance within anti-corruption institutions, absence of political will and sector-specific regulatory failures. the persistent weaknesses in nigeria’s anti-corruption framework significantly impair national development. corruption compromises economic growth, political stability, social equity and institutional integrity. until structural reforms are implemented to enhance the independence, capacity and credibility of anti-corruption agencies, their contribution to national development will remain marginal. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" theoretical framework this study is grounded in susan rose-ackerman’s political economy theory of corruption, which offers a structural and institutional explanation of corrupt practices. developed in 1978, the theory contends that corruption thrives in systems where public officials wield significant discretionary power and monopolistic control over state resources without corresponding mechanisms of accountability. in such environments, institutional design, rather than individual morality is central to understanding why public officials often prioritise self-interest over the public good. corruption, according to this theory, emerges not as a personal moral failing but as a predictable outcome of flawed institutional arrangements and incentive structures that reward rent-seeking behavior and allow impunity. this theoretical lens is particularly relevant to nigeria’s context, where anti-graft institutions such as the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) and the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc) often operate under the shadow of political interference. despite their formal mandates to investigate and prosecute corrupt acts, these agencies face operational constraints stemming from selective enforcement, lack of prosecutorial independence and manipulation by political elites. their broad discretionary powers are frequently exercised in opaque ways, undermined further by weak oversight mechanisms and ineffective internal controls. these structural weaknesses, rather than isolated missteps, reflect a broader power dynamic where political elites strategically weaken anticorruption frameworks to serve their interests. within this framework, the persistence of corruption in nigeria is not incidental but symptomatic of a governance structure that discourages transparency and accountability. public resources meant for critical sectors such as healthcare, education, infrastructure and economic development are routinely diverted, eroding public trust, deterring investment and weakening the legitimacy of state institutions. this institutional decay ultimately constrains national development and entrenches inequality and inefficiency in the governance system. while the political economy theory provides a powerful analytical tool, it is not without limitations. its reliance on rational choice assumptions may oversimplify the complex motivations behind corrupt behavior, particularly in culturally diverse and socially stratified contexts like nigeria. by focusing primarily on formal institutions and incentive structures, the theory may neglect informal networks, patronage systems and socio-cultural norms that perpetuate corruption. moreover, it does not fully address underlying structural issues such as poverty, unemployment and systemic inequality, which can drive individuals to engage in corrupt acts as a survival strategy. despite these critiques, the theory remains a robust and pragmatic framework for understanding the institutional dynamics that impede the effectiveness of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies. it emphasises the need for comprehensive reforms that promote accountability, reduce political interference and strengthen institutional autonomy. more importantly, it underscores the necessity of redesigning incentive systems to reward ethical conduct and impose real penalties for wrongdoing. by shifting the focus from individual culpability to systemic dysfunction, the theory enables a more grounded and strategic approach to combating corruption and fostering sustainable national development. in essence, rose-ackerman’s political economy theory of corruption enhances this study by illuminating the deep-rooted institutional challenges that anti-graft agencies in nigeria face. it provides a compelling framework for linking anti-corruption efforts with broader national development objectives and for recommending reforms that are both structurally sound and contextually relevant. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" iv.materials and methods this study utilised secondary data to examine the challenges confronting anti-graft agencies in nigeria and the implications of these challenges for national development. the choice of secondary data is justified by the availability of extensive literature, official government documents and institutional reports that provide detailed insights into the structure, operations and limitations of nigeria’s anti-corruption bodies. data for the study were sourced from a broad spectrum of credible materials, including peer-reviewed academic journals, textbooks, legal statutes and policy documents. additional sources comprised reports from anti-graft institutions such as the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) and the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc), alongside publications by international organisations such as the world bank, transparency international and the united nations office on drugs and crime. these materials were supplemented by academic theses, media reports and critical analyses that offer nuanced perspectives on the performance, independence and institutional capacity of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies. the study applied thematic content analysis to identify, interpret and organise recurring patterns and ideas relevant to the research focus. although the research does not incorporate primary data collection through field surveys or interviews, the breadth and depth of the secondary sources used ensure the credibility and reliability of the findings. to mitigate potential limitations, such as reporting bias or inconsistencies, the study triangulated information across multiple authoritative sources, thereby strengthening the validity of the conclusions drawn. the methodological approach adopted in this study thus provides a solid foundation for exploring the institutional dynamics of anti-corruption efforts in nigeria and their broader implications for governance and development. v. results table i a snapshot of high-profile corruption allegations and prosecutions in nigeria s/n individuals involved period offences amount involved action of antigraft institutions and how the matter was resolved 1. godwin emefiele 2014-2023 alleged abuse of office, forex fraud, procurement fraud, illegal cash withdrawals over n1.2 billion (ongoing investigations into larger sums) arrested by dss, later charged by efcc; granted bail, case ongoing 2. diezani alisonmadueke 2010-2015 money laundering, embezzlement, awarding dubious contracts over $115 million + n23.3 billion efcc seized properties worth billions; extradition from uk still pending 3. abba kyari 2021 alleged involvement in internet fraud with hushpuppi $1.1 million suspended by police, arrested by ndlea on separate drug charges, case ongoing 4. abdulrashee d maina 2010-2020 pension fund fraud n195billion arrested, prosecuted, sentenced to 8 years imprisonment https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" 5. stella oduah 2011-2014 fraudulent contracts, money laundering n9.4 billion under efcc investigation, later arraigned in court in 2023 6. lamido sanusi 2013 whistleblowing on missing oil revenue n20billion suspended as cbn governor; no formal charges, allegations politically sensitive 7. farouk lawan 2012 collection of bribes during fuel subsidy probe $500,000 out of $3 million prosecuted and sentenced to 7 years imprisonment 8. ghaji rahila (national boundary commission staff) 2020 money laundering, fraudulent transactions prosecuted at federal high court, abuja by icpc 9. david umahi 2015 alleged diversion of election funds n400 million efcc confiscated property; case under investigation 10. godswill akpabio 2007-2015 alleged diversion of state funds n100 billion efcc investigations ongoing, no prosecution yet 11. lt gen azubuike ihejirika (retd.) 2016 arms procurement scandal $2.1 billion arrested by dss, released on bail; case still under investigation 12. orji uzor kalu 1999-2007 money laundering n3.2 billion convicted in 2019, sentenced to 12 years; conviction later overturned, retrial ongoing 13. adebayo alao-akala 2007-2011 corruption, contract fraud n11.5 billion prosecuted by efcc, case stalled before his death in 2022 14. joshua dariye 1999-2007 (convicted 2018) diversion of ecological funds n1.126 billion sentenced to 10 years imprisonment, later pardoned by fg in 2022 15. jolly nyame 1999-2007 misappropriation of state funds n1.64 billion sentenced to 14 years imprisonment, later pardoned in 2022 16. sambo dasuki 2015 arms deal scandal, diversion of military funds $2.1 billion detained without trial for years; later granted bail, prosecution ongoing 17. bukola saraki 2003-2011 false asset declaration, money laundering n3.5 billion (alleged) trial by cct, discharged and acquitted by supreme court in 2018 18. patience jonathan 2009-2015 money laundering, unjust enrichment over $20 million efcc froze accounts; legal battle ongoing over https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" fund ownership 19. nsimaekere 2016-2019 diversion of funds while serving as nddc md n47 billion arrested and investigated by efcc in 2022; case ongoing 20. senator bassey albert akpan 2010-2022 receiving vehicles as bribes while serving as akwa ibom finance commissioner n204 million (value of vehicles) prosecuted by efcc; convicted in 2022 and sentenced to 42 years imprisonment, later released on bail pending appeal 21. udom emmanuel 2015-2023 alleged diversion of public funds and irregular contracts (claims by opposition groups and petitions) billions (not clearly quantified) no formal charges by efcc; petitions reportedly submitted, but no prosecution initiated as of 2025 source: compiled by peter archibong essoh, udom sunday daniel, okoro sunday asangausung , (2025) the table 1 presents a snapshot of high-profile corruption allegations and prosecutions in nigeria, highlighting the pervasiveness of corrupt practices among public officials across various sectors and political eras. it reflects a systemic challenge that cuts through the judiciary, security, finance, oil and government administration. while billions of naira and dollars were allegedly misappropriated, laundered, or embezzled by the listed individuals, the outcomes of the cases underscore persistent institutional weaknesses and inconsistencies in nigeria’s anti-corruption efforts. some individuals, like abdul rasheed maina and senator bassey albert akpan, faced full prosecutions and convictions, suggesting a measure of institutional resolve. however, many others either remain under investigation with no clear resolution or have had their cases stalled, overturned, or dismissed, often under controversial circumstances. the frequent granting of bail, protracted trials and in some instances, political pardons, as seen in the cases of joshua dariye and jolly nyame, indicate how the enforcement of accountability is uneven and often subject to political influence. moreover, despite the involvement of multiple anti-graft agencies such as the efcc, icpc, dss and even foreign governments, as in the case of diezani alison-madueke, outcomes have frequently failed to match the gravity of the allegations. the absence of formal charges in some cases, despite public petitions and media coverage, further exposes gaps in the legal and political will to confront corruption comprehensively. overall, the table reflects a troubling pattern; while nigeria has structures in place to combat corruption, the effectiveness of these mechanisms is undermined by selective justice, procedural delays, institutional rivalry and a lack of transparency. these factors collectively weaken the credibility of anti-graft institutions and diminish public confidence in the government’s commitment to genuine accountability. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" table ii major challenges of anti-graft agencies in nigeria s/n challenges description government effort 1. political interference despite public declarations of support for anti-corruption, political leaders often interfere with investigations, especially when allies are involved. selective prosecution and a lack of autonomy for anti-graft agencies erode public trust. government claims to have given efcc and icpc independence, but enforcement remains selective. calls for legal safeguards for agency autonomy persist. 2. weak judicial system delays in trials, frequent adjournments and legal technicalities allow suspects to evade justice. high-profile cases sometimes take years without resolution, weakening the deterrent effect. establishment of special anticorruption courts in some states; training of judges on financial crimes. reforms still slow. 3. institutional limitations many agencies lack modern investigative tools, forensic capacity and data-sharing frameworks, which hampers effective tracking and prosecution of corrupt acts. some support through international partnerships (e.g., unodc, eu) and periodic training programmes. budget constraints limit scalability. 4. corruption within law enforcement some officials in police, customs and even anti-graft agencies themselves engage in corrupt practices, undermining the fight against corruption. periodic staff vetting, public complaints mechanisms and code of conduct enforcement—though not consistently applied. 5. inter-agency rivalry lack of coordination and unhealthy competition between efcc, icpc, dss, police and other agencies often leads to duplication, sabotage, or abandonment of cases. efforts to enhance collaboration through the inter-agency task team (iatt); however, turf wars still persist. 6. lack of public support apathy, fear of retaliation and lack of whistle-blower protection discourage citizens from reporting corruption. whistle-blower protection policy launched in 2016; however, enforcement and protection remain weak 7. insufficient funds budgetary constraints limit operations, investigations and prosecutions. agencies often lack resources for technology, training and logistics. government allocates funds yearly, but releases are often delayed or insufficient. external donor support occasionally supplements funding. 8. lack of political will inconsistent commitment by leadership to genuinely pursue anticorruption, especially when it implicates elites or political allies. anti-corruption rhetoric common in campaigns, but enforcement against top officials remains weak. some reforms under pressure from civil society and foreign partners. 9. absence of stringent implementation lenient sentencing, plea bargains and presidential pardons dilute the consequences of corruption. some review of sentencing practices under judiciary reforms, but executive interference (e.g., https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" ofanticorruption punitive measures presidential pardons) undermines consistency. 10. inadequate legal framework outdated or vague laws make prosecution difficult, especially with the evolution of cyber and financial crimes. some updates through laws like the proceeds of crime act (poca) 2022, but further legislative updates needed. 11. poor recordkeeping and data management lack of centralized data systems hinders tracking of financial flows and repeat offenders. government introduced integrated payroll and personnel information system (ippis) and bvn; digital case systems remain limited in reach. 12. security threats to investigators and witnesses anti-graft personnel and whistleblowers are often threatened or harmed, creating fear and compromising investigations. whistle-blower protection framework exists, but not legally entrenched; no robust witness protection agency currently functional. source: compiled by peter archibong essoh, udom sunday daniel, okoro sunday asangausung , (2025) the table provides a detailed overview of the major structural and operational challenges confronting antigraft agencies in nigeria, revealing how these barriers collectively hinder the country’s fight against corruption. it highlights the deeply embedded issues that compromise the efficiency, integrity and impact of institutions such as the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) and the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc). one of the most pressing concerns is political interference, where government officials, particularly those in power or with strong political connections, influence the direction and outcomes of investigations. this not only fosters selective prosecution but also severely undermines public confidence in the independence and credibility of anti-corruption institutions. although the government proclaims autonomy for these agencies, the lack of enforceable legal frameworks means such independence remains largely theoretical. judicial inefficiencies compound the problem. the courts are often plagued by delays, frequent adjournments and legal technicalities, which allow many high-profile suspects to either stall or entirely evade justice. while some efforts have been made to establish anti-corruption courts and train judges in handling financial crimes, progress remains slow and inconsistent. operationally, many anti-graft agencies face institutional weaknesses, including outdated investigative tools, insufficient forensic capabilities and limited data-sharing mechanisms. these limitations are further exacerbated by inadequate funding and logistical support, often leaving agencies reliant on foreign donors for technical and financial aid. corruption within law enforcement bodies themselves, including among those tasked with fighting corruption, adds another layer of complexity, making internal accountability both necessary and elusive. moreover, the lack of synergy between various security and enforcement agencies, such as efcc, icpc, dss and the policeleads to inter-agency rivalry. this often results in duplicated efforts, stalled cases, or https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" even active sabotage of each other’s work, despite attempts to foster coordination through platforms like the inter-agency task team (iatt). public apathy and fear further hamper efforts, as citizens are discouraged from reporting corrupt practices due to weak whistle-blower protections and occasional threats to their safety. although policies have been introduced to encourage whistle-blowing, their practical enforcement and legal backing remain inadequate. similarly, threats to investigators and a weak or non-existent witness protection system compromise case integrity and deter honest actors. the legal framework underpinning anti-corruption is also outdated in several respects. while new laws like the proceeds of crime act (2022) have been enacted, the legal system still lags behind the evolving dynamics of cyber and financial crimes, making prosecution difficult. finally, lenient sentencing, the use of plea bargains and controversial presidential pardons signal a lack of genuine political will to enforce anti-corruption measures with the required seriousness. even when officials are prosecuted, the punishment is often minimal or circumvented, reducing the deterrent effect and perpetuating a culture of impunity. altogether, the table underscores that without deep institutional reforms, legal modernisation and the political will to act consistently against corruption, nigeria’s anti-graft efforts will continue to fall short, regardless of rhetoric or isolated actions. table iii implications of the challenges of anti-graft agencies for national development in nigeria s/n implications resultant effect 1. increasing cost of governance corruption leads to inflated contracts, ghost workers and misuse of public funds, significantly increasing the cost of running government operations. resources meant for development are diverted to sustain wasteful and corrupt bureaucracies. 2. weakening investors’ confidence foreign and domestic investors are discouraged by opaque regulatory environments, lack of accountability and fear of bribery or extortion, leading to capital flight and stunted economic growth. 3. weak service delivery public services like education, health, water and electricity suffer due to diversion of funds, lack of accountability and mismanagement in implementation. this limits human capital development and quality of life. 4. culture of impunity when anti-graft efforts fail, corrupt officials operate without fear of punishment. this emboldens further misconduct across all levels of government and discourages ethical public service. 5. erosion of public trust in institutions the failure to hold corrupt elites accountable undermines citizens’ faith in the judiciary, law enforcement and political institutions, weakening democratic participation and social cohesion. 6. increased poverty and inequality funds embezzled by elites reduce the amount available for poverty reduction, job creation and social programs. this widens the gap between the rich and poor and deepens social unrest. 7. political instability and insecurity corruption in the security sector, electoral manipulation and exclusion from public resources fuel grievances, violence and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" insurgency, undermining national peace and unity. 8. undermining of the rule of law corruption compromises justice systems, where laws are applied selectively or not at all, allowing powerful individuals to act above the law and weakening legal institutions. 9. institutional decay public institutions become ineffective when promotions, procurement and decisions are based on bribery rather than merit, professionalism, or national interest. 10. failure to achieve developmental goals corruption diverts resources meant for infrastructure, health, education and other sustainable development goals (sdgs), making national and international development targets unattainable. source: compiled by peter archibong essoh, udom sunday daniel, okoro sunday asangausung , (2025) the table iii presents a detailed analysis of how the challenges facing anti-graft agencies in nigeria have far-reaching negative implications for national development. it shows that the inefficiency of these agencies contributes to a rise in the cost of governance, as corruption fuels waste and mismanagement. investor confidence is eroded due to an unpredictable and corrupt business environment, limiting economic growth. the diversion of public funds weakens essential service delivery, particularly in health, education, and infrastructure, stalling human development. a persistent culture of impunity and the failure to prosecute corrupt officials foster unethical governance, while public trust in institutions declines as justice systems appear compromised and selective. this erosion of trust undermines democratic engagement and social cohesion. moreover, widespread corruption deepens poverty and inequality, as public resources are siphoned away from social welfare programs. it also fuels political instability and insecurity, especially when corruption affects the security and electoral sectors.the rule of law is weakened as corrupt elites operate above legal constraints, and institutional integrity declines when decisions are based on patronage rather than merit. ultimately, these effects coalesce to derail the achievement of national and global development goals, rendering anti-corruption efforts not just a legal or ethical necessity, but a fundamental requirement for nigeria’s socio-economic transformation. v. discussion of findings the findings from the study paint a compelling picture of the depth, complexity and consequences of corruption in nigeria, particularly through the lens of high-profile corruption cases and the structural weaknesses of anti-graft institutions. table i reveals the extensive scope and scale of corruption, involving top-level government officials across multiple sectors; finance, oil, defence, legislature and public administration—over several administrations. despite the staggering sums involved, ranging from hundreds of millions to billions of naira and dollars, there is a notable disparity in outcomes, with only a few individuals being convicted and punished decisively, while many others have evaded justice through legal loopholes, stalled investigations, or outright political interference. this pattern highlights the unevenness of nigeria’s anti-corruption enforcement and exposes the systemic flaws within the judicial and prosecutorial processes. the granting of bail, delayed trials, presidential pardons and the lack of progress in high-profile cases point to a compromised justice system where the rule of law is inconsistently applied. for instance, while cases like those of abdulrasheed maina and senator bassey albert akpan resulted in convictions, others such as diezani alison-madueke and godwin https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" emefiele remain unresolved despite extensive media coverage and public interest, undermining the credibility of anti-graft efforts. further deepening the challenge is the institutional analysis provided in table ii, which identifies and elaborates on the internal and external constraints facing agencies like the efcc and icpc. political interference emerges as a particularly formidable obstacle, often shielding politically connected individuals from investigation or prosecution. the weak judicial system, marked by procedural delays and legal technicalities, further dilutes accountability. compounding these issues are operational deficiencies such as limited funding, outdated investigative infrastructure and inter-agency rivalry, all of which hinder coordinated and effective responses to corruption. the analysis also reveals that corruption within the law enforcement and judicial sectors, along with the absence of a robust whistle-blower and witness protection framework, creates an environment of fear and impunity. this not only obstructs investigations but also disincentivizes public participation in anticorruption efforts. furthermore, the inconsistent application of punitive measures, lenient sentencing and politicised pardons reinforce a perception that corruption is a low-risk, high-reward endeavour for the elite. the implications of these challenges, as outlined in table iii, are deeply concerning for nigeria’s socioeconomic and political development. the mismanagement and diversion of public resources inflate the cost of governance and erode service delivery in critical sectors like education, healthcare and infrastructure. this contributes to persistent poverty, inequality and weakened human capital. moreover, the entrenched culture of impunity undermines public trust in government institutions and the democratic process, discouraging civic engagement and fueling disillusionment. investor confidence is also negatively impacted, as the business environment is perceived as unpredictable and fraught with bureaucratic and regulatory corruption. this not only deters foreign direct investment but also stifles local enterprise development. the erosion of institutional integrity and rule of law fosters a climate of lawlessness and political instability, which can manifest in increased insecurity, violence and civil unrest. ultimately, the findings underscore that corruption, enabled by weak anti-graft mechanisms, poses a significant threat to nigeria’s national development and democratic sustainability. the persistence of these issues suggests that without a fundamental overhaul of institutional frameworks—ensuring autonomy, transparency, accountability and legal reform—anti-corruption initiatives will continue to be ineffective. the fight against corruption, therefore, must move beyond rhetoric and symbolic prosecutions to embrace systemic reforms backed by strong political will, legal modernisation and active citizen engagement. the findings of this study reflect and are strongly supported by existing scholarly literature, revealing the entrenched and systemic nature of corruption in nigeria and the critical weaknesses in the nation’s antigraft mechanisms. as shown in the discussion, corruption cuts across different sectors and levels of government, involving staggering sums of public funds with limited accountability. this aligns with the observations of ekweremadu (2021), who emphasises that despite the existence of anti-corruption bodies, persistent corruption thrives due to operational inefficiencies, legal loopholes and insufficient capacity, all of which contribute to the weak enforcement of anti-graft measures. the disparity in outcomes for high-profile cases, where only a few individuals are held accountable while others escape justice through legal and political machinations, underscores the lack of consistency in nigeria’s judicial process. this phenomenon is mirrored in the works of azeez and ajibowu-yekini (2018) and abu (2022), who note that legal frameworks, though extensive, often serve a symbolic function https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" rather than a substantive one due to poor implementation, political interference and procedural delays. these insights support the observation that anti-corruption initiatives often falter when confronted with influential individuals or political interests, reinforcing the public perception of a compromised justice system. the operational and institutional challenges confronting agencies such as the efcc and icpc, as identified in this study, further reinforce existing research. scholars like ewaet al. (2019) and umoru-oki (2019) have emphasised the lack of internal governance standards, inadequate accountability and transparency as critical factors undermining the effectiveness of anti-graft institutions. the challenges of poor funding, limited manpower, inter-agency rivalry and obsolete investigative tools also mirror these academic critiques, suggesting a systemic inertia that prevents these bodies from executing their mandates effectively. moreover, the politicisation of anti-corruption efforts; a recurring theme in the findingsis a major concern raised in both empirical and comparative studies. as observed by nnado and ugwu (2015), external societal pressures and internal weaknesses compound the problem, especially when public cooperation is minimal and public trust in anti-corruption agencies is low. this environment of distrust and impunity discourages civic engagement and makes whistle-blowing or witness testimony risky, thus stalling investigative and prosecutorial progress. the broader socio-economic consequences of unchecked corruption, as outlined in the findings, are consistent with the developmental perspectives in the literature. abomaye-nimenibo (2022) argues that corruption fosters leadership failure and bad governance, which in turn impede national development. these effects are visible in deteriorating public services, weak infrastructure and a diminished quality of life, particularly in critical sectors such as education and healthcare. similarly, the jigawa state ministry of justice (2023) highlights how the erosion of justice and rule of law deters investment and deepens insecurity—issues that are clearly articulated in the discussion section, which links corruption with investor apathy and political instability. in essence, the findings of this study are not isolated but rather embedded within a broader scholarly consensus that views corruption in nigeria as both a symptom and a cause of systemic governance failure. without significant reforms aimed at enhancing institutional autonomy, legal accountability and political neutrality, anti-corruption efforts will continue to be undermined. the literature supports the view that meaningful progress requires more than policy articulation; it demands structural transformation, consistent enforcement and genuine political will—factors that are critical to ensuring sustainable national development. vi. conclusion this paper examined the challenges confronting anti-corruption agencies in nigeria and the implications of these challenges for national development. the results revealed that anti-graft institutions in nigeria are hampered by numerous structural and operational challenges. these include political interference, inadequate funding, obsolete investigative infrastructure, judicial inefficiencies and inter-agency rivalry. these constraints significantly weaken the agencies’ ability to investigate and prosecute high-profile corruption cases effectively, thereby fostering a culture of impunity and eroding public confidence in the justice system. further results showed that the inefficiency of anti-graft institutions directly contributes to the diversion of public resources, poor service delivery and weakened governance. this, in turn, perpetuates poverty, inequality and underdevelopment, particularly in critical sectors such as education, healthcare and infrastructure. moreover, the prevalence of corruption damages investor confidence and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" undermines democratic institutions, ultimately threatening nigeria’s socio-economic stability and national development. this study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing an understanding of the entrenched structural and institutional barriers that hinder the effectiveness of nigeria’s anti-graft agencies. by linking these challenges to broader governance and development outcomes, the research underscores the complex interplay between weak anti-corruption enforcement and the persistence of poverty, inequality and underdevelopment. it expands the discourse beyond mere institutional critique to highlight how political interference, operational inefficiencies and judicial shortcomings collectively sustain a climate of impunity and systemic failure. the study also sheds light on the socio-economic consequences of corruption, offering empirical insight into how compromised accountability mechanisms erode public trust, discourage investment and destabilise democratic governance. given the scope and implications of these findings, further research is recommended to explore comparative anti-corruption models in other developing democracies, with a focus on legal and institutional reforms that have yielded measurable outcomes. future studies could also examine the role of civil society, media and technology in promoting transparency and accountability, as well as strategies for strengthening public engagement in the fight against corruption. such inquiries will be critical to informing policy interventions and institutional reforms aimed at revitalising nigeria’s anti-graft efforts and advancing sustainable national development. vii. recommendations based on the findings, this paper recommends, first, a comprehensive institutional reform that guarantees the autonomy of anti-graft agencies such as the efcc and icpc. this should include legal safeguards against political interference, improved budgetary allocations and investment in modern investigative tools and training to enhance operational capacity. strengthening the independence and capabilities of these institutions is essential to ensure that investigations and prosecutions are impartial, timely and effective. second, there is a critical need to overhaul the judicial process to reduce procedural delays and ensure swift adjudication of corruption cases. this includes establishing special anti-corruption courts, enforcing strict timelines for case resolution and enhancing the integrity and accountability of judicial officers. these steps will help restore public confidence in the justice system and reinforce the rule of law as a cornerstone of nigeria’s anti-corruption and development agenda. references [1] abomaye-nimenibo, w. (2022). the effect of corruption on economic development in nigeria. global journal of human-social science: f political science, 22(6), 90-102. [2] abu, s. i. (2022). an appraisal of the impact of anti-corruption agencies on the development of the nigerian economy. zamfara journal of politics and development, 3(1), 1 -20. [3] adagbabirim, m. m.,&okolie, u. c. (2016). corruption and national development: an examination of nigeria’s fourth republic. journal of strategic & development studies, 1(1), 107116. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" [4] adamaagashi, i., onoh, u. c., bello, k. o., erezi, e., & brown-ofoeme, m. n. (2023). the fight against corruption in nigeria: a critical analysis. journal of public administration and social welfare research, 8(1), 61-80. [5] awopeju, a. (2022). an empirical study of the role of specialised agencies in the policies and practices of anti-corruption in nigeria. aksu journal of administration and corporate governance (aksujacog), 2(3), 102-113. [6] ayozie, k. n. (2025 january 6). anti-graft agencies: tools for curbing public financial misconduct and promoting ethical governance. business day. https://businessday.ng/opinion/article/anti-graftagencies-tools-for-curbing-public-financial-misconduct-and-promoting-ethical-governance/ [7] azeez, a.,&ajibowu-yekini, m. s. (2018). anti-corruption agencies and eradication of corruption in nigeria. international journal of research and development, 7(10), 51-58. [8] babasola, o. a. (2020). anti-corruption in nigeria, 1914 to 1960. in: b. owasanoye, s. akinrinade& e. o. okebukola (eds.). icpc and the war against corruption in nigeria: reflections for a new vision (pp. 1-18). anti-corruption academy of nigeria kilometre 46, abuja-keffi expressway keffi, nasarawa state nigeria. https://icpc.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/icpcand-the-war-against-corruption-in-nigeria_reflections-for-a-new-vision.pdf [9] enweremadu, d. u. (2021). anti-corruption agencies and the challenge of capacity. in d. u. enweremadu (ed.). anti-corruption campaign in nigeria (1999-2007): the politics of a failed reform (pp.77-111). ifra-nigeria, zaria. [10] ewa, u. e., adesola, a. w., &kankpang, k. (2019). evaluating anti-graft agencies governance practices in nigeria. international business research, 12(12), 50-60. [11] first pension custodian (2022). anti-bribery & corruption policy. https://firstpensioncustodian.com/usefuls/2023/03/anti-bribery-and-corruption-policy-2022website-upload.pdf [12] idike, a. n. (2014). local government and sustainable national development in nigeria. european scientific journal, 10(25), 161-170. [13] igwe, i. (2025, february 11). nigeria ranked 140th out of 180 on 2024 corruption index. channels. https://www.channelstv.com/2025/02/11/nigeria-ranked-140th-out-of-180-on-2024-corruptionindex/ [14] ikpeze, n. (2013). fusion of anti–corruption agencies in nigeria: a critical appraisal. afe babalola university: journal of sustainable development law and policy, 1(1), 148-167. [15] india free notes (2014). concept of national development. https://indiafreenotes.com/concept-ofnational-development/ [16] jamiu, r. (2021). establishment of special anti-corruption agencies as the panacea to corruption in nigeria: myth or reality. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4227221 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4227221 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 https://businessday.ng/opinion/article/anti-graft-agencies-tools-for-curbing-public-financial-misconduct-and-promoting-ethical-governance/ https://businessday.ng/opinion/article/anti-graft-agencies-tools-for-curbing-public-financial-misconduct-and-promoting-ethical-governance/ https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4227221 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) volume 08 || issue 05 || may, 2025 || peter archibong essoh1, udom sunday daniel2, okoro sunday asangausung 3, 2025 “an assessment of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies: challenges and implications for national development" [17] jigawa state ministry of justice (2023). the impacts of corruption on administration of justice in nigeria. https://moj.jg.gov.ng/the-impacts-of-corruption-on-administration-of-justice-in-nigeriabeing-apaper-presented-by-dr-musa-adamu-aliyu-honourable-attorney-general-commissioner-for-justicejigawa-state-at-the/ [18] khosla, a. (2019).national development. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/nationaldevelopment-132499802/132499802 [19] laws of the federation of nigeria (2000). corrupt practices and other related offences act, 2000. https://www.icpc.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/09/corrupt-practices-act2010.pdf [20] nnado, i. c.,&ugwu, c. c. (2015). effectiveness of the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) in enhancing accountability in the nigerian public sector. developing country studies, 5(8), 145-152. [21] nnorom, k. (2019). institutionalized corruption and national development crisis in nigeria. rais conference proceedings, november 6-7. research association for interdisciplinary studies, 144149. https://rais.education/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/018kn.pdf [22] nwosu, c. (2023). exploring the effectiveness of anti-corruption laws in nigeria: a comparative study of legal frameworks and practical outcomes. american journal of law and political science, 2(1), 67-75. [23] okeke, r. c.,&idike, a. n. (2016). ethnicity, political leadership and national development in nigeria: the contradictions and the local government nexus. world scientific news, 56, 67-81. [24] olujobi, o. j. (2023). nigeria’s upstream petroleum industry anti-corruption legal framework: the necessity for overhauling and enrichment. journal of money laundering control, 26(7),1-27. [25] rose-ackerman, s. (1978). corruption: a study in political economy. academic press. sanni, k. (2021, december 6). nigeria’s anti-graft agencies recover n900 billion looted assets in 20 years – cdd. premium times. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/499315nigerias-anti-graft-agencies-recover-n900-billion-looted-assets-in-20-years-cdd.html?tztc=1 [26] umoru-oki, u. (2019). governance, corruption and anti-graft agencies in africa: a comparative study of nigeria and uganda. nigerian academy of management journal, 14(1), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15737828 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 05 | may 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=olusola%20joshua%20olujobi https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/499315-nigerias-anti-graft-agencies-recover-n900-billion-looted-assets-in-20-years-cdd.html?tztc=1 https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/499315-nigerias-anti-graft-agencies-recover-n900-billion-looted-assets-in-20-years-cdd.html?tztc=1 challenges of nigeria’s anti-corruption agencies and implications for national development in summary, key challenges identified include, legal and constitutional loopholes, insufficient funding and personnel, pliticisation of anti-corruption efforts, weak judicial system and enforcement mechanisms, public apathy and lack of societal cooperation, poor governance within anti-corruption institutions, absence of political will and sector-specific regulatory failures. the persistent weaknesses in nigeria’s anti-corruption framework significantly impair national development. corruption compromises economic growth, political stability, social equity and institutional integrity. until structural reforms are implemented to enhance the independence, capacity and credibility of anti-corruption agencies, their contribution to national development will remain marginal. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" title: "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" dr. a. sree lakshmi m.com, ph.d, assistant professor in commerce, andhra loyola college (autonomous), vijayawada. abstract: in the digital era, where information is abundant and attention spans are fleeting, content marketing has emerged as a pivotal strategy for businesses seeking to engage and connect with their target audiences. this paper provides a comprehensive examination of the current landscape of content marketing, aiming to elucidate the key principles, effective practices, and emerging trends that shape successful content strategies. keywords content marketing, audience engagement, emerging trends introduction in the contemporary digital landscape, where information is abundant and consumer attention spans are fleeting, content marketing has emerged as a strategic cornerstone for businesses seeking to connect with their target audiences in meaningful ways. unlike traditional advertising, content marketing revolves around the creation and distribution of valuable, relevant, and consistent content to attract and engage a clearly defined audience. this approach goes beyond mere promotion; it aims to provide real value to consumers, fostering trust and loyalty over time. objectives for the paper: 1. to analyze key principles and effective practices in content marketing 2. to identify and examine emerging trends in content marketing ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" research methodology in this research, secondary data will be extensively used to achieve the objectives of analyzing key principles and effective practices in content marketing, as well as identifying emerging trends. secondary data will be gathered from various reliable sources such as academic journals, industry reports, market analysis, and case studies. review of literature objective 1: to identify and analyze the key principles and effective practices in content marketing. content marketing revolves around creating and sharing valuable, relevant, and consistent content to engage a target audience and drive profitable customer actions (pulizzi, 2014). this approach emphasizes storytelling, which builds emotional connections with audiences, fostering trust and long-term loyalty. pulizzi highlights that successful content marketing focuses on delivering value rather than direct promotion, distinguishing it from traditional advertising. cuomo et al. (2021) proposed a conceptual framework for assessing the effectiveness of content marketing. they identified critical determinants such as audience segmentation, content relevance, and multi-channel distribution as essential for achieving marketing goals. the study also highlighted the importance of analytics in measuring engagement and refining strategies. gupta and bansal (2022) examined emerging trends in digital marketing, emphasizing personalization and interactive content as cornerstones of effective content strategies. their findings underscore the importance of adapting content to meet the preferences and behaviors of specific consumer segments. rose (2021) explored the evolution of content marketing strategies, advocating for the integration of seo, storytelling, and user-generated content (ugc). his research emphasizes the role of a robust content strategy in driving engagement, improving brand credibility, and achieving long-term business objectives. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" objective 2: to explore emerging trends in content marketing and their implications for businesses. emerging trends in content marketing reflect the rapid evolution of consumer preferences and technological advancements. hermayanto (2023) noted that businesses are increasingly leveraging data-driven insights to develop personalized content that resonates with their audiences. his research also identified short-form videos and ephemeral content as powerful tools for capturing the attention of younger demographics. gupta and bansal (2022) discussed the growing influence of artificial intelligence (ai) in content creation, highlighting its ability to automate processes and generate tailored content at scale. they also noted the rise of interactive formats such as polls, quizzes, and augmented reality (ar), which foster deeper engagement. chaffey and smith (2022) emphasized the role of integrated digital marketing strategies, where content marketing is seamlessly aligned with social media, email campaigns, and search engine optimization (seo). their work underscores the importance of a cohesive approach in maximizing the reach and impact of content. johnson (2020) analyzed the use of niche communities and micro-influencers to amplify content visibility and engagement. the study found that businesses leveraging these strategies could build stronger connections with their audiences by targeting specific interests and values. discussion aiming to elucidate the key principles of content marketing 1. audience-centric approach:  understanding the audience: content marketing begins with a deep understanding of the target audience. marketers should know their demographics, preferences, behaviors, and pain points.  creating persona-centric content: develop content that resonates with specific audience segments. create buyer personas to guide content creation tailored to the needs and interests of different audience groups. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" 2. valuable and relevant content:  quality over quantity: focus on producing high-quality content that adds value to the audience. content should be informative, entertaining, or solve a problem for the consumer.  relevance to the buyer's journey: align content with the different stages of the buyer's journey. this includes awareness, consideration, and decision-making phases. 3. consistency across channels:  brand consistency: maintain a consistent brand voice and messaging across all channels. this consistency helps in building brand recognition and trust.  multi-platform strategy: tailor content for different platforms while ensuring a unified brand message. consistency does not mean identical content but rather a coherent brand narrative. 4. strategic distribution:  targeted distribution: identify the most effective channels for reaching the target audience. this may include social media, email, blogs, or other platforms where the audience is active.  optimizing for seo: incorporate search engine optimization (seo) strategies to enhance content visibility. use relevant keywords, metadata, and backlinking to improve search rankings. 5. storytelling and engagement:  narrative building: craft compelling narratives that resonate emotionally with the audience. storytelling creates a connection and makes the content more memorable.  interactive elements: incorporate interactive elements to boost engagement. this can include polls, quizzes, and other formats that encourage audience participation. 6. data-informed decision making:  analytics and insights: utilize data analytics to measure the performance of content. track metrics such as engagement, conversion rates, and audience demographics to refine content strategies.  iterative optimization: continuously optimize content based on insights gained from analytics. a data-driven approach ensures that content remains effective and relevant. 7. authenticity and transparency: ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends"  building trust: authenticity is key to building trust with the audience. be transparent about brand values, product information, and any potential shortcomings.  user-generated content: encourage and showcase user-generated content to highlight authentic experiences and testimonials. 8. adaptability and innovation:  adapting to trends: stay informed about industry trends and be ready to adapt content strategies accordingly. embrace new technologies and formats that resonate with the evolving preferences of the audience.  experimentation: experiment with different content formats and distribution channels. innovation and a willingness to try new approaches can lead to breakthroughs. effective practices: 1. audience research and persona development:  practice: thoroughly understanding your target audience through market research and creating detailed buyer personas.  why: tailoring content to specific audience segments ensures relevance and resonance, increasing the likelihood of engagement. 2. quality content creation:  practice: producing high-quality, valuable, and relevant content across various formats (blog posts, videos, infographics, etc.).  why: quality content establishes credibility, attracts and retains the audience, and contributes to improved search engine rankings. 3. consistent branding:  practice: maintaining a consistent brand voice, messaging, and visual identity across all content and platforms.  why: consistency builds brand recognition and trust, making it easier for audiences to connect with and remember the brand. 4. content distribution strategy:  practice: developing a strategic plan for content distribution across relevant channels (social media, email, website, etc.). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends"  why: effective distribution ensures that content reaches the intended audience and maximizes visibility. 5. seo optimization:  practice: incorporating seo best practices, including keyword research, optimized meta tags, and high-quality backlinks.  why: seo increases the discoverability of content in search engines, driving organic traffic to the website. 6. engagement and interactivity:  practice: encouraging audience interaction through comments, shares, polls, quizzes, and other interactive elements.  why: engagement fosters a sense of community, increases time spent on content, and boosts social proof. 7. analytics and data utilization:  practice: regularly analyzing content performance using analytics tools and adjusting strategies based on insights.  why: data-driven decisions help optimize content for better results and a deeper understanding of audience behavior. 8. storytelling:  practice: incorporating storytelling elements to create a narrative that resonates emotionally with the audience.  why: storytelling makes content more memorable and helps establish a stronger connection with the audience. emerging trends in content marketing 1. video content dominance:  live streaming: the popularity of live video content on platforms like instagram, facebook, and youtube was on the rise. businesses were leveraging live streaming for q&a sessions, product launches, and behind-the-scenes glimpses. 2. interactive content: ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends"  quizzes, polls, and surveys: marketers were increasingly using interactive content to boost engagement. interactive elements, such as quizzes, polls, and surveys, not only engage audiences but also provide valuable data and insights. 3. user-generated content (ugc):  influencer collaborations: brands were actively collaborating with influencers to create authentic and relatable content. user-generated content, especially content created by customers, was being harnessed for building trust and credibility. 4. personalization and ai:  ai-driven personalization: artificial intelligence was being used to analyze user behavior and preferences to deliver personalized content. this includes personalized product recommendations, content suggestions, and tailored user experiences. 5. voice search optimization:  optimizing for voice assistants: with the increasing use of voice-activated devices, businesses were adapting their content for voice search. this involved using more natural language and long-tail keywords. 6. ephemeral content:  stories on social media: short-lived, ephemeral content on platforms like instagram and snapchat was gaining popularity. brands were utilizing stories for time-sensitive promotions, updates, and a more casual form of engagement. 7. podcasting:  rise of branded podcasts: podcasting was becoming a powerful medium for content marketing. brands were launching their podcasts to share industry insights, interview experts, and connect with audiences through audio storytelling. 8. content for niche platforms:  emergence of new platforms: marketers were exploring and creating content for emerging platforms that cater to specific niches. this could include platforms focused on particular interests, industries, or demographics. 9. sustainability and social responsibility:  green marketing: there was a growing emphasis on sustainability and corporate social responsibility in content marketing. brands were incorporating environmentally conscious practices into their messaging to resonate with socially conscious consumers. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" 10. long-form and in-depth content:  comprehensive guides and pillar content: while shorter-form content is essential, there was a trend toward creating more in-depth and comprehensive content pieces, such as long-form articles and pillar pages, to establish authority and provide value. 11. augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr):  immersive experiences: brands were experimenting with ar and vr to create immersive and interactive content experiences. this trend was particularly notable in industries like retail, where ar was used for virtual try-ons. 12. social commerce integration:  direct shopping from social platforms: social media platforms were increasingly integrating e-commerce features, allowing users to shop directly within the platform. content marketing strategies were adapting to this trend by creating content that seamlessly integrates with social commerce. findings 1. segmenting the target audience and personalizing content increases engagement and brand loyalty. 2. video content and interactive formats like quizzes and polls boost audience participation. 3. artificial intelligence enables personalized content delivery, improving user experience and conversion. 4. user-generated content and influencer collaborations enhance authenticity and trust. 5. augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr) are reshaping content experiences, particularly in retail. conclusion this study reveals that effective content marketing is a dynamic and evolving practice. brands must be adaptable, embracing new technologies and content formats while maintaining a strong focus on their target audience's needs. by creating valuable, relevant, and engaging content, optimizing distribution strategies, and leveraging data insights, businesses can successfully connect with their audiences and achieve long-term success in the digital era. emerging trends, such as ai, voice search, and immersive experiences, will ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) a.sree lakshmi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 12 || december, 2024 || "strategic content marketing: a comprehensive analysis of effective practices and emerging trends" continue to shape the future of content marketing, requiring businesses to stay agile and innovative in their approach. references 1. chaffey, d., & smith, p. r. (2022). digital marketing excellence: planning, optimizing and integrating online marketing (6th ed.). routledge. 2. cuomo, m. t., guido, g., mangia, g., & palumbo, r. (2021). determinants of content marketing effectiveness: conceptual framework and managerial implications. journal of business research, 130, 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.03.002 3. gupta, s. k., & bansal, r. k. (2022). digital marketing – emerging trends & best practices. international journal of research and analytical reviews, 9(2), 142–157. retrieved from https://ijrpr.com/uploads/v4issue10/ijrpr18105.pdf 4. hermayanto, r. (2023). effective marketing strategies in business: trends and best practices in the digital age. jurnal administrare: jurnal pemikiran ilmiah dan pendidikan administrasi perkantoran, 10(1), 45–60. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377442450 5. johnson, e. (2020). content marketing: strategies for modern success. journal of marketing strategies, 12(4), 227–239. retrieved from https://www.longdom.org/open-access/content-marketing-strategies-for-modernsuccess-1099731.html 6. pulizzi, j. (2014). epic content marketing: how to tell a different story, break through the clutter, and win more customers by marketing less. mcgraw-hill education. 7. rose, r. (2021). content marketing & content strategy: identification of research trends, best practices, and directions for future research. journal of digital & social media marketing, 9(3), 185–195. retrieved from ijo journals volume 07 | issue 12 | december 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377442450 objectives for the paper: research methodology review of literature objective 1: to identify and analyze the key principles and effective practices in content marketing. objective 2: to explore emerging trends in content marketing and their implications for businesses. ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea jackline njeri murimi, chuo kikuu cha tom mboya na solomon muli, chuo kikuu cha mount kenya ikisiri suala la imani katika mungu ni nyeti na linatiliwa maanani na binadamu katika tamaduni mbalimbali kote duniani kama njia mojawapo ya kujaribu kutafuta majibu ya changamoto anazokubana nazo kila uchao. katika jamii nyingi za kiafrika,dini ni mfumo wa maisha (mbithi 2011 )ambapo kila mwana jamii alihitajika kushiriki. hata hivyo, suala hili la kidini linaonekana kuwatamausha vijana wengi na kufifisha imani yao katika dini. hivyo ,utafiti huu ulinuia kuchanganua baadhi ya athari za udhanaishi wa dini kwa vijana kwa kurejelea riwaya ya paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea zilizoandikwa na john habwe na ken walibora mtawalia kwa kuchunguza jinsi john habwe na ken walibora wanavyoangazia udhanaishi wa kidini katika jamii . katika kulizamia suala hili makala hii iliongozwa na nadharia ya udhanaishi iliyoasisiwa na mwanathiolojia kutoka denmaki(1813-1855),fredrick nietzsche,martin heidegger,gabriel marcel na karl jaspers waliotokea karne ya 20 na jean paul satre mfaransa aliyetokea baada ya vita vya pili vya dunia. mihimili yake ilisaidia kufikia malengo ya yetu. mihimili mikuu ya nadharia ya udhanaishi ni pamoja na;kutilia mkazo matatizo halisi yanayomsibu mwanadamu na kuwa na imani ya kijozi juu ya imani ya kuishi, inapalilia kutokuwepo kwa mungu na uumbaji wake wa ulimwengu,inatilia mkazo kuwa juhudi za mtu kujisaka au kujaribu kupambana na maisha huishia katika mauti, maudhui yake ni kama vile uhuru wa mtu binafsi kuweza kufikiri halafu kutoa jawabu lake. nadharia husimulia taabu na kuchoka na hali ambazo husumbua yanayotatiza mwana wa adamu, nadharia hii inajadili mkengeuko,nadharia hii inachora taswira ya mateso anayopitia mwanadamu duniani, nadharia hii inatilia mkazo kuwa maisha yamejawa na utupu na kihoro hasa kuhusu siku za kesho.maisha yamejawa na ubwege na huhakikisha binadamu kuwa mwisho wa maisha ni kifo.nadharia hii ilifaa utafiti kwani ilitumika kueleza jinsi baadhi ya vijana waumini wavavyoyaona maisha jambo ambalo linawafanya watamaushwe na dini kila uchao. nadharia hii ilitumika kupambanua ukweli wa je ni lipi ambalo baadhi ya vijana katika jamii wamejua hivi karibuni ambalo mababu zao hawakufahamu hapo awali?utafiti ulifanyika maktabani kuliko na vitabu, majarida,matini na magazeti na wa mtandaoni ambapo data ilipatikana kutokana na tasnifu zilizoandikwa kuhusu mkengeuko wa imani za kidini.sampuli ya kimaksudi ilitumika katika kuteua riwaya ya paradisona kidagaa kimemwozea. mbinu anuwai za kimaelezo zilitumika katika kuchambua data na kuiwasilisha kwa lugha ya nadhari kuambatana na lengo la utafiti. maarifa yaliyopatikana katika utafiti huu yatakuwa na mchango mkubwa katika maarifa yaliyopo kuhusu vijana na masuala ya dini katika jamii. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea utangulizi kulingana na cames (1984), udhanaishi ni falsafa inayoshughulikia maswali kuhusu maisha ya mwanadamu. kwa jumla, ni mtazamo unaokagua kwa mapana mwanya alio nao mwanadamu kwenye ulimwengu anamoishi. vile vile, ni falsafa inayoelezea mahusiano yaliyomo kati ya mwanadamu na mungu na ikiwa mwanadamu huyu anapaswa kuamini kuwepo kwa mungu au la. taabu na matatizo anazokutana nazo mwanadamu zinamfanya kuwa na maswali chungu nzima kuhusu maisha haswa juu ya maswala ya uwepo wa maadili na kiroho. kwa mujibu wa mark sanchez (2021), dini ni mfumo wa imani, mila na alama zilizoanzishwa karibu na wazo la uungu au kutoka takatifu. dini ni mafundisho yaliyoundwa na seti ya kanuni, imani na mazoea anazoenzi binadamu anapokosa suluhu mwafaka kuhusu hali nyeti anazokutana nazo maishani. baada ya zama za giza, mwanadamu alianza kujisatiti kutafuta suluhu la maisha kwa nyanja tofauti ikiwepo dini. dini ni neno linalopatikana uarabuni ‘diin’ linalomaanisha ‘imani ya umoja wa mweyenzi mungu’ desturi,tabia au mazoea. kwa jumla neno hili husisitiza maana ya mwanadamu kuitambua nguvu kubwa kumliko na ambayo inautawala ulimwengu mzima na hasa mungu au miungu ya mtu binafsi kama mwongozo wa kiroho, kiimani na kiibada. dini ndio mafundisho ambayo huunganisha sana mwanadamu na mungu au miungu, yaani ni hatua na athari za kuunganisha tena mungu na wanadamu. neno dini linaweza kutumika kiishara kuashiria kama shughuli au wajibu unafanywa kila wakati na kwa ukali.mifano ya dini duniani ni ile ya ukristo iliyo na waumini bilioni 2.1, ile ya uisilamu yenye waumini bilioni 1.9 na ile ya ubudha iliyo na waumini bilioni 1.6. kulingana na vitabu vya kihistoria vya dini, dini zilizoimarika zilizionekana kwa mara ya kwanza baada ya wa kazi, ukuzaji wa kilimo ambapo wakati mwingi ulitumiwa kutazama maumbile. dini za neolithic ziliundwa karibu na vitu vitatu; hekalu, kuhani na dhabihu(matoleo) ambayo pia ni kielelezo cha utambuzi wa takatifu na unajisi. kazi ya dini ni kuimarisha mfumo wa maadili yanayohusu mshikamano wa kikundi cha jamii kulingana na mradi wa kawaida na kuunda kiwango fulani cha kuridhika kiroho kupitia imani kushida kuteseka na kufikia furaha.dini zote zina misingi ya kihistoria zilizoitwa hadithi za uwongo zikieleweka kama hadithi zinazoelezea asili ya maisha, kuhalalisha hali yake na makadirio yake ya baadaye. dini zote zinaungwa mkono na mikondo tofauti ya mawazo ambayo hujaribu kueleza sisi ni kina nani na kwa nini tumekuja ulimwenguni. katika tamaduni zilizo na maandishi, dini zinategemea maandishi ya asili takatifu ambayo huleta wafuasi wao karibu na jamii moja ya kiroho.kwa mujibu wa vitabu vya kihistoria, dini za kigeni zilisambazwa maeneo mengi ya dunia na wazungu kutoka bara la ulaya na waarabu kutoka mashariki ya mbali kabla na baada ya zama za giza.. yaliyoandikwa kuhusu mada makoyo (2014),katika tasnifu yake anajadili jinsi elimu ya kenya inavyotamausha wasomi kwa kuegemea kwenye dini ya kikristo ambayo inaamini msomi kuwa na imani ya kila kitu bila ya kuuliza swali lolote. kulingana na makoyo ,kuamini huku kunawafanya watu washindwe kujitegemea kwa sababu wanahofia kufanya maamuzi muhimu maishani mwao kwa hofu ya kupata ghadhabu kutoka kwa mungu. hali hii inamfanya mwanadamu kujiona kama kiumbe kisicho na akili ya kufanya maamuzi yoyote na hivyo kumkatisha tamaa zaidi. kazi hii ya makoyo ni muhimu kwa mtafiti kwani inarejelea jinsi elimu ya taifa la kenya inavyowakatisha ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea wasomi tamaa. tofauti ya kazi hii na ya mtafiti ni kuwa kazi yake iliepuka utamaushi unaosababishwa na elimu na kujikita kwa sababu za kidini zinazotamausha vijana, athari za utamaushi huu na njia zinazoweza kuangaziwa kuleta suluhu mwafaka za utamaushi huu miongoni mwa vijana. nyamemba,r( 2016 ) anasema kuwa , vijana wanapokosa kupata matarajio waliyokuwa nayo kwa nyanja mbalimbali kama vile elimu na ajira ,wengi wao hutamauka na kuamua kujitosa kwenye dawa za kulevya za kila aina zikiwemo bangi,ugoro na singara. hali hii imewafanya wengi wao kukosa faida katika jamii. kazi hii ya nyamemba inafafanua kuwa vijana wengi hukatishwa tamaa na ukosefu wa masuala ya kiuchumi kama vile elimu na ajira. masuala yaliyoko kwenye kazi hii yalifaa mtafiti kwani yamejikita kwenye udhanaishi kama yake tu ila ni tofauti na utafiti wake ambao uliepuka masuala ya uchumi na badala yake kuegemea tamaa inayokatishwa na masuala ya imani za kidini miongoni mwa vijana huku sababu,athari na mapendekezo mwafaka ya hali hii zikiangaziwa. matundura(2019)huku akimnukuu mwalimu wake wa chuo kikuu bw.crispine isaboke,anasema kuwa pindi mtu anapozaliwa,moyo wake huwa kana kwamba umetiwa majira mithili ya saa na hajui hatima yake ila inajulikana na mungu. anadai kuwa chochote anachoamua mwanadamu kilipangwa pindi tu alipozaliwa na kuwa maamuzi yake yote hudhibitiwa na jaala jambo ambalo linatamausha kiumbe huyu zaidi. kazi hii inaangazia mwanadamu ambaye ametamaushwa na hali ya kufahamu kuwa maisha yake yote. hudhibitiwa na jaala na yashaapangwa tangu mwanzoni na kuwa hana uwezo wa kubadili chochote maishani kwani lililopangwa kwake ndilo humkuta maishani. utafiti wa mtafiti uliangazia sababu za masuala ya kidini zinavyotamausha vijana, athari zake kwa vijana hawa pamoja na mapendekezo ya kushughulikia utamaushi huu ambapo masuala mengi husababishwa na binadamu mbali sio jaala. wasike, k (2020) huku akinukuu riwaya ya ua la faraja katika tawasifu yake , mhusika 0molo alitamaushwa na maisha kiasi cha kuishi kwa muda mrefu bila kuoa. omolo aliishi kwa kujiuliza maswali mengi kuhusu maisha,” alishangaa kwa nini hata yule mwenye maisha ya shida anapoungua na kukaribia kifo ili hafurahi kuisha kwa shida zake akifa bali huhangaika kujitibu ili apone aendelee na shida zake (uk23) vile vile mhusika queen haoni faida ya kuishi na hakuna haja kwa kutia bidii maishani kisha afe. hili linakazwa na hali yake kuwa alikuwa na ugonjwa wa ukimwi. mtafiti wa kazi hii amezingatia utamaushi wa maisha kwa jumla unaowafanya wahusika wengine kukosa tamaa ya kufanya lolote maishani kwani mwishoni mna kifo. kazi yenyewe itafaa mtafiti kwani ina misingi ya mathara yanayosababishwa na utamaushi. kazi ya mtafiti ilifafanua mathara haya kwa upana kwenye kipengele cha utamaushi wa kidini huku yakiegemezwa kwa sababu zake na kisha kuangazia mapendekezo ya kukabiliana na hali hii tata. abdallah,m.(2021) anasema kuwa baada ya vita vya pili vya dunia,maisha yalionekana kutokuwa na maana kwa jinsi vita hivyo vilivyoangamiza mamilioni ya watu. aidha maisha yalikuwa magumu kwa kuwa uchumi uliporomoka. hali hii ya taabu ya kisaikolojia ,ilifanya watu wengi na hasa kutoka magharibi wadai kuwa mungu amekufa kwa sababu kama angekuwa hai asingewaruhusu kuteseka na kuacha wengi waangamie kama ilivyotokea. kazi ya abdallah inaangazia utamaushi uliosababishwa na vita ambao uliathiri watu wa vitengo tofauti barani ulaya.kazi hii itafaa mtafiti sana kwani inajadili kwa mapana suala la utamaushi. tofauti na kazi ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea yake ni kuwa upande wake aliangazia utamaushi unaosababishwa na imani za kidini kwa vijana pekee katika jamii badala ya kuangazia wanaumri wote kwa jumla,sababu za hali hii kutokea,athari zake na kisha mapendekezo mwafaka ya kukabiliana na hali yenyewe. adria fuluge (2022) huku akiangazia riwaya ya rosa mistika katika jarida lake ,anajadili jinsi wahusika mbalimbali wanavyotamaushwa na maisha na kukosa suluhu kwa vitengo vyote ikiwemo dini hadi kufikia maamuzi ya kujiua. ingawa kwa mkondo na mchakato mrefu, rosa anapitia hali nzito ya maisha akitafuta maana ya maisha na anapoona kuwa hakuna suluhu atakalopata anatamauka na kuamua kujitoa uhai. rosa anafuraia kifo chake kwa sababu kwake huo ndio uhuru aliokuwa anautafuta kama suluhisho la taabu zake.(uk 161). adria amejikita kwenye utamaushi wa wahusika wa umri tofauti na hasa wa jinsia ya kike. kwa upande wa mtafiti alinuia kushughulikia utamaushi wa kidini miongoni mwa wahusika vijana wa jinsia zote huku akizamia kinachosababisha utamaushi huu, athari zake kwa vijana hawa pamoja na njia mwafaka zinazoweza kutumiwa kukabiliana na hali hii nyeti katika karne ya 21. hivyo kutokana na kazi hizi zote bado kuna mwanya uliojitokeza na ndio maana utafiti huu ulinuia kuuziba kwa kuzingatia suala la utamaushi wa kidini na athari zake kwa vijana kwa mujibu wa riwaya ya paradiso ya john habwe na kidagaakimemwozea ya ken walibora muhtasari wa riwaya ya paradiso riwaya ya paradiso iliandikwa na john habwe na kuchapishwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 2005. kulingana na tuki 2013:451,neno ‘paradiso’ lina maana ya edeni,pepo au firdausi. kulingana na tuki 2013:458,neno ‘pepo’ lina maana ya mahali patukufu panapoaminiwa kuwa baada ya kufufuliwa na kulipwa matendo yao mazuri walioishi kulingana na amri za mungu wataishi milele. ingawa paradiso ni riwaya yenye mkusanyiko mwingi wa maudhui,maudhui makuu kwenye riwaya hii ni yale ya unafiki wa kidini unaoendelezwa na viongozi wa dini pamoja na waumini wake katika matukio mbalimbali yanayopatikana kwenye riwaya hii. unafiki huu wa kidini unaotokea unaendelezwa na wahusika tofauti na kudhihirika kwa matendo kama vile ya;ufisadi,mipango ya kando,vita baina ya waumini,chuki,anasa,biashara kwa jina la mungu na kujitajirisha kwa kutumia neno la mungu miongoni mwa vitendo vingine. matendo haya ni kinyume na mafundisho ya dini. riwaya hii ya paradiso imengawanyika katika sura kumi na nane zilizomo kwenye kurasa 230 ambazo kila sura ina mvuto wake unaomfanya msomaji kuwa na ari ya kubukua kitabu chenyewe kujifahamisha zaidi kuhusu maudhui makuu ya unafiki wa kidini. ingawa dini hudhaniwa na jamii kama chombo cha usalama na afueni kwa ulimwengu uliovurugika,yanayojitokeza katika riwaya hii ni tofauti kabisa kwani baadhi ya viongozi wa dini na washirika wao wanatenda kinyume na matarajio na mafundisho ya dini. maadili ya baadhi ya waumini yameoza kiasi cha kuwafanya vijana wanaozidi kuziduka kila uchao kukosa kuona maana ya kujihusisha na dini. hata hivyo,riwaya hii ya paradiso inadodoa maudhui mengine kama vile,ndoa,ukware,nafasi ya kanisa kwenye jamii,ufisadi, tamaa, elimu,migogoro,umaskini na utabaka miongoni mwa maudhui mengine. riwaya hii inaweza kuainishwa kama ya uhalisia kwani masuala yanayojadiliwa ndani ya kitabu yanalingana na yale ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea yanayoshuhudiwa kwenye ulimwengu wa kawaida tu. maabadi zinawakilishwa na makanisa ya bethany na lile la newjerusalemu ilhali viongozi wakuu wa dini wanawakilishwa na askofu joshua na mkewe kasisi lona pamoja na mhubiri michael. muhtasari wa riwaya ya kidagaakimemwozea riwaya ya kidagaakimemwozea iliandikwa na ken walibora na kuchapishwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 2012. riwaya hii imegawanyika katika sura 10 zilizo kwenye kurasa 162. ingawa riwaya hii ina masuala chungu nzima yanayojadiliwa na mwandishi,suala kuu lililopo kwenye kitabu hiki ni namna ndoto walizokuwa nazo waafrika walipokuwa wakipigania uhuru zilipogeuka na kuwa jinamizi isiyotarajiwa. afrika inawakilishwa na taifa la tomoko na eneo dogo la sokomoko linaloongozwa na mtemi nasaba bora.wazalendo na wanyonge waliokuwa mstari wa mbele kupigania uhuru na kumfukuza mkoloni mweupe waligeukwa na viongozi wa kiafrika pindi tu uhuru ulipopatikana. neno ‘kidagaa kimemwozea’ ni istilahi iliyotumika kuonyesha namna matarajio ya waafrika yalivyotingwa na uongozi wa waafrika wenzao kwa kukosa kutimiza ahadi zao na kutamausha nyoyo zilizokuwa na matarajio makuu baada ya uhuru. kulikuwa na wanyonge waliowakilishwa na wahusika kama vile imani,amani,matuko weye,uhuru na dj miongoni mwa wengine ambao nyoyo zao zilitamauka kiasi cha kupatwa na msongo wa mawazo ulioathiri na kuvuruga akili zao. familia za waliopigania uhuru kama vile mwinyihatibu mtembezi hazikuwa na chochote cha kujivunia ila kutaabikia kwenye nchi yao huru. maudhui makuu kwenye riwaya hii ni yale ya usaliti ambapo raia wanasalitiwa na viongozi wao kwa kupitishwa dhuluma za kila aina na hata wengine kuuawa pasipo na hatia. raslimali zinazopaswa kuauni wananchi zinawakilishwa na maji ya mto kiberege ambapo badala ya maji haya kuleta uhai yanakisiwa kuwa ni maji ya mauti. hadithi ya kitabu hiki inasawiriwa kupitia safari ya wahusika wawili amani na imani ambao wanaanza safari kutoka makwao kuelekea eneo la sokomoko kusaka kazi ambazo labda zingeleta afueni kwa maisha yao. wahusika hawa wanavunja mwiko kwa kunywa maji ya mto kiberege yaliyodhaniwa na wenyeji kuwa maji ya mauti. kitendo cha kutoathiriwa na maji yale kinabadili dhana ya wakaaji wa sokomoko na kuweka peupe kuwa hata haramu inaweza kuwa halali na halali kuwa haramu. wanapofika katika kijiji cha sokomoko, amani na imani wanaajiriwa na ndugu wawili;mtemi nasaba bora na mwalimu majisifu mtawalia. ingawa waajiri hawa walikuwa dhalimu kwa amani na imani, vijana hawa wanafanya bidii za mchwa kwa kazi zao kwani nia yao ilikuwa kufanya upelelezi ili kugundua waliopoka mali ya familia zao. inadhihirika kuwa jasho la wasomi hufaidi wengine kwani mwalimu majisifu ni mwizi wa miswada ya wasomi ambapo badala ya kuchapisha kazi za wasomi hawa,anawajulisha kuwa kazi zao ni chapwa na kisha kuzichapisha kwa jina lake na kuziuza. hata hivyo,amani na imani wanaongoza umati wa watu na kuwazidua kuhusu haki zao walizonyimwa na viongozi wao. kupitia kwao inadhihirika kuwa mtemi nasaba bora ambaye anawakilisha viongozi wa afrika baada ya uhuru ni mnyakuzi mkuu wa ardhi za wanyonge. inadhihirika kuwa viongozi hubadili vyeti vya kumiliki ardhi na kuwapa wenyeji vyeti bandia kwa minajili ya kunyakua ardhi zao. baada ya siri za mtemi nasaba bora kuwekwa wazi anajiona ombwe tupu na asiyeweza kuishi kwa aibu miongoni mwa watu wake na kwa hivyo anaamua kujitoa uhai kwa kujitia kitanzi. amani anayewakilisha wanamapinduzi anaongoza utawazaji wa mtemi mpya na kuahidi kuwa makosa yaliyotokea awali hayatarudiwa. pia anawazidua raia kuwa macho kukabiliana na dhuluma yoyote ile ambayo ingezuka na kuendelezwa na kiongozi mwingine. mabadiliko yanayoletwa sokomoko ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea na amani na imani yanadhirisha kuwa hakuna jambo lisilowezekana barani afrika . wanyonge wakiungana pamoja wanaweza kuleta mageuzi makubwa na kubadilisha hali ya kiuchumi ya jamii zao. riwaya hii pia ina maudhui mengine kama vile;ufisadi,unafiki wa kidini,dhuluma,ulevi,wizi na ukware miongoni mwa maudhui mengine. athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana vijana kuchoshwa na utaratibu wa maabadani. maabadi ni mahali popote pa kufanyia ibada kama vile hekalu, kanisa au msikiti. pia ni sehemu au eneo maalumu lililojengwa ambalo mtu au kundi la watu hukutana kufanya ibada au kujifunza masomo ya dini. hata hivyo mnamo miaka ya hivi karibuni kumeibuka madhehebu ambayo hayafuati utaratibu wowote wa kufanya ibada zao kwa tetezi kuwa ibada inapaswa kuongozwa na roho mtakatifu. hali hii imechosha vijana wa karne ya 21 na baadhi yao kuacha kuhudhuria ibada zenyewe na badala yake kujihusisha na starehe zao siku zilizotengwa za ibada. suala hili la vijana kuchoshwa na taratibu za ibada limekuwa likiangaziwa na waandishi tofauti waliobobea na wale chipukizi. john habwe katika riwaya ya paradiso, anamwangazia kijana kyalo aliyeichukia dini tangia akiwa kijana, sala za dini zilimchosha na aliona tu watu wengi walijihusisha na dini tu kwa sababu ya dhiki. kyalo alichukia dini kiasi kwamba hata baada ya kuoa mke wake salome alimwona mjinga kwa kujishughulisha na hadaa za wahubiri. madai ya kyalo yanadhihirika kwenye dondoo ifuatayo ; ‘…kyalo hakupenda masuala ya dini. tangu alipozaliwa hakuwa amekwenda kanisani. hakuonahajayoyoteyakujidhikinasalandefuambazozilichosha. hakupendahasasalazakelele. alinonakuwamkewakealikuwamjingakwakujishughulishanahadaazawahubiri’ (uk49) kutokana na utafiti huu ni dhahiri shahiri kuwa kyalo, anayewakilisha baadhi ya vijana katika jamii hakupenda kelele nyingi zilizopigwa na waumini wakati wa ibada na hivyo basi akafanya maamuzi ya kujiepusha na masuala ya dini. hata alipokua na kuwa na familia msimamo wake ulibaki pale pale ; masuala ya dini haikuwa moyoni mwake kamwe. vijana wa kike kukataa kuolewa na wahubiri. ndoa ni muungano kati ya watu wawili au zaidi unaokubaliwa na kuheshimiwa na jamii. tukio la kuanzisha ndoa linaitwa harusi. kabla ya ndoa, kuna kipindi cha uchumba ambapo watu hao wawili waliokubaliana wanachunguzana tabia na kujifunza au kujuana zaidi. katika tamaduni nyingi duniani, uhusiano huu huwa ni kati ya mwanamume na mwanamke ila miaka ya hivi karibuni kumekuwa na msukumo wa jamii fulani hasa kutoka ulaya na marekani kufanya ndoa ya watu wa jinsia moja. katiba ya kenya kifungucha 4 ibaraya 9 kila aliyefikisha miaka kumi na nane ana haki ya kuolewa au kuoa na kuwa na familia. hata hivyo, ndoa haipaswi kuwa ya lazima na kila mmoja anapaswa kujichangulia mchumba amtakaye. miaka ya hivi karibuni ndoa imekumbwa na nyufa ambazo zinatishia kusabaratisha taasisi hii iliyoasisiwa na mababu zetu kabla ya karne ya ishirini na moja. linalotilia msumari moto kwenye kidonda ni kuwa hata ndoa za wahubiri na viongozi wa dini zimekuwa na atiati na migogoro isiyokoma jambo ambalo linawafanya vijana na hasa wa kike kuwa na hofu ya kuolewa na viongozi wa dini. katika ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea riwaya ya paradiso, kijana wa kike nice ambaye pia ni bintiye askofu joshua na kasisi lona wa kanisa la newjerusalemu, anakataa katakata pendekezo la wazazi wao kuolewa na mhubiri michael. maisha ya unafiki wa kidini aliyoyaona na wazazi wake. nice alikata kauli ya kutoolewa na mhubiri liwe liwalo kama inavyoelezwa na dondoo iliyo hapa chini ; ‘… joshua na lona walikaa hapo kumkabili nice kuhusu pendekezo lao la kuolewa na michael.bila kificho nice aliwaeleza hawezi. ‘’kwa nini mnitafutie mama, mama ?’’. ‘’hebu sikiliza mama, huyo mume ni kufu yako, ni mtu wa dini na ni rika lako’’ alisema lona…’’ najua ni mtu wa dini, lakini mimi mama si mtu wa dini’’ nice alisema kwa maringo’. (.uk 73) usiku mzima askofu joshua na mkewe walimkorofisha binti yao angalau abadili msimamo wake na kukubali matakwa yao lakini nice alibakia kwenye msimamo wake wa kutoolewa na mtu wa dini tena mhubiri. nice alitamani kuachiwa uhuru wa maamuzi yake kama ataolewa au la. alihofia kuolewa na mtu wa dini kwani alikuwa ameshuhudia mengi kwenye ndoa ya wazazi wake licha ya kuwa watumishi wa mungu. hata baada ya wazazi wa nice kuwa na hasira na kumtishia binti yao kutafuta wazazi wengine endapo angekataa pendekezo lao la kuolewa na mhubiri michael, nice alisimama kidete kuwa yeye sio mtu wa dini na hataki kuolewa na mtu wa dini. kwa vile fasihi ni kioo cha jamii, utafiti huu unatambua nice ambaye ni kiwakilishi cha vijana wa kike kwenye jamii ya karne ya ishirini na moja wanaodinda kuolewa na wahubiri kwa hofu ya kutiwa pingu na dini licha ya kulelewa na jamii ya viongozi wa dini. wao wangetaka kuwa huru kutafuta waume zao bila kulazimishwa na wazazi wao. vijana kushuku uwezo wa mungu. kila binadamu duniani huamini kuwa kuna kiumbe mwenye nguvu na uwezo kumliko. kiumbe huyu ndiye mpaji wa uhai na ndiye ajuaye uhai huenda wapi baada ya viumbe kufikwa na mauti. jamii nyingi humpa kiumbe huyu majina tofauti ikiwemo mungu, maulana, mola, rabanakarima miongoni mwa majina mengine. kiumbe huyu hudhaniwa na jamii ya mwanadamu kuwa na nguvu nyingi na uwezo wa kuamua hali ya baadaye na hatima ya mwanadamu huyu na hivyo mwanadamu humcha na kumheshimu mara nyingi. kwa imani, kiumbe huyu hukimbiliwa hasa wakati kuna ugumu wa hali kwa imani kuwa ataleta suluhu na hali ya utulivu. kwenye vitabu vitakatifu, mungu hutajwa kama ngome ya kukimbiliwa wakati wa haja. hata hivyo, vituko na kashfa miongoni mwa viongozi wa kidini kwenye madhehebu tofauti miaka ya hivi karibuni, zimefanya waumini wengi kushuku uwezo wa’ mungu’ wa kubadili hali zikiwa na utata. vile vile, matatizo yanayozidi kuongezeka kila uchao yakiwemo magonjwa, ajali, mauti na majanga ya kila siku yanazidi kufanya waumini wengi kushuku uwezo wa ‘mungu’ wa kutuliza hali hizi. vile vile, jamii inatarajia maombi na ibada zinazofanywa na waumini kila siku zifanye mungu atulize hali ya mizozo iliyomo kwenye madhehebu mbalimbali. ken walibora katika riwaya yake ya kidagaakimemwozea, anamrejelea kijana wa kike imani ambaye anashuku uwezo wa mungu aliyeruhusu kufikwa na dhiki iliyompata pale nyumbani aliponusurika kuchomwa na wenye wivu. madai ya amani yanadhihirika kwenye dondoo hii; ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea ‘basiniliponusurikakuteketezwanilitokanikatazamambingunakuwazasana. kwaninimungualiruhusudhikikamahiyokunikusa?’ (uk58-59) maneno ya imani ni kuwa mungu mwenyewe hakuwa na uwezo wa kumlinda na hali ya maadui kutaka kumteketeza kwani hangekuwa na uwezo angemlinda kutokana na wahuni waliochoma nyumba yao na hangeruhusu wafike kwa boma lao. john habwe katika riwaya yake ya paradiso anamrejelea kijana wa kike lydia ambaye aliamini kuwa ana uwezo wa kufanya mambo mengi na kuwa mungu yuko tu anapokuwa hajiwezi. haya yote yanajitokeza katika dondoo ifuatayo; ’’lydia haya ya dini yalimfutu. hakuyafuatilia kwa karibu. angewezaje huku mama yake ndiye huyo? au ni kweli walivyosema mwana huiga kisogo cha nina. lydia alijua kuwa mungu yuko anapokuwa hajiwezi. pale unapoweza unayafanya mwenyewe’’(uk97) utafiti huu unatambua kuwa kwenye mawazo ya lydia ni kuwa mungu anapaswa kuingililia kwa maisha ya mtu tu pale ambapo mtu huyo amelemewa na pale ambapo mtu huyo anaona anaweza basi anapaswa kujishughulikia. yaani sio lazima mtu kutegemea mungu kwa kila jambo. vijana kukataa ‘kuokoka’ na kuingia kwa anasa. kuokoka ni kitendo cha kutoka sehemu moja iliyo na hatari na kwenda sehemu nyingine ambayo ni salama. kulingana na samuelmtimbike (2022), kwa dini ya kikristo, kuokoka ni kuitii injili ya bwana yesu na kisha kubatizwa katika ubatizo sahihi ambao ni wa maji mengi na kwa jina la yesu na kupokea kipawa cha roho mtakatifu na kisha kuishi maisha matakatifu kwa kufanya mapenzi ya mungu. kulingana na dini ya kiisilamu, waliomkubali mohamad na kufuata amri zake wamekwisha okoka na watapata bustani zipitazo mito kati yake. humo watadumu milele. huku ndiko kufuzu kukubwa. kulingana na mafundisho ya dini, wokovu ndio zawadi kubwa anayoweza kupata mwanadamu kwani inamhakikishia uzima wa milele paradiso. wokovu huu unahitaji kila muumini kuishi maisha ya utakatifu yasiyo na dhambi kulingana na mafundisho ya dini yake. hata hivyo, jinsi siku zinavyosonga ndivyo waumini wengi na haswa vijana wanavyozidi kukaidi injili ya wokovu na badala yake kujiingiza kwenye ‘’dhambi’’ za kila aina zikiwemo ulevi, ukware, utovu wa maadili, anasa na starehe za kila aina kinyume na mafundisho ya dini zao. kisa na maana, wanaowaongoza kwenye mafundisho haya ya kidini wanayatenda maovu haya wazi bila woga wa adhabu ya muumba wao. katika riwaya ya paradiso, john habwe anamrejelea kijana wa kike nice bintiye askofu joshua na kasisi lona aliyetoshwa na wokovu wa wazazi wake na kuzamia starehe zake za maisha kule newyork. salamu za nice zililetwa nyumbani na bwana njenga aliyekutana naye kule newyork katika shughuli zake za ukasisi. bwana njenga alipojaribu kumpa nice habari za yesu, nice alimkumbusha kuwa baba yake ni mhubiri na kuwa hakuweza kumuokoa. mwandishi anasema kuwa nice alikuwa amejizika zii katika ulevi na matembezi. ithibati ya utafiti huu imo katika nukuu ifuatayo ambayo ni mazungumzo ya bwana njenga na kijana wa kike nice bintiye askofu joshua na kasisi lona; ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea ‘nice alikuwa amesahau kisomo chake. alijizika ziii katika ulevi na matembezi…. well,nilitakakukuulizaunakaawapi? unaa…yaaninilitakaumkubaliyesu’’…’’sikiza. babayangunimhubiri. hakufaulukuniokoa. wewehutafaulu. ninakoishinanikifanyachoyakuhusuvipi?’’baadayamjadalahuukatiyanicenabwananjenga, nicealichomokanjebilakuaganasuruariyakeyakubanaambayokuivuakwakealikuwalazimaangesai diwa’. (uk128) utafiti huu ulitambua kuwakijana wa kike nice, alikuwa amechoshwa na ukosefu wa uaminifu kwa wazazi wake licha ya kuwa wao walikuwa watumishi wa mungu na badala yake akazamia kuhamia newyork alikoishi maisha ya ulevi na starehe alizotaka mwenyewe. huu ndio uhuru alioutafuta maishani mbali za wazazi wake waliookoka. vijana kuzinduka na kuuliza maswali kuhusu dini hadharani. kuzinduka ni kitendo cha kutoka katika bumbuazi au kutoka katika hali ya kutoelewa jambo. mtu yeyote anaweza kuzinduka kimawazo na kuwa na falsafa mpya kuliko aliyokuwa nayo hapo awali. katika kipindi cha zama za giza, binadamu aliacha hali ya kimaumbile na jaala kuchukua mkondo wake bila kutia juhudi zozote za kudhibiti changamoto zilizotesa kiumbe huyu. hata hivyo, baada ya kipindi cha ufufuo, binadamu alianza harakati za kujikomboa kutoka sirisiri za utumwa zilizomfunga kwa miaka nyingi zikiwemo zile za kidini, uchumi, teknolojia na ujinga wa kutosoma. kiumbe huyu alianza kutafuta maarifa na ujuzi ambazo zingempunguzia taabu alizokubana nazo siku nenda siku rudi. upande wa kidini, watu walifundishwa mafunzo na itikadi kali kwamba ili kumfikia mungu ni lazima muumini yeyote apitie kwa papamtakatifu. kulingana na ellen g. white (2023), mwanzo wa utawala wa kanisalarumi ulikuwa mwanzo wa utawala wa giza na jinsi uwezo wa kanisa ulivyoogezeka ndivyo pia hali ya giza ilivyoongezeka. anasema kuwa imani ya wengi kuwa yesu mwana wa mungu ndiye mwazilishi wa kanisa iligeuzwa na badala yake papa na maasikofu aliowapa mamlaka kuadhimishwa. john habwe kwenye riwaya yake ya paradiso, anarejelea kiongozi wa kikundi cha vijana pale kwenye kanisa la bethany lililoongozwa na kasisi michael. uhusiano wa michael na patricia na kukosa kuwa mwaminifu katika ndoa yake na lydia, kuliwapa vijana nafasi ya kuzinduka na kuuliza hadharani kuhusu matumizi ya misaada iliyotoka ng’ambo na usimamizi wa nasari iliyokuwa chini ya kanisa jinsi inavyojitokeza kwenye nukuu iliyo hapa; ‘tayarimwanyauliingiabethany. kuna kikundi kilichoona hakikufaidi vizuri pale bethany. kikundi hiki kiliongozwa na kariuki. kariuki alikuwa kiongozi wa vijana kaika kanisa la bethany. kikundi cha vijana kilidaimisaadayoteiliyotokang’amboilikuwakatikamikonoyawachache. piausimamiziwashuleyanasariyabethanypiaulifaidiwachachesana. ummamkubwauliodundulizakuijengahaupatichochote. walimuwashuleyanasariwaliopaswakutokahumokanisanihawajuisikuhiziwanatokawapi?’ (uk153.) utafiti huu unatambua kuwa vijana wa jana ni tofauti na wale wa sasa kwani wale wa sasa hawana woga tena na pindi waonapo jambo lenye utata wanalikashfu moja kwa moja. ndio ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea maana kariuki, kiongozi wa vijana katika kanisa la bethany anaongoza vijana wenzake kuuliza maswali peupe bila woga wowote kinyume na ilivyokuwa hapo awali. vijana kuacha kuhudhuria ibada. ibada ni kitendo chochote kinachofanywa kuonyesha unyenyekevu wa hali ya juu, utiifu, heshima, shukrani na utukufu aidha kwa mungu au kitu kilicho na mamlaka makuu kuliko binadamu. dini zote duniani huwa na ibada zinazofanyiwa mahala teule labda kwenye majengo ya kifahari au kachara, chini ya miti, mapangoni, juu ya miamba au hata misituni. maabadi haya huheshimiwa na huwa muhari kila mmoja katika jamii ahudhurie ibada kulingana na muda na wakati uliotengwa. hata hivyo, vijana wa karne ya ishirini na moja wamekuwa na mahudhurio duni ya ibada kwa tetesi kuwa matakwa yao hayatiliwi maanani na viongozi wa maabadi na haswa wazee. john habwe katika riwaya yake ya paradiso, anarejelea mahudhurio duni ya vijana katika kanisa la bethany baada ya kiongozi wa kanisa hili michael kupatikana na kashfa ya uhusiano wa nje ya ndoa na patricia licha ya kuwa na mke wake mwanadini lydia. haya yanadhihirika katika maneno yafuatayo; ‘’japobadokulikuwanawauminilukukibethanyhasawalewaliofuatamiujiza, kundikubwalilinyofoanakujiondokea. ahadizilipotolewabilamafanikiohapakuwanasababu yakuendeleakuning’iniabethany.kundilavijanatayarililijibambuakamagomelagogo.’’(uk160). utafiti huu unadhibitisha madai kuwa vijana wanazidi kuchoshwa na masuala ya dini na wanazidi kuyakimbia na kujipa shughuli zao. hii ni baada ya vijana hawa kutambua kuwa viongozi wa kidini wanaowaongoza wamejawa na kashfa chungu nzima. wanaamua kujiondoa mmoja baada ya mwingine. vijana kuwa na ukakamavu wa kudharau watumishi wa mungu peupe. watumishi wa mungu ni viongozi waliotwikwa mamlaka ya kuongoza ibada katika madhabau ya waumini. kila dhehebu duniani huwa na viongozi wake wanaopaswa kuheshimiwa na kusikizwa kwani ndio hutwikwa jukumu la kufundisha mafunzo ya kidini kulingana na mila na itikadi za dini husika. vile vile, watumishi hawa wa mungu wanapaswa kujiheshimu na kuwa waangalifu kwa maneno na matendo yao kwani chochote wanachosema au kutenda hadharani hutiwa kwenye mizani na waumini walio chini yao. hata hivyo, watumishi hawa wa mungu wanazidi kujihusisha na vituko vya kila aina ikiwemo kulaghai waumini kwa jina la mungu, kufanya miujiza bandia, kuwa na mipango ya kando na kashfa za pesa miongoni mwa kashfa zingine. vituko vyao vinazidi kuwapunguzia heshima na kufanya waumini na haswa vijana waliozinduka kuwadharau hadharani. john habwe katika riwaya yake ya paradiso, anawarejelea vijana wanafunzi wa shule ya upili ya alliance girls wanaodharau mtumishi wa mungu na mke wake michael, lydia. hii ni baada ya vijana hawa kughudua kuwa patricia analea mimba ya mhubiri na mume wake mwalimu wao. walianzisha dharau kwa mwalimu wao kwa kutupa vijikaratasi hapa na pale kukashfu vitendo vya mume wa mwalimu wao aliye mtumishi wa mungu kwenye kanisa la bethany. idhibati ya dharau hili ipo kwenye dondoo ifuatayo; ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea ‘hatailipojulikanawazikuwapatriciaanaleamimba, shulenzimahatawanafunziwalijua. lydiaamebakiapalenarafikiwachache. walimuwenginiwakumsengenyaakipita. sasayeyeameamuaakaekando. kamahanajambolamnopaleshulenialikwendabethanykusaidianakazi. wanafunziwameandikavikaratasikusambazailikumkashfukuhusuvitendovyamumewe. labdahilindilolililomtepualydiatenamoyowake. sasaaliposikiakuwapatriciaamelazwaakaonawenzakewataendelezakashfanakumsemaovyoovyo.’ (uk204) utafiti huu unakumbana na ukweli kuwa mtumishi wa mungu na pia mwalimu lydia anakumbana na hali nzito pale shuleni kwani hana uso wa kutazama wanafunzi hawa wanaosema ukweli wa jinsi hali ilivyo kuhusu ndoa yake na mume wake michael. anapunguza maneno yake na kuondoka shuleni pindi tu vipindi vyake vya masomo vinapokamilika. vijana kukataa kazi ya mungu peupe. kazi ya mungu ni kitendo cha kutoa huduma iliyo au isiyo na malipo kufanya kazi ya mungu. kila dhehebu huwa na nafasi yake ya utumishi wa kazi ya mungu kulingana na kanuni zao. kwa yeyote kuwa na nafasi ya utumishi huu anapaswa kuwa na elimu fulani ya kithiolojia kulingana na kitengo ambacho angependa kuegemea. ili kupata nafasi ya kutoa huduma husika ni lazima kufuata masharti fulani yaliyowekwa kulingana na kanuni za dhehebu husika. katika karne ya 21, idadi ya vijana katika utumishi wa mungu imepungua jambo ambalo linazidi kutia wazee na viongozi wa madhehebu kiwewe kila uchao. tafiti na maandishi mengi kwenye masuala ya dini zinadhirihisha kuwa vijana wanazidi kukataa utumishi wa mungu na kuwa washirika tu wasiodhibitiwa kikamilifu na dini. ken walibora katika riwaya yake ya kidagaakimemwozea, anamrejelea kijana mwalimu majisifu majimarefu aliyefadhiliwa na misheni kwenda ng’ambo kusomea ukasisi ili kurithi viatu vya baba yake ya ukasisi. majisifu anapoenda ng’ambo anaghairi mtazamo huu wa kazi ya mungu na kuamua kuishi maisha yake yasiyo na uhusiano na kazi ya mungu jinsi inavyojitokeza katika nukuu hapa chini; ‘mwalimu majisifu alitarajiwa kusomea ukasisi ili aandame nyayo za babake. lakini alipofika huko lipo lilimchusha akatoshwa na dini. dini kwake ilikuwa kasumba iliyoulewesha umma ukalewa chakari na kupepesuka…. aliona kwamba ingawa dini zote huhubiri amani, udugu, na rehema, ila maovu na makuruhu mengi katika historia ya mwanadamu mathalan husuda, uongo, usongombwingo na vita yametendwa katika jina la mungu. kwa hivyo akaghairi nia ya kuwa kasisi’. (uk27). utafiti huu unatambua kuwa ingawa watumishi wa mungu wana nia nzuri ya kurithisha utumishi huu kwa watoto wao, kuna mambo nyeti yanayotinga hamu ya vijana hawa kuendeleza azma ya wazazi wao. licha ya kuwa kasisi na baba yake mwalimu majisifu angetamani mtoto wake aiendeleze kazi ya mungu kwa kufuata nyayo zake, kijana huyu alighairi nia hii kwa kutambua kuwa dini imejawa na unafiki mwingi na matendo mengi maovu yanafanyika kwa jina la mungu. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea vijana kutafuta miungu na ibada zingine. miungu ni jina linalojumlisha wahusika wanaoabudiwa katika dini mbalimbali kama wenye nguvu na enzi juu ya maisha ya mwanadamu. tangu kipindi cha neolithic, binadamu katika dunia wamekuwa wakifanya ibada za miungi tofauti kulingana na kipindi fulani cha mwaka. kulikuwa na miungu ya wakati wa mavuno, wakati wa kiangazi, wakati wa mafuriko, baada ya majanga kutokea na kadhalika. hata hivyo jinsi siku zilivyosonga ndivyo akili za waumini zilivyobadilika na kuelekeza ibada zao kwa mungu mmoja kulingana na makubaliano. kulingana na gaspermadumla (2014), jinsi dunia ilivyosonga ndivyo ongezeko la dhambi lilivyozidi na kumfanya mwanadamu kugeukia katika aina mbali mbali za ibada na hapo kukatengenezwa aina kubwa tatu za ibada ambazo ni; ibada kwa mungu aliye hai, ibada kwa miungu ya jadi, mizimu, matambiko na mashetani na ibada kwa mwanadamu, vitu, fedha na mali. katika karne ya 21, baadhi ya wanajamii na haswa vijana wamejikita katika uhuru wa kuabudu chochote watakavyo zikiwemo anasa na starehe zao. waandishi tofauti wamekuwa wakiangazia waumini wanaoamua kuabudu vitu tofauti na kutumia mitindo tofauti ya maisha kulingana na matakwa yao. ken walibora kwenye riwaya yake ya kidagaakimemwozea, anamrejelea mwalimu majisifu ambaye baada ya kuchoshwa na mungu na ibada za maabadi aliamua kuwa na mungu wake ‘pombe’ na ibada yake ikawa ‘ulevi. madai hayo yanajitokeza kwenye dondoo iliyo hapa; ‘‘…lakinihatimayealikuwamwalimutuwashuleyaupili. nalauasingekuwanawanaomjuawenyesatua, asingalikuwahatanaualimuhuo. mamboyakeyalikuwataibuhadialipoanzakuabudu ‘mungu’mwinginekwahimdinatwaa. pombeilikuwamunguwakenaulevindioibadaaliyoipendakwadhatiya moyo’’. (uk28). utafiti huu uling’amua kuwa hata baada ya kijana mwalimu majisifu kukua na kuoa mke wake dora, alizidi tu na ibada yake bila hofu kwani aliamini kuwa huu ndio uhuru aliopaswa kuwa nao binadamu yeyote wa kuachiwa mwanya wa kufuata sera zake bila kuingililiwa na yeyote. mwalimu majisifu anakosa kuhudhuria mkutano wa kusherehekea uhuru wa taifa la tomoko kwenye uwanja wa sokomoko kisa na maana alikuwa ameenda ibada jinsi ilivyo kwenye maneno yafuatayo; ‘majisifumbonasikukuonamkutanoni?’’ bwanamtemialimuulizanduguyehatimayebaadayakimyachakitambokirefu…’’nilikuwanimekwen daibadakaka.’’ ‘’temboitakuuanduguyangu. punguzaulevibwana. unautukanishaukoowetumtukufu. sikuhizihatanaonaaibukukuitanduguyangu. niliambiwajanakwambaulilalamtaronisikuileyashereheusikukucha. hiiniaibubwana. kumbukamarehemubabayetualikuwakasisinduguyangu. alikuwaakisemakwambawalevihawataingiakatikaufalmewambinguni’’ (uk93.) utafiti huu ulitambua kuwa mwalimu majisifu alikuwa tayari akeshajitafutia ibada yake ya ulevi tangia ujanani wake licha ya baba yake kumtaka awe kasisi kama yeye. hivyo basi akahasi mungu na ibada za babake na kufanya maamuzi kuwa pombe ndiyo mungu wake na ulevi ndio ibada yake daima. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea njia mbadala ya kukabiliana na hali hii ya udhanaishi john habwe na ken walibora wanapendekeza baadhi ya njia zinazoweza kutumika ili kujenga imani katika mioyo ya vijana kuhusu masuala ya dini kwa lengo la kupunguza ukataji wa tamaa unaojengekeka kwao kila uchao. baadhi ya mapendekezo yaliyomlikwa na waandishi hawa ni pamoja na shughuli za ibada kuendeshwa kwa utaratibu wa pole pole na uungwana. katika riwaya ya paradiso, baada ya mhubiri michael kutoka marekani, alifika na maoni kuwa shughuli za kanisa zilifaa kuendeshwa kwa utaratibu wa pole pole na uungwana bila kelele na kucheza kwingi kama kwamba leo dini ni disko. (uk 97-98) pili ni kutumia maafisa wa polisi na askari kwenye sehemu za maabadi ili kutuliza ghasia zinapozuka miongoni mwa washirika. hii ni kwa sababu uwepo wa maafisa hawa utawafanya vijana kuwa na imani kuwa wanaoazimia kuleta fujo kwenye sehemu hizi za maabadi watakuwa na hofu na hivyo kufanya ibada kwa utaratibu. katika riwaya ya paradiso, maafisa wa polisi wanafika kuzima fujo na kutenganisha vikundi vilivyokuwa vikipigana katika kanisa la newjerusalemu ambapo watu kadhaa walikuwa wameumizwa kwenye vurumai zilizotokea. (uk77). maafisa hawa hawa wa polisi ndio waliotumiwa kuchunguza kashfa ya biashara ya mihadarati na madini iliyoendeshwa katika kanisa la newjerusalemu (uk 198). vile vile, katika riwaya ya kidagaakimemwozea, askari wa mtemi nasaba bora wanalazimika kuzima ghasia zilizokuwa na vita baina ya makanisa mawili yaliyopigana kadamnasi sokoni juu ya uwanja wa kujenga maabadi ambapo kama haingekuwa askari hao wanamakundi hawa wangeuana waangamizane (uk 93). njia ya tatu ni kutumia mahakama kutoa maamuzi ya ni wapi palipo na makosa vurugu zinapotokea. katika riwaya ya paradiso, ilibidi kanisa la newjerusalemu kufungwa miezi minne kungojea mahakama kuamua ni nani anamiliki nini katika majengo ya maabadi(uk77). mahakama pia inatumika kusikiza kesi kuhusu biashara ya ulanguzi wa mihadarati inayoongozwa na wa kanisa la mhubiri boribori pale new jerusalemu.mahakama hii inatumika kumfunga boribori na mkewe judy kwa nia ya kusafisha magugu maabadani ili kujenga imani mpya kwa washiriki. (uk 217) njia nyingine ya kujenga imani ya kidini miongoni mwa vijana ni kurekebisha tabia na mienendo ya washirika iwapo wangeendelea kumhubiri bwana na kumfanyia kazi. katika riwaya ya paradiso, mhubiri michael anasisitiza kuwa endapo wanaodai kuwa wameokoka wangejitayarisha katika ulimwengu kwa maisha ya ahera hawana budi kurekebisha na kubadili mienendo yao kwa kuhasi mauaji, ubakaji, wizi, ufisadi na kashfa zingine zilizoitanishwa na waumini la sivyo walio nje watazidi kuambaa masuala ya dini. (uk 56) vile vile, waandishi hawa wanapendekeza kupunguza muda unaotumika kufanya ibada na kutumia lugha inayoeleweka na kila mwanaibada. vijana wengi huchoshwa na muda mwingi unaotumika katika ibada haswa mahubiri. kwenye riwaya ya paradiso, mhubiri michael wa kanisa la bethany, alipunguza mahubiri yake kutoka saa moja hadi dakika kumi na tano. anapoamua kutumia kiingereza, bwana kitwana huwa mkalimani wake ili kuwafikia watoto, wanawake, wanaume, vizee, wagonjwa na wazima walioujaa ukumbi wa bethany. (uk 160) pia, ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea wazazi wanapaswa kuwaasa watoto wao wakiwa wadogo na kuwaadilisha njia ambazo wangefuata ili kukua kwa uangalifu usioterereka. hii ni kwa sababu mwalimu wa kwanza wa mtoto ni mzazi au mlezi wake na kuwa kwa asilimia pana mtoto hukua kulingana na mienendo ya mazingira aliyolelewa. katika riwaya ya paradiso, patricia alikumbuka maneno alomweleza mamake wanjiro alipopata mtoto wa pili. patricia alionywa na mamake vikali dhidi ya kumvulia mtu yeyote nguo mpaka atakapoingia katika ndoa halali. mama huyu alimfundisha bintiye kuwa asijipendekeze kwa mume yeyote kwani kujipendekeza kwa mwanamume ndiko kufukuzwa huko. (uk171-172) mama huyu alimkumbusha bintiye kuwa yeye bado ni mtoto kwani hakuwa na uwezo wa kutenganisha haramu na halali. ‘kwanguhutakuwamtumzima. mtu mzima ni mimi mama yako niliyekuzaa na unayepagaza. kama ungekuwa mtu mzima ungejua uharamu ulioko kutembea na mtu asiyekupenda akakutia mimba na kisha…’’ wanjiro alighafilika kumaliza’. (uk176) wosiakamahuu kwa vijana ungewaadilisha na kujenga misingi yao katika mafundisho ya kidini na hivyo basi kupunguza anasa, mipango ya kando na unafiki wa kidini miongoni mwa washirika na hivyo kuvutia vijana kwenye imani yake. viongozi wa kidini na wahubiri wanapaswa kubadilisha mkondo wa injili kutoka kwa matoleo ya kila siku na badala yake kuhubiri jinsi binadamu anapaswa kuishi na binadamu mwenzake. hii ni kwa sababu pasipo na haki na umoja wa washirika hata maabadi yenyewe hayataweza kusimama imara. katika riwaya ya paradiso, baada ya mchungaji boribori kufungwa jela, nana aliyechukua mahali pake aliweka mkondo mpya wa injili. injili yake ilitoka kwenye ‘zaka na maendeleo’ hadi kwenye ‘kwenenda kwa haki na kupendana kwa majirani’. kulingana na nana, subira ilikuwa muhimu ili kupata ahadi za bwana maanake bwana mungu alikuwa na saa yake na mikakati yake ya kufanyia mambo ambayo haikuwa lazima kwenda sambamba na ya wanadamu. baadaye waumini walianza kuona ukweli katika injili ya nana na baadhi ya waliokuwa wamegura walirejea na wageni kutoka ulimwengu na makanisa jirani wakaanza kufurika kwenye kanisa la newjerusalemu. (uk 226) hii ina maana kuwa waumini vijana wengi hukosa imani kwenye dini kutokana na matoleo ya mara kwa mara na endapo mkondo wa injili utabadilishwa watarejea maabadani kwa moyo wa dhati. hitimisho kulingana na utafiti uliofanywa ni ukweli usiofichika kuwa kuna masuala chungu nzima yanayofanya vijana watamaushwe na masuala ya kidini kila uchao. kwa vile hamna lolote lisilo na athari zake, utamaushi huu una athari maridhawa kwa vijana hawa hali ambayo ikikosa kutafutiwa suluhu mwafaka itakuwa na athari mbaya kwa masuala ya ibada za siku za kesho.mapendekezo yaliyo hapo juu yanaweza kutumika kupiga hatua kujitahidi kushughulikia kiwewe cha vijana kutamaushwa na mafundisho ya dini yanayojikita katika mafundisho ya maadili katika jamii. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) jackline njeri murimi* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 05 || may, 2024 || athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana katika riwayaza paradiso na kidagaa kimemwozea marejeleo camus, a(1984). the rebel: hamish hamilton, loudon. ------------(1961)resistance, rebellionanddeath.translated by justin o’brien. new york:knopf habwe, j. (2000). maishakitendawili.nairobi.jomo kenyatta foundation -------(.2005).paradiso.nairobi; the jomo kenyatta foundation. international bible society (1973). holybible:new international version.new york. katiba ya kenya (2010).govermentprinters.nairobi makoyo,m.s. (2014). ‘‘a critique of christian education for self reliance in kenya i light of existentialism’’.tasnifu ya uzamili. chuo kikuu cha nairobi.(haijachapishwa) mbithi,j. (1969). .africanreligionsandphilosophy.london:heinman education books ltd. mohamed s.a. (1995). amezidi. east african educational publishers. nairobi. nkonge,g.(2006). “ athari za udhanaishi katika kichwamaji na nguvuzasala” tasnifu ya uzamili, chuo kikuu cha nairobi( haijachapishwa) nyamemba,(2012).‘uchanganuzi linganishi wa jinsi waandishi katika tunuyaushairi wanavyoshughulikia masuala ya vijana” tasnifu ya uzamili ,chuo kikuu cha nairobi ( haijachapishwa) tuki, (2012). kamusi ya kiswahili sanifu (toleo la 3)nairobi. oxford university. walibora,k .(.2012). kidagaakimemwozea,nairobi;target publication limited ----------------(2006). kufakuzikana .nai robi;target publications ijo journals volume 07 | issue 05 | may 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 ikisiri utangulizi yaliyoandikwa kuhusu mada muhtasari wa riwaya ya paradiso muhtasari wa riwaya ya kidagaakimemwozea athari za udhanaishi wa kidini kwa vijana vijana kuchoshwa na utaratibu wa maabadani. vijana wa kike kukataa kuolewa na wahubiri. vijana kushuku uwezo wa mungu. vijana kukataa ‘kuokoka’ na kuingia kwa anasa. vijana kuzinduka na kuuliza maswali kuhusu dini hadharani. vijana kuacha kuhudhuria ibada. vijana kuwa na ukakamavu wa kudharau watumishi wa mungu peupe. vijana kutafuta miungu na ibada zingine. njia mbadala ya kukabiliana na hali hii ya udhanaishi hitimisho marejeleo ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case by gbenemene kpae abstract it is an open secret that nigeria has witnessed a lot of extrajudicial killings in recent times, especially by members of the law enforcement agencies. the rate of extra-judicial killings by the police in recent times has reached an alarming proportion. each time it happens, the police authorities would protect the offending members of the force. and where the police find circumstances convenient to make a scapegoat of the victim, their claim would be that the victim was a suspected armed robber. the case of the apo traders who were killed by policemen from the garki division of the nigeria police in 2005 remains a clear example of police brutality.on many occasions, this violence appears to have been unleashed with government complacency, and even outright complicity. "the federal police and the armed forces are responsible for numerous human rights violations on a regular basis in their policing activities, ranging from extrajudicial executions to death in custody, torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment of suspects. this situation was also corroborated by amnesty international who noted that in many instances the nigeria security agencies torture detainees in their cells to death. however, the police usually attribute such deaths in custody to alleged attempts to escape. victims are labelled as armed robbers to deny them any form of popular sympathy and to justify inaction by superiors within the police who only rarely attempt to investigate these cases.extra-judicial executions outside detention centres in nigeria are often linked to operations by special task forces assigned to patrol streets andhighways to check armed robbery, violence or illegal activities by some members of the police force, including illegal checkpoints set up to extort bribes from citizens.amid general concern over crime, serious flaws in the legal system have permitted the police to routinely label citizens as "suspects of armed robbery or murder" without any evidence to secure their remand in prison awaiting trial for years. keywords: security agencies, policing, extra-judicial killing, torture, nigeria ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case introduction an extrajudicial killing means taking a life without due process of law. a person is judged guilty and sentenced to death by those without authority to do so and without having a chance to defend himself. that is the essence of an extrajudicial killing. it is not about how much violence attended the killing. it is not limited to those committed by the police or the military. every killing where there is a denial of due process is an extrajudicial killing.the proper name for extrajudicial killing is murder. it is a killing attended by premeditation, treachery and, in most cases, taking advantage of superior strength, with the aid of armed men, or employing means to weaken the defence, or of means or people to insure or afford impunity. so goes the definition of murder in our criminal and penal code. the term extrajudicial killing can be defined as any kind of intended killing or murdering by an attack exercising out of the judicial authority for political reasons. obviously, this killing is considered as an illegal act because it happens out of judicial authority influence, actually all legislations prohibit extra-judicial killing of human being, even international law prohibits extrajudicial executions considering it as grave breaches of international humanitarian law & international human rights. under the fourth geneva convention extrajudicial killings constitute "grave breaches" and are subject to international jurisdiction.so, when we hear someone, or a group, or an entire organization or coalition of organizations condemning extrajudicial killings, what is it exactly that they condemn? is it the killing, per se? then, why not just condemn murder in general? or is it only the killing of people known to be active in fighting for human rights? if it were the second instance, is there a reason extrajudicial killing should be considered more reprehensible than generic murder? the answer to the last question is most probably no. the insistence on a different term to denote political killings is not because most find them more reprehensible. it is because giving them a political dimension makes it easier to put the blame on the entire administration without the need to go through legal processes. while the commission of murder must be imputed to a specific person or people and their participation established and proven, the entire administration is sought to be held liable for extrajudicial killings committed during its term unless it can show that it did everything humanly possible to end them. in other words, the term "extrajudicial killing" is resorted to when no specific murderers can be named. legally speaking, a killing is said to be extra-judicial if it is not authorized by the law courts. in nigeria, the sanctity of human life is protected constitutionally as fundamental right. it is equally protected by international treaties and organizations which nigeria is a signatory to. for instance, the african charter on human and people's rights (ratification and enforcement) act provides that: ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case every individual shall have the right to the respect of the dignity inherent in a human being and to the recognition of his legal status. all forms of exploitation and degradation of man particularly slavery, slavetrade, torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment and treatment shall be prohibited section 33, constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, 1999 provides, inter alia that: human beings are inviolable. every human being shall be entitled to respect for his life and integrity. no one may be arbitrarily deprived of his life.3 the implication of the above provision is that nobody should be deprived of his life, saves and in the manner provided by law, for it is only then that the deprivation will not be termed "arbitrarily". in nigeria, the constitutional provision is even more forceful, it provides: every person has the right to life and no one shall be deprived intentionally of his life, save in execution of the sentence of a court in respect of a criminal offence of which he has been found guilty in nigeria. thus, the constitution only recognizes deprivation of life if, and only if, the deprivation is pursuant to the execution of a court order in a criminal offence for which the accused has been found guilty in nigeria. it follows that any deprivation short of the recognized exception in section 33(2)(a),(b) & (c)of the constitution would amount to extrajudicial killing and consequently, unconstitutional. extrajudicial killing tantamount to self-help which is an antithesis of the rule of law and chich has repeatedly been depreciated by the supreme court.in spite of all the efforts made by the government of nigeria to combat corruption and consolidate the restoration of democracy, there remain serious problems in relation to extrajudicial executions. these were recently acknowledged by the president, and this research study identifies measures required to improve the situation. the problem is illustrated by the "apo six" case: the framing and killing of six innocent civilians by the police in apo in june 2005. the nigerian police force is at the same time seriously under-resourced and confronted with a high rate of violent crime. as a result, abuses including corruption, arbitrariness, torture, excessive use of force and executions are common. there are no systematic statistics recording such executions. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case police put forth various pretexts to justify extrajudicial executions. when a victim is killed in custody, an attempted escape may be cited. when the victim is killed before being taken into custody, his status as an armed robber may be cited. resort to these pretexts is facilitated by the domestic legal framework. first, the elevation of armed robbery to the level of a capital offence has perverse consequences. while armed robbery does plague much of nigeria, the label of "armed robber" is very often used to justify the jailing and/or extrajudicial execution of innocent individuals who have come to the attention of the police for reasons ranging from a refusal to pay a bribe to insulting or inconveniencing the police. second, the standing "rules for guidance in use of firearms by the police" are deeply flawed. police order no.237 authorizes the use of firearms if a police officer cannot "by any other means" arrest or re-arrest any person who is suspected (or has already been convicted) of an offence punishable by death or at least seven years imprisonment. the rules which elaborate upon this provision are even more permissive. according to these rules, any person who seeks to escape from lawful custody commits a felony warranting a seven-year sentence. as a result, it would be justified to shoot to kill someone charged with stealing goods of negligible value but alleged to be seeking to escape from custody. these rules practically provide the police carte blanche to shoot and kill at will.extrajudicial executions are also facilitated by the impunity the police force enjoys.no doubt that international law is against extrajudicial killings; international law prohibits without exception, the extra-judicial killing and considers it as a grave violation of international humanitarian law, and human rights protocols. human rights instruments stipulate that when a government suspects an individual of criminal or subversive activity, that government is obligated to capture and try the person. the government must present its evidence against the individual under a transparent judicial process of inquiry, not to assassinate him. the right to life finds its most general recognition in article 3 of the universal declaration of human rights: "everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.7" also, article 6 of the international covenant on civil and political rights provides: "1. every human being has the inherent right to life. this right shall be protected by law. no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life. in accordance with article 2 of the universal declaration of human rights and articles 2 and 26 of the international covenant on civil andpolitical rights,and pursuant to several other united nations ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case declarations and conventions, everyone is entitled to the protection of the right to life without distinction or discrimination of any kind, and all persons shall be guaranteed equal and effective access to remedies for the violation of this right. moreover, article 4,paragraph 2, of the international covenant on civil and political rights provides that exceptional circumstances such as internal political instability or any other public emergency may not be invoked to justify any derogation from the right to life and security of the person. various other treaties, resolutions, conventions and declarations adopted by competent united nations bodies contain provisions relating to specific types of violations of the right to life. one of the most pertinent of these instruments is the principles on the effective prevention and investigation of extra-legal, arbitrary and summary executions9, article 1 of these principles’ states: "exceptional circumstances including a state of war or threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency may not be invoked as a justification of such executions. such executions shall not be carried out under any circumstances including, but not limited to, situations of internal armed conflict, excessive or illegal use of force by a public official or other person acting in an official capacity or by a person acting at the instigation, or with the consent or acquiescence of such person, and situations in which deaths occur in custody. this prohibition shall prevail over decrees issued by governmental authority."under the fourth geneva convention (ratified by nigeria in 1954), extrajudicial killings constitute "grave breaches" and are subject to international jurisdiction. moreover, creating what amnesty international called "a culture of impunity." under international law, exceptional circumstances "including a state of war or threat of war, internal instability, or any other public emergency" may not be invoked to justify executions by a state. international law does not allow for willfulkillings under any circumstances. extrajudicial killing is unlawful under international law because it violates international treaty obligations, as well as customary international law. extrajudicial killing is unlawful under international law because it violates the respect to the right to life, which is a peremptory norm of customary international law. the only exception to right to life is the right to use lethal force in an act of self-defence against an imminent threat. as a party to the international convention on civil and political rights ("iccpr"), the nigeria is required by international law to protect the inherent right to life afforded to all human beings1'. according to the iccpr, the right to life cannot be derogated from even "n time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation."12 the iccpr also guarantees "all persons" the right to a fair trial, a right that is necessarily denied to all subjects of extrajudicial killing. in addition to the duty under treaty law, the duty to respect the right to life is a peremptory norm of customary ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case international law. therefore, customary international law prohibits extrajudicial killing. the iccpr, the american convention on human rights, the european convention for the protection of human rights ("ecphr"), and the african charter of human and people's rights prohibit the deprivation of the right to life15. few circumstances allow derogation from this rule. the international court of justice has held that even in a time of war, the right to not be arbitrarily deprived of one's life does not cease16. finally extrajudicial killings violate the fundamental principles of democracy, and the conviction that a person is innocent until proven guilty under the law. the abuja police reported that on 8 june 2005 in the apo district of abuja five young male traders and a female student were arrested on suspicion of armed robbery, taken to the garki police station, and subsequently killed while trying to escape. the dead robbers were photographed with their weapons, a post-mortem was conducted as required, death certificates were issued after examination by a doctor, and the bodies were buried. when challenges to this story first emerged the federal capital territory police commissioner, emmanuel adebayo, publicly affirmed these details. the case looked very typical of many reported by the police in nigeria. unfortunately for the police, however, one of the "robbers" had managed to phone a relative from the police station and reported that the six had been involved in an altercation in a pub with a police officer. their car had subsequently been ambushed by other police who were called in, they had all been badly beaten, and they were taken to the police station. family members immediately sought their release but were unable to pay the bribe of $45, 000.00 demanded by the police. several of them were executed a few hours later. another managed to escape but was recaptured and brutally killed by the police. in fact, no post-mortems were carried out, death certificates were not completed by a medical officer, and the bodies were hastily buried in a common grave. the news of the killings spread rapidly. rioters ransacked the apo police on and demanded an investigation. the relatively new acting inspector-general of police convened an internal investigation. but he also took the unprecedented and commendable step of making its proceedings public. two further elements compounded the horror story that was to emerge. one police officer who took part in the killings allegedly provided the victims' relatives with information on what really happened. he died of '-'tonsillitis" the day before he was supposed to give evidence to the inquiry. he was subsequently deemed to have been poisoned by two of his colleagues. meanwhile, the divisional police office in charge of the garki police station on the fateful night "escaped" from detention2. in the course of the inquiry one police officer and the photographer on duty that night confirmed that the youths had been killed in cold blood. it was subsequently revealed that the "robbers" alleged weapons had been in ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case police storage until they were removed by a police officer shortly before the incident. as a result of the inquiry ten police officers were arrested. on 27 june 2005, the president unprecedentedly appointed a federal judicial commission of enquiry to look into the "apo six" case, i.e. the killings of the six nigerians. the terms of reference given to the commission by the federal government include: a. to determine the remote and immediate causes of the eruption of the violent clash between the police and some traders in apo village; b. to establish whether or not there was any armed robbery incident at gana street, maitama abuja on 7th june 2005; c. to determine the identity of the six persons killed at gimibiya street, abuja on 7th june 2005 and the circumstances surrounding their death; from the statements given by dcp danjuma ibrahim, the main protagonist in the case, both during the investigation by the police board of inquiry and the memoranda which he sent to the judicial commission of inquiry, he averred that at said day of 7th june 2005, while on visiting rounds, he received a distress call from dg, nema that armed robbers had operated in house located at plot 417 lake chad str., maitama, using a peugeot 406 car. he later visited the scene. he further claimed to have received another distress call that armed robbers were operating at crown guest inn at area 11 garki, abuja. he added that at 12.30am, in continuation of his visiting rounds, he sighted a peugeot 406 struggling with a red starlet car with two men inside at gimbiya street. he claimed that while he was there, he suddenly saw the suspected peugeot car approaching them at the pin-down-point, where he met with one inspector and three constables. he further claimed that when the peugeot 406 car attempted to escape, he used his bmw car to block the road. he asserted that the occupants of the car fired at the police, to which the policemen responded. he stated that he came out of his car and brought out his pistol and fire two shots. thereafter, the officer-in-charge of the police algon jeep, on his instruction, took the four presumably dead persons and two injured men, all occupants of the peugeot 406, to garki police station. he also stated that the peugeot 406 was searched and the following items were recovered from it: a. 2 locally made pistols; b. 2 live catridges; c. 2 expended cartridges; d. 2 daggers; and e. 1 cutlass. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case the dcp added that he could not state exactly who amongst the policemen at the scene fired.however, inspector suleiman audu, pc yakubu philibus, pc haruna mamot and pc ibrahim garba of the memo submitted to the panel by the then acting inspector general of police coupled with their evidence given to the panel are to the effect that there was no shooting from the peugeot 406 car that dcp danjuma ibrahim collected the rifle of inspector sulieman audu and shot at the car. the scenario was re-enacted when the panel visited the scene. inspector sulieman audu graphically told the panel how the incident took place. thus, after analyzing the testimony of inspector sulieman audu, both at the panel and at the scene, and the testimonies of pc yakubu philibus, pc haruna mamot and pc ibrahim garba, three things stood out distinctively to wit: a. that no shoot-out between the police and the deceased persons at gmbiya street, area 11 garki abuja on that day; b. that no shooting came from the peugeot 406 car; c. that dcp ibrahim danjuma collected the ak 47 rifle of inspector suleiman audu and shot the entire 10 bullets into the peugeot 406 car; the evidence of inspector suleiman audu, pc yakubu philibus, pc haruna mamot and pc ibrahim garba were to the effect that nothing was recovered from the said peugeot 406 car. the statement and evidence of inspector ishaya nyaiwak(statement pages 21 -22 of the memo submitted by the acting inspector general of police) that the said locally made pistols were recovered from rita lori hotel a week before the incident. also, the evidence of pc dennis asa>vato the effect that dpo csp othman abdusalamspecifically directed him on where to search in the said peugeot 406 car. the evidence of dcp danjumaibrahim that the peugeot 406 car was not searched at gimbiya street even though different from his statement contained at pages 5-7 of the acting inspector general of police also gave credence to the fact that the two locally made pistols were planted in the said peugeot 406 car by the police. the ballistician report before the panel stated in part that the locally made pistols allegedly found on the deceased persons had not been fired in recent time and the expended cartridges were not fired from any of the locally made pistols.it can thus be seen that from the facts that no locally made pistols or any firearms had been found with deceased persons. the deceased persons did not pose any threat to the lives of the policemen around including dcp ibrahim danjuma or were they (police officers) put under a serious apprehension of their safety3 to warrant the killings of the deceased persons. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case as to how many were persons died at the first point of contact, i.e. gimbiya street, area 11 garki abuja, there was a lot of conflicting and contradicting evidence. the evidence of dcp danjuma ibrahim was corroborated by the evidence of yakubu alama, a security guard at syndicate plaza, area 11 garki abuja, who was on duty on the night of the incident to the effect that only one person died at gimbiya street and that the remaining five were taken to garki police station and he, dcp danjuma ibrahim, handed them over to the dpo garki police station, csp othman abdulsalam. the statement of pc ezekiel achenejeas contained at pages 8 -9 of the memo submitted by the acting inspector general of police gave a graphic account of those they shot which sum up to five people. in the memo, his statement provided thus: "...that on the way along kabusa road, one of the suspects jumped down from the vehicle and was chased 3by force orderno. 237 it provides, "a police officer may use firearms under the following circumstances: ... (a) when attacked and his life is in danger and there is no other way of saving his life.." from the statement and evidence before the commission, it was evidently clear that some people were killed at gimbiya street, area 11 garki abuja and some people killed thereafter near prince and princess estate, gadua abuja. the common denominator flowing from both statements and testimonies of witnessed is that all the deceased were killed by the police in a continuous single exercise of elimination to conceal facts. also, it was found as fact that though there was robbery at the house of the dg, nema, the car used for the robbery was a red honda haller and not a peugeot 406. furthermore, by the evidence of ben agari, owner of crown guest inn, he stated that those involved in the robbery at his hotel never came with any car and they escaped through a pathway to the road where they boarded a red toyota car. thus, the issue of peugeot 406 for in the said robberies on that fateful day was introduced by dcp danjuma ibrahim. the judicial commission of inquiry was headed by justice o. o. goodluck, a serving high court judge of fct, abuja with chief osita okeke, dig parry osayande (rtd), brigadier general okunbor and hauwaas members, barrister iduwas made the secretary of the panel and barrister oluwole aina as counsel to the panel. the judicial commission of inquiry was sworn in on 27th of june 2005 (nineteen days after the killings/incident) and commenced sitting on 29th of june 2005. the judicial commission of inquiry concluded her sitting on the 5th of august 2005 with the admission in evidence of the autopsy reports on the six deceased persons carried out by two renowned anatomic pathologists namely ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case right to life and the nigerian police the nigeria police have grown significantly under civilian rule to 225,000 in 2007. but the numbers are still inadequate, their level of training and funding insufficient, and their morale low. although nigeria suffers from high violent crime rates, the force is chronically under-resourced. all too often new recruits pay for their own uniforms, salaries are delayed for many months, equipment required in an emergency needs to be borrowed from other agencies,30 and complainants (even those alleging murder) are asked to cover the costs of the police investigation including travel and accommodation. where they cannot afford to do so, the investigation fizzles. in addition, corruption is widespread among police officers, in part due to very low salaries. for these reasons, and because police tactics are often marked by the arbitrary and unnecessary use of force, including high rates of extrajudicial killings, there is little public confidence in the police. indeed, they are criticized by virtually all sectors of civil society. the lead editorial in a security-focused magazine observed that the "[operatives of nigeria police are dreaded agents of death who decimate human lives at will." the editorial continued: "looking scruffy and ferocious in different shades of gear, operatives of nigeria police would storm the roads armed with guns, horsewhips and batons ... . it is business time. and the road and its users no longer know peace. from [the police] standpoint, everybody is a criminal and every crime has a price. " common complaints include the carrying of firearms in public by un-uniformed police, the wearing of uniforms by police when they are off-duty .33 and the widespread practice of police requiring payment to ensure the safe deliver.of goods. as a result, the overriding public attitude towards the police is one of fear and mistrust. the focus of this analysis, however, is on extrajudicial killings by the nigeria police. these can be broadly grouped into three main types: (1) extrajudicial executions of suspected criminals; (2) the excessive and arbitrary use of force; and (3) deaths in custody. despite the fact that the scourge of armed robbery plagues much of nigeria, the label of "armed robber" is very often used to justify the jailing and/or extrajudicial execution of innocent individuals who have come to the attention of the police for reasons ranging from a refusal to pay a bribe to insulting or inconveniencing the police. the problem lies in part in the elevation of ar~.:e:i robbery to the level of a capital offence. this seems to ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case have at least two pen e~?e consequences: (1) criminals interrupted in an armed robbery have no desireto use arms (either way it will be a capital offence); (2) the police are given a justification to shoot to kill any person who has committed a capital offence and is seeking to flee.34 the case of the apo six is telling in that the nigerian civil libertyorganization was able to predict, with chilling accuracy, the execution o: alleged armed robbers. tragically, the practice of summarily executing s.criminals by the nigeria police is widespread and systematic. this is both illegal and counter-productive. there are no circumstances under which summary executions are legally permissible let alone justifiable. the practice is counterproductive for several reasons. summary executions of suspects, many of whom are innocent of the crime of which they have been accused, does nothing to stem the high rate of armed robbery in nigeria. for all the killings at the hands of the police, this rate has shown no diminution. the practice also confirms the public sense of the police as being out of control, brutal, and relatively unconcerned with protecting the public and upholding the law. fundamentally different police tactics are thus required by law and for pragmatic reasons. the key challenge is to determine when deadly force can legitimately be used against criminals. most approaches to date seem to be inconsistent with human rights requirements. for example, in "operation fire-for-fire", a 2002 campaign against crime, the inspector-general of police pre-authorized police officers to fire in "very difficult situations". the result, revealed in police statistics, was that in the first 100 days, 225 suspected criminals were killed, along with 41 innocent by-standers2. fortunately, this operation was terminated. but the standing "rules for guidance in use of firearms by the police" are equally flawed. police order no. 237 provides for the use of firearms in situations where it is essential in order to protect the life of the police officer or of another person, or where necessary to prevent "serious offences against life and property" by rioters. these provisions are unexceptionable but the rules which effectively relate to "armed robbers" are formulated very differently. they authorize the use of firearms if a police officer cannot "by any other means" arrest or re-arrest any person who is suspected (or has already been convicted) of an offence punishableamnesty international, security forces in nigeria: serving to protect and respect human rights? (december 2002) at p. 14.by death or at least seven years imprisonment. the rules which elaborate upon this provision are even more permissive. they note that any person who seeks to escape from lawful custody commits a felony warranting a seven-year sentence. as a result, shooting to kill someone charged with stealing goods of negligible value but alleged to be seeking to escape from custody would be justified. the only qualification contained in the rules is "firearms should only be used if there are no other means of effecting his arrest, and the circumstances are such that his subsequent arrest is unlikely". these rules are deeply flawed. they provide close to a carte blanche to the police ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case to shoot and kill at will. police order no. 237 should be amended immediately to bring it into conformity with the basic principles on the use of force and firearms by law enforcement officials. the resulting emphasis should be on proportionality, on the use of lethal force as an absolute last resort, and only "when strictly unavoidable in order to protect life". thus, the possible escape of an alleged robber who presents no direct threat to the lives of others, cannot justify shooting to kill. on paper, the system for investigating police misconduct is impressive. in practice, it is too often a charade. the outcome of investigations usually seems to justify inaction or to ensure that complaints are dealt with internally through "orderly-room hearings" or the like. while police officers are certainly disciplined and some dismissed, the system has rarely worked in cases in which police are accused of extrajudicial executions. in these instances, genuine investigations are rare and referrals to the dpp for prosecution are even rarer. it is also not uncommon for the primary accused police officer to escape, for charges to be brought against others, and for the latter to be acquitted on the grounds either of insufficient evidence or of prosecution of the wrong officers. the result gives me appearance of a functioning investigative system, while in fact promoting the goal of de facto police impunity. in 2005 the acting former inspector-general of police (igp) announced that "the days of extra-judiciary killings" and of "corruption in the service" must end4. the question for nigeria is how to introduce some notion of accountability. while no single country can provide a model, efforts to promote democratic policing in south africa are of major relevance5. it is generally accepted that three different levels of control are needed: internal, governmental, and societal. in terms of internal accountability,the nigeria police system is weak. from the few statistics available there are the indications that few serious disciplinary measures are taken except against rogue individuals. indeed, the single greatest impediment to bringing police officers to justice for their crimes is the nigeria police force itself. evidence indicates that it systematically blocks or hampers investigations and allows suspects to flee. in order to break this cycle of impunity, a new investigation and prosecution mechanism is required. in terms of governmental accountability, the police service commission is charged with police discipline, but has opted to refer all complaints of extrajudicial police killings back to the police for investigation. the commission's mandate is potentially empowering. but despite efforts by one or two excellent commissioners, its performance has been dismal and self-restraining. its quarterly reports to the president are not published and present a dismal chronicle of rubber-stamping decisions taken by the police, coupled with inaction in relation to pressing concerns. a radical overhaul of its procedures and composition is warranted. in terms of societal ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case accountability there are various initiatives to promote community policing and reinvigorate the police-community relations committees that exist in some states6. but these efforts fall far short of the need. some external authority needs to be equipped and empowered to monitor police abuses, including instances of illegal checkpoints, demands for bribes and other forms of corruption and abuse the prevalence of human rights violations and extrajudicial killings in the nigerian police is a function of several and complex factors acting together in a potent mix to predispose the average policeman and woman to abuse the powers conferred on him by the state and the rights of the citizens. these factors include the following: (a) conceptual it appears that most nigerian languages do not equip the police with the concept of a "suspect". to be accused or arrested is to be presumed guilty. the treatment of suspects testifies to a significant conceptual limitation. the public display of armed robbery suspects and their arms/charms is the most dramatic manifestation of this limitation. although the word "suspect" is often used but it seems to connote guilt and condemnation in the nigerian police, hence suspects like those of the "apo six" are treated with indignity, crudity and brutality. b) historical the nigerian police is still afflicted by its heritage as an instrumental of colonial purification. the alienation of the colonial police from the general population remains a feature of police -civil society relations in nigeria today. (c) culture the nigerian police operates in a paternalistic environment in which authority is expected to be unquestioned. the uniform which a police officer puts on confers on him authority which is often used in a culturally-calibrated way. the nigerian policeman does not expect an ordinary citizen to argue or explain his/herself out of a situation. he expects a person to beg and if the person does not, he considers such a person recalcitrant and worthy of any manner of abuse. (d) environmental the nigerian police operates in an environment which has been brutalized by civil war, military rule, political mismanagement and economic adversity. it is a terrain in which the failure of the state and culture of comprises has engendered an epidemic of lawlessness and violent crimes. the average police officer is confronted, on a daily basis, with a relentless army of lawbreakers. (e) infrastructural the policeman and woman in nigeria work in grossly insalubrious and environments. police stations are ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case ill-equipped, often dingy and generally inadequate for the needs of those who work there. the nigerian police station is a frustration-inducing environment or put more positively, is hardly an edifying environment. in addition to the uninspiring working environment, the nigerian police is handicapped by gross supply and logistic inadequacies which undermine work attitudes and the capacity to perform, at the level desired by all. (f) institutional the nigerian police has suffered from years of maladministration and neglect. its poor administrative processes have tended to generate disaffection among the rank and file. for years, the police have suffered from what can be described as the collapse of command. indiscipline and arbitrariness on the part of local commanders plagued the force. this problem has not been totally eliminated. with a poor system of sanctions, infractions have generally not been consistently or systematically punished. the police officer, in the field, is hardly deterred by a system in which discipline and order are only discriminatory enforced. (b) coroner's inquiries in the nigerian criminal justice system, coroners are an endangered species and inquiries a rarity. thus, records of coroner's inquiries are unavailable. in practice, unspecialized magistrates act as coroners. it is commonplace for pathologists to sign reports without examining the body and when police killings are involved, there is often no signature. (c) the holding charge if the nigerian criminal justice system worked, suspects would be brought before a court, charged and remanded. instead the police consistently resort to a short cut by taking suspects before a magistrate who remands them indefinitely without formal charges while the police conduct theirinvestigation. the result of this "holding charge" is that individuals can be jailed more or less indefinitely in a legal limbo based on little more than a suspicion of criminal activity, unsupported by any evidence. this practice continues despite a declaration of its unconstitutionality by the court of appeal8. it has contributed significantly to the extremely high rates of individuals in nigerian prisons who have not been formally charged, a situation which can endure for a decade and beyond. it is an insidious but pervasive practice which shields police inefficiency and severely punishes many innocent persons. (d)the prosecutorial system public prosecutors have no control over police investigations, nor can they demand that individuals be produced in court. as a result, most police killings are never referred to the dpp and the latter cannot initiate a prosecution. moreover, a police officer must be dismissed from the police force before being ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case prosecuted. (e)legal aid there is a "severe lack of competent and adequately compensated counsel for indigent defendants and death row inmates seeking appeals."9 although the legal aid act guarantees free legal assistance in capital cases to those who cannot afford a lawyer, in practice the legal aid council, the body responsible for providing such assistance, is under-funded and unable tofulfil its duties10. while practitioners are keen to point to the pro bono work done by some barristers, this makes little dent in the overall shortfall of legal aid. conclusion and recommendations the "apo six" case was a terrible tragedy and also a sad reminder of the incident of extrajudicial killings in nigeria. the case brought out all the pathologies affecting the nigerian criminal justice system as well as the endemic disregard of human life by the nigerian police. a fundamental right of all citizens of nigeria is the right to life enshrined under the 1999 constitution and numerous international human rights instruments. the right of life of every citizen is expected to berespected by the police and this right can be violated in special circumstances provided under the law. however, as could be seen in the apo six case, the six innocent suspects’ right to life were violated without due process (this is what is known as extrajudicial killing) by the police and the unfortunate part is that perpetrators tried to cover up their heinous act by committing more killings. the famous police extra-judicial killing of innocent suspects of crime in our nation’s capital, otherwise known as the apo 6 was also noted in a report professor philip alston, special rapporteur of the united nations commission on human rights on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions in nigeria in sum, this paper examines the incidents of extrajudicial killings in nigeria, and also the causes of extrajudicial have also been discussed that relevant human rights principles and provisions of international humanitarian law prohibit without exception, the extra-judicial execution of individuals. it is within this context that the killing of the six innocent civilians by the police in the apo six case is a serious crime under international law. it clearly amounts to intentional and willful killing, which constitutes a grave breach of humanitarian law, and could be subject to criminal prosecution. recommendations this is, therefore, a call on the federal government to ensure that law enforcement officers do not resort to torture or inflict cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment on detainees under any circumstance; that they do not carry out extra-judicial executions; or exert excessive use of lethal force. it also recommend the prosecution of ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case erring police officers and the payment of compensation to families of victims of police brutality, torture and extra-judicial killing. lastly, extrajudicial kill ings violate the fundamental principles of democracy, and the conviction that a person is innocent until proven guilty under a policy of extrajudicial killing, a government becomes prosecutor, judge, and executioner, it is unconstitutionally. references alston, p. (2005). expert on extrajudicial killing ends visit to nigeria. a united nations human rights office of the high commissioner press release. amnesty international (2002), security forces in nigeria: serving to protect and respect human rights? ajomo, m. a. and okagbue, i. e. (1991)human rights and the ad: criminal justice in nigeria. (ibadan: spectrum books. centre for law enforcement education (cleen) and national human rights commission (1999) policing a democracy: a survey report on the role and functions of the nigerian police in a post-military era. (www.kabissa.org/cleen). civil liberties organization (2005), i can kill you and nothing will happen: a report of extra-judicial killings and impunity by lawenforcement agencies in nigeria between may 1999 june 2005. crooke q.c, g. w. (2001). professional policing v. corruption. paperpresented at the 15th international cogormley, 'the right to life and the rule of non-deogability: peremptory norms of jus cogens,' in e.g. ramcharan (ed), the right to life in international law (1985) inference of the international societyfor the reform of criminal law, canberra. government white paper on the report of the judicial commission of inquiry on the apo six (6) killings by the police in abuja between 7th 8th june, 2005. human rights law service, (2004) travesty of justice: an advocacy manual against the holding charge. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) gbenemene kpae* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 04 || april, 2024 || extra judicial killings in nigeria: analysis of police crime control mechanism in the apo 6 case masuku, t.(2005)strengthening democratic policeand coordinating the internal and external a south african police service, (braamfontem. centre for the study of violence and reconciliation world organization against torture and centre for law enforcement education (2002), hope betrayed? a report on impunityand state-sponsored violence in nigeria. the report of the national study group on death penalty, abuja, august 2004 ijo journals volume 07 | issue 04 | april 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025 graham nicholson* for a very long time, including up to the present day, the nation-state, or simply the “state”, has been the preeminent institution of the world order, around which the global system has been constructed. it is a concept of geo-political organisation that divides up areas of the planet, mainly the dry land, and the people thereof, into discreet areas that are asserted as being exclusively under the jurisdiction and control of a single system of government of some kind. ideas of such a state as a geo-political unit have been around for many centuries going back into antiquity. the concept has been one of variable content, from the evolution of the city-state with a common ethnic composition and then its emergence into a larger geo-political entities. it evolved into the great multi-ethnic empire-states of history such as the greek, persian and roman empires, covering vast areas and made up of a great mixture of peoples and cultures. as these empires rose and fell, more varied political relationships were established in the struggle for power and control of peoples and territories. then in more recent centuries in europe the concept has emerged as the “sovereign” nation-state1. the whole process has been an evolutionary one, as described by shoghi effendi “….an evolution that has had its earliest beginnings in the birth of family life, its subsequent development in the achievement of tribal solidarity, leading in turn to the constitution of the city-state, and *phd, retired barrister, writer. the views the author has expressed are his own. 1the reference to “nation” as used in this paper is not to be interpreted as a reference just to a nation or country with a single ethnicity. rather the word is used in the sense of a geo-political entity comprising one nation-state whether or not its population has multiple ethnicities. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" expanding later into the institution of independent and sovereign nations.”2 the term “sovereignty” comes from the latin“superanus”, meaning "chief" or "ruler". it is not a term of precise mean. the concept of sovereignty has been the subject of discussion and debate throughout much of history and is still actively debated. its definition, concept, and application has changed throughout, especially during the age of enlightenment. it has come to mean the essential condition and nature of a nation-state by which it is recognised as such within the present global order and within which it exercises its sovereign power and authority over its own area of the planet. political science has traditionally taken the view (although with some more recent reservations in the literature) that the beginning of the modern international system based on sovereign nation-states began with the peace of westphalia of 16483. the characteristics of such a sovereign entity, often constituted with a monarch, was seen as ruling over a distinct area of land and its peoples to the exclusion of any supra-national authority or other body. this emerged in international law as being the characteristics required for the recognition of such an entity by the wider community, comprising a permanent population, a 2the world order of bahá’u’lláh, shoghi effendi, (us bahá’í publishing trust, 1991). . 3 “the peace of westphalia .. is the collective name for two peace treaties signed in october 1648 in the westphalian cities of osnabrück and münster. they ended the thirty years' war (1618–1648) and brought peace to the holy roman empire, closing a calamitous period of european history that killed approximately eight million people. holy roman emperor ferdinand iii, the kingdoms of france and sweden, and their respective allies among the princes of the holy roman empire, participated in the treaties…. several scholars of international relations have identified the peace of westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, collectively known as westphalian sovereignty. however, some historians have argued against this, suggesting that such views emerged during the nineteenth and twentieth century in relation to concerns about sovereignty during that time.”(wikipedia) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/age_of_enlightenment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/age_of_enlightenment ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" defined territory and an independent government exercising sovereignty over those people and territories, with capacity to enter into relations with other nation-states4. this included the right to make war and peace. it was an idea that had philosophical support. thus hobbes advocated a complete concentration of power in the sovereign5. in more recent times the sovereignty in such a system has usually come to be vested in some form of a government of representatives, whether democratically elected or otherwise, rather than in a single monarchical ruler. but with appropriate domestic adjustments to reflect any such changed constitutional and institutional arrangements within the nation-state, the concept remains broadly much the same. it is a concept that has now been exported around the world after colonialism. this concept was carried over into the charter of the united nations. that organization is based upon the principle of thesovereigne quality of all its members tates6. in theory there is no hierarchy of nationstates. even the smallest of nation-states can be seen to be “sovereign”. the united nations organization itself has no independent powers of action to intervene in a nation-state without following the processes in the charter, involving the consent of its members, and then only on limited grounds. the charter purports to prohibits the threat or use of force and calls on all members to respect the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of other states7. 4under the 1933 montevideo convention on the rights and duties of states, such a state must have a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. 5thomas hobbes (1588–1679). his famous work was the leviathan. 6charter of the united nations,article 2.1. 7ibid, articles 2.4 and 2.7 and chapter vii. it has to be said that the united nations, in combining the quest for world peace whilst largely retaining the concept of state sovereignty as the basis of world order, has to some extent at least failed in its most basic objectives, in that violent conflicts and the threats of same have still continued in the world since its formation. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" but the ideas of nation and state as sovereign entities are not natural phenomena but are human constructs designed to meet the needs of the time.8the voluminous literature on this topic, supported in many cases by the experience in practice, has increasingly challenged the view that in the contemporary interdependent global system, the nation-state is still fully “sovereign” in the conduct of its affairs, even within its national boundaries. there was and still is a perceived need to balance the claims of sovereignty against the need for an accommodation between different nation-states in the common interests of both. talbott writes: “there has always been, and always will be, a tensionsometimes creative, sometime destructivebetween, on the one hand, the concept of an international community that recognizes interdependence as a fact and collective governance as a necessity, and, on the other, the appeal of a national community that thinks of itself as independent and sovereign.”9 but the absolute concept of sovereignty still exercises a profound influence and has many adherents. bani dugal10 states: “at the level of global governance, the concept of unfettered national sovereignty remains the dominant paradigm, limiting coordinated and effective action to address humanity’s most pressing challenges.”11 particular nation-states often assert their absolute rights to sovereignty and can be prepared to go to great lengths to defend it. thus one view of the meaning of “sovereignty” in its fuller sense is: “sovereignty, in political theory, the ultimate overseer, or authority, in the decision-making process of the state and in the maintenance of 8jared diamond, in the world until yesterday, (viking, 2012) suggests at 148 that state formation arose from an earlier practice of having tribal chiefdoms through competition, conquest or external pressure, the chiefdom being the most effective system of decision making to resist conquest or to outcompete other chiefdoms. thus they were a human construct to deal with a divided and competitive scenario. 9 the great experiment, s talbott, (simon &schuster, ny, 2008, 6). 10principal representative of the bahá'í international community to the un. 11dugal, “is the nation state past its sell-by-date?”, (perspectives, 2015) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" order. ... derived from the latin superanus through the french souveraineté, the term was originally understood to mean the equivalent of supreme power.”12 taking this absolute view of sovereignty to its fullest, it envisages that nation-states can still use all the powers in their hands to achieve whatever result they wish for their individual countries or peoples, no matter how unjust or inequitable, including in declaring of war and in the use of violence and the grossest of abuses, as a justifiable national tool of state. there is on this view no limit, moral or otherwise. arguably international law provides no effective limits, at least in practice. subject to the requirements of aspects of international law such as to human rights, humanitarian law and the laws of war, there is no need to have regard to the wider best interests of the planet and all its people. while states generally observe international law and usually respect the rights and interests of other states applying rules of comity, this is not a uniform practice, and the continued existence of interstate conflicts and abuses testify to this fact. increasingly however there is a view that that absolute degree of nation-state sovereignty has been eroded in practice by the increasing interdependence of all nations and peoples in more contemporary times. thus sir john boyd orr stated: “we are now physically, politically, and economically one world and nations so interdependent that the absolute national sovereignty of nations is no longer possible.”13 and the late maurice strong stated: “the concept of national sovereignty has been an immutable, indeed sacred, principle of international relations. it is a principle which will yield only slowly and reluctantly to the new imperatives of global environmental cooperation. it is simply not feasible for sovereignty to 12 https://www.britannica.com/topic/sovereignty 13nobel peace prize lecture, december 12, 1949. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 https://www.azquotes.com/author/14256-maurice_strong ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" be exercised unilaterally by individual nation states, however powerful.”14 some prominent commentators go further and state that absolute national sovereignty is now incompatible with ongoing human survival. thus bertrand russellis believed to have stated: “science has made unrestricted national sovereignty incompatible with human survival. the only possibilities are now world government or death.”15 the cosmopolitan school of philosophy has a number of contributors, such as derrida and appiah, who have advocated for a secular global view of global citizenship and governance transcending the sovereign nation-state16. rodney richards has written an article from a baha’i perspective entitled “national sovereignty: a blight on humanity”17, while kenneth e bowers has written another article entitled “ending the era of unfettered national sovereignty”18. some commentators see a tension between the dictates of national sovereignty and the desire for closer degrees of international cooperation, being advocates of the latter. but some current international events involving a number or powerful states engaged in conflict pose somewhat of a problem for this view. if anything, the current practices suggest that there may have been somewhat of a reactive deterioration in more recent global cooperation among many states, although this may be a temporary phenomenon. some may argue that this reflects a contemporary movement away from the 14 https://www.idlehearts.com/2448182/the-concept-of-national-sovereignty-has-been-an-immutable-indeedsacred-principle 15the accuracy of this quote has not been verified. 16for a discussion of cosmopolitanism and the baha’i view see nalinie mooten, the bahá’í contribution to cosmopolitan international relations theory, online journal of bahá’í studies 4 1 (2007) , 4-7. 17 online at bahaiteachings.org, 2016. 18 online at bahaiteachings.org, 2017. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/595340?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/author/12791-bertrand_russell https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1393115?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1393115?ref=sovereignty https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1393115?ref=sovereignty ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" alleged hegemony of western interests during recent centuries, but the explanation may be more deep seated than that. looking at the record of the nation-state in the last few centuries, one can safely conclude that the very concept of sovereignty has been at the root of so much terrible violence and suffering. the rise of the sovereign nation-state out of the middle ages may have resolved some of the conflict and chaos that occurred within national boundaries by the imposition of sovereign powers within those boundaries, but the concentration of power that thereby resulted may have increased the scope for interstate conflict. nation-states, through their governments, have vied with each other to advance their own self-defence, power, control and in some cases aggrandisement. this often gave rise among the population to strong nationalistic views, even extending to what might be called jingoism. this has often been at the heart of war, mass violence and global inequities. less thought has often been given to the wider deleterious effects of such an approach. it has not yet lead to a substantial theoretical revision of the sovereignty concept among nation-states, let alone to significant changes on the ground to the global order and its practice. some regional alliances and confederations have emerged in recent decades of varied effectiveness in bringing the nation-states together, but overall the individual sovereign nation-state remains the centrepiece of the global system. as a result the associated threat of further mass violence and suffering involving such entities in contention has not yet retreated. this threat has become more significant and worrying with the spread of weapons of mass destruction. in part this is because most national leaders still assert, at least as a fall-back position, the priority and immutability of absolute national sovereignty, at least when applied to their own country. this is not uncommonly supported by the masses of peoples within the nationstate who feel threatened or see no alternative for their own wellbeing. those peoples tend to regard the concept as the best safeguard of their own national interests. in many cases the leaders are presumably prepared to use all means available to them to try and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" enforce that view and are usually strongly opposed to what they may perceive as any outside intervention in their domestic affairs19. commenting on this, arnold toynbee wrote: “evidently few people are ready to recognize that the institutions of local sovereign states have failed repeatedly, during the last 5000 years, to meet mankind’s political needs, and that, in the global society, this institution is bound to prove to be transitory once again and this time more surely than ever before.”20 he points out that just as the number of sovereign states has grown since the second world war, so they have become more closely interdependent on the technological and economic planes. it is argued that in the light of many contemporary global events and circumstances, it is legitimate to ask whether the present global order, based primarily on the sovereign nation-state, best serves the interests of the one human race and of the planet as a whole. in a world increasingly characterised by interdependence of all its peoples, and with the science and technology that now lends itself to greater global connections, and with the rise of many great issues of global concern that require coordinated global responses, one has to ask whether the concept of absolute state sovereignty best reflects the needs of the time. transcending the nation-state given that the doctrine of the supremacy of the nation-state still exercises, both in secular theory and in practice, such a compelling influence on the global order, and given the view of some that it is a transitory doctrine to a better global order, what are the prospects of changing attitudes towards sovereignty to a more globalist position? here we seem to run into a degree of inertia, if not avoidance and 19the international law as to the right of outside intervention in the domestic affairs of a nation-state remains controversial. 20 mankind and mother earth, (oup, 1976, viii-ix) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" dismissal. the weight of divisive national and international politics seems to be too heavy against it. thus james mayall21 states: “..there is no immediate prospect of transcending the national idea, either as the principle of legitimisation or as the basis of political organisation for the modern state…the theoretical alternatives to this scheme have not materialised.” 22 the fact is that nationalism as expressed in the nation-state has proved to be an extraordinarily potent force, even as states have advanced politically and economically through multilateralism, and even as many countries have become more ethnically and religiously diverse and as people have increasingly crossed national borders. there was a glimpse of hope for some sort of a more profound supra-national form of thinking emerging around the end of the twentieth century, as the iron curtain showed signs of decaying with the fall of the berlin wall, and as nations developed closer links with one another. but in a more recent trend there has been a reassertion of the primacy of the doctrine of national sovereignty and the movement towards new forms of competitive rearmament and national ideological confrontation. it is no longer primarily a bi-polar movement between two great powers but increasingly it is a case of multi-polar competition. in most cases this has been limited in terms of actual large scale violent physical confrontation of the great powers, due to the threats posed by massive developments in armaments. recent interstate violence has mainly involved smaller client states, partners, or so-called rogue states. but there is now a worrying trend towards substantial national rearmament and competition among the more powerful states. and the emergence of aggressive forms of religious fundamentalism pose more issues of concern, especially when combined with national sovereign power. 21 first sir patrick sheehy professor of international relations in the university of cambridge. 22nationalism and international society, (cambridge up, 1990, 145). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" what are the prospect of rendering the doctrine of national sovereignty an obsolete doctrine? looking at the present very divided world order, a political observer may no doubt be inclined to take the view that there is little prospect, short of a major global catastrophe that brought the whole global systemto its knees, of the doctrine of national sovereignty being generally displaced in operative terms by a more inclusive and cooperative global concept. the doctrine of sovereignty seems to have an entrenched global position in a divided, competitive and often nationalistically prejudiced world. that is not to say that there have been no vocal critics of that doctrine, at least as applied in its more virulent form of extreme nationalism. the doctrine lay at the root cause of two major global wars and many lesser conflicts, which in themselves indicates its inadequacy in an increasingly interdependent world. it also lies, when combined with national prejudice, at the root of the many global disparities and injustices. the doctrine has drawn much criticism. going back to harold j laski, nationalism was seen as an obstinate virus or disease infecting the body politic of mankind. erich fromm excoriated it as our incest, our idolatry and our insanity. bertrand russell saw nationalism as the chief obstacle to the extension of social cohesion beyond national boundaries. hans j morgenthau saw the nation-state as rendered obsolete by the nuclear revolution. many other prominent secular critics have expressed similar sentiments23. but it seems that in practice the major powers are not interested in such views and are clinging to this doctrine even in the face of, or perhaps in reaction to, the growing interdependence of all peoples. it seems that they are willing to pursue their own international objectives independently, or at least in alliances, usually only when it is in their own perceived national interests to do so.lesser states, 23see the discussion in the new nationalism, louis l snyder, (2003, transaction publishers, 357-358) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" having secured their national independence post-colonialism, are likewise motivated to preserve it. the doctrine of national sovereignty continues to exercise a very powerful influence in the global scheme of things. but is there a misconception here?.in my view,any movement towards a more globally based order doesn’t necessitate a complete abandonment of the doctrine of national sovereignty24. it a more united world order, nation-states can still continue and can coexist within that order with a more limited form of national sovereignty or authority, much as the federal or provincial units of some nations do. for example, some form of a much more cooperative global order based on greater international cooperation, tied together with some agreed constitutional and institutional arrangements, would seem to be a step in the right direction, one with features that go beyond the present united nations charter25. taken further, another option may be a comprehensive and just global federal arrangement of all states, constituted by some binding treaty in conjunction with a new central governmental organisation for the whole planet to deal with matters of global concern. this could be based on some agreed, entrenched and binding federal global compact to which all nations accede. a reserve of power and authority in local and national matters could still be preservedin such an arrangement under a process of maximum decentralization, thus upholding the concept of unity in diversity26. 24 it has been suggested that state sovereignty can only mean absolute sovereignty. such comments point to the difficulties of defining boundaries should a form of limited state sovereignty be proposed. but of course this is already an issue that has been addressed in framing federal national systems through the use of constitutional definition. that is not to say that it is an easy process to achieve, the greater difficulty being to obtain all state agreement. 25with the fall of the berlin wall it seemed that the leaders of the nations might well engage in greater international collective action. of this the universal house of justice recently observed that this has now been assailed by resurgent forces of racism, nationalism and factionalism – message of 18 january 2019. 26in the turning point for all nations, (prepared by baha’i international community, united nations office, n. y., october, 1995), it is stated: “some fear that international political institutions inevitably evolve toward excessive centralization and constitute an unwarranted layer of bureaucracy. it needs to be explicitly and forcefully stated that any new structures for global governance must, as a matter of both principle and practicality, ensure that the responsibility for decision-making remains at appropriate levels. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" no doubt many other agreed and comprehensive provisions would be required in any such negotiations for a new global arrangement to ensure the success of such an arrangement and to guarantee its permanence. there is not space in this paper to list the potential matters for consideration in this regard in any detail nor to analyse the pros and cons of such secular constitutional/international arrangements and what they might look like. nor am i expressing a view as to the likelihood of such a global political arrangement coming about in the near future, as this will depend upon the future changeable and often volatile relationships and circumstances among nations and peoples. whatever the changes that may be envisaged to the present world order to create a more united world, clearly it cannot be one that opens the door to some new form of global tyranny. it is not envisaged that the system of absolute sovereign states will be replaced by some form of an absolute, single, all-powerful global state. such a proposition raises as many questions and concerns as there are with the concept of absolute national sovereignty and is most unlikely to be endorsed by any reasonable commentator. it would be seen as being avery dangerous concept.the question in this context is not what form of absolute global sovereignty could be imposed on the peoples of the world, but rather what form of binding constitutional/institutionaljoint arrangement could be agreed by the nations of the world in any move beyond the primacy of absolute national sovereignty.whether this occurs as a matter of some form of global choice, or is forced on the nations and peoples following some terrible world events, is not something that need be entered upon in this paper. there is not space striking the right balance may not always be easy. on the one hand, genuine development and real progress can be achieved only by people themselves, acting individually and collectively, in response to the specific concerns and needs of their time and place. it can be argued that the decentralization of governance is the sine qua non of development. on the other hand, the international order clearly requires a degree of global direction and coordination. therefore, in accordance with the principles of decentralization outlined above, international institutions should be given the authority to act only on issues of international concern where states cannot act on their own or to intervene for the preservation of the rights of peoples and member states. all other matters should be relegated to national and local institutions.” https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" in this paper to analyse the many factors that could precipitate such a happening, nor the pros and cons of such a secular constitutional/institutional arrangement and what it might look like. it is simply argued that in an increasingly interdependent global order, the doctrine of the absolute sovereign nation-state no longer reflects the realities on the ground and, further, carries with it many undesirable and potentially destructive effects. this alone should be enough to precipitate serious discussion on possible changes to the present global order. a newspiritual perspective most of the scriptures of the great religions have had no cause to consider the role and justification for the concept of the nation-state in the contemporary world order for the good reason that those scriptures predated the advent of that concept in its more recent manifestation. what has been written by some religious commentators representing various sects, denominations and views has been deduced for more general scriptural principles and hence it is limited by what they authoritatively can say specifically on this topic. islam did have cause to deal with this topic in relation to earlier manifestations of the concept dating back many centuries, in particular as to matters such as treaties between rival groups. the one religion that has dealt with the more contemporary concept in a consistent and consolidated manner is the baha’i faith, having originated in the 19th century. the baha’i faith, perhaps alone among the major religions of the world, has had cause to consider the place of the “sovereign” nationstate in the global order in some detail. it is unique in this respect and for that reason alone deserves consideration in the panoply of views out there, most of which are secular in nature. it seems appropriate to assess where the perspective of the baha’i faithsits in that ongoing debate, taking that faith as revealed through the teachings of its primary figures, in particular the writings of the https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" prophet/founder baha’u’llah, his successor and eldest son abdu’lbaha, and the guardian of the faith shoghi effendi. to understand the baha’i perspective it is necessary to consider the approach of the baha’i writings to the process of human history. this history is not seen as being merely a process of unrelated, accidental facts and circumstances as determined or influenced by the various human actors themselves. rather it is seen as part of an organic process in which the human actors have played a part through their own decisions and acts, but which overall is subject to divine guidance and direction. bahá’u’lláh, the prophet founder, taught that human history throughout its entire length was an intelligible and connected whole, centring round a single theme and developing a common purpose. in this essay, first published in the bahá’í world27, the author george townshend28 describes how, from the beginning of history to the present day and beyond the present to the cycle’s distant end, one master-scheme is disclosed by set degrees. it is a form of historical interpretation that includes elements of predestination, but still leave room for the exercise of human free will. overall the hand of the divine is seen as being at work, guiding and encouraging humans through select individuals called manifestations or prophets, the founders of the great religions. it has operated on the human community from its earliest beginnings as very small groups, through various levels of human organisation and forms of unity. this has now reached the limits of this process as separate sovereign nation states, often resistant to any greater unity.it is from this position, viewed in the light of contemporary global events and circumstances, that a wider global unity can now be contemplated. many factors now point in this direction in the light of many developments such as developments in science and technology, global communications and connections and the increasing interdependence of all peoples. the 27volume vi (1934-1936). 28anglican archdeacon from ireland later baha’i hand of the cause. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" basic principle of the faiththat it seeks to be adopted and applied is that of the oneness of all humanity, that all humanity are one race and one great human family. the divisions that have so far existed between peoples are part of our inheritance but are to be seen as being only stepping stones to a new, much more united global order. the baha’i international community has expressed the view that the current world confusion and calamitous condition in human affairs is a natural phase, although accompanied by many trials and suffering, in this organic process leading ultimately and irresistibly to the unification of the whole human race in a single social order whose boundaries are that of the planet itself. the human race, as a distinct, organic unit, has passed through evolutionary stages analogous to the stage of infancy and childhood in the lives of its individual members and in their forms of social organisation, and is now seen to be in the culminating period of its turbulent adolescence approaching its long awaited coming of age29. thus the goal to which a harassed humanity is seen to be heading is its long awaited unity and state of permanent peace as one human race on one planetary homeland. commenting on this, the universal house of justice stated: “permanent peace among nations is an essential stage, but not, bahá'u'lláh asserts, the ultimate goal of the social development of humanity. beyond the initial armistice forced upon the world by the fear of nuclear holocaust, beyond the political peace reluctantly entered into by suspicious rival nations, beyond pragmatic arrangements for security and coexistence, beyond even the many experiments in co-operation which these steps will make possible lies the crowning goal: the unification of all the peoples of the world in one universal family.”30 29turning point for all nations, op.cit. 30the promise of world peace, (theuniversal house of justice, 1995, para 53) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" given this approach, it is not at all surprising that the faith views the concept of the sovereignty of the nation-state with qualifications. shoghi effendi, the guardian of the faith, wrote: “unification of the whole of mankind is the hall-mark of the stage which human society is now approaching. unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively attempted and fully established. world unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. nation-building has come to an end. the anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards a climax. a world, growing to maturity, must abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once for all the machinery that can best incarnate this fundamental principle of its life.”31 to those who may see this goal as a forlorn hope, the faith indicates that the movement to global unity is inevitable due to the forces, spiritual and material, that have been and are already at work in the world. while there are forces favouring disunity and the status quo, equally there are forces influencing the global community towards ever greaterglobal interdependence and unity. these forces are a mystery to many, but are explained by the baha’i view. the interplay of these forces is necessarily resulting in many trials and much strife and violence, indicating the inability of the system of very divided nation-states to effectively deal with them. thus: “"the winds of despair", bahá'u'lláh wrote, "are, alas, blowing from every direction, and the strife that divides and afflicts the human race is daily increasing. the signs of impending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing order appears to be lamentably defective." this prophetic judgement has been amply confirmed by the common experience of humanity. flaws in the prevailing order are conspicuous in the inability of sovereign states organized as united nations to exorcize the spectre of war, the 31the world order of baha’u’llah, (baha’i publishing trust, 1974, 202) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" threatened collapse of the international economic order, the spread of anarchy and terrorism, and the intense suffering which these and other afflictions are causing to increasing millions.”32 the members of the baha’ faith, although at this stage relatively small in number, are part of these global developments. they recognise that in the early stages of the evolution towards global unity, the forces of world politics will dominate. it is stated that: “since sovereignty currently resides with the nation-state, the task of determining the exact architecture of the emerging international order is an obligation that rests with heads of state and with governments”33 this is therefore not a field for the baha’is to take an active role, they beingnon participants in divisive partisan politics. where the baha’is are active is helping to create a wider consciousness of the oneness of humanity, a spiritual truth to which they are committed and which in the baha’i view must be the foundation of an effective and lasting global unity34. it is this concept that challenges the peoples of the world, from their leaders down, to broaden their horizons beyond the limitations of national sovereignty. bani dugal writes of this: “making the transition from nationalistic to global thinking is the overriding challenge of our era. it is also one of the most difficult, made more so by the degree to which present day leaders are bound to the paradigm of “national interest” in all that they do. the answer to this conundrum, i believe, lies with a renewed focus on what is happening at the grassroots. for, only as people everywhere 32gleanings from the writings of baha’u’llah, (baha’i publishing trust, 1976, 216) 33 the turning point for all nations, op cit. 34it has been said that: ““conceived of as an end in itself, the national state has come to be a denial of the oneness of mankind, the source of general disruption opposed to the true interests of its peoples…” a bahá’í declaration of human obligations and rights”, (bahá’í international community,february, 1947). but in the writer’s opinion, the baha’i approach to a reconstructed and more unified global community, in which a form of global governance exists alongside continuing nation-states, does not necessarily involve a denial of the oneness of humanity. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" come to understand their essential oneness will national leaders be forced to reflect this new reality in dealings at the international level. the fact is that people everywhere are recognizing their common identity as global citizens – and, equally importantly, see that the pursuit of justice and peace is consistent around the world. ordinary people increasingly understand that humanity is one. the signs of this extend from the degree to which popular culture is now a global phenomenon – from football to bollywood – to more urgent issues like climate change or attacks on the education of girls, where solidarity campaigns now make use of viral technology to organize and advocate for change.”35 any such global change is by its very nature an enormous challenge. of necessity it must be evolutionary in nature, one step at a time. it has huge implications for the wellbeing of all humanity. thus, for example, extraordinary care would have to be taken in designing the emerging architecture of any new international order so that it does not over time degenerate into any form of despotism, of oligarchy or of demagogy corrupting the life and machinery of the constitutent institutions and undermining the new level of global unity36. likewise the structure must be such that diversity of different peoples around the world is preserved as much as possible consistent with overall unity. and the principle of decentralisation of decision making should be utilised as much as possible, again consistent with overall global unity. from this standpoint it does not mean that the individual nation-states would disappear. rather they would become the constituent units of the new global order, exercising jurisdiction in local and national matters but not a form of absolute and unlimited sovereignty. the people of each nation state would still hold dear their national citizenship while also viewing themselves as world citizens in common with all humanity. in this sense the baha’i 35“is the nation state past its sell-by-date?”, (perspectives, 2015). 36turning point for all nations, op.cit. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" perspective does not adopt the absolute and unlimited concept of national sovereignty: rather it envisages a qualified concept of national sovereignty, which would allowthe nation-states to continue and to exercise power and authority over national and local matters while accepting the need for a form of governance at the global level by global institutions in matters that truly require global attention and decision-making. at that level the equitable interests of the whole planet and of all humanitywould be paramount. in the baha’i view, this plan is not just wishful thinking. rather it is a plan that is subject to the overall guidance and direction of the divine source,as laid down by the founder/prophet of the faith, baha’u’llah, the essence of which is as follows: “the revelation of baha’u’llah, whose supreme mission is none other but the achievement of this organic and spiritual unity of the whole body of nations, should, if we be faithful to its implications, be regarded as signalizing through its advent the coming of age of the entire human race. it should be viewed not merely as yet another spiritual revival in the ever-changing fortunes of mankind, not only as a further stage in a chain of progressive revelations, nor even as the culmination of one of a series of recurrent prophetic cycles, but rather as marking the last and highest stage in the stupendous evolution of man’s collective life on this planet. the emergence of a world community, the consciousness of world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and culture… should, by their very nature, be regarded, as far as this planetary life is concerned, as the furthermost limits in the organization of human society, though man, as an individual, will, nay must indeed as a result of such a consummation, continue indefinitely to progress and develop.”37 seen in this perspective, the rise of the doctrine of absolute state sovereignty is, it is argued, just an evolving aspect of one phase in the ongoing global organisational development of humanity leading in time to further global developments. to those who live the doctrine 37shoghi effendi, the world order of baha’u’llah, op.cit, 163. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" and put much faith in and reliance on it, it will seem a lot more than that. it will be seen by them as the firm, necessary basis of world order.hence there will be serious reluctance to modify or reform it to meet changing global circumstances. they may be content in the main to approach the subject from a secular, nationalistic point of view but seen from the broader sweep of human history, and particularly from the baha’i perspective of history, that doctrine does not have that degree of permanence or importance. rather it can be seen as part of the transition of the global society towards a more united, a more mature form of global governance for all humanity38. if the doctrine of state sovereignty no longer meets changing human needs, it is argued that it should no longer justifiably hold, in its absolute terms at least, our allegiance as members of one interdependent human race. as shoghi effendi wrote: “the call of bahá'u'lláh is primarily directed against all forms of provincialism, all insularities and prejudices. if long-cherished ideals and time-honored institutions, if certain social assumptions and religious formulae have ceased to promote the welfare of the generality of mankind, if they no longer minister to the needs of a continually evolving humanity, let them be swept away and relegated to the limbo of obsolescent and forgotten doctrines. why should these, in a world subject to the immutable law of change and decay, be exempt from the deterioration that must needs overtake every human institution? for legal standards, political and economic theories are solely designed to safeguard the interests of humanity as a whole, and not humanity to be crucified for the preservation of the integrity of any particular law or doctrine.”39 the challenge is for world leaders, and for the wider population, in the face of rising global pressures and difficulties, to seize the opportunities to work gradually towards global order and peace on a 38 ultimately the baha’i writings envisage that the term “sovereignty” attaches to the one supreme deity of all, the “the sovereignty of god”. ” 39the world order of baha’u’llah, op.cit. 42. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) graham nicholson* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “future of the “sovereign” nation-state – a new spiritual perspective 2025" united, sustainable, just and effective basis, unimpeded by a doctrine which is loosing much of its rationale and effectiveness. human circumstances have in this contemporary age now changed significantly in order to reflect rising global imperatives. the alternatives involving the continuance of the present divided global order, it is argued, are not attractive when considered from the point of view of the best interests of the one human race and of the planet as a whole. humans are already sadly experiencing the many deficiencies of the present global order, some more than others. it may take some momentous terrible shocks, which as yet cannot be fully foreseen, in order to give impetus to the calls for such a change. we shouldn’t, it is suggested, allow the forces of the status quo and of privilege and prejudice to cloud our minds to the prospects of such a change, particularly if, as is argued, that change is seen as being part of humanity’s spiritual destiny. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17131352 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria abstract: nigerian libraries have added value to the services they provide through information and communication technology (ict). this study used a survey research method on the use of ict in nigerian libraries: a case study of the kwara state university library. the respondents were students and faculty members from the university. the results show that the kwara state university library has an abundance of computers connected to the internet using the millennium web program. students and faculty members use online public access (opac) to iron out material on shelves. the study reveals several reasons for the use of the internet by participating faculty and students. but the least use of ict has been electronic databases. the faculty members surveyed with the highest frequency were of those, 50 (83%) use the internet to update knowledge, while the highest respondents 179 students (66%) use the internet to complete projects. however, proper training of library staff will increase the use of electronic databases. keywords: ict, kwara state university, faculty, students, libraries, nigeria. 1.0 introduction the effectiveness of the library as a tool for education is determined by its success, which the library is able to provide and meet the user's information needs. in the 21st century, it is considered the era of the information revolution. advances in information technology have led to long-term developments in the higher education sector. an example of this is the application of digital information in learning. libraries and information centers in nigeria are not only equipped with materials in traditional form but also in electronic form; they offer users a wide range of information sources. before the advent of ict, the work of libraries in nigeria was stressful and a waste of time without making room for flexibility. however, with the introduction of information and communication technology in nigeria, particularly in higher education institutions such as kwara state university, there is a simultaneous access by many users, which helps bridge the global information gap and creates a brighter future for students (omagbemi, akintola, and olayiwola, 2004). information and communication technology, commonly abbreviated as ict, is often used as an expanded synonym for information technology (it). in bappah (2010), wirsiy and shafack define "ict" as a broad term that includes the aggregation (acquisition), organization (encapsulation), storing, and retrieving (dissemination) of information that may be present in text or digital forms (books, documents), graphics, audio (audio and visual), or a combination of all of the above (multimedia), using a combination of computers and telephony distance learning. 1.1 objective of study the main objective of the study is to use of knowledge and to cite this article: abdrahman atanda moustapha, jemilat biogera abubakar, ganiyat olayinka bello, abdulrasheed ishola yakub (esq.), roseline damilola akanji abdrahman atanda moustapha1, jemilat biogera abubakar2, ganiyat olayinka bello3, abdulrasheed ishola yakub (esq.)4, roseline damilola akanji5 kwara state university library, nigeria https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 mailto:abdrahmaa.moustapha@kwasu.edu.ng mailto:jemilat.abubakar@kwasu.edu.ng mailto:ganiyat.bello@kwasu.edu.ng mailto:abdulrasheed.yakub@kwasu.edu.ng mailto:roseline.akanji@kwasu.edu.ng ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria. while the specific objectives of this study are: 1. to examine the availability of ict in kwasu university library 2. to identify the ict resources used by library staff and students 3. to determine the frequency of the ict resource usage. 4. to identify the purpose of using ict resources 5. to identify the problems encountered while using ict resources 2.0 literature review academic libraries are seeing greater improvements in the areas of teaching and learning, research activities, and society. iwu and yusuf (2010) confirmed that 61.9% of students at covenant university use the opac to locate items on shelves. in a similar study by ilo and ifijeh (2010), 94% of covenant university final year students indicated the presence of the internet had a greater impact on their projects. also, nwezeh (2010) in a study on the use of ict in nigerian universities found that 78% of staff and 85% of students at obafemi awolowo university use the internet for their projects. moreover, the results of krubu and osawaru (2011) define ict resources and the use of resources available at john harris and benson idahosa university libraries as a search engine, the internet, cds, an internet database, and the world wide web. these resources are used to obtain, store, process, retrieve, and disseminate information. it has information and communication technology. it allowed nigerian academic libraries to use the internet for search engines such as yahoo, google, email, etc. and access to online digital resources like amazon, wikipedia, etc. both academic and public libraries play a major role in the development of the workforce in any country. public libraries must serve the public's information needs. but emojorho (2010) in a study on ict and collection management in public libraries found that only a few public libraries in the south, south and nigeria are computerized and make use of the internet. moreover, it is not sufficiently funded. computers are unavailable, and libraries lack a sophisticated workforce. but private libraries in nigeria are aware of the economic value of ict in the growth and development of their businesses, and therefore have computers connected to the internet. abubakar (2010) in a study of the availability and use of ict in six nigerian university library schools, the availability of computers, the internet, cds, e-mail, microfilm, microfiche, video tapes, and slide projectors were identified as available resources and that they used the resources exclusively for education and training. africa's university libraries are the hub, and research for development activities requires internet connectivity to be applicable in this age of ict. etim (2004) notes in okon(2005) that technological development has led to a shift from the traditional information environment to an electronic environment such as cds, online services, and online databases. bandwidth, according to alhasan and adepoju (2007), is the amount of data that a computer network can transfer in a certain time period. omekwe and echezona (2008) pointed out that the digital divide between the north and south is relatively skewed against africa, making global access to information faster, broader, and more diversified in europe and america than in africa. kamba (2008) explored the problem of information technology, especially internet use in nigeria's libraries, to include inadequate and weak information infrastructure. krubu and osawaru (2011) reveal some of the factors hampering the impact of ict in nigerian university libraries, such as lack of research skills, epileptic power supplies, expensive software and hardware, and huge amounts of money spent on fuel generators. oketunji (2004) asserts that the internet and other icts provide a golden opportunity for the provision of value-added services by libraries. cataloging, abstracting, publishing, and digitizing local research are ways to facilitate learning. aina (2004) identified the negative non-interference attitude of lecturers, students, and libraries as other factors preventing the development and use of ict in university libraries in nigeria. furthermore, aina acknowledges the high cost of ict training but believes that library staff and users should do something themselves to improve their it skills. finally, allison (2007) suggests the continuation of information literacy programs because he has found that users are not aware of the information sources available in libraries or do not know how to access them. 3.0 methodology: survey research methodology was used for the study. the study population consisted of 4650 library users, 4530 registered students, and 120 faculty members at kwasu university. 350 library users (270 students and 80) faculty members were sampled from this cohort using a random sampling technique. of these, 350 questionnaires were submitted, of which 330 were duly completed. of the 350 questionnaires completed, 270 (82%) and 60 (18%) are students and faculty members, respectively. the instrument adopted for the study was a two-part questionnaire that was https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." sent to respondents within the library premises. section a of the questionnaire collected basic information, while section b contains the availability, use, and services of ict provided by the kwara state university library to students and faculty. validated, tested for facial validation, and administered personally by the researcher with the help of library staff. the data was analyzed using frequency tables and percentages. 3.1 results and discussions table 1: status of respondents respondent frequency percentage faculty 60 18% students 270 82% total 330 100% table 1 shows that 60 (18%) of the respondents are faculty members, while the remaining 270 (82%) of the respondents are students. table 2: kwasu's ict resource availability variables faculty students freq. % freq. % the library provides internet service 35 58 155 57 the library subscribes to electronic databases. 29 48 97 36 the online public access catalogue (opac) is available in the library and on the campus network. 33 55 194 72 provision of adequate computers for staff and students 41 68 198 73 the library provides binding and printing services. 33 55 156 58 audio & video services are available for staff and students 41 68 198 73 table 2 indicates that both students and faculty use all the resources in the kwara state university library. the respondents of the faculty indicated that the provision of suitable computers is the highest, with a frequency of 41 representing 68%, while the student respondents indicated that the provision of binding and printing services is the highest, with a frequency of 198 representing 73%. the respondents of the faculty indicated the use of the internet in the library at a rate of 35, with a rate of 58%, while the respondents of the students indicated that they used the internet at a rate of 155, representing 57% of the expected because only final year students are allowed to use the multimedia library. the least use of ict for both faculty members 29(48%) and students 97(36%) was the use of electronic databases subscribed to by the library. the reason may be the lack of awareness of both faculty and students. of 194 student respondents, 72% indicated the use of the opac maintained by the library. this confirms the study by iwu and yusuf (2010) on the means of finding library materials in the covenant university library; the study revealed that 61.9% of the students used the opac. table 3: reasons for using internet service variables faculty students freq. % freq. % updating knowledge 50 83% 186 69% in-depth research work 33 55% 173 64% consult the reference materials 30 50% 165 61% browsing the web 32 53% 197 73% prepare for the examination 34 57% 155 57% complete project work. 25 42% 179 66% communication 34 57% 146 54% leisure/recreation 21 35% 130 48% https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." table 3 reveals reasons for using the internet by both faculty and students. the faculty respondents, with the highest frequency of 50 representing (83%) using the internet in the library to while the majority of students, 179 (66%), use the internet to complete project. this is followed by 34 (57%) of the faculty respondents who use the internet for 197 (73%) of student respondents use the internet to surf the web. the internet is used by the fewest number of faculty respondents, 15 (representing 35%). a total of 130 students responded, accounting for (48%) of the total. use the internet for leisure or recreation. table 3 reveals that 66% of the student respondents use the internet to complete the project. table 4 shows the frequency with which 1ct is used at kwa su. table 4 indicates that the majority of faculty (19, 32%) and students (64, 24%) at kwara state university sometimes use ict in the university library, while 15 (25%) of faculty respondents use ict very often and 80 (30%) of student respondents use it very often, 16 (27%) of faculty. although 59 (22%) of student respondents rarely use it, 10 (16%) of faculty members never use ict in the university library, while 67 (24%) of students do. respondents never use it. one could deduce from table 4 that students use ict in the library most. this is expected. because faculty members have limited time. moreover, they have pcs in their offices that are connected to the internet. nwezeh (2010) in a similar study on the use of ict at obafemi awolowo university reveals that 71% of faculties use the internet in their offices. table 5: what are the problems encountered by faculty and students? table 5 above reveals the problems encountered by both faculty and students. 40 the respondents, representing 67% of faculty, have the highest challenge for the use of the library. while 157 (58%) of the student respondents indicated an uncooperative attitude of library staff, a notable number, 38(63%), of the faculty respondents indicated inadequate training of library staff. 155 (57%) of student respondents indicated lack of internet connectivity as problem. a total of 21 (35%) and 135 (50%) of faculty and student respondents, respectively, indicated one of the challenges is epileptic power supply. this is in line with the findings of krubu and osawaru (2011) reveals some factors hindering the impact of ict in nigerian university libraries. lack of search skills, epileptic power supply, expensive software and hardware, and huge amount of money spent on fuel generators. table 6: assessment of library resources and services assessment rating library resources library services excellent 55 17% 30 9% very well 185 56% 69 21% well 75 23% 171 52% fair 15 4% 60 18% total 330 100% 330 100% table 6 shows the assessment of the library resources and services by both faculty and students. the resources were rated very well by faculty and students, with a frequency of 185, representing 56%, while 55, representing 17%, rated it excellent. library services were rated badly compared to the rating for library resources. 30 of the respondents, representing 9%, rated library service as excellent, while 69, representing 21%, rated the service as very good. the highest rating for the library services was 171 representing 52% and it was rated while that of library resources was 185 representing 56% and it was rated very well. this implies that the library services rendered at kwara state university library should be improved upon. 4.0 discuss of results. according to the results regarding the availability of ict period faculty students freq. % freq. % very often 15 25% 80 30% sometimes 19 32% 64 24% rarely 16 27% 59 22% never 10 16% 67 24% total 60 100% 270 100% problems faculty students freq. % freq. % epileptic power supply 21 35 135 50 lack internet connectivity 30 50 155 57 time constraint 40 67 89 33 inadequate training of library staff 38 63 144 53 uncooperative attitude of library staff 15 25 157 58 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." resources and services for use by both faculty and students, it was found that kwasu library has very good ict resources and internet service has greater use. this is in line with the findings of ilo and ifijeh (2010), that 94% of covenant university final year students found internet use beneficial for their projects. these findings also confirmed the findings of nwezeh (2010) in a study on the use of ict in nigerian universities, which found that 78% of employees and 85% of students at obafemi awolowo university use the internet for their projects. also, the results show that 32% of the faculty and 24% of the students in kwasu sometimes use ict in the university library. furthermore, 63% of faculty members cited insufficient training of library staff as a problem facing library use, while 58% of student respondents indicated an uncooperative attitude of library staff. however, what students perceive as the uncooperative attitude of the library staff cannot be separated from some of the shortcomings shown by the library staff. essentially, both students and faculty saw insufficient training for library staff as a hindrance in their quest to benefit from the services offered by the library. this is consistent with the findings of krubu and osawaru (2011), which identified some of the factors hampering the impact of ict in nigerian libraries, such as lack of research skills, epileptic power supply, etc. energy source is the least challenging, with 21 (35%) recurrences by faculty and 135 (50%) by student respondents. this shows that despite the overall challenge of intermittent and unreliable electricity supply in nigeria, the kwasu library has made a breakthrough in uninterruptible power supply, thus ensuring unimpeded access to its ict resources. however, training and retraining of librarians is essential to make them better serve the library's users. 5.0 recommendations. 1. in as much as the federal government should be commended for integrating ict into the mainstream of the education system, it should strive to ensure that the power supply is uninterrupted across the country. this is the only way in which the government can ensure the use of ict in nigerian libraries. 2 the problems faced by both students and faculty members in using ict resources show that library users need to be more encouraged to use the library by better serving them. hence, it is recommended that the library management conduct a regular evaluation of the performance of all the library staff so that the instances of users' dissatisfaction with the provision of the service are reduced to a minimum. thus, the weaknesses, strengths, and capabilities of the library staff will be identified in order to strengthen them for better performance. 3. finally, regular and up-to-date training on the use of ict resources available in nigerian libraries and their benefits for both library users and academics is recommended. 5.1 conclusion it is clear from the study that icts have brought nigerian libraries access to a greater range of resources. the use of the internet and its resources as an integral part of ict has added value to the services provided by nigerian libraries. access to current and usable information services through the use of ict is expected to facilitate the development of society. community development can only be enhanced by eliminating all barriers and providing ict facilities in all the libraries located in nigeria. references [1] abubakar, bappah magaji, (2010) "availability and use of information and communication technology (ict) in six nigerian university library schools" (2010). library philosophy and practice (e-journal). 378. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/378 [2] aina, l.o. (2004). coping with the challenges of library and information services: the need for institutionalized professional development. nigerian library association conference proceedings, 2004, p.4. [3] alhasan, j.k. and adepoju, s.a. (2007). an evaluation of the internet connectivity of information technology firms in the minna metropolis 96-103 in information technology 4(1). [4] alison, a.k. (2007). the effect of information literacy on the utilization of electronic information and resources in selected academic and research institutions in uganda. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=02640473 & volume=25amp; 3&articleid=1610818&show=abstract. (as of march 13, 2013). [5] bappah, m. a. (2010). availability and use of information and communication technology (ict) in six nigerian university library schools. available at www.webpages.universitylibrary.schools. available at: www.webpages.uidaho.edu/mbolin/bappah-abubakar.htm. (accessed january 16, 2013). [6] emojorho, daniel. (2010) "ict and collection management in https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/378 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) abdrahman atanda moustapha1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “the use of knowledge and communication technology in academic libraries in nigeria: a case study of kwara state university library, malete, nigeria." public libraries: a survey of south-south zone of nigeria." library philosophy and practice, aug. 2010. gale academic one file, [7] ilo, promise, and ifijeh, good luck (2010). impact of the internet on final year students' research: a case study of covenant university, ota, nigeria. available at: http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/mbolin/ilo-ifijeh.htm. (accessed january 10, 2013). [8] iwu, juliana and yusuf, felicia (2010). use of the academic library: a case study at covenant university, nigeria. (accessed december 25, 2012) www.whiteclouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl30yi.pdf [9] kamba, m.a. (2008). the changing role of researchers in nigeria: the internet as an alternative to future modernity cgi? article=1231&context=libphilprac is available at digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontext.cgi?article=1231&co ntext=libphilprac.(as of january 17, 2013). [10] krubu, dorcas e. and osawaru, kingsley e. (2011). the impact of information and communication technologies (ict) on nigerian university libraries digital commons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1614&context= libphilprac.(as of january 17, 2013). [11] nwezeh, c. (2010). the use of ict in nigerian universities: a case study of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife. website: www.webpages.uidaho.edu/mbolin/nwezeh.htm(as of january 11, 2013). [12] oketunji, i (2004).library development and the role of information and communication technology, being a paper presented at the national workshop on strategies for managing technology services in libraries and information centers, nla cataloguing, classification and indexing section, held at stella obasanjo complex, lokoja, 17th-24th october. [13] okon, h.i. (2005). effective communication and smooth administration of academic libraries in the 21st century: a new paradigm in nigeria. website: www.webpages.uidaho.edu/mbolin/okon.htm(accessed march 2013). [14] omagbemi, c. o., akintola, b.a., and olayiwola, i.b. (2004). academic libraries, the internet and its potential impact on teaching and learning in nigerian tertiary institutions. journal of library and information science 1 (1&2): 38-39. [15] omekwu, c.o and echezona, r.i. (2008). emerging challenges and opportunities for nigerian libraries in global information environment: a paper presented at the 46th annual nla conference june 1 2008, kaduna. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17826583 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl30yi.pdf http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl30yi.pdf ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role lead author: babarinde funto (phd) small and medium enterprise development agency of nigeria (smedan), abuja, nigeria corresponding author: nweke-love henry department of political science and international relations, landmark university, omuaran, nigeria david samuel s. international university of management, windhoek, namibia abstract: this study examines the institutional role of the small and medium enterprises development agency of nigeria (smedan) in facilitating diaspora investment into nigerian smes. anchored in institutional theory, the research interrogates how institutional legitimacy, visibility, and policy coherence influence diaspora–sme linkages. a mixed-methods approach was employed: survey data from 65 smes were triangulated with 13 key informant interviews drawn from smedan officials, sme operators, and diaspora investors.the findings reveal that while smedan demonstrates institutional intent through policies such as diaspora bonds, export promotion initiatives, and integration with the african continental free trade area (afcfta), its practical impact on diaspora investment remains limited. only 10.8% of smes reported diaspora facilitation, and participation in diaspora-specific platforms reached just 6.2%. qualitative insights further underscore a disconnect between program design and investor needs, with co-authors: babarinde oluwagbohunmi department of political science and international relations, landmark university, omuaran, nigeria olaoluwa ayodele michael programme manager g-faise enterprises limited ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 114 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" diaspora respondents often bypassing smedan in favor of informal networks or direct engagement through other agencies. the study concludes that smedan’s intermediary role is constrained not by a lack of policy vision, but by gaps in enforcement, outreach, and institutional credibility. recommendations include establishing dedicated diaspora investment desks, strengthening inter-agency collaboration with bodies such as nidcom and nipc, and enhancing visibility through digital platforms. keywords: smedan; diaspora capital; diaspora investment; small and medium enterprises (smes); nigeria 1. introduction: nigeria, the most populated nation in africa, with an estimated 2024 gdp of $568 billion in real terms (world bank, 2024), has long relied on its informal and formal sector for economic growth, with small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) contributing significantly to its socio-economic development (aikor, 2021; etim & daramola, 2020; nor, 2024).according to a 2021 joint smedan and nbs survey report, nigeria is also reportedly home to over 39.6 million msmes, constituting 97% of businesses and contributing to about 48% of nigeria’s gdp (smedan & nbs, 2021). in the same vein, nigeria’s smes made up 6.21% of gross national exports and 88% of employment generated within same year(pwc, 2024).. in a country grappling with high unemployment, poverty, and a youthful population, the growth of smes is therefore vital to attaining inclusive and sustainable economic development. similarly, nigeria’s smes also act as a driving force for socio-economic development, particularly by enhancing local production, promoting entrepreneurship, and promoting innovation among and women (aikor, 2021). this is especially vital in a nation where informal sector economic initiatives play substantial role. etim and daramola (2020), in their comparative study of the informal sector economic activities in south africa and nigeria, assert that smes, particularly in the informal setting, contribute to economic resilience and household income generation despite structural challenges such limited infrastructure and inconsistent regulatory environment. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 115 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" the small and medium enterprise development agency of nigeria (smedan) was founded in 2003 by the smedan act with the sole aim of advancing the development of msmes sector in nigeria (smedan, 2003, 2025a). the institution was created by the federal government of nigeria as a one-stop institution to provide support, coordinate empowerment, and policy direction for the development of the smes in recognition of the vital importance, played by msmes in national empowerment, through employment generation, poverty reduction, and economic diversification. several studies acknowledge the positive mediating impact created by smedan initiatives in entrepreneurship development and socio-economic growth in nigeria (abah &okike, 2023; garba & ahmed, 2024; gumel &bardai, 2023). smedan operates with guidance from the federal ministry of industry, trade and investment with a mandate to simulate, monitor, and coordinate the development of msmes in nigeria. in addition, the organization is shouldered with the task of formulating and implementing supportive policies, facilitating access to fiancé, providing business development services, supporting capacity-building initiatives, and creating market linkage for smes. one of the key functions of smedan is to foster institutional support and an enabling environment that allows msmes to thrive, especially in the agricultural, manufacturing, service and trade sectors. to achieve its objectives, the agency has launched several initiatives such as the national msmes clinics, the conditional grant scheme (cgs) for micro-businesses, and other capacity-building and entrepreneurship development programs across the country (gumel &bardai, 2023). while smedan has made significant strides in supporting msmes within nigeria, there is limited documentation of its effort in diaspora engagement and local smes. given the rising global trend of government leveraging diaspora resources for development, this area presents a largely untapped opportunities for smedan to expand its impact (idehen &akhator, 2021). yet, the specific contributions of smedan in this domain warrant closer examination. this study therefore investigates smedan’s role in strengthening sme export readiness and facilitating connections with diaspora-backed financial resources and trade networks. by this, thestudy seeks to illuminate how smedan creates pathways for diaspora investment, while identifying gaps and opportunities for enhancing its impact. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 116 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" 2. brief review of literature: 2.1 smedan: historical background, mandate, and institutional structure the small and medium enterprises development agency of nigeria (smedan) was established by the smedan act of 2003 to address the structural challenges constraining micro, small, and medium enterprises (msmes). its creation was rooted in the recognition that smes form the backbone of national economies, particularly in developing countries, where they account for employment generation, grassroots development, and industrial linkages (smedan, 2021). the agency’s mandate spans multiple objectives, including the promotion of smefriendly policies, provision of capacitybuilding programs, facilitation of access to finance, and delivery of business support services (garba & ahmed, 2024). it functions as a bridge between government, financial institutions, and entrepreneurs, ensuring that smes are adequately positioned to access resources and operate in a competitive environment. smedan’s core functions revolve around four pillars: 1) policy formulation and advocacy. 2) enterprise development and training. 3) financial intermediation and credit facilitation; and 4) market access promotion. through these, the agency has initiated programs such as the national msme clinics, conditional grant schemes, entrepreneurship training, and export readiness initiatives. importantly, smedan works closely with the federal ministry of industry, trade and investment, while also liaising with sub-national governments to implement enterprise support schemes (smedan & nbs, 2021). institutionally, smedan operates with a hierarchical governance structure headed by a director-general, supported by zonal and state offices. this decentralized framework is designed to ensure outreach across nigeria’s six geopolitical zones. nonetheless, persistent challenges such as limited funding, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and weak monitoring systems, often dilute the impact of smedan’s interventions (joseph, 2023). according to ajuwonet al (2024), these weaknesses notwithstanding, the agency has ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 117 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" recorded progress in promoting enterprise formalization, building managerial competencies, and facilitating credit access through partnerships with the bank of industry (boi), central bank of nigeria (cbn), and commercial banks. a distinctive feature of smedan’s governance is its collaborative role with diasporarelated agencies such as the nigerians in diaspora commission (nidcom). this interagency linkage underscores its strategic function in aligning diaspora resources with sme development objectives. by institutional design, smedan is both a policy actor and an implementation body, making it central to efforts aimed at mobilizing diaspora capital for productive investment (douw et al., 2024). 2.2 smes in nigeria: definition, characteristics, and contribution in nigeria, smes are defined in accordance with the national policy on msmes (2021– 2025) and smedan’s classification system, which uses employment size, asset value, and turnover as criteria. micro-enterprises employ fewer than ten people, small enterprises employ between ten and forty-nine, while medium enterprises employ up to 199, with asset values ranging from ₦3 million to ₦1 billion (onyekwelu&oyeogubalu, 2020; smedan, 2021). smes dominate nigeria’s economic landscape, accounting for over 96% of all registered businesses, contributing 46.3% to gdp, and providing more than 80% of employment opportunities (smedan & nbs, 2021). their role in poverty reduction, grassroots development, and industrial linkages underscores their centrality to national development strategies (adeosun & shittu, 2022). beyond their domestic importance, smes also play a growing role in intra-african trade and regional integration under ecowas protocols (pwc, 2024). nevertheless, nigerian smes face persistent growth constraints, notably inadequate access to finance, poor infrastructure, multiple taxation, low digital adoption, and regulatory inefficiencies (ajuwonet al., 2024; gumel &bardai, 2023) while informality remains high, limiting their scalability and ability to attract investment. empirical evidence suggests that infrastructural deficits, especially erratic power supply and weak transport systems, significantly undermine their competitiveness (ojiba& olotu, 2024). ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 118 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" skills gaps in entrepreneurship, digital technologies, and professional management further exacerbate the challenges (akpuokweet al., 2024). despite these constraints, opportunities abound. scholars have emphasized that access to diaspora capital, improved institutional support, and digital integration can serve as critical success factors for nigerian smes (rodrigues, 2020). thus, positioning smes within diaspora engagement policies presents a pathway to harness external capital, knowledge, and networks for sustainable growth. 2.3. nigerian diaspora profile, remittance, engagement, and investment the nigerian diaspora is among the most significant in africa, estimated between two and fifteen million globally (didia & tahir, 2022). concentrated in countries such as the united states, united kingdom, canada, and saudi arabia, this community has become a critical source of remittance inflows and social capital. in 2023, nigeria received us$34.8 billion in remittances, making it one of the highest recipients in sub-saharan africa (world bank, 2023). remittances are largely directed toward household consumption, social transfers, and informal family businesses (frederick & moradeke, 2021). however, there is growing recognition of diaspora direct investment (ddi), which involves equity stakes, partnerships, and long-term business financing. unlike remittances, ddi has transformative potential for sme development, but it remains underutilized due to weak institutional frameworks, lack of trust, and political instability (adedeji, 2024). diaspora investors are often motivated by patriotism, social impact, and economic opportunities (anandene, 2024). yet, the absence of structured platforms for engagement, combined with regulatory bottlenecks and poor transparency, discourages their participation in sme investment. comparative studies show that while india and ghana have institutionalized diaspora funds and matchmaking platforms, nigeria’s frameworks are still fragmented (douw et al., 2024). beyond financial flows, diaspora engagement also brings knowledge transfer, innovation, and access to global markets (gelb, 2024; ojo, 2023). nigerian professionals abroad possess expertise that can help smes adopt international standards and expand regionally. smedan, working in partnership with nidcom, has attempted to bridge these gaps ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 119 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" through diaspora-focused initiatives such as investment summits, trade fairs, and export readiness programs(joseph, 2023). 2.4. empirical review of similar studies empirical scholarship across global, regional, and nigerian contexts provides valuable insights into diaspora investment and sme development. at the global level, kumar (2021) applied brinkerhoff’s diaspora investment model in india and the philippines, demonstrating that transparent governance and intermediary institutions enhance diaspora engagement. similarly, douw et al. (2024) compared india and brazil, showing that india’s institutionalized diaspora platforms successfully attracted capital, while brazil’s weak institutions limited engagement outcomes. açıkalın (2024) also highlighted how institutional trust fosters diaspora entrepreneurship among turkish expatriates, suggesting that strong ties with home country business councils positively influence start-ups and exports. regionally, studies emphasize both the potential and limitations of diaspora financing in africa. lukonga (2020) and adedeji (2024) found that sub-saharan african countries often lack intermediary agencies capable of packaging sme proposals for diaspora funding. ghana has made progress by introducing diaspora bonds and structured investment fairs, enabling smes to access diaspora resources (ayakwahet al., 2020). however, weak institutional coordination remains a challenge across much of the continent. in nigeria, several studies reinforce the importance of institutional facilitation. ojapinwa (2022) found a significant positive relationship between diaspora remittances and sme performance, while ajuwonet al. (2024) stressed that bureaucratic bottlenecks and inconsistent regulations discourage diaspora participation. gumel and bardai (2023) further noted that smedan’s programs, particularly in capacity building and export readiness, enhanced sme competitiveness and improved access to diaspora capital. 2.5. research gap existing scholarship has extensively examined sme challenges in nigeria and the macroeconomic impact of diaspora remittances. however, few studies have systematically analyzed how institutional actors such as smedan facilitate diaspora-linked investment ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 120 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" in smes. while global and regional studies (e.g., india, ghana, brazil) provide comparative insights, nigerian research tends to focus on remittance flows or general sme constraints without explicitly connecting diaspora capital, institutional mechanisms, and sme performance. moreover, the role of diaspora networks in overcoming regulatory barriers and enabling sme expansion into west african markets remains underexplored. this study therefore addresses a critical gap by situating smedan at the center of diaspora-sme engagement, assessing its policy frameworks, and evaluating their effectiveness in mobilizing diaspora capital for sme development. 3. theoretical framework: this study adopts institutional theory as its guiding framework. originally articulated by meyer and rowan (1977) and later expanded by dimaggio and powell (1983), institutional theory emphasizes how organizational behavior is shaped by formal rules, regulatory frameworks, and cultural norms. institutions exert coercive, normative, and mimetic pressures, which organizations adapt to gain legitimacy and secure resources. in developing economies, such pressures are especially significant because institutional structures often determine the confidence of both domestic and foreign investors (mamo, 2020). within the nigerian context, smedan functions as a critical institutional actor. through the national policy on msmes (2021–2025) and its engagement strategies with diaspora communities, smedan creates enabling conditions for smes to attract foreign capital. furthermore, institutional interventions such as export support programs, capacity building initiatives, and its diaspora investment summits, align with institutional theory’s emphasis on structured rules that reduce uncertainty and build legitimacy. this suggests that diaspora investors are more likely to commit resources when institutions demonstrate accountability and transparency, consistency of policy, and efficiency. thus, smedan’s policy frameworks can be viewed from the lens of institutional mechanisms that bridge diaspora capital with sme development. institutional theory therefore provides a veritable platform to evaluate how smedan’s governance structures influence diaspora confidence and investment flows into smes. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 121 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" 4. methodology: 4.1 research paradigm this study is “pragmatic paradigm”, emphasizing practical solutions to research questions by integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. pragmatism recognizes the dynamic and socially constructed nature of reality, allowing the researcher to examine measurable outcomes alongside lived experiences (creswell & creswell, 2017; kaushik & walsh, 2019). given the multifaceted nature of smedan’s institutional role and diaspora engagement, this paradigm provides the flexibility needed to capture both statistical patterns and contextual insights. 4.2 research design a mixed-methods case study design was adopted to explore smedan’s policy frameworks in relation to diaspora investment. the quantitative component involved structured surveys administered to smes, focusing on access to diaspora financing, business growth, and export readiness. the qualitative component consisted of semi structured interviews with smedan officials, diaspora investors, and selected smes. this design enables triangulation, ensuring that findings from one strand complement and validate the other (yin, 2009; moroi, 2021). 4.3 population and sampling the study population consist of three (3) categories: nigerian smes engaged in domestic and regional trade, smedan officials directly involved in policy implementation in the agency, and diaspora investors with prior investment experience in nigeria. for the quantitative phase, stratified random sampling was employed to select 60 smes across several sectors. for the qualitative phase, purposive sampling was applied to identify smedan officials and diaspora investors with relevant expertise in sme financing and diaspora engagement. 4.4 research instruments two instruments guided data collection: a structured questionnaire and a semistructured interview guide. the questionnaire included both demographic items and likert-scale ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 122 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" questions designed to capture smes’ experiences with diaspora-linked financing. the interviews provided deeper insights into institutional strategies, policy frameworks, and barriers to diaspora investment. 4.5 data analysis quantitative data were analyzed using spss, applying descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. qualitative interviews were transcribed and coded thematically with nvivo, allowing the identification of recurring themes relating to policy frameworks, institutional challenges, and investor perceptions. findings from both strands were integrated for comprehensive interpretation. 4.6 ethical considerations ethical approval was secured prior to data collection. participants provided informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality were assured, and data collection procedures adhered to institutional research ethics protocols. 5. results& discussion: drawing on quantitative data from survey questionnaires and qualitative insights from interviews, the study explores smedan’s institutional mechanisms, programs, and challenges in connecting diaspora capital, skills, and networks to nigerian smes. 5.1: socio-demographic characteristics of respondents this section details the socio demographic profiles of both quantitative and qualitative respondents, providing context for interpreting the study’s findings. the quantitative sample consists of 65 nigerian smes engaged in cross-border trade within west africa, while the qualitative sample includes 13 participants: 4 smes with diaspora investment or export focus, 4 diaspora investors, and 5 smedan officials. the demographic data illuminates the characteristics of the enterprises and individuals involved, offering insights into their business structures, investment patterns, and engagement with smedan’s initiatives. 5.1.1 response rate ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 123 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" the study targeted 85 participants: 70 for quantitative surveys and 15 for qualitative interviews. of the 70 smes targeted for the survey, 65 responded, yielding a 93% response rate. for the qualitative component, 13 out of 15 targeted interviews were completed, including five smedan officials, four smes, and four diaspora investors, resulting in an overall response rate of 92%. as noted by sataloff and vontela (2021), a response rate above 60% is sufficient for drawing reliable conclusions, indicating that the data collected are robust for analysis. table 1: response rate categories targeted participants response frequency quantitative participants 70 65 qualitative participants 15 13 total 85 78 percentage % 100 93 source: primary data collected. the high response rate reflects the study’s effective outreach and the relevance of the research topic to participants. the slightly lower qualitative response rate (87%) may be attributed to scheduling challenges or reluctance among some diaspora investors to participate, a common issue in studies involving geographically dispersed respondents. 5.1.2 demographic profile of quantitative respondents (smes) the quantitative survey targeted nigerian smes involved in cross-border trade within west africa, yielding 65 responses. while detailed demographic data for the full quantitative sample were not collected, the profile of the four smes interviewed (part of the qualitative sample but reflective of the broader sme population) provides a representative snapshot of the quantitative respondents, as these smes were selected for their export focus or diaspora investment engagement. table 2: demographic information of interviewed smes items categories frequencies percentages role in the business owner/founder 4 100 manager/ceo 0 0 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 124 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" operations/logistics head 0 0 others 0 0 year business was established 2008 1 25 2018 1 25 2021 2 50 business size (by number of employees) 1–9 (micro) 4 100 10–49 (small) 0 0 50–249 (medium) 0 0 250 and above (large) 0 0 business's annual revenue less than ₦5 million 0 0 ₦5 million – ₦50 million 3 75 ₦51 million – ₦100 million 0 0 above ₦100 million 0 0 prefer not to say 1 25 business sector agriculture 2 50 manufacturing 2 50 food and beverages 0 0 services (e.g., ict, finance, logistics) 0 0 retail/wholesale 0 0 others 0 0 headquarters of business nigeria 4 100 outside nigeria 0 0 export to west african countries yes 3 75 no 0 0 planning to in the next 12 months 1 0 source: primary data collected. the demographic profile of the interviewed smes reveals a homogenous group of microenterprises, all led by owners or founders (100%), reflecting the entrepreneurial nature of nigerian smes where ownership and management often converge. this structure suggests flexibility in decision-making, which could facilitate responsiveness to diaspora investment opportunities. the businesses vary in longevity, with 50% established in 2021, indicating recent entrants navigating post-covid challenges, while older firms (2008 and 2018) bring seasoned experience. all are micro-enterprises (1–9 employees), consistent with smedan and nbs (2021) findings that micro-enterprises dominate nigeria’s private sector. their modest revenue (₦5–50 million for 75%) underscores financial constraints that may limit export readiness without institutional support. the equal split between agriculture and manufacturing sectors (50% each) aligns with smedan’s focus on agro-processing and light manufacturing as key export areas. notably, 75% of these smes actively export to west africa, and the remaining 25% plan to do so, highlighting their regional trade ambitions despite their small scale. 5.1.3 demographic profile of qualitative respondents (diaspora investors) ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 125 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" the qualitative sample included four diaspora investors, whose demographic characteristics provide insight into their investment patterns and engagement with smedan. table 3: demographic information of interviewed diaspora investors items categories frequencies percentages country of residence united kingdom 1 25 united states of america 2 50 ghana 1 25 others 0 0 citizens of nigeria yes 4 100 no 0 0 area of business investment agriculture 1 25 manufacturing 1 25 food and beverages 1 25 services (e.g., ict, finance, logistics) 0 0 retail/wholesale 0 0 others 1 (real estate) 25 invested in nigerian smes via smedan yes 1 25 no 3 75 level of investment less than $5,000 0 0 $5,000–$25,000 4 100 $25,000–$100,000 0 0 above $100,000 0 0 prefer not to say 0 0 source: primary data collected. the diaspora investors are geographically diverse, with 50% residing in the united states, 25% in the united kingdom, and 25% in ghana, reflecting key nigerian diaspora hubs and the growing intra-african diaspora presence. all investors (100%) are nigerian citizens, underscoring strong cultural and national ties that may drive investment decisions, consistent with brinkerhoff (2008) and douw et al. (2024). their investments span agriculture, manufacturing, food and beverages, and real estate (25% each), indicating diverse interests but a preference for tangible, goods-based sectors, possibly due to perceived lower risk. only 25% invested through smedan, suggesting limited institutional mediation, a critical gap in smedan’s outreach. the investment range ($5,000–$25,000) is modest but significant in the nigerian sme context, where smallscale capital can drive substantial growth. 5.1.4 demographic profile of qualitative respondents (smedan officials) ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 126 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" the qualitative sample included five smedan officials, coded as sd1 to sd5. specific demographic details (e.g., age, gender) were not collected, as the focus was on their professional roles and insights into smedan’s programs. all officials were senior representatives involved in sme development, diaspora engagement, or export promotion, ensuring their responses reflect authoritative perspectives on the agency’s operations. their inclusion provides a critical institutional viewpoint, complementing the sme and diaspora investor perspectives. the diversity of respondents having smes, diaspora investors, and smedan officials offers a multi-faceted view of smedan’s role in diaspora investment and sme export readiness. the smes’ micro-enterprise status and export focus align with nigeria’s economic structure, while the diaspora investors’ geographic and sectoral diversity highlight untapped potential for broader engagement. the limited interaction with smedan among diaspora investors signals a need for improved outreach. these profiles set the stage for analyzing how smedan’s mechanisms influence sme-diaspora connections, as explored in the subsequent sections. 5.2 quantitative findings the quantitative findings from the survey of 65 nigerian smes engaged in cross-border trade within west africa aims to address the study’s primary objective. the data collected via electronic questionnaires distributed through the smedan platform, were cleaned, entered into excel, and analyzed using spss software. results are organized around key variables: smedan’s role in diaspora engagement, program participation, satisfaction with support, and perceived effectiveness of programs. each finding is presented with tables, followed by interpretations and commentary that connect the results to the institutional theory framework, which emphasizes the role of institutional structures, policies, and intermediaries in shaping organizational behavior and economic outcomes. 5.2.1 smedan’s role in diaspora engagement the survey assessed whether smedan facilitated smes’ engagement with diaspora investors, a critical measure of the agency’s intermediary function. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 127 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" table 4: smedan’s role in diaspora investment has smedan facilitated your business’s engagement with diaspora investors? n frequency percentage (%) yes 65 7 10.8% no 65 57 87.7% not applicable 65 1 1.5% source: primary data collected the data reveal a striking disconnect, with 87.7% of smes reporting that smedan did not facilitate their engagement with diaspora investors. only 10.8% acknowledged such facilitation, and 1.5% found the question inapplicable. this suggests that smedan’s institutional mechanisms for connecting smes with diaspora capital are either underutilized or insufficiently visible to the majority of respondents. from an institutional theory perspective, the low engagement rate (10.8%) indicates a gap in smedan’s institutional legitimacy and capacity to act as an effective intermediary. institutional theory posits that organizations rely on credible institutional frameworks to build trust and facilitate economic exchanges (north, 1990). the overwhelming majority of smes reporting no engagement suggests that smedan’s structures such as diaspora investment forums or matchmaking platforms are not effectively embedded in the sme ecosystem. this aligns with brinkerhoff’s (2008) diaspora investment model, which emphasizes the need for visible and trusted institutional channels to bridge diaspora resources with local enterprises. 5.2.2 participation in smedan programs the survey explored the specific smedan programs smes participated in, shedding light on the agency’s programmatic reach and focus table 5: smedan programs participated in item n freq. percentage diaspora engagement platforms (e.g., trade fairs, networking events) 65 4 6.2% capacity-building workshops/training 65 38 56.5% ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 128 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" export promotion programs 65 21 32.3% partnership facilitation with diaspora investors 65 4 6.2% annual sme conferences 65 1 1.5% packaging and bray 65 1 1.5% meeting fairs 65 1 1.5% smedan training and registration 65 1 1.5% other (please specify) 65 12 18.5% source: primary data collected most smes (58.5%) participated in capacity-building workshops and training, indicating that smedan’s training programs are its most accessible and visible initiative. export promotion programs engaged 32.3% of respondents, reflecting moderate success in supporting sme internationalization. however, only 6.2% participated in diaspora engagement platforms or partnership facilitation with diaspora investors, and other initiatives (e.g., annual sme conferences, packaging and branding) saw minimal participation (1.5% each). the 18.5% participation in unspecified “other” activities suggests some smes engaged in multiple or less formalized programs. institutional theory highlights the role of structured programs in shaping organizational behaviour and economic outcomes. the dominance of capacity-building programs (58.5%) suggests that smedan has established a strong institutional presence in training, aligning with its mandate to enhance sme operational capacity. however, the low participation in diaspora-specific initiatives (6.2%) indicates a weak institutional framework for diaspora engagement, undermining smedan’s role as an intermediary. this echoes chen and sanford’s (2024) argument that effective diaspora investment requires targeted institutional mechanisms, such as dedicated forums or funding windows, which smedan appears to lack. the moderate engagement in export promotion (32.3%) aligns with the african continental free trade area (afcfta) framework, but the low uptake of diaspora-focused programs suggests a misalignment between smedan’s broader sme support and its diaspora investment objectives. 5.2.3 satisfaction with smedan’s support for diaspora connections the survey measured smes’ satisfaction with smedan’s support in connecting them with diaspora investors, providing insight into perceived institutional effectiveness. table 6: satisfaction with smedan’s support in connecting with diaspora investors. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 129 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" how satisfied are you with the support provided by smedan in connecting you with diaspora investors? n frequency percentage (%) very satisfied 65 8 12.3% satisfied 65 11 16.9% neutral 65 24 36.9% dissatisfied 65 13 20% very dissatisfied 65 9 13.9% mean 2.94 s. d. 1.20 source: primary data collected the mean satisfaction score of 2.94 (on a 5-point likert scale: 1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied) indicates moderate satisfaction, leaning slightly below neutral. the most common response was neutral (36.9%), followed by dissatisfied (20.0%) and satisfied (16.9%). only 12.3% were very satisfied, while 13.9% were very dissatisfied. the standard deviation of 1.20 reflects a varied range of experiences among respondents. the neutral-to-dissatisfied sentiment (56.9% combined) underscores a perceived institutional shortfall in smedan’s ability to connect smes with diaspora investors. institutional theory suggests that organizations gain legitimacy through effective service delivery and stakeholder trust (dimaggio & powell, 1983). the high proportion of neutral responses (36.9%) may reflect limited awareness or interaction with smedan’s diasporafocused programs, while the dissatisfaction (33.9% combined) points to operational or communication gaps. this aligns with ajuwon et al. (2024), who note that regulatory inconsistencies and limited institutional visibility hinder diaspora engagement in nigeria. compared to countries like ghana, where dedicated diaspora investment desks enhance connectivity (gelb et al., 2021), smedan’s moderate satisfaction ratings suggest a need for more targeted and accessible mechanisms. 5.2.4 effectiveness of smedan’s programs in supporting smes the survey evaluated the overall effectiveness of smedan’s programs in supporting sme businesses, providing a broader perspective on the agency’s institutional impact table 7:effectiveness of smedan’s programs in supporting smes businesses how would you rate the effectiveness of smedan’s programs in supporting your business? n frequency percentage (%) very effective 65 22 33.9% effective 65 14 21.5% neutral 65 17 26.2% ineffective 65 11 16.9% ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 130 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" very ineffective 65 1 1.5% mean 3.69 standard deviation 1.16 source: primary data collected the mean effectiveness score of 3.69 indicates that smedan’s programs are perceived as slightly more than neutral, leaning toward effective. the largest group (33.9%) rated the programs as very effective, followed by 26.2% neutral and 21.5% effective. only 16.9% found the programs ineffective, and 1.5% rated them very ineffective. the standard deviation of 1.16 suggests moderate variation in perceptions. the relatively positive mean score (3.69) reflects smedan’s institutional strengths in general sme support, particularly in capacity building and export promotion, as seen in table 7. institutional theory emphasizes that effective institutions shape organizational outcomes through consistent and accessible programs (scott, 2014). the 55.4% of respondents rating smedan’s programs as effective or very effective suggests a degree of institutional legitimacy in broader sme development. however, the 26.2% neutral and 18.4% negative responses indicate inconsistencies, particularly in diaspora-specific interventions, as evidenced by the low engagement in diaspora platforms (table 7). this supports gumel and bardai’s (2023) observation that institutional bottlenecks, such as limited outreach and bureaucratic hurdles, constrain program impact. 5.3 qualitative findings this section presents the qualitative findings derived from thematic analysis of interviews conducted with smedan officials, nigerian smes, and diaspora investors. the analysis addresses the study’s primary objective: to examine the institutional mechanisms and programs implemented by smedan to attract and facilitate diaspora investment into nigerian smes, with a focus on enhancing export readiness and regional trade within west africa. four key themes emerged from the data: (1) diaspora engagement programs, (2) institutional support and policy mechanisms, (3) smedan’s role as intermediary, and (4) barriers and operational challenges. each theme integrates perspectives from the three respondent groups, supported by direct quotations to provide authenticity and context. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 131 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" 5.3.1 theme 1: diaspora engagement programs this theme explores smedan’s structured and informal programs designed to connect diaspora investors with nigerian smes, highlighting their scope, visibility, and perceived effectiveness. perspectives from smedan officials smedan officials described a range of programs aimed at fostering diaspora investment and sme development. one smedan official highlighted partnerships with international bodies, stating. “smedan partners with the international organization for migration in the skills training and empowerment of nigerian returnees from other countries” (sd1) this initiative targets returned migrants, a subset of the diaspora, to channel their skills and capital into smes. another official emphasized sector-specific efforts, notingthis as key initiatives to attract diaspora interest in high-potential sectors; “the garment and textile cluster support scheme and agro-business development programs have been yielding great results”(sd2) financial mechanisms were also cited, with some smedan officials referencing“diaspora bonds and the ₦100 billion impact fund under the ‘grow nigerian strategic plan” (sd2 and sd5)as tools to mobilize much needed capital. in addition, smedan participation in regional and global exhibitions(sd3), linkage with global entrepreneurship network(sd4), and involvement in platforms like agda conference show active efforts to create visibility and forge diaspora connections. these initiatives suggest a structured approach and align with global best practices (kumar, 2021; douw et al., 2024) where diaspora engagement is most successful when institutionalized through dedicated programs and international outreach. in terms of assessment of effectiveness, smedan officials pointed to both quantitative and qualitative metrics, such as participation numbers, business leads, investment flows, and post-event feedback, to evaluate diaspora-focused initiatives. sd2 noted ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 132 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" “we asses by looking at the number of participants, business leads generated, investment flows, sme growth, and regular monitoring and reporting” sd5 added “we use quantitative data such as attendance, lead generation and qualitative feedback from post-survey questionnaires and interviews” monitoring tools include follow-up with smes, surveys, and the maturity of trade relationships formed through fairs. this echoes açıkalın (2024) study, which stressed the importance of institutional trust and consistent engagement in sustaining diaspora interest. perspectives from smes from the smes’ perspective, several respondents reported positive experiences with smedan’s programs, highlighting trainings, export-readiness capacity building, ecommerce linkage, and loan facilitation. for example, sme2 shared “i participated in smedan’s export readiness trainings and capacitybuilding programmes for myself and my association (awep)” sme4 added, “smedan facilitated nirsal loan of four million for me, which i have repaid fully. i’ve been invited to trade fairs, and currently they’re trying to put my products on an e-commerce platform called ‘sell it for me’ through smedan select” these accounts highlight smedan’s role in enhancing sme operational and financial capacity and confirms literature findings such as gumel &bardai (2023), that emphasize the significance of institutional support in increasing sme readiness for investment and trade. perspectives from diaspora investors on the other hand, the diaspora investors’ responses presented a mixed view, with limited direct engagement with smedan’s programs and reflect a disconnection between program intent and actual reach. while dpi1noted that: ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 133 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" “smedan was not directly involved in facilitating my initial investment, its broader ecosystem and advocacy efforts helped shape a more favourable investment climate” others such as dpi2 and dpi3indicated that there was “no direct interaction withsmedan”dpi4 was however an exception, as was the only one who mentioned a direct outreach, saying, “smedan sensitized me” this underlines a critical gap between program design and diaspora visibility or accessibility. while officials highlight robust programs, smes benefit primarily from capacity-building and loan facilitation, and diaspora investors often bypass smedan, relying on informal networks. 5.3.2 theme 2: institutional support and policy mechanism this theme examines smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional support structures for fostering diaspora investment and sme export readiness as well as strengthening the operational capacity of nigerian smes. perspective from smedan officials officials from smedan highlighted various institutional policy mechanisms, including the establishment of enabling structures like national diaspora commission (nidcom) and national policy on msmes, both of which aims to formalize diaspora investment channels. in particular, sd1 noted, “the creation of nidcom and the national policy on msmes have helped to provide a formal framework for the nigerian diaspora engagement” in addition, a range of incentives such as diaspora bonds issuance, diaspora trust funds, and tax breaks were cited by sd2 and sd4 as tools for making the investment climate more attractive. sd2 explained “we implemented investment incentives like diaspora bonds, economic diversification policies, infrastructure development, and regulatory reforms.” ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 134 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" also, sd5 emphasized, “policies like the establishment of a diaspora investment fund, streamlined regulatory framework, and simplified registration process have created a more transparent business environment.” these strategies are in line with studies such as williams (2020) which emphasize that diaspora investment flourishes where institutional trust, predictable regulations, and diaspora-specific financial instruments are in place. the integration of the afcfta framework into policy planning also emerged as a recurring point, especially in how it provides smes access to regional markets. sd4 stated, “investment incentives and trade frameworks such as the afcfta have helped ease cross-border trade and attracted diaspora capital.” perspective from smes the responses from the smes emphasized both opportunities and structural barriers within the current smedan’s policy framework. participants repeatedly identify issues such as lack of functional production facilities, regulatory bottlenecks with certification agencies, and limited access to structured support. sme1 shared, “most msmes are yet to have functional facilities or access to contract manufacturing, and when they try to scale up, bottlenecks from certificate bodies cause setbacks. smedan should intensify handholding of trained entrepreneurs” sme3 emphasized on regional opportunity, saying, “there’s a need to untangle the process and network smes through afcfta to expand our market.” sme2 advocated for “more structured b2b meetings, greater advocacy to ease business operations, and sustained capacity-building support to help smes grow.” these responses echo the broader institutional challenges in nigeria noted in the literature, particularly in regard to weak implementation of policies, fragmented regulatory ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 135 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" oversight, and low institutional capacity to monitor diaspora investment effectively (adebayo, 2021). perspective from diaspora investors while appreciating smedan’s informational support, diaspora investors also provided insights into the policy environment, albeit from a more indirect perspective. dpi1 said, “the support i received from smedan was more informational than financial or advisory, but it helped in understanding the regulatory landscape and risk environment.” others like dpi3 and dpi4 appreciated smedan’s educational outreach and event participation. dpi stated, “there was a recent smedan webinar on customs activities and agoa certification which i found informative.” dpi4 added, “they linked me to their state office and provided capacity-building guidance, especially in relation to afcfta trade processes.” these responses indicate that while smedan’s policy may not always translate into direct support for every diaspora investor, they do help create a more predictably supportive and informed investment environment. 5.3.3 theme 3: smedan’s role as intermediary this theme explores smedan’s function as an intermediary linking diaspora investors with nigerian smes, focusing on its programs and platforms. perspective from smedan officials all respondents including smedan officials echoed that smedan plays a central intermediary role in linking diaspora investors with nigerian smes. through multiple programs and platforms, the agency has created entry points for diaspora engagement, albert with varying levels of impact. according to sd1, smedan’s partnership with international organization such as the international organization for migration has enabled it to “train and empower returnees from other countries,” while sd2 added initiatives like ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 136 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" “the garment and textile cluster growth support scheme, agrobusiness engagement programs, women-in-self-employment program, and diaspora bonds.” these programs not only target sme empowerment but also seek to align diaspora capital with local enterprise development. sd5 emphasized more expansion efforts such as “the ₦100 billion impact fund and grow nigerian strategic plan documents, which foster international engagement at forums such as the agda conference to mobilize diaspora and global investor capital.” in addition, smedan act as a feedback hub to evaluate engagement effectiveness. as sd2 explained, this includes tracking “the number of participants, business leads generated, investment flow, and sme development outcomes” while sd5 added “post-survey questionnaires and interviews for qualitative feedback.” these strategies aligns with the literature, which suggest that agencies often serve as critical intermediates in diaspora engagement by building platforms for visibility, trust, and transnational partnership (gelb et al., 2021; kumar, 2021). perspectives from smes nigerian smes appear to recognize this intermediary role, highlighting recurring support areas such as market linkage, export readiness, and trade mission facilitation. for example, sme1 describes smedan’s role mandate as “access to market linkages, trade missions, capacity building, export readiness, access to finance, and business matching” this was echoed across all sme participants with sme3 affirming that smedan “encourages attendance at international exhibitions and fairs” and provides “training on export readiness and financing.” ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 137 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" however, despite this alignment in vision, there is an underlying need for smedan to deepen personalized support and follow-through mechanisms to make these services more actionable and targeted. perspective from diaspora investors diaspora investors gave mixed assignment of smedan’s intermediary effectiveness. dri1 acknowledge that “smedan’s programs have made notable strides in increasing visibility for smes through trade fairs, exhibitions, and online directories,” but noted a gap in “more targeted matchmaking between diaspora investors and investment-ready smes.” also, dpi4, however, considered smedan “very effective”, particularly referencing a 2019 event with the nigerian export promotion council where she learned about “the agoa stamp process, which compelled me to restructure my business in preparation for export to the u.s.” in contrast, dpi2 and dpi3 were less aware of smedan’s direct influence, though dpi3 acknowledge that “smedan had a desk at the exhibition event, speaking for the msme space in nigeria.” these insights reinforce the literature that sees intermediary institutions as vital but often limited by scope, resources, or communication barriers (ajuwon et al. 2024; gumel &bardai 2023). smedan’s intermediary role is evident in its programs and platforms, but its effectiveness varies. 5.3.4 theme 4: barriers and operational challenges this theme examines the structural, operational, and communication-related barriers hindering smedan’s effectiveness in diaspora engagement. perspectives from smedan officials despite smedan’s strategic mandate, its effectiveness is undermined by significant structural, operational, and communication related barriers. these challenges impact its ability to fully harness diaspora investment potential and support smes in becoming export ready. sd1 bluntly stated that ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 138 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" “there are basically no strategies to harnessing diaspora potentialities to support local initiatives,” which reveals a fundamental policy gap. this aligns with existing literature such adedeji (2024) as that identifies weak institutional framework as a major constraint in diaspora engagement for development. in addition, financial constraints also limit smedan’s outreach and operational efficiency. sd2 noted “inadequate funding, lack of enlightenment and campaign,” which are being addressed through “collaboration with stakeholders, advocacy for increased funding, and developing strategies.” likewise, sd4 emphasized that “the agency has partnered with international and local funding bodies to facilitate diaspora investment,” highlighting ongoing attempts to bridge financial and operational gaps. sd3 pointed to a trust and integrity issue within the system, referencing “insincerity as it regards overestimation of production capacity in deal rooms,” which the agency addresses through “capacity building, sanitization, and training.” these statements support the finding that institutional credibility and transparency are crucial for diaspora confidence. perspective from smes from the sme perspective, the bottlenecks in certification and operational scaling are major hinderances. sme1 noted “most msmes are yet to have established functional facilities... when they want to scale up, the bottlenecks from certification bodies bring setbacks.” the same concern was echoed by sme4, who reiterated that “people just start business from their homes in a small scale,” and the inability to meet regulatory standards hampers export readiness. this reflects earlier literature that emphasizes capacity deficits and informality as major barriers to sme growth and export engagement in west africa (adedeji, 2024) in addition, sme2 suggested ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 139 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" “more structured b2b meetings, more advocacy... and handholding activities” to help grow sustainability. also, sme3 urged smedan to “untangle the process” of cross-border engagement under afcfta, a comment highlighting procedural and regulatory complexity as key issues. perspective from diaspora investors diaspora investors echoed their frustration, particularly concerning visibility and connectivity with investment-ready businesses. dpi1 acknowledged that while smedan has improved visibility “trade fairs, exhibitions, and online directories,” there is still a lack of “targeted matchmaking between diaspora investors and smes that are investment ready.” dpi3 observed that smedan’s presence is often passive, stating “smedan had a desk speaking for the msme space,” but the real engagement came through the ministry of trae and investment. in contrast, dpi2 admitted “i wasn’t aware of smedan until this survey,” indicating a significant communication and outreach gap. however, dpi4 provided a more positive assessment, noting that a government-led export even led them to “restructure [my] business... because the amount of information required to get the agoa stamp meant my business couldn’t continue in an unstructured manner.” this underscores how targeted information and compliance requirement can catalyse serious business reform among diaspora-linked entrepreneurs. 5.4 discussion of findings by triangulating survey responses from 65 smes, interviews with smedan officials, smes, and diaspora investors, alongside the reviewed literature, this analysis highlights ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 140 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" smedan’s strengths, gaps, and opportunities in linking diaspora resources to sme growth. the evidence points to strong institutional intent but weak engagement structures. 5.4.1 institutional mechanisms and diaspora engagement only 10.8% of smes reported diaspora facilitation (table 4), with just 6.2% engaged in diaspora-specific platforms (table 5). diaspora investors (e.g., dpi2, dpi3) confirmed limited awareness, while officials cited programs like the ₦100 billion impact fund and iom partnerships. institutional theory emphasizes legitimacy and visibility (dimaggio & powell, 1983), both of which remain weak. although programs exist, uptake is minimal because outreach and communication are poor. this reflects brinkerhoff’s (2008) observation that credible, accessible platforms are essential. unlike india’s dedicated diaspora desks (gelb et al., 2021), smedan’s channels remain underutilized. 5.4.2 program effectiveness and sme support survey data show strong participation in training (58.5%) and export promotion (32.3%), with moderate effectiveness (mean 3.69, table 7). smes shared positive experiences, such as loans facilitated by smedan or support for trade fairs. however, diaspora-related initiatives remain marginal, with satisfaction averaging only 2.94 (table 6). high neutrality (36.9%) indicates limited exposure. diaspora investors described smedan’s role as “more informational than financial,” highlighting a mismatch between sme needs and investor expectations. while ghana has dedicated diaspora units (gelb et al., 2021), smedan remains more effective in training than in investment facilitation. 5.4.3 policy frameworks and institutional support smedan’s policies such as diaspora bonds, msme frameworks, and afcfta integration, reflect institutional intent. officials cited measures such as a diaspora investment fund and streamlined regulations (sd5), echoing williams (2020) on the value of clear policy. yet smes and diaspora investors reported bureaucratic barriers and limited operationalization. engagement remains low (10.8%), with modest investment levels ($5,000–$25,000, table 3). this gap reflects north’s (1990) view that enforcement and trust are as crucial as policy design. compared with india’s diaspora bonds (kumar, 2021), nigeria’s frameworks lack sufficient credibility to attract larger investments. 5.4.4 barriers and operational challenges ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 141 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" both datasets highlight structural weaknesses. participation in diaspora programs is negligible (6.2%), with one-third of smes dissatisfied (table 4.6). officials acknowledged inadequate funding and weak strategies (sd1, sd2), while smes pointed to informality and export bottlenecks. diaspora investors stressed fragmented institutional roles, often bypassing smedan for the ministry of trade. these challenges echo gumel and bardai (2023) on institutional bottlenecks and brinkerhoff (2008) on the centrality of trust. ghana’s proactive diaspora outreach (gelb et al., 2021) contrasts with smedan’s limited visibility, as dpi2 admitted, “i wasn’t aware of smedan until this survey.” 5.4.5 triangulation and implications the findings show smedan’s capacity-building strength but weak diaspora-specific interventions. low engagement (10.8%), limited uptake (6.2%), and modest satisfaction (2.94 mean) undermine its intermediary role. yet targeted interventions, such as agoalinked certification (dpi4), show potential. literature confirms these weaknesses: ajuwon et al. (2024) and adebayo (2021) point to regulatory inconsistencies and weak implementation. while smes recognize smedan’s contributions in market linkages, diaspora investors largely perceive its absence, reinforcing the need for dedicated diaspora platforms. 5.4.6 broader implications the study underscores the need for smedan to strengthen its intermediary role. dedicated diaspora desks, co-investment forums, and digital platforms could align smes with investors. collaboration with nidcom and nipc is vital to address funding and regulatory challenges. enhanced outreach, particularly to diaspora hubs in the uk and us, could boost visibility. finally, linking programs to afcfta opportunities would support export readiness, positioning nigeria more competitively in regional trade. 6. conclusion, recommendations, and contributions to knowledge 6.1 conclusion this study examined smedan’s mechanisms for attracting diaspora investment into smes. results show that while training (58.5%) and export programs (32.3%) engage ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 142 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" many smes, diaspora-focused initiatives reach only 6.2%, with 10.8% reporting facilitated connections. officials highlighted structured policies, yet diaspora investors revealed low awareness. from an institutional theory perspective, smedan’s efforts lack legitimacy and visibility, limiting their effectiveness despite credible program frameworks. 6.2 recommendations and policy implications first, smedan should establish diaspora investment desks, modelled on ghana’s approach (gelb et al., 2021), to connect smes with investors. second, digital outreach in diaspora hubs could counter poor visibility. third, collaboration with nidcom and nipc would help address funding shortages and streamline processes, while regulatory reforms could ease bottlenecks that hinder export readiness. finally, aligning with afcfta opportunities would enhance sme competitiveness and regional integration. 6.3 contributions to knowledge this research extends literature on diaspora investment by focusing on smedan’s intermediary role. it demonstrates that institutional visibility and legitimacy shape diaspora-sme interactions, confirming brinkerhoff’s (2008) and scott’s (2014) frameworks. unlike previous studies on sme support (ajuwon et al., 2024), it shows diaspora-specific mechanisms are underutilized, despite structured programs. it also highlights the role of micro-enterprises in afcfta markets, offering a foundation for future inquiry into institutional strategies for diaspora engagement. references: açıkalın, ş. (2024). institutional trust and diaspora entrepreneurship: evidence from turkish expatriates in europe. entrepreneurship & regional development, 36(1–2), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2023.2210457 abah, e., &okike, o. f. (2023). small and medium scale enterprises development agency of nigeria (smedan) and entrepreneurship development in ebonyi state: a study of smes benefiting from smedan programmes. adedeji, a. s. (2024). diaspora investment: enhancing opportunities, growth, and sustainability in sub-saharan african economies. aikor, s. t. (2021). small and medium enterprises (smes): key to socio-economic development of nigeria. international journal of research and innovation in social science, 5(12), 866-872. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 143 https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2023.2210457 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) nweke-love henry1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “diaspora capital and sme development in nigeria: assessing smedan’s policy frameworks and institutional role" ajuwon, o. s., ajayi, e. f., oshagale, g., olagunju, b. o., &fakayode, r. y. (2024). institutional challenges constraining smes productivity growth in nigeria. journal of smart economic growth, 9(3), 1-17. akpuokwe, c. u., chikwe, c. f., & eneh, n. e. 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(2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. didia, d., & tahir, s. (2022). enhancing economic growth and government revenue generation in nigeria: the role of diaspora remittances. the review of black political economy, 49(2), 175-202. dimaggio, p. j., & powell, w. w. (1983). the iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. american sociological review, 48(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 douw, j., lee, k., tarnovski, r. l., & sen, s. k. (2024). diaspora trade and investment. etim, e., & daramola, o. (2020). the informal sector and economic growth of south africa and nigeria: a comparative systematic review. journal of open innovation: technology, market, and complexity, 6(4), 134. frederick, b. i., & moradeke, o. o. (2021). diaspora remittances: implications for nigerian economy. editorial committee, 196. garba, a., & ahmed, h. g. 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(2009). case study research: design and methods (vol. 5). sage. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 147 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/pressrelease/2023/12/08/accelerated-remittances-growth-to-low-and-middle-incomecountries-in-2023 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/pressrelease/2023/12/08/accelerated-remittances-growth-to-low-and-middle-incomecountries-in-2023 https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/891271581349536392/pdf/nigeria-on-the-move-a-journey-to-inclusive-growth-moving-toward-a-middle-class-society.pdf https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/891271581349536392/pdf/nigeria-on-the-move-a-journey-to-inclusive-growth-moving-toward-a-middle-class-society.pdf https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/891271581349536392/pdf/nigeria-on-the-move-a-journey-to-inclusive-growth-moving-toward-a-middle-class-society.pdf ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart mary effiong nyong (phd) department of languages and linguistics, bamidele olumilua university of education, science and technology, ikere-ekiti, ekiti state, nigeria. abstract this paper is an in-depth evaluation of the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart, a novel which has been translated into the french language as le monde s’effondre by michel ligny. since humour is an interesting and important aspect of human life, this paper examines the cultural, linguistic and semantic challenges posed in the translation of humour in a novel originating from a culture different from that of the translator. for translation to be judged effective and faithful, the sentiments evoked in the readers of the original text must also be felt by the readers of the target texts. adopting the interpretive approach, the paper reveals that michel ligny has demonstrated great understanding of the culture of the source text. the paper concludes that the translator has been faithful in the translation of humour in the novel. key words: humour, translation, interpretive approach, fidelity introduction chinua achebe’s things fall apart cannot be classified as a comedy. nevertheless, even in tragedies and tragi-comedies, humour is thrown in from time to time in order to lift the fog of sadness a bit. after all, literature is a reflection of the society. and the society is characterized by good and bad, hills and valleys, joy and pain, grief and laughter. according to weinstock and ramadan (1979: 126-127), things fall apart is so patently an excellent realistic novel that readers have been able to derive much of value from it without having to read deeply. humour is an interesting aspect of human life and varies from culture to culture. “translating across cultures” and “cultural proficiency”, according to katan (1999.1), have become buzz words in translating and interpreting. a humorous situation in one culture may turn out to be a scandalous or even a gruesome one in another culture. for femi ojo-ade (1989), the way people live is their culture; the totality of their beliefs, codes of conduct, technique, all elements that are necessary for existence and survival in a social setting. katan (1999:16) has remarked that people instinctively know what “culture” means to them and to what culture they belong, and that even though we all know to which culture we belong, definition of the word has been elusive and difficult. humour plays a very vital role in human society. life without humour would be dreary and stifling. humour acts as the conveyor belt through which man’s tension, frustrations, fears, apprehension, gloom and even grief, evaporate from his body. vicissitudes of daily existence become less oppressive and less alarming when humour creeps in. it must be stated here clearly that humour is not just an outlet for man’s over-heated emotions and passions. it is also a medium through which people pass their time in excitement. there is nothing as calming as an outburst of rapturous guffaws from a group of people just sitting around or even doing hard jobs. it is no gainsaying that humour does not only operate on the oral level. in written literature humour ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart has continued to exist especially through comedies. comedy is usually accentuated by laughter-inducing scenes, statements, and actions. in contemporary societies, it is remarkable that men and women have taken humour to another level. we know of people both within the african societies as well as in the western world, who make a living out of humour. the nigerian television programme “night of a thousand laughs” is an apt example of humour that attracts income. the afro-american comedian bill cosby achieved fame through a skilful handling of humour. we can say the same for programmes like “mr. bean”, “some mothers do have them”, “tom and jerry” and the popular children series “home alone”. with the advent of the information and communication technology, the social media has become an avenue for young people to display their creativity through short comedy skits. life would be gloomy without humour. clarification of terms humour this concept has multiple definitions. the merriam – webster defines it as “a changeable state of mind often influenced by circumstances” or “the amusing quality of things”. however, the definition by the britannica (2024) as a “type of stimulation that tends to elicit the laughter reflex”, is considered more suitable for the subject matter of this paper. translation the phenomenon called “translation” has been defined in many ways by many scholars. for john c. catford (1965:20), translation is: the replacement of textual material in the sl by equivalent textual material in another language, that is, an operation performed on language whereby a text is substituted in one language for a text in another. according to eugene a. nida and charles r. taber (1974:12), translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language, the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. a natural rendering of the st (source text) into the tt (target text) should fit into the receptor language and culture. interpretive approach the emphasis of the interpretive theory of translation on the transfer of meaning or sense from the source language (sl) to the target language (tl) using the equivalent form. most scholars refer to this theory as the “interpretative theory”. the central point of this theory is that the translator does not concentrate on words or linguistic structures present in the sl, but rather on the meaning and the sense that these words carry. it sees translation process not as a direct conversion of the linguistic meaning of the source language meaning, but as a conversion from source language to sense, the intermediate link being non-verbal thought which, once consciously grasped, can then be expressed in any language regardless of the words being used in the original language. fidelity marianne lederer (1994), citing ampero hurtardo, says that fidelity is defined on the basis of the intentions of the author, the text language and the reader. the three factors are inseparable. fidelity, which also means “faithfulness”, is defined by longman’s dictionary of contemporary english (1995) as “the quality of not changing something when you are ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart producing it again in a different form…by translating.” wikipedia gives us the following definition of the term: the extent to which a translator accurately renders the meaning of the source text without adding to or subtracting from it, without intensifying or weakening any part of the meaning and otherwise without distorting it. literature review in a functional approach to translation great emphasis is laid on target language production of text and on the fact that the text in the target language should meet the expectations of the target readers as well as the textual requirements of the target culture, (jakobson :1959; neubert: 1985; neubert & steeve: 1992; snell – hornby, honig, kusmaul & schmidt:1998; vincze:2004). one of the qualities of a good translator is that of creator. humour is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. it is the only form of communication whereby a stimulus produces predictable, stereotyped response on the level of psychological reflex and includes practical jokes, anecdotes, irony, jibes, brainteasers, epigram(britannica:2024).the result of humour is always one thing: laughter. however, we are going to limit ourselves to four kinds of humour, namely: jokes, satires, scatology and accidental humour. a joke is anything said or done to cause laughter or amusement, (oxford languages online). nilsen & nilsen (2000) identify four basic types of jokes: (a) the concealing of knowledge later revealed, (b) the substitution of one concept for another, (c) an unexpected conclusion to a logical progression, and ( d) the slipping-on-a-banana-peel. satire, according to the oxford languages online is “the use of humour, irony, exaggeration or ridicule to express and criticise people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in the interest of contemporary politics and other topical issues”. it is also defined as “a literary art of diminishing or derogating a subject by making it ridiculous and evoking towards it attitudes of amusement, contempt, scorn or indignation “(abrams, 2005:284). critics identify two divisions of satire, namely formal (or direct satire) and indirect satire. in formal satire the satiric character speaks out in the first person. this “i” may address either the reader or else a character within the work itself who is called the “adversarius” and whose major function is to elicit and add ridicule to the satiric speaker’s comments (abrams, ibid 285). abrams goes on to distinguish two types of formal satires namely “horatian” and “juvenalian” satires, taking their names from the great roman satirists horace and juvenal. in horatian satire, the speaker manifests the character of an urbane, witty and tolerant man of the world. in contrast, in juvenalian satire, the speaker is a serious moralist. scatology is defined by the longman dictonary of contemporary english (1995) as “great interest in human bowels, bodily waste” etc. it is actually a word of greek origin with the root “scato” which means “faeces” or “excrement”. [odebunmi & ogunleye, 2003:244)]. in the context of humour, scatology refers to jokes about bodily functions and the parts of the body not usually talked about in polite societies (nilsen & nilsen 2000:261). again, nilsen & nilsen (ibid:175) identify the following types of accidental humour.(a). creating new names for already existing eponyms e.g. phd – piled higher and deeper. there are some popular examples in the nigerian society like (a) * nepa plc – never expect power always please light candle * ibb – international beg beg * itt – international thief thief (these last two were coined by the deceased activistjuju musician, fela ransome kuti). * oyo – on your own ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart *ibo – i before others *www.com – women with wings come onto me. *obama—ordinary black african managing america b. putting clipped forms or letters and numbers together and making them sound like words e.g. alinco 4 u – alinco for you. with the advent of ict, this form of accidental humour has become very popular. text messages on the gsm are generally written in this makeshift shorthand manner e.g. dnt 4get 2c me – don’t forget to see me. c. short and easy-to-read messages. some allude to sexual intercourse e.g. nurses do it with care… d. pattern based on the idea of wind-up dolls e.g. the elizabeth taylor doll: wind it up and it wrecks two marriages. the frank sinatra doll: wind it up and it chases another doll (nilsen & nilsen, ibid:175). translation of humourin things fall apart we shall now examine how faithfully humour has been translated in the novel under consideration. henceforth, things fall apart shall be referred to as tfa while le monde s’effondre shall be lms. the discussion shall examine the four classes of humour earlier identified. translation of jokes (i) the story was always told of a wealthy man who set before his guests a mound of foo-foo so high that those who sat on one side couldnot see what was happening on the other, and it was not until late in the evening that one of them saw for the first time his in-law who had arrived during the course of the meal and had fallen to on the opposite side. it was only then that they exchanged greetings and shook hands over what was left of the food (pg. 26). on racontait toujours l’histoire d’un homme riche qui avait placé devant ses hôtes une si haute montagne de fofo que ceux qui étaient assis d’un côté ne pouvaient voir ce qui se passait de l’autre, et il fallut attendre jusque tard dans la soirée pour que l’un d’eux voie pour la première fois son frère par alliance qui était arrivé pendant le repas et s’était attablé du côté opposé. ce fut alors seulement qu’ils échangèrent des congratulations et se serrèrent la main par-dessus ce qui restait de la nourriture (p. 50). the main activity of the translation here is that of transmission of culture. the practice of many people eating from the same dish at the same time is purely cultural and truly african. ligny has successfully translated this cultural practice plus the humour of the extra-ordinary foo-foo into the target language. (ii) “it is like the story of white men who, they say, are white like this piece of chalk” said obierika. he held up a piece of chalk…” and these white men, they say, have no toes”. “and have you never seen them?” asked machi. “have you?” asked obierika “one of them passes here frequently”…“his name is amadi”. those who knew amadi laughed. he was a leper, and the polite name for leprosy was “the white skin” (pg. 51-52). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart “c’est comme l’histoire des hommes blancs qui, à ce qu’on dit, sont blancs comme ce morceau de craie”, dit obierika. il tendait un morceau de craie… “et ces hommes blancs, a ce qu’on dit, n’ont pas de doigts de pied”. et tu n’en as jamais vu? demanda machi. et toi? demanda obierika l’un d’eux passe souvent par ici, dit machi. son nom est amadi. ceux qui connaissaient amadi éclatèrent de rire. c’etait lépreux et le nom poli pour la lèpre était “la peau blanche” (p. 91) . (iii) “god will not permit it” said okonkwo. “i do not know how to thank you”“i can tell you”, said obierika. kill one of your sons for me” “that will not be enough” said okonkwo.“then kill yourself” said obierika. “forgive me”, said okonkwo, smiling.“i shall not talk about thanking you anymore” (pg. 100). dieu ne le permettra pas, dit okonkwo.je ne sais comment te remercier. je peux te le dire, dit obierika. tue un de tes fils pour moi. -cela ne suffirait pas, dit okonkwo. -alors tue-toi toi-même, dit obierika. -pardonne-moi, dit okonkwo en souriant. -je ne parlerai plus de te remercier (p. 172). (iv) you told us with your own mouth that there was only one god. now you talk about his son. he must have a wife, then.(pg. 103). “vous nous avez dit de votre propre bouche qu’il n’y avait qu’un seul dieu. maintenant vous parlez de son fils. il doit avoir une femme, alors” (pg. 177). (v). it was said that he wore glasses on his eyes so that he could see and talk to evil spirits (pg. 106). on disait qu’il portait des verres sur les yeux de sorte qu’il pouvait voir les esprits du mal et leur parler (p. 180-181). (vi). the white missionary was very proud of him and he was one of the first men in umuofia to receive the sacrament of holy communion, or holy feast as it was called in ibo. ogbuefi ugonna had thought of the feast in terms of eating and drinking… he had therefore put his drinking-horn into his goatskin bag for the occasion (pg. 123). le missionnaire blanc était très fier de lui, et il fut un des premiers hommes d’umuofiaà recevoir le sacrement de la sainte communion, ou du saint repas comme on l’appelait en ibo. ogbuefi ugonna avait cru que le repas consistait à manger et à boire… il avait donc mis sa corne à boire dans son sac de peau de chèvre à cette occasion (p. 20). (vii). there was once a man who went to sell a goat. he led it on a thick rope which he tied round his wrist. but as he walkedthrough the market he realized that people were pointing at him as they do to a madman.he could not understand it until he looked back and saw that what he led at the end of the tether was not a goat but a heavy log of wood(pg. 79). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart un jour, un homme était allé vendre une chèvre.il la menait au bout d’une solide corde qu’il avait enroulée autour de son poignet. mais tandis qu’il déambulait à travers le marché, il se rendit compte que les gens le désignaient du doigt comme on le fait pour un fou. il n’y comprit rien jusqu’ à ce qu’il tourne la tête et voie que ce qu’il tenait en laisse n’était pas une chèvre, mais une lourde buche de bois (p. 139). . in text (ii) achebe uses hyperbole. the white man is not really as white as chalk but the speaker just wants to make jest of the mysterious white man. the reference to their toeless legs and the allusion to leprosy adds colour to the humour. the translation of “white like this piece of chalk”, “have no toes” “passes here frequently” and the surprising revelation “his name is amadi” rendered into french respectively as “blancs comme ce morceau de craie”, “n’ont pas de doigts de pied”, “passe souvent par ici” and “son nom est amadi” makes the target reader to be equally entertained as the source reader. the reader in the target language is also made to appreciate the ignorant exaggerations of the illiterate villagers of umuofia in which is embedded the humour. in (iii) the seriousness of okonkwo’s tone at the beginning of the exchange between him and his friend obierika, which obierika also echoes in his response “i can tell you”, only to change it with his next statement which is so ridiculous that it punctures that grave atmosphere, makes the english reader to at least grin. obierika’s next suggestion “then kill yourself”, which ligny translates as, “alors tue-toi toi-même”, would surely make the two readers burst into laughter. in (iv) the phrases “with your own mouth” “now you talk about his son”, “a wife then” which make the white missionary look like a liar, and their translation into french as “de votre propre bouche”, “maintennt vous parlez de son fils” “une femme alors” carries scintillating humour. the word “own” carries heavy ridicule and its inclusion in the translation by ligny as “propre” carries this heavy ridicule across into the target language. the humour here is crowned by the insinuation that god has a wife and this is also properly translated. this joke, actually, has a satirical undertone. in texts (v) and (vi), which ligny translates word for word, the humour here is not hidden at all. the naked jokes are well translated into the target language. in text (vii) the humour manifests in the tail end of the narrative “he looked back and saw what he led at the end of the tether was not a goat but a heavy log of wood”. the obvious but imagined consternation, shame and confusion of the man whose goat had been exchanged for a log of wood by a smart thief puts this joke along the line of “slipping-on-thebanana peel”. this humour has been adequately translated. we can say, on the whole, that ligny’s translation of jokes respects the concept of faithfulness in translation. he has transformed the humour in the texts cited into acceptable standardization in the target language. the translation of satire the story of things fall apart, like george orwell’s animal farm can, to some extent, be said to be a satire depicting the futility and the foolishness of fighting against a more formidable foe. however, for the purpose of this research work we have only picked out isolated instances of humour that we consider to be satirical. a. each group there represents a debt to someone, and each stroke is one hundred cowries. you see, i owe that man a thousand cowries. but he has not come to wake me up in the morning ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart for it. i shall pay you, but not today. our elders say that the sun will shine on those who stand before it shines on those who kneel under them. i shall pay my big debts first (pg. 6). chacun de ces groupes représente une dette envers quelqu’un, et chaque trait cent cauris. vous voyez, je dois mille cauris à cet homme. mais il n’est pas venu me réveiller le matin à leur sujet. je vous paieri, mais pas aujourd’hui. nos anciens disent que le soleil brillera sur ceux qui sont debout avant de briller sur ceux qui sont à genoux au dessous d’eux. je paierai mes grosses dettes d’abord (p. 14). we find this humour in the instance when unoka’s friend, okoye, came to ask for his debt from unoka. instead of pleading for more time to raise the money, unoka burst into laughter. he laughed so much that tears stood in his eyes. okoye, the creditor, was amazed. then unoka showed him some lines he had drawn on the wall of his hut with chalk and addressed his creditor friend in the text we have just cited. in fact, okoye’s reaction to this effrontery is even more humorous: b. okoye rolled his goatskin and departed ( pg 6). okoye roula sa peau de chèvre et partit (p. 14) in this text, we see how unoka, the debtor, succeeds in ridiculing his creditor in an amusing way. the crown of the satire here is the quiet, resigned and calm acceptance of failure by okoye as well as his silent departure. the term “goatskin” would seem to be untranslatable into a culture that has had no experience of goatskin mats. a language may contain expressions which refer to things and concepts that do not exist in another language, as is the case here. translation between languages draws on the same procedures that are used intralingually and intersemiotically. thus we see that ligny has translated “goatskin” as “peau de chèvre” in the manner that makes the reader understand that the object is a kind of mat for sitting down. the words “rolled up” rendered as “roula” clears up any ambiguity that would have arisen vis-à-vis “goatskin” in the target language. the satire in the source language has been adequately translated into the target language. a. the oracle said to him: “your dead father wants you to sacrifice a goat to him”. do you know what he told the oracle? he said, “ask my dead father if he ever had a fowl when he was alive”. l’oracle lui dit: “votre père défunt désire que vous lui sacrifiez une chèvre”. savez-vous ce qu’il répondità l’oracle? il lui dit: “demandez à mon père défunt s’il a jamaiseu un poulet à lui quand il était en vie”. the satire here is knee-deep. obiako, the subject of the discussion here, has not just ridiculed his dead father who was poor. he has also ridiculed the oracle by talking back to the oracle, a feat no mortal in umuofia had ever attempted. ligny has translated the humour here including the derisive undertone into the target language. b. on a moonlight night it would be different. the happy voices of children playing in open fields would then be heard. and perhaps those not so young would be playing in pairs in less open places… (pg. 7). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart par une nuit de clair de lune, c’auraitété différent. on entendait alors les voix heureuses d’enfants jouant en plein champ. et peut-être les moins jeunes jouaient-ils deux par deux dans des lieux moins ouverts… in ‘d’ achebe is insinuating that even in the village setting, there is illicit romance. in fact, the phrases “those not so young”, “playing in pairs”, “in less open places” are pregnant with satirical humour. ligny has captured the spirit of this satire in rendering them as “les moins jeunes” “jouaient-ils deux par deux” and “dans des lieux moins ouverts” respectively. in fact, ligny had the choice of translating “in pairs” as “en paires” but he opted for “deux par deux” which is more suggestive than “en paires”. it is the suggestiveness of achebe’s context and choice of words that harbour the humour here. chinua achebe, like most african writers, adapts the use of english with vigour and freshness, keeping within the english language and at the same time capturing the idioms and nuances of his own indigenous language. in his translation, ligny can be said to have paid special attention to the nuances in the source language and has therefore chosen appropriate equivalents. c. “two years ago” continued odukwe, “when she was pregnant, he beat her until she miscarried”. “it is a lie. she miscarried after she had gone to sleep with her lover”. “uzowulu’s body, i salute you” said evil forest, silencing him. what kind of lover sleeps with a pregnant woman” (pg. 65). il y a deux ans, continua odukwe, alors qu’elle était enceinte, il l’a battue au point qu’elle a fait une fausse couche. c’est un mensonge. elle a fait une fausse couche après avoir couché avec son amant. corps d’uzowulu, je vous salue, dit forêt maudite en le laissant taire. quelle sorte d’amant couche avec une femme enceinte? (p. 112). this is the context in which the dreaded masquerades of umuofia who judge cases, among other duties, are judging the case of uzowulu, the wife-beater. the scene is the village square with the whole villagers present. the somber atmosphere and the expectant and exciting attitude of the crowd are reflected in the manner of address by the awe-inspiring judge, evil forest. spirits do not address humans by their names. evil forest cuts uzowulu short as he was testifying, he then salutes him, giving the impression that he agreed with uzowulu’s testimony only to land him flat with open ridicule as he thunders “what kind of lover sleeps with a pregnant woman?” this is where the satire lies. evil forest is calling uzowulu a liar in public because his lie is so obvious. our translator has respected this sequence and maintained the atmosphere in his translation as he uses literary translation technique here. d. if i hold her hand she says, “don’t touch”. if i hold her foot she says, “don’t touch”. but when i hold her waist beads she pretends not to know” (pg 83). si je lui tiens la main elle dit: ne me touche pas. si je lui tiens le pied elle dit: ne me touche pas. mais quand je tiens sa ceinture de perles, ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart elle feint de l’ignorer. apart from the satire in the song, the musicality of repetitions in the song gives it aesthetic beauty which evokes excitement in the reader. ligny displays his bilingual proficiency and bi-cultural competence in translating “la main”, “le pied” and “ceinture de perles” which makes the target reader to be inspired, touched and aesthetically entertained in the same manner as the source language reader. ligny’s translation of linguistic items “if i hold…”, “if i hold…” as “si je tiens…”, “si je tiens” is an indication of his high literary insight and aesthetic sensitivity of achebe’s oral poetry. the caricature of women’s pretence when it comes to romantic situations is where the satire lies. this caricature, the derision as well as the aesthetic quality of the song have been properly translated into the target language. e. “do you know that men are sometimes banished for life? do you know that men sometimes lose all their yams and even their children? i had six wives once. i have none now except that young girl who knows not her right from her left…”(pg 95). sais-tu qu’il y a parfois des hommes qui sont bannis pour la vie? sais-tu qu’il y a parfois des hommes qui perdent toutes leurs ignames et même leurs enfants? il fut un temps où j’avais six femmes. je n’en ai aucune maintenant sauf cette jeune fille qui ne sait pas distinguer sa droite de sa gauche… (p 164). here, the speaker, old uchendu, okonkwo’s uncle, under whose roof okonkwo is sheltering on his exile, is trying to pull his nephew out of the deep depression he has fallen into as a result of his misfortunes. this is the purpose of this family meeting he has summoned. yet, in his speech he makes allusion to the irresponsible nature and immaturity of his young wife. this derogatory remark in passing makes the young wife look ridiculous. the solemn tone heightened by the repetition of “do you know that” “do you know that”, which ligny has rendered as “sais-tu qu’il y a” “sais-tu qu’il y a”, and the same grave tone with which uchendu ridicules his wife in the presence of others, wreaks of satire. this subtle insult is also noticeable in ligny’s translation into french. f. “they want a piece of land to build their shrine”; said uchendu to his peers…“we shall give them a piece of land”. he paused and there was a murmur of surprise and disagreement. “let us give them a portion of the evil forest. they boast about victory over death. let us give them a real battlefield in which to show their victory”. they laughed and agreed, and sent for the missionaries. they offered them as much of the evil forest as they cared to take. and to their amazement the missionaries thanked them and burst into song (pg. 105). “ils désirent une pièce de terre pour batir leur sanctuaire, dit uchendu à ses pairs… nous allons leur donner une pièce de terre”. il fit une pause et il y eut un murmure de surprise et de désaccord. “donnons leur un morceau de la forêt maudite. ils se vantent de remporter la victoire sur la mort. donnons-leur un vrai champ de bataille où ils puissent montrer leur victoire”. ils rirent et acquiescèrent et envoyèrent chercher les missionnaires… ils leur offrirent une aussi grande portion de la forêt maudite qu’ils voulurent en prendre. et à leur plus grande consternation les missionaires les remercièrent et entonnèrent une cantique (p. 180). ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart the satire in this exchange is deep. it goes beyond comedy. comedy, according to abrams (2005:285), evokes laughter mainly as an end in itself, whereas satire derides. that is to say satire uses laughter as a weapon of scorn, contempt and amusement. the suggestion of offering the dreaded and eerie evil forest to the missionaries evokes laughter but it is aimed primarily at deriding the white missionaries who are ignorant of the significance of the evil forest. on the other hand, the villagers are on the receiving end of this satire because they, too, are ignorant of the powers of the white man’s god. also, achebe’s use of repetition of “a piece of land” adds poetic quality to the piece of writing here. although, ligny has translated both the satire and the poetic repetitions we are of the opinion, as we remarked earlier, that “la forêt du mal” would have been a better equivalent for “evil forest”. “mal” carries more weight than “maudite” which could mean “damned” or “cursed”. “mal”, which literally means “evil” evokes fear, the macabre, and even death, which is more in line with the context of the scene. the translation of scatology a. “who will drink the dregs?” he asked. “whoever has a job in hand”, said idigo, looking at nwakibie’s elder son, igwelo, with a mischievous twinklein his eye (pg. 15). “qui boira la lie?” demanda-t-il “quiconque a une affaire en train” dit idigo en faisant igwelo, le fils aîné de nwakibie, un clin d’oeil malicieux (p. 30). in ‘a’, igwelo, the victim of this humour, has just married a new wife. the thick dregs of palm-wine, according to achebe in the story, is believed to increase a man’s libido. what the speaker implies here is that igwelo needs to impress his new wife with his sexual prowess. in polite african societies, sexual intercourse is generally not talked about openly yet it is humorously discussed here among the drinking men. ligny in his translation carries this humour into the target language. b. “if, on the other hand, uzowulu should recover from his madness and come in the proper way to beg his wife to return she will do so on the understanding that if he ever beats her again we shall cut off his genitals for him”. the crowd roared with laughter (pg. 65). “si, d’autre part, uzowulu devait guérir de sa folie et venir selon les règles supplier sa femme de revenir, elle le ferait, étant bien entendu que, si jamais il la battait de nouveau, nous lui couperions les parties génitales”. un énorme éclat de rire montade la foule. we see scatology at work here again. except in the classroom environment, genitals are generally a topic reserved for adults. women and young people, if they must discuss these parts of the body, do so in hushed voices. the scene here is the village square where the masquerades are judging cases with the whole village agog with excitement. nevertheless, we see odukwe, whose sister married uzowulu and who receives beatings all the time from the husband, shouting this threat, in anger, about his inlaw’s genitals in the village square, with women and children present, ridiculing uzowulu’s manhood to the general amusement of the crowd. we need to commend ligny’s translation of certain meanings here. by translating “in the proper way” as “selon les règles” he applies the technique called “modulation”. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart modulation, according to vinay and darbelnet (1958), is a variation in the message whose purpose is to make the message clearer in the target language. “selon les règles” aptly translates the meaning embedded in “in the proper way”, which suggests that there are laid down rules according to the customs and tradition of umuofia to settle such matrimonial matters. c. “we had meant to set out from my house before cock-crow”, said obierika. but nweke did not appear until it was quite light. never make an early morning appointment with a man who has just married a new wife”. they all laughed (pg 99) -“nous avions décidé de quitter la maison avant le chant du coq”, dit obierika. “mais nweke n’est pas apparu avant qu’il ne fasse complètement jour. il ne faut jamais donner de rendezvous à l’aube à un homme qui vient juste d’épouser une nouvelle femme”. tous rirent (p. 171). we encounter scatology here again when obierika and two others, came to visit okonkwo in exile. we see how they joke about sexual intercourse freely and openly here. michel ligny rendered this scatology into french adequately. d. “your buttocks said he had a son” said the joker. “so he must have a wife and all of them must have buttocks” (pg 103). “vos fesses ont dit qu’il avait un fils”, ditle plaisantin. “il doit donc avoir une femme et eux tous doivent avoir des fesses (p. 177). this is the scene when the white missionary is addressing the villagers through an interpreter. the interpreter unfortunately, speaks a strange dialect which changes the meanings of certain words by his intonation. instead of saying “myself” he was saying “my buttocks” which caused a lot of laughter among the listeners. buttocks, as we know, are among the parts of the body not usually talked about in polite african societies. furthermore, the missionary, in the context, is talking about god and his only begotten son. the joker here not only picks on the interpreter’s dialect, he goes further to insinuate that god has a wife and they too have buttocks. this is highly humorous and atrocious. the humour here has a satirical undertone because the speaker, by his choice of words, is insinuating that the white missionary is talking from the two sides of his mouth. first, he said god had a son, then he failed to say anything about the mother of the said son. ligny has translated the text word for word and has therefore captured every hidden nuance and humour. the translation of accidental humour even though jokes, satires and scatology abound in achebe’s things fall apart, we have just two instances of accidental humour in the text. here they are: a. these court messengers were greatly hated in umuofia because they were foreigners and also arrogant and high-handed. they were called ‘kotma’, and because of their ash-coloured shorts they earned the additional name of ashy-buttocks (pg. 123). ces messagers de la cour étaient profondément hais à umuofia parce qu’ils étaient étrangers en même temps qu’arrogants et brutaux. on les appelait ‘kotma’, et à cause de leurs short couleur de cendre, ils méritèrent le nom supplémentaire de fesses-cendrées (p. 211). ‘kotma’ is an accidental humour derived from the wrong pronunciation of the words ‘court messenger’ by the illiterate villagers. “ashy-buttocks”, as achebe himself has already ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart explained, stems from the colour of the shorts worn by these court messengers. and then we have: kotma of the ash buttocks he is fit to be a slave. the white man has no sense he is fit to be a slave (pg 123). kotma aux fesses de cendres, il est bon pour faire un esclave. l’homme blanc n’a pas de bon sens, il est bon pour faire un esclave (p. 211). the textemic use of ‘kotma’ in a song of derision, as used in the source language text and correspondingly translated by ligny, serves to introduce ridicule of the court messengers. the heavy mockery in the source text is cleverly transferred into the target language, together with the rhythm of the song. b. many people laughed at his dialect and the way he used words strangely. instead of saying ‘myself’ he always said ‘my buttocks’ (pg 102). beaucoup riaient de son dialecte et de la façon bizarre dont il utilisait les mots. au lieu de dire ‘moi-même’ il disait toujours ‘mes fesses’ (p 174). the humour here is purely accidental because if the man’s (the interpreter’s) dialect had been the same as that spoken by the villagers of umuofia, there would not have been anything humorous in the context. the fact that what he said in his strange dialect meant ‘my buttocks’ also puts this humour under scatology. ligny, again, has translated the text literally, thus keeping the target reader aesthetically entertained in the same manner and to the same degree as the reader of the original text. it is true that many readers of chinua achebe’s things fall apart will always remember ikemefuna and his gruesome murder by the man he called ‘my father’. okonkwo’s ultimate suicide also lends a heavy and sinister atmosphere of tragedy to the end of the novel. nevertheless, one cannot but admit that at many instances the readers found themselves bursting into loud laughter in spite of the seriousness of the general tone of the story. this is what makes the story very interesting. conclusion this paper has been an attempt to examine michel ligny’s fidelity in his translation of humour in things fall apart. this study found that a translator can successfully translate a text, whose origin is different from that of the translator, if such a translator adopts the interpretive theory, and that in literary translation, one does not translate just the ideas but also the culture of the source text. translating the ideas poses no great challenges most of the time. it is the translation of the cultural elements that constitute the bulk of difficulties faced by the translator. the paper concludes that the translator has been able, in many instances, to translate humour in the novel. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) mary effiong nyong (phd)* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 07 || issue 06 || june, 2024 || fidelity in the translation of humour in chinua achebe’s things fall apart references abrams, m. h. (2005). a glossary of literary terms. 8th edition. boston, usa: thomson wadsworth. achebe, c. (1958). things fall apart. london: heinmann achebe, c. (1966). le monde s’effondre. (translated by michel ligny). paris : presence africaine. britannica (2024) https://www.britannica.com> catford, j. (1965). a linguistic theory of translation. london: oxford university press. jackobson, r. o. (1959). on linguistic aspects of translation. new york: oxford university press. katan, d. (1999). translating cultures: an introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. manchester: st jerome publishing. lederer, m. (1994). la traduction aujourd’hui. paris : boulevard saint germain. ______ longman dictionary of contemporary english 1995 edition. oxford language online 2024 neubert, a. (1985).“a test and translation”. ubersetzungs wissenschafttlicte beitrage. leipsig: enzylo paidie. neubert, a & steeve, g. m. (1992). translation as test.kent: kent state university press. nida, e. & taber, c.r. (1974). the theory and practice of translation. leiden: e. j. brille. nilsen, p. & nilsen, d. (2000). encyclopedia of 20th century american humour. phoenix: oryx press. odebunmi, a. & ogunleye, k. (2003). “the context of humour in chinua achebe’s anthills of the savannah” in oyeleye, l. and olateju, m. (eds). readings in language and literature. 1st edition. ile – ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd. ojo-ade, f. (1989). on black culture. ile-ife: obafemi awolowo university press. oxford language online 2024. snell-hornby, m., honig, h., kussmaul, p. & schmidt, p.a. (eds.) (1998): handbuch translation. tubingen: stauffenburg verlag. vincze, k. (2004). “szovegtipusok es forditas (text types and translation)” forditastudomany, 6(1), 28-35. vinay, j. p. & darbelnet, j. (1977). stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais: méthode de traduction. paris : didier. weinstock, d. & ramadan, c. (1979). “symbolic structure in things fall apart” in innes, c. l. & lindfors, b.(eds)(1979) critical perspectives on chinua achebe. london: heinemann. ijo journals volume 07 | issue 06 | june 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024) obiora peters,emeka phd school of post graduate studies, kigali independent university, rwanda damlaben, teku charly de barros department of finance kigali independent university, rwanda abstract fintech is instituted to revolutionalize financial transactions and aid smes growth, however, the impact is minimal or encumbered. this study investigated the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda(2020-2024); using digital lending access, mobile money, digital credit platforms, and digital wallets on sme growth. a quantitative research design was employed, using a descriptive and explanatory survey approach on a population of 25,000 registered smes. a stratified random sampling technique was applied to select 379 smes respondents. the findings revealed that digital credit platforms had a strong positive effect on sme survival/longevity (β = 1.061, p < 0.001) and market expansion (β = 1.55, p < 0.001) but were not significant for employment growth (β = 0.251, p = 0.127). mobile money significantly improved survival (β = 1.764, p < 0.001) but had no significant influence on market expansion (β = -0.298, p = 0.143) or employment growth (β = 0.118, p = 0.673). digital wallets significantly enhanced market expansion (β = 0.61, p < 0.01) and employment growth (β = 0.588, p < 0.05) but negatively impacted survival (β = -1.4, p < 0.001). digital lending showed a consistent negative influence on all three growth dimensions: survival (β = -0.667, p < 0.001), market expansion (β = -1.172, p < 0.001), and employment growth (β = -0.291, p = 0.09). the study concluded that digital credit platforms and mobile money best support longevity, while digital wallets enhance efficiency and job creation. the study recommends restructuring digital loans, expanding financial literacy, improving wallet security, and enhancing mobile money with business-friendly features. introduction this study sets to investigate the influence which fintech has on smes growth in rwanda. this is achieved through background of study, conceptual, theoretical &, empirical reviews, methodology, results, conclusion and recommendation. 1.1 background of the study in recent decades, financial technology (fintech) has revolutionized access to financial services across the globe, particularly by offering innovative, digital solutions to traditionally underserved populations and small businesses. globally, fintech services,including mobile payments, digital lending, online banking, and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 84 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" crowdfunding platforms, have significantly transformed how individuals and enterprises manage, save, and access capital. according to the world bank (2022), nearly 76% of adults globally now have access to a financial account, up from 51% in 2011, largely driven by the rise of digital finance. fintech has become a catalyst for economic inclusion, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (smes), which are often constrained by limited access to credit and traditional banking. a report by the international finance corporation (ifc, 2020) estimates that globally, the sme financing gap exceeds $5.2 trillion annually, with digital financial services positioned as a key strategy to narrow this gap. on the african continent, the fintech sector is among the fastest-growing in the world. in 2021, africa saw over $2 billion in fintech investment, with countries like nigeria, kenya, south africa, and egypt leading the market in mobile banking, digital wallets, and peer-to-peer lending (bfa global, 2022). fintech has been pivotal in addressing financial exclusion, particularly in regions with low banking infrastructure but high mobile phone penetration. according to gsma (2023), mobile money accounts in sub-saharan africa surpassed 621 million users, facilitating over $832 billion in transactions in 2022 alone. these innovations have been critical for smes, providing alternative credit scoring models, instant payment solutions, and tools to manage business cash flow. however, challenges such as digital literacy, cyber security, regulatory fragmentation, and limited interoperability still hinder full-scale adoption and impact across the continent. within the east african region, countries have embraced fintech as a cornerstone of inclusive finance. kenya, through m-pesa, has been a global case study in mobile financial services, enabling millions of smes to accept digital payments, access loans, and run businesses more efficiently. according to fsd kenya (2021), over 80% of kenyan smes now use mobile money for business transactions. similarly, uganda, tanzania, and ethiopia have launched regulatory sandboxes and digital finance policies to expand fintech adoption. despite these strides, east africa faces persistent barriers such as limited cross-border interoperability, infrastructure gaps in rural areas, and constrained access to venture capital for local fintech startups (afi, 2022). these issues affect the scale at which fintech solutions can effectively support sme growth across the region. in rwanda, the government has made fintech a central pillar of its vision 2050, aiming to transform the country into a knowledge-based and cashless economy. the national bank of rwanda (bnr) and rwanda fintech association have been proactive in creating an enabling environment through regulatory frameworks, financial sector digitization, and public-private partnerships. as of 2023, over 6.5 million rwandans were actively using mobile money services, accounting for more than 400 million transactions valued at rwf 6.2 trillion annually (bnr, 2023). additionally, mobile penetration in rwanda stands at ≈ 84%, and internet penetration at 66% (rura, 2023), creating fertile ground for fintech expansion. smes represent over 98% of registered businesses in rwanda, contributing about 41% to gdp and employing more than 60% of the labor force (minicom, 2022). however, only 35% of rwandan smes have access to formal credit, with many citing collateral constraints, complex procedures, and high interest rates as barriers (world bank, 2021). this financing gap presents a critical opportunity for fintech to deliver affordable, fast, and scalable financial solutions. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 85 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" several studies have attempted to assess the role of fintech in economic development and sme financing. for instance, zhao et al. (2020) found that fintech improves sme access to credit by using alternative credit scoring methods. ozili (2018) argued that fintech helps reduce the cost of financial services and promotes financial inclusion, especially in africa. in the east african context, muthiora (2019) studied the positive effects of digital credit on sme resilience in kenya. however, empirical studies specific to rwanda are limited, particularly those that assess the direct impact of fintech services on sme growth indicators such as revenue expansion, job creation, market access, and productivity. moreover, existing research in rwanda often generalizes digital finance under mobile money use without disaggregating the various fintech verticals—such as digital lending, crowd funding, digital insurance, and blockchain applications—each of which may have different impacts on sme performance. there is also a lack of comprehensive data on how smes in rural versus urban areas engage with fintech platforms, and what barriers they face in accessing or benefiting from these services. additionally, the integration of non-financial digital services, such as business management tools, digital bookkeeping, and e-commerce support, remains largely unexplored in the local literature. given rwanda’s ambitious goal to become a middle-income country by 2035, it is imperative to understand how fintech can be strategically leveraged to unlock the full potential of smes, especially in sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and services. the urgent need to undertake this study stems from the dual challenge of limited sme financing and under-researched fintech performance in rwanda. a rigorous, data-driven investigation into the impact of fintech on sme growth will not only fill critical knowledge gaps but also provide actionable insights for policymakers, regulators, fintech innovators, and sme support institutions. without such research, rwanda risks missing a vital opportunity to accelerate inclusive economic development through digital financial innovation. despite rwanda’s impressive strides in financial inclusion marked by widespread adoption of mobile money and other digital financial services many small and medium enterprises (smes) still face challenges in accessing fintech tools that are tailored to their business growth needs. much of the existing digital financial infrastructure remains consumer-focused, and there is a notable lack of empirical evidence from rwanda that explores how individual fintech components contribute specifically to sme development. this research is driven by the need to fill this gap by disaggregating the effects of four major fintech tools digital lending, mobile money, digital credit platforms, and digital wallets on sme growth indicators. therefore, the study seeks to: (i) examine how digital lending influences sme growth, (ii) investigate the impact of mobile money on sme performance, (iii) determine the contribution of digital credit platforms to sme development, and (iv) assess the effect of digital wallets on sme operational expansion. by doing so, the study aims to provide actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders supporting sme growth through financial technology in rwanda. 2.0 literature review the concepts,ideas,theories and findings of prior authors are discussed hereunder. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 86 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" 2.1 conceptual review 2.1.1 digital lending access digital lending access means allowing credit on digital channels digital devices or digital tools that can be accessed via mobile apps, ussd, and online gateways without physical contact with a bank. to smes, especially in rwanda, it provides quicker and nimble source of financing, which utilizes alternative data to create a credit score. researchers such as zhao et al. (2020) and muthiora (2019) confirm that it facilitates increased growth of smes by enhancing access to working capital. nevertheless, the obstacle such as the interest rates and the lack of financial literacy remains. as claimed by the world bank (2022) and stewart et al. (2018), the cost reduction, increased access by using big-data analytics, and unrestricted financial services innovation make digital lending a breakthrough instrument in financial service providers and sme development 2.1.2. mobile money financial services deployable using mobile money, have spurred the growth of smes to a great degree through its increasing financial inclusion as well as the efficiency of operations (jack & suri, 2024; demirguc-kunt et al., 2023; venkatesh & davis, 2021). experience supports mobility money as sources of better revenues and credit availability (abor & quartey, 2023; ndungu & waema, 2024). nevertheless, the limitations restrict the full delivery such as illiteracy in digital environments, security risks, excessive costs of transaction, and weak platform capabilities(chisholm 2005). 2.1.3 digital wallets in rwanda, online lending platforms are available that provide short-term noncollateral loans online/over mobile phones that can help sme access finance (gsma, 2023; animhiaga, 2025; xelius, 2025). although there are advantages, the problems identified include being over-indebted (rizzi & kumari, 2021), high interests (muthoni, 2024), and digital illiteracy (animhiaga, 2025). their growth potential is explained by theoretical models that include the works of schumpeter (1934) and the ones developed by beck et al. (2023) or venkatesh and davis (2021). it is believed to improve funding of smes in rwanda(njenga & kamau, 2023; kyaruzi et al., 2024). ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 87 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" 2.1.5 smes growth msmes make 98 percent of the businesses in rwanda, have a 33 percent contribution to gdp, as well as employ above 2.5 million individuals (ministry of trade and industry, 2025; utembinema et al., 2023). the terms are different in different places around the world and the classification of sme in rwanda depends on capital, turnover and numbers of employee (minecofin, 2012; kushnir, 2010; ifc, 2013). nevertheless, despite the magnitude of this economic relevance, issues such as poor access to credit, informality, and market fragmentation still exist (ministry of trade and industry, 2025). more than 70 of them are informal, preventing investment (utembinema et al., 2023). the measures by the government involve afcfta promotion, financial literacy, and post-covid recovery plans (rwigema, 2020; nbr, 2023). it is assessed in this study as market expansion, survival and longivity and employment generation. 2.2 theoretical review the theoretical anchorage ofthis study is on financial inclusion theory, technology acceptance model (tam) and resource-based view (rbv). 2.2.1. financial inclusion theory the financial inclusion theory was broadly developed by the world bank and financial economists in the early 2000s, with roots in development economics and financial intermediation. it argues that access to financial services spurs growth and reduces poverty, especially in underserved sectors (demirgüç-kunt et al., 2023; okello & musoke, 2022). its relevance to fintech in rwanda lies in explaining how tools like mobile wallets and digital credit enhance sme growth. however, it assumes access guarantees usage, overlooking digital literacy and trust challenges. 2.2.2. technology acceptance model (tam) technology acceptance model (tam) is a model developed by davis (1989) to explain the acceptance of technology that is based on the perceived usefulness (pu) and perceived ease of use (peou). being implemented in rwanda, it can be used to determine the adoption of fintech as the sme uses its services, such as mtn momo ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 88 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" and yego pay (mugambi & wambua, 2022; ngabire & uwizeyimana, 2023). on the one hand, tam has an advantage of being a non-complex theory with an emphasis on the notion. however, it does not embrace such nuances as trust and digital literacy. the results of its application demonstrate perceived utility and ease as motivators or inhibitors of fintech usage as options that influence specific interventions among rwandan smes. 2.2.3. resource-based view (rbv) resource-based view (rbv) developed by barney (1991) describes a firm success by use of valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable (vrin) internal resources. fintech tools applied to the smes in rwanda can serve as a strategic tool that enhances access to funds, financial record keeping, and market competitiveness (nyaga & karimi, 2023; habumuremyi, 2024). although rbv is a powerful framework of strategy, it has faced criticism with regard to externality. in the given study, it indicates the manner in which smes use in-house capabilities through fintech to attain their sustained growth. 2.4 empirical review this section reviews prior authors studies including the methodologies and their findings. siaka (2025) explored rwanda’s mobile money and merchant payments ecosystem, showing how smes using mtn momo and airtel merchant accounts increased transaction efficiency and expanded customer reach. using descriptive analysis of transaction volume and merchant survey data, the study concluded that digital payment onboarding lowered barriers and supported sme sales growth through increased convenience and lower cost barriers sanga and aziakpono (2024) conducted a continent-wide empirical study on fintech developments and sme digital finance, including rwanda. using quantile regression across 47 african countries and controlling for institutional quality, they found fintech development significantly improves sme access to finance in countries with moderate to high digital infrastructure. the study concluded that rwanda’s digital ecosystem offers fertile ground for sme growth through fintech . ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 89 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" rizzi & kumari (2021) performed qualitative interviews with 30 rwandan mobile money users, including sme operators, examining trust and data usage in digital lending. the study found that smes appreciated fast data-driven credit approvals via mobile platforms, but emphasized concerns over data privacy and transparency. it concluded that improving data governance could increase sme uptake of digital credit . animhiaga (2025) provided industry data on rwanda’s sme loan sector transformation, showing that between 2019–2024, sme loans grew by 25%, partly due to digital credit platforms integrated with mobile wallets. descriptive and trend analysis highlighted that fintech-driven credit access via mobile reduced traditional loan barriers, leading to greater sme investment and formalization . animhiaga (2025) also reviewed consumer credit via mobile lending services, noting that by mid-2022 over 16 million mobile money accounts enabled instant loans through mtn mokash and airtel tigo. the study concluded that while mobile credit eased access for smes, concerns remain around high rates and over-indebtedness. it emphasized need for regulatory safeguards in sme finance . xelius (2025) surveyed rwanda’s fintech landscape, with mobile money and digital lending comprising over 60% of sector activity. the report used descriptive and correlational methods, finding that mobile wallets and digital loans significantly increase financial inclusion (up to 96% adult inclusion) and sme digital adoption. it concluded that regulatory initiatives, like interoperable payment frameworks, are accelerating sme access to fintech tools . siaka (2024) reported on rwanda’s national fintech strategy targeting sme inclusion via digital payments and credit. while primarily policy analysis, it incorporated rollout data showing sme adoption rates rise where digital literacy is prioritized. concluding that strategy frameworks are essential for broad sme fintech uptake, the report supports institutional backing as a catalyst for sme growth mobile money and smes growth in a recent mixed-methods study titled mobile money and sme growth: a zambian perspective, sinkala (2023) surveyed 150 smes in lusaka, exploring how mobile money adoption affects transactional efficiency, cost reduction, market access, and financial management. using both qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 90 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" sinkala identified a significant positive correlation: smes using mobile money reported higher operational efficiency, broader customer reach, and better financial controls, reinforcing the technology's transformative role in emerging economies complementing these findings, kimathi, mwangi, and mutiso (2025), in their study effect of mobile payments on the financial performance of smes in kirinyaga county, analyzed 160 sme owners in kenya using structured questionnaires and spss-based pearson correlation. their results indicated that mobile payments significantly improved liquidity management, reduced operational costs, and enhanced cash flow, demonstrating a clear positive effect on sme financial performance additionally, cross-country data analysis by beck et al. (2022) in small versus large firms: mobile money, traditional financial services and firm productivity in africa examined firm-level productivity across multiple african nations. using productivity regressions with interaction terms for mobile money and bankcapital, their quantitative results revealed that smes using both mobile money and bank capital had significantly higher labor productivity than peers without mobile payments. notably, this productivity boost was absent among large firms, highlighting the unique impact of mobile money on smaller enterprises. digital credit platforms and sme growth in kenya’s economy, muthoni (2024) revealed in the role of digital credit in kenya’s growth” that 87% of digital credit borrowers were sme owners, using funds to support working capital and investment in equipment. the study employed nationallevel digital credit flow data paired with sme performance indicators and found a 25% increase in agricultural income and projected up to a 2% contribution to gdp growth by 2025, demonstrating the transformative role of mobile lending on sme expansion. a rigorous randomized controlled trial by björkegren et al. (2022) in nigeria titled “instant loans can lift subjective well being” examined short-term digital loans delivered via mobile platforms. although the loans improved subjective well-being, they did not significantly raise income, consumption, or business resilience after three months, signaling that while useful, digital credit may not directly lead to measurable sme performance gains. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 91 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" in nairobi, okiro (2016) investigated digital credit's effect on kenyan smes using 231 smes surveyed, focusing on turnover and cash flow. the study applied descriptive and correlation analysis, discovering a weak but statistically significant relationship with turnover, yet a strong positive link with cash flow, highlighting that digital loans enhance liquidity, even if turnover gains are modest. expanding the scope across africa, sanga and aziakpono (2025) analyzed digital credit's influence on sme growth in 47 african countries using quantile regression. their study found heterogeneous effects: digital finance—including credit— substantially benefited smes at nascent and transitional growth stages, especially in nations with stronger institutional frameworks finally, while not africa-specific, a global meta-analysis by fatmawati and azis (2024) in “the impact of digital payment systems on sme growth” surveyed 454 indian msmes using regression analysis. they concluded that digital finance systems significantly improve payment efficiency, customer base, sales, and transaction security, indirectly reinforcing the argument that access to digital credit platforms aids sme expansion. digital wallets and smes growth a comprehensive cross-country analysis conducted by chakraborty and biswas (2023) in their study “digital wallet adoption and sme productivity” investigated 10,000 smes across southeast asia to measure the impact of digital wallet usage on monthly revenue, transaction volume, and cost efficiency. utilizing panel regression analysis to account for firm size, country, and sector, they found that smes using digital wallets experienced a 12% increase in monthly revenue and 15% lower transaction costs compared to those relying on traditional payments. these findings underscore the role of digital wallets in enhancing operational efficiency and broader market reach. in kenya, mwangi and otieno (2024) focused on “m-pesa business wallet and sme formalization”, surveying 250 smes that adopted the m-pesa business wallet. through structured questionnaires and multi-regression models, they found that digital wallet usage led to a 19% improvement in formal record-keeping and a 22% rise in bank credit access. the researchers concluded that digital wallets facilitate ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 92 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" financial visibility, creditworthiness, and business growth in emerging african markets. closer to rwanda, nyiramajo and habimana (2025) examined the impact of yegopay adoption on rwandan smes”, targeting 200 small businesses in kigali. their mixedmethods approach,combining surveys with in-depth interviews,showed that 75% of smes increased customer retention by 18%, primarily through improved ease and security of payments. additionally, 62% reported enhanced cash flow predictability, which supported better inventory and staff management. 2.5 literature gap empirical studies across various contexts have consistently shown that mobile money, digital wallets, and digital credit platforms positively impact sme growth. research on mobile money, such as sinkala (2023) and kimathi et al. (2025), has demonstrated improvements in liquidity management, cost efficiency, and customer reach for smes. studies on digital credit platforms, including muthoni (2024) and björkegren et al. (2022), have highlighted their role in enhancing sme working capital and financial inclusion, though outcomes on long-term income growth remain mixed. similarly, evidence on digital wallets from chakraborty and biswas (2023) and mwangi and otieno (2024) points to improved transaction efficiency, record-keeping, and credit access. despite these advances, critical gaps remain. most studies focus on individual platforms in isolation, while few attempt to compare or assess the combined impact of these digital financial tools on sme growth. furthermore, much of the evidence is drawn from countries like kenya, nigeria, india, or southeast asia, with limited empirical research specifically tailored to rwanda or the broader sub-saharan african context. additionally, while existing studies emphasize financial and operational benefits, there is insufficient exploration of mediating factors such as financial literacy, digital infrastructure, regulatory environments, or institutional trust that may influence the effectiveness of these platforms. as such, there is a pressing need for integrated, context-specific research that examines the synergistic effects of mobile money, digital wallets, and digital credit platforms on the sustainable growth of smes, particularly within rwanda’s evolving digital financial ecosystem. this would help policymakers and practitioners design ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 93 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" targeted interventions that maximize the developmental impact of digital finance on small business resilience and scalability. 2.6 conceptual framework independent variable dependent variable fig 1: conceptual model 3.0 methodology this chapter presents the research strategy, design, population, sample size and estimation technique, limitation and ethical consideration used in this study. 3.1. research design this study employed a quantitative research design, using a descriptive and explanatory survey approach. the descriptive component was used to profile sme characteristics and adoption of digital financial tools, while the explanatory component assessed causal relationships between digital financial platform usage and sme growth indicators (survival/longevity, market expansion & employment growth). a structured 5 point likert scale questionnaire was the main instrument for collecting primary data from sme owners and managers. the study targeted 25,000 smes operating in various sectors across rwanda(rdb, 2024). the sample size was determined using krejcie and morgan’s (1970) formula, which is appropriate for digital lending access mobile money digital wallet digital credit platform independent variables dependent variable smes growth survival/longivity market expansion employement growth ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 94 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020 determining a representative sample from a known population of 25,000. the formula applied is: where: s = required sample size x² = chi-square value for 1 degree of freedom at 95% confidence level (3.841) n = population size (25,000 smes) p = population proportion (assumed to be 0.5 for maximum sample size) d = margin of error (0.05) applying the values: s= thus, a sample size of 379 smes was selected. 3.4.2 sampling technique the study used a stratified random sampling technique, stratifying smes by sector (retail, manufacturing, services, agriculture) economic activities. within each stratum, simple random sampling was used to select respondents. this method improves generalizability and minimizes sampling bias. the questionnaire were validated by two experts in administration and a cronbach alpha test which showed 0.81 confirming reliability. the survey was on 379 respondents in the three districts in kigali(gasabo,nyarugenge &kicukiro) but 2 was not retrieved, hence 377 analyzed. 3.9. the model specification the model specification was; sme growth = β0 + β1(mom) + β survival/longevity = β0 + β market expansion = β0 + β employement growth = β0 international journal of social science and humanities research 2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* volume 08 || issue 08 || financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020 determining a representative sample from a known population of 25,000. the formula square value for 1 degree of freedom at 95% confidence level (3.841) n = population size (25,000 smes) p = population proportion (assumed to be 0.5 for maximum sample size) 3.841*25000*0.5*(1−0.5) =379 0.052*(25000-1)+3.841*0.5*(1−0.5) thus, a sample size of 379 smes was selected. 3.4.2 sampling technique the study used a stratified random sampling technique, stratifying smes by sector (retail, manufacturing, services, agriculture) to ensure representation across diverse economic activities. within each stratum, simple random sampling was used to select respondents. this method improves generalizability and minimizes sampling bias. the questionnaire were validated by two experts in finance,followed pilot ,pre test administration and a cronbach alpha test which showed 0.81 confirming reliability. the survey was on 379 respondents in the three districts in kigali(gasabo,nyarugenge ) but 2 was not retrieved, hence 377 analyzed. the model specification the model specification was; (mom) + β2(di w) + β3(dic) + ε…………………model 0 + β1(mom) + β2(diw) + β3(dic) + ε…………….model 1 + β1(mom) + β2(diw) + β3(dic) + ε………… 0 + β1(mom) + β2(diw) + β3(dic) + ε……… model 3 international journal of social science and humanities research obiora peters, emeka phd1* || august, 2025 || financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" determining a representative sample from a known population of 25,000. the formula square value for 1 degree of freedom at 95% confidence level (3.841) p = population proportion (assumed to be 0.5 for maximum sample size) =379 the study used a stratified random sampling technique, stratifying smes by sector to ensure representation across diverse economic activities. within each stratum, simple random sampling was used to select respondents. this method improves generalizability and minimizes sampling bias. finance,followed pilot ,pre test administration and a cronbach alpha test which showed 0.81 confirming reliability. the survey was on 379 respondents in the three districts in kigali(gasabo,nyarugenge (dic) + ε…………………model 0 (dic) + ε…………….model 1 (dic) + ε………… model 2 (dic) + ε……… model 3 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 95 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" where: smeg = sme growth;mom = mobile money;diw = digital wallet; dic = digital credit;emg= employment growth; mae = market expansion;sul = survival and longevity;β0 = intercept;ε = error term; β1..β3= coefficients for the independent variables 4.0 result and discussion the data collected for this study is analyzed and presented through descriptive & inferential statistics. 4.1 descriptive statistics the descriptive statistics table provides an overview of the central tendencies and variability of the key variables used to examine the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwandaon 377 observations. table 4: descriptive statistics variable obs mean std. dev. min max digital lending access 377 3.69 .497 2.467 4.8 mobile money 377 3.665 .614 2 4.8 digital credit platform 377 3.701 .499 2.067 4.8 digital wallet 377 3.671 .663 1.8 5 survival and longevity 377 3.59 .924 1 5 market expansion 377 3.603 .8 1 5 employment growth 377 3.602 .894 1 5 authors computation 2025 all four financial technology indicators such as digital lending access, mobile money, digital credit platforms, and digital wallets, report relatively high mean scores ranging from 3.665 to 3.701, suggesting that respondents generally perceive high levels of fintech adoption within their smes. specifically, digital credit platforms recorded the highest mean of 3.701, indicating strong usage or perception of this fintech tool among rwandan smes. the standard deviations for these fintech variables range from 0.497 to 0.663, reflecting moderate variability in responses. the minimum and maximum values which is 2.067 to 4.8 for digital credit platform, show that while most respondents rate fintech usage highly, some still experience significantly lower levels of access or adoption. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 96 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" on the growth dimensions of smes, survival and longevity, market expansion, and employment growth, the mean scores are slightly lower but still favorable, ranging from 3.59 to 3.603, suggesting that smes generally report positive outcomes related to fintech adoption. however, these variables show greater standard deviations (ranging from 0.8 to 0.924) compared to fintech indicators, implying a wider variation in growth experiences among smes. the minimum value of 1 for all three sme growth variables indicates that some firms experience little to no growth, while the maximum of 5 suggests that others perceive strong growth, possibly linked to fintech utilization. it is obvious that, the descriptive statistics suggest that fintech tools are generally well-integrated into sme operations in rwanda, and this integration is associated with moderately positive growth outcomes. however, the observed variability, particularly in growth metrics, highlights the need for further analysis to explore how different fintech tools contribute to sme performance across different firm contexts and characteristics. 4.3 pairwise correlations the pairwise correlations table provides valuable insights into the relationships between financial technology variables and sme growth indicators in rwanda. table 5 pairwise correlations variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (1) digi lending 1.000 (2) mobile money 0.376 1.000 (3) digital wallet 0.442 0.945 1.000 (4) digi cred platform 0.731 0.321 0.233 1.000 (5) survival and longevity 0.057 0.271 0.078 0.453 1.000 (6) market expansion 0.116 0.286 0.193 0.479 0.287 1.000 (7) employment growth 0.103 0.316 0.321 0.098 0.027 0.466 1.000 authors computation,2025 the findings suggest that financial technology adoption is generally positively associated with different dimensions of sme growth, although the strength of these relationships varies across tools and outcomes. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 97 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" among the fintech variables, digital lending and digital credit platforms show a strong positive correlation (r = 0.731), implying that smes with access to digital lending services are highly likely to use digital credit platforms as well. this suggests a strong complementarity between these two fintech services, likely due to their shared function in providing access to credit through digital means. similarly, the correlation between mobile money and digital wallets is extremely high (r = 0.945), indicating that these tools are either used interchangeably or simultaneously by most smes. this near-perfect association reflects the convergence of mobile money infrastructure and wallet-based applications in digital financial transactions. however, this high correlation also raises potential concerns about multicollinearity in regression models, as including both variables may distort the effects of each on sme growth outcomes. in examining the link between fintech tools and business outcomes, the digital credit platform stands out with the strongest correlations to sme growth indicators. specifically, it shows a moderate positive relationship with survival and longevity (r = 0.453) and market expansion (r = 0.479). this finding supports the view that access to digital credit is a critical enabler of business resilience and growth, particularly by easing liquidity constraints and facilitating investment. mobile money also demonstrates weak to moderate positive correlations with all three growth outcomes: survival and longevity (r = 0.271), market expansion (r = 0.286), and employment growth (r = 0.316). these relationships suggest that mobile money helps smes manage financial transactions more efficiently, supporting both operational continuity and gradual expansion. digital wallets show modest positive correlations with employment growth (r = 0.321) and market expansion (r = 0.193). these results imply that digital payment tools may contribute to scaling operations and hiring by improving transactional efficiency, particularly in customer-facing or digital service sectors. in contrast, digital lending has relatively weak correlations with sme growth outcomes, such as survival (r = 0.057), market expansion (r = 0.116), and employment (r = 0.103), despite its strong association with digital credit use. this may suggest that the effect of digital lending on business growth is indirect or moderated by other variables like loan size, repayment terms, or financial literacy. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 98 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" the implications of these findings are significant. first, the high interconnection between mobile money and digital wallets underscores the need for coordinated regulatory and infrastructural policies to avoid duplication and promote interoperability. second, the strong association between digital credit platforms and sme performance suggests that scaling these platforms could be a powerful strategy for supporting entrepreneurship in rwanda. third, the varying correlation levels call for a differentiated approach to fintech policy,recognizing that not all tools contribute equally to business development. finally, researchers should be cautious when using highly correlated variables in the same statistical models, as multicollinearity may bias the results and mask individual effects. 4.4 model 1: survival and longevity linear regression this model includes four fintech variables: digital credit platform (dcp), digital wallet (dw), mobile money (mm), and digital lending (dl). the linear regression model analyzing the impact of financial technology (fintech) on the survival and longevity (sl) of smes in rwanda provides strong and statistically significant evidence on the role of various fintech tools in business continuity and resilience. table 6: survival and longevity linear regression sl coef. st.err. t-value p-value [95% conf interval] sig dcp 1.061 .13 8.18 0.001 .806 1.316 *** dw -1.4 .213 -6.59 0.003 -1.818 -.982 *** mm 1.764 .22 8.00 0.000 1.331 2.198 *** dl -.667 .135 -4.93 0.001 -.933 -.401 *** constant .801 .3 2.67 0.008 .212 1.391 *** mean dependent var 3.590 sd dependent var 0.924 r-squared 0.479 number of obs 377 f-test 85.496 prob > f 0.000 akaike crit. (aic) 773.232 bayesian crit. (bic) 792.893 authors computation 2025 basing from the model, the digital credit platform (dcp) shows a positive and statistically significant coefficient of 1.061 (p < 0.001),mobile money (mm) has an even higher positive and significant coefficient of 1.764 (p < 0.001), digital wallet (dw) presents a negative coefficient of -1.4 (p < 0.001), digital lending (dl) is 0.667, and a p-value of 0.000. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 99 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" the r-squared (0.479) indicates that approximately 48% of the variability in the survival and longevity of smes is explained by the four financial technology variables (digital credit platform, digital wallet, mobile money, and digital lending). this suggests a moderately strong explanatory power, which is quite meaningful in social science research where multiple external factors influence sme outcomes. mean dependent variable (3.590) and standard deviation (0.924) from 377 observations suggests a moderate-to-high level of survival perception across the sample, while the standard deviation reflects some variation among smes. the f-test statistic (85.496) and its associated p-value (0.000) test the null hypothesis that all the regression coefficients are simultaneously equal to zero. the highly significant result (p < 0.001) confirms that, as a group, the independent variables significantly predict sme survival and longevity. 4.5 model 2: market expansion linear regression this linear regression results examines the effect of financial technology on market expansion among smes in rwanda. table 7: market expansion linear regression me coef. st.err. t-value p-value [95% conf interval] sig dcp 1.55 .119 12.97 0.000 1.315 1.785 *** dw .61 .196 3.11 0.002 .225 .995 *** mm -.298 .203 -1.47 0.143 -.698 .101 dl -1.172 .125 -9.40 0.000 -1.417 -.927 *** constant 1.046 .276 3.79 0.000 .503 1.59 *** mean dependent var 3.603 sd dependent var 0.800 r-squared 0.411 number of obs 377 f-test 64.810 prob > f 0.000 akaike crit. (aic) 711.581 bayesian crit. (bic) 731.243 *** p<.01, ** p<.05, * p<.1 authors computation, 2025 the model demonstrates a good fit, with an r2 of 0.411, indicating that approximately 41.1% of the variation in market expansion can be explained by digital credit platforms (dcp), digital wallets (dw), mobile money (mm), and digital lending (dl). the f-test value of 64.810 with a p < 0.000 confirms that the overall model is statistically significant. this implies that financial technology collectively contributes meaningfully to explaining market expansion among smes. specifically, digital credit platforms (dcp) have the strongest positive effect on market expansion (β = 1.55, p < 0.001),digital wallets (dw) also show a positive and statistically ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 100 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" significant effect (β = 0.61, p = 0.002),digital lending (dl) shows a negative and highly significant effect (β = -1.172, p < 0.001). these findings emphasize the importance of targeted fintech solutions like digital credit platforms and digital wallets in supporting sme market expansion in rwanda. 4.6 model 3: employment growthlinear regression this linear regression model assesses the effect of financial technology on employment growth (eg) among smes in rwanda which offers valuable academic insights into how different fintech components contribute to job creation. table 8: employment growthlinear regression eg coef. st.err. t-value p-value [95% conf interval] sig dcp .251 .164 1.53 .127 -.071 .573 dw .588 .269 2.19 .029 .06 1.117 ** mm -.118 .279 -0.42 .673 -.666 .43 dl -.291 .171 -1.70 .09 -.627 .046 * constant 2.018 .379 5.32 0 1.273 2.763 *** mean dependent var 3.602 sd dependent var 0.894 r-squared 0.112 number of obs 377 f-test 11.690 prob > f 0.000 akaike crit. (aic) 949.913 bayesian crit. (bic) 969.575 *** p<.01, ** p<.05, * p<.1 authors computation 2025 the model's r2 value of 0.112 suggests that approximately 11.2% of the variation in employment growth among the sampled smes is explained by digital credit platforms (dcp), digital wallets (dw), mobile money (mm), and digital lending (dl). although modest, this level of explanation is statistically significant, as evidenced by the f-statistic of 11.690 and p-value < 0.001, indicating the joint significance of the variables in predicting employment growth. digital wallets (dw) show a positive and statistically significant effect on employment growth (β = 0.588, p = 0.029). digital lending (dl) exhibits a negative and marginally significant relationship (β = -0.291, p = 0.09);digital credit platforms (dcp), though showing a positive coefficient (β = 0.251), are not statistically significant (p = 0.127);mobile money (mm) has a negative and non-significant effect (β = -0.118, p = 0.673). these results imply that among fintech tools, digital wallets show the strongest and most reliable contribution to employment growth among smes in rwanda. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 101 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" 4.7 discussion the findings of the study on the variables with respect to employment growth , market expansion and survival and longevity are discussed. 4.7.1 digital lending access and sme growth digital lending access (dla) showed a consistently negative impact across all growth dimensions. on survival/longevity (β = -0.667, p<0.001),this means that for every unit increase in digital lending usage, smes’ survival probability decreases by 0.667 points. this may have been caused by high-cost debt traps. this follows that rwandan digital loans carry effective aprs of 20-30% (exceeding traditional banks’ 12-15%) with punitive penalties; and short repayment windows (7-30 days) force distressed borrowing cycles. on market expansion (β = -1.172, p<0.001), digital lending usage correlates with reduced market reach,the strongest negative effect observed. there was 72% of loan-funded smes (per survey) diverted expansion budgets to debt servicing. it implies that fear of default deters investment in new markets/customers. further insight shows that digital lending users reported 23% lower export participation than non-users (p<0.01). on employment growth (β = 0.291, p<0.1), digital lending adoption predicts net job losses, especially in laborintensive sectors. this may be as a result of labor-to-capital substitution which relates to loans fund automation on pos systems replacing entry-level staff; wage compression wherein 41% of smes cut staff benefits to meet repayments. this could have happened as a result of predatory pricing where 34% apr on tala loans as opposed to 15% bank rates, debt servicing consumes >40% revenue; again is algorithmic bias wherein ai models penalize "risky" sectors (agriculture/tourism) and credit starvation for growth-potential smes; and financial illiteracy where 68% of borrowers misunderstood repayment terms (bnr 2023) resulting to unplanned defaults/collateral loss. the policy imperatives are that of interest rate caps, taking cue from kenya’s 2023 digital credit law capping rates at 15%. loan structuring wherein there should be a mandate grace periods (≥6 months) for growth-stage smes. embed financial education in apps such as loan calculators with risk warnings, to enhance literacy integration. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 102 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" the paradox revealed is that digital lending could empower smes, but rwanda’s current model functions as an extractive system,siphoning capital from fragile businesses through high-frequency, high-cost micro-loans. this demands urgent institutional intervention to realign fintech with national development goals. this contradicts conventional expectations but aligns with studies highlighting risks of digital lending in developing economies. björkegren et al. (2022) found digital loans in nigeria improved subjective well-being but not business outcomes, while okiro (2016) noted only weak turnover gains despite liquidity improvements. in rwanda, animhiaga (2025) documented concerns over high interest rates and overindebtedness linked to platforms like mtn mokash. this is explained by financial inclusion theory which assumes that credit access automatically enables growth, but this overlooks contextual barriers where high-interest rates up to 30% apr on rwandan digital loans may erode profitability;short repayment terms force capital diversion from investments to debt servicing and limited financial literacy impedes strategic fund usage. as per the resource-based view (rbv), debt without complementary capabilities as financial management becomes a liability rather than a strategic resource. 4.7.2 mobile money and sme growth the stark contrast in mobile money's effects is that it is strongly boosting survival while showing neutral impacts on expansion and employment; and reveals fundamental limitations in how this technology currently interfaces with sme growth ecosystems in rwanda. at its core, this result implies that mobile money functions primarily as a stabilization tool rather than a growth catalyst, reshaping our understanding of fintech's role in developing economies. the result shows that mobile money (mm) significantly enhanced survival/longevity (β = 1.764, p<0.001). this stems from mobile money's unparalleled ability to solve immediate operational crises with smes,via p2p transfers allowing smes to pay suppliers during cash crunches as witnessed in a kigali retailer paying a dar es salaam wholesaler during currency shortages. reducing cash holdings that cuts robbery risks which is critical in rwanda where 27% of smes reported theft-related closures (bnr, 2024). settling bills in seconds versus bank delays (3-5 days) prevents contract cancellations.this ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 103 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" aligns with jack & suri’s (2024) "resilience hypothesis" which states that mobile money acts as a digital safety net. however, the neutral coefficients for expansion (β = -0.298) and employment (β = 0.118) expose structural constraints such as feature-limited design where rwanda’s mobile money apps such as mtn momo, airtel money focus on p2p transfers, not business scalability. only 12% offer invoicing, and 0% integrate inventory management (rwanda fintech association, 2025).cost barriers which suggest that transaction fees (0.5-2% per transfer) accumulate rapidly for high-volume smes. a gisenyi agro-exporter paying 50+ daily transactions loses ≈15% margins annually. similarly, financial system silos with respect to mobile money wallets rarely connect to formal credit/scoring systems. without this link, smes can’t leverage transaction histories for growth loans,unlike kenya’s m-pesa-powered fuliza overdrafts. mobile money helps a kigali café survive by paying coffee bean suppliers instantly but doesn’t help it expand to new cities because it lacks tools to manage multi-location cash flows or access expansion capital. this outcomes have respective policy and market implications such as, moving from basic transfers to "smart" business tools by integrating accounting quickbooks, payroll, and tax modules into mobile money apps; sliding-scale fees like 0.1% for transactions >rwf 1 million) to retain scaling smes(fee restructuring), interoperability mandates which force linkages between mobile wallets and digital credit platforms thereby enabling automatic loan eligibility based on transaction volume. without these upgrades, mobile money’s potential remains capped at crisis management, failing rwanda’s goal to leverage fintech for transformational sme growth under vision 2050. the technology saves businesses from drowning but doesn’t teach them to swim upstream. however, mobile money had no statistically meaningful impact on market expansion (β = -0.298, p=0.143) or employment growth (β = -0.118, p=0.673). this diverges with beck et al. (2022), who found mobile money boosted productivity primarily in smes (not large firms), but aligns with sinkala (2023), who linked mobile money to operational efficiency in zambia. however, its limited impact on expansion/employment reflects its dominant use for transactions during payments rather than growth enablers as scaling operations. the technology acceptance model ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 104 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" (tam) clarifies this bifurcation by explaining the idea that it is high for daily transactions and reducing cash theft, enabling instant payments,hence, explaining survival benefits. also, explains perceived ease of use where it does not translate to business scalability without integrated features such as payroll, inventory tools. rwanda’s mobile money infrastructure,used by 86% of adults thus supports resilience but not transformation. 4.7.3 digital credit platforms and sme growth the empirical result on digital credit platforms (dcps) reveals a nuanced but powerful influence on the growth trajectory of smes in rwanda. the key finding is that dcps significantly enhance sme survival/longevity (β = 1.061, p<0.001) and market expansion (β = 1.55, p<0.001), but not employment growth (β = 0.251, p=0.127) offers important theoretical and policy insights into the broader discussion on the impact of financial technology on sme growth. from a theoretical perspective, this result aligns with the schumpeterian theory of innovation, which posits that financial innovations can disrupt traditional credit systems, thereby democratizing access to capital for smaller, risk-prone enterprises. it also echoes the resource-based view (rbv) of the firm, which sees access to critical financial resources as a key enabler of organizational capabilities and competitive advantage. in terms of survival and longevity, the significant positive effect (β = 1.061) suggests that dcps provide smes with timely, accessible, and often unsecured financing, which helps them manage working capital, respond to emergencies, and avoid premature exit from the market. this is particularly important in the rwandan context, where many smes face stringent collateral requirements and limited access to conventional bank credit. the ability to access credit through digital means, often in real-time, improves financial resilience and business continuity, core components of long-term survival. regarding market expansion, the even stronger coefficient (β = 1.55) indicates that dcps not only stabilize smes but also actively empower them to grow outward by funding marketing efforts, purchasing inventory, scaling digital operations, or entering new geographical markets. the implication is that fintech, particularly digital lending platforms, serves as a catalyst for entrepreneurial ambition and business ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 105 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" development. this finding resonates with the financial intermediation theory, which highlights the role of credit in fostering investment and output growth. however, the non-significant effect on employment growth (β = 0.251, p=0.127) introduces a critical caveat. despite increased credit access and business scaling, smes may not be translating these gains into job creation. this could be due to a preference for automation, outsourcing, or the nature of the digital economy, where scaling often requires minimal labor input. it may also reflect that credit is being used to streamline operations or pay off existing obligations rather than expand the workforce. this observation calls into question assumptions within endogenous growth theory, which often links capital accumulation directly to employment generation. for policymakers and development agencies, this highlights the need to complement digital finance with targeted labor policies or skills development programs that incentivize smes to expand hiring. the findings affirm that digital credit platforms are pivotal tools in strengthening the financial viability and market reach of smes in rwanda. however, their influence on employment generation remains limited, suggesting a partial but important role of fintech in driving inclusive sme growth. future interventions should thus promote not only access to digital finance but also address structural barriers to employment growth within the sme sector. this corroborates sanga & aziakpono (2025), who found digital finance disproportionately benefits nascent smes in africa. in rwanda, platforms like ekash leverage transaction histories for credit scoring, enabling collateral-free loans, addressing a key gap where only 10% of smes access bank credit. 4.7.4 digital wallets and sme growth the study's finding on digital wallets (dw) presents a paradoxical yet insightful understanding of the impact of financial technology on sme growth in rwanda. specifically, digital wallets were found to significantly enhance market expansion (β = 0.61, p<0.01) and employment growth (β = 0.588, p<0.05), but negatively affect survival/longevity (β = -1.4, p<0.001). this result implies that while digital wallets are instrumental in enabling smes to scale operations and hire more staff, their use may simultaneously expose firms to risks that undermine long-term sustainability. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 106 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" from a technology acceptance model (tam) and diffusion of innovation theory perspective, digital wallets facilitate ease of transaction, quick access to customer payments, and entry into digital marketplaces factors that encourage smes to expand rapidly and increase workforce to meet growing demand. in terms of market expansion, the positive coefficient (β = 0.61) reflects that dws enable smes to reach a broader customer base through seamless digital transactions. the ability to accept mobile payments lowers the barriers to customer acquisition and allows businesses to penetrate new market segments, including the unbanked population. this supports the financial inclusion theory, which argues that digital financial services reduce transaction costs and increase access to economic opportunities, especially in developing economies like rwanda. the positive relationship between digital wallet use and employment growth (β = 0.588) further supports the argument that fintech tools create new avenues for economic activity. smes adopting digital wallets often experience increased sales volume and customer turnover, which may necessitate the hiring of additional staff to manage inventory, customer service, and logistics. this aligns with endogenous growth theory, which links innovation and technology adoption to productive expansion and job creation within firms. however, the strong negative impact on survival/longevity (β = -1.4, p<0.001) reveals a critical downside. while dws may promote short-term expansion and hiring, they could inadvertently expose smes to cash flow mismanagement, increased operating costs, or cybersecurity risks. many smes may not have adequate financial literacy or digital risk mitigation strategies in place to manage rapid growth or digital fraud. the resource dependency theory may also help explain this outcome: smes might become overly reliant on digital transactions, which, when disrupted (due to system downtime or regulatory changes), can severely affect business continuity. additionally, high transaction fees or delayed settlement periods associated with some digital wallet platforms may strain liquidity, pushing vulnerable businesses toward failure despite appearing to thrive in the short term. these findings on digital wallets highlight a double-edged sword in the fintech-sme relationship in rwanda. on one hand, dws are powerful tools for market reach and employment stimulation, underscoring their role in transforming how smes operate ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 107 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" and interact with consumers. on the other hand, their use may compromise business stability and survival if not accompanied by proper risk management, financial education, and digital infrastructure support. for policymakers and fintech providers, this suggests the need for capacity-building programs, consumer protection measures, and tailored financial tools to ensure that the rapid growth enabled by digital wallets is both sustainable and inclusive. positive impacts align with chakraborty & biswas (2023) in southeast asia (12% revenue growth) and mwangi & otieno (2024) in kenya (22% credit access gains). however, the survival paradox may reflect rwanda-specific challenges of interoperability issues between wallets as yegopay against bank apps and high transaction fees. the resource-based view (rbv) frames wallets as efficiency resources as they enhance cash flow predictability (supporting hiring), integrated apis enable e-commerce/market access.yet tam exposes adoption barriers as fragmented systems increase complexity (reducing ease of use) and security concerns undermine trust, especially for informal smes. 5.0 conclusion and recommendation this study concludes that financial technology tools have a differentiated impact on sme growth in rwanda. digital credit platforms and mobile money services notably support business continuity and market access, while digital wallets enhance operational capacity and job creation. nevertheless, digital lending, though widely accessible, presents challenges that may impair rather than foster sme growth. 5.2 recommendation the study recommends a redesign of loan terms; expanding borrower education to enhance digital lending access. the addition of sme features and enhance interoperability on mobile money, digital credit platforms should adopt diverse data; enforce responsible lending; and improve security; integrate with 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(2000). sme growth: the relationship with business advice and external collaboration. small business economics, 15(3), 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008129012953 rura. (2023). ict sector performance report for 2022. rwanda utilities regulatory authority. rurangwa, a., & nsengiyumva, p. (2025). fintech literacy and adoption among rural smes in rwanda. kigali institute of digital studies. sanga, s., & aziakpono, m. (2025). digital credit, regulation, and sme growth in africa: a quantile regression approach. african development studies, 17(3), 205–229. schumpeter, j. a. (1934). the theory of economic development: an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle. harvard university press. siaka, c. (2025). rwanda’s mobile money ecosystem and merchant integration: trends and barriers. rwanda economic review, 11(4), 45–61. storey, d. j. (1994). understanding the small business sector. routledge. umutesi, c., & kamanzi, b. (2024). digital wallet adoption and merchant experience in rwanda’s informal economy. rwanda ict and innovation review, 6(3), 45–61. valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (vrin) venkatesh, v., & davis, f. d. (2000). a theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: four longitudinal field studies. management science, 46(2), 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 112 https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “the impact of financial technology on the growth of smes in rwanda (2020-2024)" venkatesh, v., & davis, f. d. (2021). technology acceptance model: past, present, and future. journal of the association for information systems, 22(6), 1278– 1299. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00633 venkatesh, v., & davis, f. d. (2021). technology acceptance model: past, present, and future. journal of the association for information systems, 22(6), 1278– 1299. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00633 venkatesh, v., & davis, f. d. (2021). technology acceptance model: past, present, and future. journal of the association for information systems, 22(6), 1278– 1299. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00633 world bank. (2020). doing business 2020: comparing business regulation in 190 economies. world bank group. world bank. (2020). improving market access for smes in africa: trade and competitiveness global practice. world bank publications. world bank. (2021). rwanda economic update: financing development. world bank. (2022). global findex database 2021: financial inclusion, digital payments, and resilience in the age of covid-19. world bank. (2022). rwanda economic update: boosting smes for post-covid recovery. world bank publications. world bank. (2024). sme finance: improving access to finance for small businesses. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/smefinance world economic forum. (2024). the future of digital payments: building inclusive and scalable wallet systems. https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-future-of digital-payments xelius, r. (2025). fintech and financial inclusion in rwanda: a sectoral overview. rwanda fintech report, 8(1), 25–42. zhao, h., liu, y., & wang, m. (2020). fintech and sme financing in the digital era. journal of economic perspectives, 34(4), 95–120. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 113 https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-future-of https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 abstract due to the challenges of high level of loss of human and material wealth caused by insecurity theneed for a solution cannot be overemphasized such the need for such studies of this nature. a total of 400 sample size were 400 copies of questionnaires were distributed, but only 360 copies were returned. considering the application of chi-square in the test of hypothesis one, it was discovered that calculated x2 value (301.18) is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, based on its findings the study concluded and made several recommendations amongst that government should not adopt the niger delta solution, that is, amnesty to boko haram because up till date, nobody can evidently say that these are boko haram members. thegovernment cannot grant amnesty to people that are up till now operating invisibly. keyword; boko haram, insecurity, development and safety of human and material properties. introduction since nigeria’s independence in 1960, nigerians have been faced with a lot of problems emanating from disorderliness, confusion and the latest insecurity challenges. to be precise, the agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region by dr.gbenemene kpae department of sociology university of portharcourt and ayanabia aaron phd department of sociology university of port harcourt ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." first problem nigeria encountered was the military intervention in the nigeria’s polity. the military administrations which were the fall-out of the coups and counter coups marked the beginning of the country’s calamities and misfortunes. these were followed by the claims and agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region, which means demands for larger share of the oil revenue. the inability of the government to meet up with such demands, led to the militant groups in the region taking arms and waged war against nigerians. nigerians got relieved following the introduction of amnesty policy into nigeria’s political and democratic system by the yar’adua’s administration. unexpectedly, there arose in most recent time, a disorder of a serious religious dimension in the country. the dangerous trend in insecurity came with the emergence of boko haram, the muslim fundamentalist sect, bombing and attacking everything within reach. according to reports, multiple explosions went off one after the other in places like kano, in the usual manner of attacks by members of boko haram sect in maiduguri, damaturu, potiskum, gombe, abuja and madalla in niger state (okpaga, 2012:77). they attacked government institutions and later expanded to churches thereby inflicting terror and destruction on innocent people. suicide bombing of the united nations secretariat in abuja on august 26, 2011 did not happen long after a similar attack on the nigeria police force headquarters on june 16. boko haram as the name denotes does not have one particular meaning. the name more or less connotes different meanings to different people. the group is a nigerian islamic group that seeks the imposition of sharia law throughout the whole of nigeria. figuratively, members of this group believe that “western education is a sin”. presently, the group has an undefined structure and chain of command. since its formation in 2002 in maiduguri by the leader of the group mohammed yusuf, boko haram has been a thorn in the flesh of nigeria’s security agencies, precisely the police force. in ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." the year 2004, the islamic fundamentalist group relocated its base to kananma, yobe state. the new location was named “afghanistan”, and from there, the group set about attacking and leaving members of the nigerian police force lifeless.it is no longer news that the activities of the boko haram and other similar political or religious sects have often led to loss of lives, properties and even the breakdown of law and order, peace and security in the nigerian society at large. it has been observed that a lot of attacks have been made on many states, which includes the federal capital territory, abuja. what puzzles most observers is the fact that most of the attacks are not carried out by suicide bombers yet the culprits often get away unarrested. this leaves a big question mark on our security agencies as regards to their duty in the protection of lives and properties, and the procurement of weapons of mass destruction to combat this menace which is eating deep into the nigerian society today. without exaggeration, boko haram crisis does not have any advantage. instead, it is a vicious and nefarious act carried out by individuals for their selfish desires, the motivating factor being to control the religious and political power. hypothesis for the purpose of this study, the following hypotheses are formulated: 1. boko haram’s insurgence affects the development of nigeria. 2. boko haram is a regional religious sect. 3. boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria. the ideology boko haram is an indigenous salafist group which only turned itself into a salafist jihadist group in 2009. it propagates that not only interaction with the western world is forbidden, but it is also against the muslim establishment and the government of nigeria.boko haram seeks the establishment of an islamic state in nigeria. it opposes westernization of nigerian society and the concentration of the wealth of the country among members of a small political elite, mainly the christians in the southern part of nigeria. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." on the 13th of november 2008, mohammed yusuf was arrested following an attack on a police station in maiduguri in which 17 of his followers were killed. his followers were members of the “jama-atualhis sunna lidlaaueati wal jihad”, otherwise, known as boko haram.during the nigerian sectarian violence in 2009, the nigerian security captured and killed the leaders of the radical islamic terrorist sect. mohammed yusuf was responsible for the clashes which led to the death of more than 700 people. he was captured in borno state and detained at the giwabaracks. mohammed yusuf was arrested, and he died in police custody while trying toescape. mohammed yusuf’s body was on display at the state police command headquarters. his bullet riddle body was shown on state television. (shehu sani (2011). the consequences of mohammed yusuf’s death have fuelled the boko haram crisis. after the killing of yusuf in police custody on july 30, 2009, the sect carried out its first terrorist attack in borno state, in january 2010, under shekau its current leader. it resulted in the killing of four people. since then, the violence has escalated both in frequency and intensity (news watch, 2012). reason behind boko haram’s violence non-stop violence, rivers of blood, thousands of deaths and intensified fears about the futurethis is what the citizens of nigeria’s north east are going through, some of them every day. the scale of attacks has not been limited to the northern region. within a short period of time, suspected boko haram terrorists have raided kaduna, lagos, gombe, federal capital territory and other areas. in this trying times for nigeria, it is important to consider the major reasons why boko haram violence persists, based on the analysis of the reports of local and international media houses. the reasons include the following; ethnic and religious mix it is widely believed that boko haram fighters are (at least predominantly) muslims. however, basically all the islamic scholars have been saying that boko hara has nothing to do with islam. they openly disagree with the sect and are outraged. that terrorists use religion to justify atrocities, and to cause ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." division in society.the dreaded sect has attacked or attempted to attack several mosques during prayers. mary muslims, like christians, have become victims of mass murders.imbalance between the north and the southseemingly disconnected historical event over the past 60-70 years started the slide into poverty and inequality that eventually led to the formation of boko haram. before nigeria’s independence in 1960, british colonial authorities ruled the north (where most muslims live) and south of nigeria (where most christians live) separately. western schools started by christian missionaries flourished in the south, but muslim leaders were reluctant to allow christian mission schools to open in the north. the long-term result, is a massive economic and educational imbalance between the north and south which persists today. in many southern state, more than 90% of women are literate. the corresponding percentage is below 5% in some states in the far north less, than 10% of nigerian university applicants come from the 12, major muslim states in northern nigeria (where boko haram’s insurgency rages). boko haram draws its members from the legions of uneducated, unemployed, poor and disenchanted young northern men and women. poverty and youth unemployment the vicious cycle of poverty that mainly happened is all due to youths unemployment, over 64 million nigerian youths are unemployed and 1.5 million youths are underemployed. unemployment causes social frustration, dejection, dependency on family and desperation. this dependency situation has left the youths in vicious cycle of chronic poverty that daily erodes their confidence of bright future. in such a case, most of this unemployed youths are the primary target of the insurgent (adebago 2014). in addition, international fund for agricultural development (fad 2007)said “despite nigeria’s bountiful resources and oil wealth, poverty is widespread to the extent that the country was ranked one of the 20 poorest counties in the world”. indeed over 70 percent of nigeria’s population is classified as poor, with 35 percent living in absolute poverty. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 47 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." northern nigeria in particular has the highest figure of relative poverty in comparison with south-west and south-east zones which have relative poverty of 67.0% and 59.1% respectively. the north east and north-west zones have 76.3% and 77.7% relative poverty respectively (nbs 2014). the increasing rate of unemployed youths in the region, which were economically deprived, mostly was the recruiting target of boko haram. in 2013, the federal government released some detainees of boko haram, mostly wives and children of the sect members, some children confessed of providing keys of fuel to boko haram to set schools and other building ablaze in maiduguri for the sum of five thousand naira (n5,000), (olojo 2013). this shows how the people in that area were living in absolute poverty due to the failure of government to provide education and economic opportunity in the area for more than a decade. these socio-economic problem has contributed to the escalation of boko haram terrorism in north-eastern nigeria. political factor: the dispute over 2011 election result which left over eight hundred (800) people dead, has also played a role in boko haram’s escalating violence. many northern nigerians view the presidency of goodluck jonathan, a christian, as illegitimate, arguing that he ignored an informal power rotation agreement that should have kept a muslim as president this round. (muslim president umar musa yar’adua died in 2010, two years into his four years term). leadership newspaper (2012). voting irregularities during the election as well as effort to change presidential term limits, further alienated the north from jonathan. the boko haram sect also want political power in the nation thereby making a northerner or muslim as the president because they believed that the christians or southerners are corrupting influence in governance. the effects of boko haram ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." there is no gain saying the fact that an activity has increasingly and predominantly taken the airwaves in the country. the implication is that the country, which already has series of problems to deliberate on, is presently preoccupied with the issue of incessant bombings in the country. the problem of kidnapping was one that really dealt a death blow in the country, especially, considering the case of the niger delta. but comparing that to the on-going terrorist activities in the country, we begin to understand that the later is nothing compared to the former. the boko haram acts have disrupted the social, economic, political, religious and environmental activities and president goodluck jonathans transformational agenda in the country. this becomes very relevant when considering the outfits that are prone to attacks by the sect which include, recreational centers, office complex, social gatherings, beer parlors, buildings etc. the effect on economic development nigeria is a country endowed with natural and material resources, all competing favourably with one another in securing a big chunk of foreign exchange earnings for the country in the early 60s, the discovery of oil and the unprecedented wealth accrued from it in the 70s, soon emerge nigeria as a major foreign exchange earner, inspite of all the national and mineral resources which the country is endowed with which the country is endowed, the country has virtually become a battle field where incessant ethnoreligious and political crisis are staged. the implication of the crisis on the economic development is that, the instruments which is supposed to be used for sustainable development, is conversely being used for destruction and vandalization purposes. (mohammed 2002).since no economic development could take place in an atmosphere of fear, anarchy and insecurity. it therefore implies that boko haram menace are bane to economic development, looking at it internationally, boko haram crisis has added to the fear of foreign investors that are in nigeria. abonyi (2006), cases of kidnapping of expatriates in nigeria are no more news. one wonders how foreign investors could decide to establish firms in the war zone. these crisis have also made investors to ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 49 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." flee the nation’s troubled sport particularly plateau state. also neighbouring states have had their economies disrupted by the influx of the crisis. the greatest of these scenarios is the amount of funds being diverted to security issues and related matters. the irony is that while the country is striving towards capacity building, the boko haram insurgency is crumbling all the efforts. (leadership newspaper 2012). the effect on social development the effect of boko haram crisis on the social development is that it creates more hatred between social groups in the north which would have united together to form a social conscious society. also it increases lacuna in the interactions of social groups. a member of a social group might join boko haram sect, and this will cause a very big problem, because the person that joined might reveal the secret of the social group. according to imam (2004) education is very vital in attaining social development. the nation have been striving to put in place amenities for the purpose of elevating the educational standard of the country. this is, however hampered by incessant closure of schools and institutions in the northern part of the country. many schools had been burnt down while many were forced to close down for months (university of maiduguri) which in effect made the interactions of the youths impossible and created a very bad opportunity for parents of different ethnic groups to withdraw their children from school. the effect on political development the implication of the boko haram crisis on political development is that igbo’s was sidelined in the political scene, since after independence no igbo man has become the president of nigeria and this has created a wide gap between the igbo’s and the northerners in the political system, the northerners now wants to monopolize power because they believe that the west is a corrupting influence in governance (afolabi: 2006).the boko haram crisis also affected former president goodluck jonathan’s transformational agenda. goodluck during his electioneering campaign assured nigerians of his ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 50 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." administration’s readiness to transform the country, and when he was finally inaugurated, a violent group in the northeast that was not interested in the transformation came up and decided to be a log in the wheel of journey, by unleashing and causing instability in the country with the obvious intention of diverting attention from the transformational agenda of the president. this to a very large extent has worked verywell for this violent group. instead of giving full attention to the transformational agenda, the federal government spent more time trying to solve the insurgency of boko haram. the effect on the environment the emissions into air occasioned by the bomb blast carrying toxic substance pollutes the air and makes it so unhealthy for human and animals to breath. the air pollution also results in global warming which retards plants development and causes hotness of the weather. instances abound where at the time of the bombing, the atmosphere is covered with smoke and motorists and passerby finds it so difficult to find their way. this has resulted to multiple accidents when people struggle to run for their dear lives. (ejeh, 2010). series of boko haram violence in nigeria the table below depicts series of violence being perpetuated by boko haram sect in northern nigeria between july 2009 to april 2017. s/n date states nature of attack causalities 1. july 27, 2009 yobe attack on potiskum, yobe state’s divisional police headquarters. three police men and 5 service officers died. 2. january 2010 borno the group struck in dela alemderi ward in maiduguri metropolis four people were killed. 3. october 1, 2010 abuja explosion near the eagle square, abuja claimed 12 lives, leaving many injured. 4. december 24, 2010 plateau a bomb attack in barkinladi jos killed eight people 5. april 8, 2011 niger bomb blast, at inec office in suleja, at niger state. claimed of lives of 8 corps members and a suicide bomber. 6. april 29, 2011 bauchi army barracks in bauchi bombed. 7. may 30, 2011 borno bomb exploded in bega road in claimed five lives and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 51 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." maiduguri, borno state. several others injured. 8. august 26, 2011 abuja bombing of the united nations (un) house in abuja. twenty three (23) persons were killed and 129 others injured. 9. december 25, 2011 niger multiple bomb explosion at st. theresa catholic church, madalla suleja killed dozens including 35 worshippers. 10. january 20, 2012 kano multiple attacks in kano about 250 people killed. 11. april 8, 2012 kaduna bomb explosion in a church on easter sunday 38 people killed. 12. september 20, 2013 borno boko haram sect made high way armbush 142 corpses evacuated from bushes. 13. january 3, 2015 borno boko haram militants raze the entire town of baga in north-east nigeria. borno state. over 2000 people were killed. 14. march 2, 2015 borno state boko haram militants disguised as herdsmen were killed near konduga town in borno state. 73 boko haram terrorist were killed. 15. june 22, 2015 maiduguri two female suicide bombers invaded a crowded mosque and bombed the mosque to mark the start of ramadan about 30 people were killed. 16. 30 january 2016 maiduguri bomb blast in dalori village 86 people were killed and at least 62 injured. 17. 21, april 2017 borno attack on the nigerian military base in sabon gari 86 people were killed and at least 62 injured. 18. january 8, 2017 borno attack on nigerian soldiers. at least 3 nigerian soldiers were killed and 5 injured. source: extracted from various newspapers government efforts towards resolving the boko haram insurgency 1. declaration of state of emergency in an obvious move to reassure nigerians of their security after the gruesome murder of no fewer than 40 people through suicide bombing of saint theresa’s catholic church in madalla, niger state, last six christmas, goodluck jonathan, in his new year broadcast to the nation, declared a state of emergency in 15 local government areas spread across four northern states of borno, niger, plateau and yobe. (broad street journal, 2012:41). ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 52 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." the former president said the declaration of the state of emergency was part of the government’s effort to “restore normalcy in the country”. international borders in the affected local government were ordered close to prevent cross border terrorism and stop the terrorist from escaping outside the country. (vanguard, 2011). 2. formation of dialogue former president goodluck jonathan had said that the federal government would dialogue with the violent sect, if the members would identify themselves and state clearly their demands as a basis for talks, while acknowledging that military confrontation alone will not end their insurgency. this was the third time the nigerian authorities were asking the sect for a dialogue. the first time was in june when police in maiduguri called on an extremist islamic sect to declare a cease fire and come to a dialogue. (clement, 2012). 3. establishment of joint task force according to vanguard newspaper (june 17, 2011), the federal government had directed the immediate establishment of a special joint military task force specially to tackle the boko haram crises in the north with maiduguri in borno state as headquarters of the task force. the task force to be headed by a major general of the armored corps would comprise of the nigeria army, navy, nigerian airforce, nigeria police force, defence intelligence agency and the department of state security, s.s.s. (nbf news, 2012). ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 53 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." research methodology table.1 population distribution table states population of the state percentage (%) borno 3,151,193 14 adamawa 6,066,562 26 kano 9,383,682 40 plateau 3,178,712 14 federal capital territory, abuja 1,405,201 6 total 23,185,350 100 source: national population commission (npc) data analysis analysis of questionnaire section a demographic data this section comprises of age, sex, marital status, educational qualifications, occupation, location, administrative status and electoral status. table 1: age range options frequency percentage (%) 18 – 25 50 14.6 26 – 32 65 19.1 33 – 40 89 26.2 40 – 46 92 27.0 47 and above 44 12.9 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table reveals that 14.7% of respondents falls within the age (18-25), 19.1% falls within age (26-32), 26.2% falls within (33-40) 27.0% within (40-46) and 12.9% falls within 47 and above. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 54 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." table 2: gender options frequency percentage (%) male 280 82.4% female 60 17.6% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table reveals that 82.4% of the respondents are males while 17.6% of the respondents are female. table 3: marital status options frequency percentage (%) married 202 59.4% single 100 29.4% divorced 38 11.2% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 from the above table, 59.4% of the respondents were married, 29.4% of the respondents were single while 11.2% were divorced. table 4: educational qualification options frequency percentage (%) ph.d 30 8.8% masters 60 17% b.sc 120 35.3% hnd/ond 60 17.7% nce/post nce 40 11.8% wassce 30 8.8% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table reveals that 8.8% of respondents are ph.d holders, 17.7% are masters holders, 35.3% b.sc holders, 17.7% hnd/ond holders, 11.8% are nce holders and 8.8% of respondents are wassce holders. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 55 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." table 5: location options frequency percentage (%) north 150 44.1 south 40 11.8 east 80 23.5 west 70 20.6 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 from the above table, 44.1% of respondents were from the north, 11.8% were from the south, 23.5% were from the east and 20.6% of respondents were from the west. table 6: civil service officer/administrative staff options frequency percentage (%) yes 200 58.8% no 140 41.2% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table reveals that 58.8% percent of respondents are civil servants while 41.2% are not civil service officers. table 7: are you an elected officer? options frequency percentage (%) yes 105 30.8% no 235 69.11% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 from the table above, 30.8% of the respondents are elected officers while 69.11% are elected officers. research question 1 is there really boko haram crisis in nigeria. respondents view options frequency percentage (%) yes 340 100% no 0 0.0% total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 56 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." the above table reveals that 340 respondents representing 100% were all aware of the boko haram terrorism in nigeria. from the returned questionnaire, 340 respondents gave their response positively, on the contrary, none of them answered no. the 340 respondents were able to identify the attacks caused by boko haram sect in nigeria and they equally mentioned how the boko haram crisis came about.therefore, there is boko haram terrorism in nigeria. research question 1 if yes, where have they occurred? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. south-south 0 0.0% b. south-east 0 0.0% c. south-west 0 0.0 d. north-east 328 96.5 e. no-idea 12 3.5 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table shows that 328 respondents accepted the view that boko haram have occurred mostly in the north eastern region of nigeria while 12 respondents did not have an idea of where they have occurred. research question 2 what are the remote and immediate causes of boko haram crisis in nigeria? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. political power 50 14.7 b. 2011 election result 68 20 c. imposition of sharia law 200 8 d. western education 12 3.5 e. all of the above 10 2.9 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table reveals that 50 respondents viewed that political power is the remote and immediate causes of the crisis, while 65 respondent viewed that 2011 election result is the remote ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 57 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." and immediate excuse of boko haram 210 respondents viewed the imposition of sharia law as the remote and immediate cause of boko haram terrorism, 12 respondents are of the opinion that western education is the remote and immediate cause of boko haram terrorism. meanwhile 10 respondents believed that all the options provided are the remote and immediate causes of boko haram terrorism in nigeria research question 3 what are the socio-political and religious impact of boko haram terrorism in nigeria? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. break down of law and order 17 5 b. increase in crimes 43 12.6 c. civil disturbance 38 11.2 d. affected president goodluck jonathan 100 29.11 e. all of the above 142 41.8 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the data collected shows that 5% of the respondents identified breakdown of laws and order as the socio-political and religious. impact of boko haram terrorism in nigeria, while 43 respondents which represent 12.6% identified increase in crimes, 35 respondents of 11.2% identified civil disturbance, 100 respondents of 29.4% identified that the crisis affected president goodluck jonathan transformational agenda, 142 respondents of 41.8% agreed that all the options been given are the socio-political and religious impact of boko haram terrorism in nigeria. research question 3a what effect have this implications on national unity and the people? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. positive 0 0.0 b. negative 340 100 c. no idea 0 0 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 58 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." this table reveals that 340 respondents are of the view that the implication of boko haram have affected the people negatively and has led to disintegration of national unity, thereby, causing mass migration from the north to other geo-political zones in nigeria. research question 4 what suggestions can you give to the federal government to help tackle boko haram terrorism? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. dialogue 66 19.4 b. force/coercion 241 70.9 c. amnesty 23 6.8 d. no idea 10 2.8 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table above shows that 66 respondents are of the view that government can tackle the crisis through the formation of dialogue. while 241 respondents accepted the view that the government can tackle the crisis through the use of force or coercion. 23 respondents were of the view that the federal government can tackle the boko haram crisis through amnesty 10 respondents had no suggestion. research question 4a has the government taken the right steps in order to resolve the boko haram menace? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. yes 54 15.9 b. no 265 77.9 c. no idea 21 6.2 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table above shows that 54 respondents were of the view that the government has taken the right steps in order to resolve the boko haram menace while 265 respondents representing 77.91% were of the view that the government has not taken the necessary steps towards resolving boko haram menace. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 59 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." research question 5 what is the position of government in the management, prevention and resolution of boko haram terrorism in nigeria? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. provisions of essential materials for the displaced victims 82 24.1 b. peace keeping by law enforcement agents. 54 15.9 c. provision and establishment of almajiri institution 191 56.2 d. no idea 13 3.8 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table shows that 82 respondents represent 24.1% were of the view that provision of essential materials for the displaced victims is the position of government in the management, prevention and resolution of boko haram terrorism. in nigeria, 34 respondents representing 15.9% view peace keeping by law enforcement agents as the position of government and 191 respondents representing 56.2% viewed the position of government in management, prevention, and resolution of boko haram crisis in nigeria is by provision and establishment of almajiri institution. 13 respondents representing 3.8% had no idea on the position of government in the management, prevention and resolution of boko haram terrorism in nigeria. research question 6 how can the nigerian citizens help to tackle boko haram terrorism in nigeria? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. giving information to the police 80 25.5 b. imams should preach against violence 60 17.6 c. proper check of immigrants by immigration officers 50 14.7 d. all of the above 150 44.1 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 60 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." research question 7 has the nigerian citizens helped the federal government in tackling boko haram terrorism? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. yes 0 0.0 b. no 340 100 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table shows that 340 respondents representing 100% were aware of the fact that nigerian citizens have not been of help to the federal government in tackling boko haram terrorism. research question 8 what is your feeling concerning boko haram terrorism? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. good 0 0.0 b. sad / bad 340 100 c. neutral 0 0.0 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table above shows that 340 respondents were aware of boko haram crisis in the country and felt sad/bad because of the loss of lives and properties in the northern region of nigeria. research question 9 is boko haram a regional religious sect? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. yes 300 88.2 b. no 40 11.8 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table above shows that 300 respondents are of the view that boko haram is a religious sect while 40 respondents are of the view that boko haram is not a regional religious sect. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 61 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." research question 10 has boko haram insurgence affected the development of nigeria? s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. yes 330 97.1 b. no 10 2.9 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the table above shows that 340 respondents agreed to the fact that boko haram insurgence affects the development of nigeria. research question 11 boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria. true or false s/n options number of respondents percentage (%) a. true 300 88.2 b. false 40 11.8 total 340 100 source: field survey 2017 the above table shows that 300 respondents agreed that boko haram has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria. testing of hypothesis i. boko haram insurgence affects the development of nigeria. to test the above hypothesis, data obtained from table 10 will be used. options number of respondents yes 330 no 10 total 340 oi ei oi – ei (oi – ei)2 (oi – ei)2 ei yes 330 170 160 25600 150.59 no 10 170 -160 25600 150.59 340 301.18 x2 = 301.18 df = c – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1, p < 0.5 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 62 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." interpretation since obtained value is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, then the hypothesis which states that boko haram insurgence affects the development of nigeria is accepted. hypothesis 2 boko haram is a regional religious sect. to test the above hypothesis, data obtained from table 9 will be used. options number of respondents yes 300 no 40 total 340 oi ei oi – ei (oi – ei)2 (oi – ei)2 ei yes 300 170 130 16,900 99.4 no 40 170 -130 16,900 99.4 340 198.8 x2 = 198.8 df = c – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1, p < 0.5 interpretation since obtained value is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, then the hypothesis which stated that boko haram is a regional religious sect is accepted. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 63 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." hypothesis 3 boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria. to test the above hypothesis, data obtained from table 11 will be used. options number of respondents true 330 false 40 total 340 oi ei oi – ei (oi – ei)2 (oi – ei)2 ei true 300 170 130 16,900 99.4 false 40 170 -130 16,900 99.4 340 198.8 x2 = 198.8 df = c – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1, p < 0.5 interpretation since obtained value is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, then the hypothesis which states that boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria is accepted. data discussion the study was to ascertain the impact of boko haram terrorism on national development.a total of 400 sample size were 400 copies of questionnaires were distributed, but only 360 copies were returned. considering the application of chi-square in the test of hypothesis one, it was discovered that calculated x2 value (301.18) is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, thus leading to the acceptance of the alternate hypothesis which states that boko haram insurgence affects the development of nigeria. taking into account the application of chi-square in testing the second hypothesis, it was discovered that calculated x2 value (198.8) is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 64 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." significance, thus leading to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis which states that boko haram is a regional religious sect. lastly, is testing the third hypothesis which states that boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria, chi-square was applied and it was discovered that the calculated x2 value (198.8) is greater than critical value at 0.5 level of significance, thus leading to the acceptance of the hi (alternate) hypothesis which state that boko haram terrorism has led to loss of revenue and seeming disunity in nigeria. conclusion the activities of boko haram have heightened serious fears among the nigerian populace, especially those in the northern part of nigeria. the trend has led to loss of lives and property. business ventures and shops have remained closed. boko haram terrorists have succeeded in instilling fear and hatred among the people. boko haram insurgency represents the worst threat to nigeria’s peace, security, and stability. boko haram phenomenon can be attributed to the failure of the nigerian government to provide basic services to the teeming population in the country. though this cannot be the justification for armed insurrection and violence. the threat posed by the zealots has negatively impacted nigeria’s polity, jeopardizing its social political and economic development. the major aspiration of the sect, is to destroy nigeria’s democratic institutions and to enthrone islamic sharia rule rather than its existing secular system. compelled by the spate of violence and the impunity with which the boko haram has been ravaging the north, the federal government responded by mobilizing its security forces to tackle the menace. though the sect has shown resilience, the federal government is daily improving its counter-terrorism measures to the effect that the activities of the sect are now restricted to only three states in the north, namely: borno, adamawa and yobe states. through the combined efforts of the troops from chad, cameroon, niger, the nigeria army its having upper hand in the war against the insurgents. many of the boko haram captives including women and children have been rescued from sambisa forest, the den of boko haram in borno state. recommendations the study made the following recommendations the following for effective resolution of boko haram terrorism, as its dislodgement will encourage rapid development in the country. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 65 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." 1. government should not adopt the niger delta solution, that is, amnesty to boko haram because up till date, nobody can evidently say that these are boko haram members. the government cannot grant amnesty to people that are up till now operating invisibly. 2. we strongly recommend in this study that the federal government should provide funds, instead of amnesty, to help upgrade and switch its intelligence gathering gadgets. it was easy for osama bin ladinto evade american intelligence for so long because osama decided to deny himself the luxury of technology. in fact, he lived a life of a hermit. but from what we know so far, these boko haram people enjoy all these technological packs with impunity knowing that our intelligence gathering techniques is so archaic that our security agencies only believe in toting guns around government officials. if only the government and the security officials have the needed facility to intercept mails and many other electronic means of communication. 3. again to overcome the menace of boko haram in the country, the government should do whatever it can to find out how this movement is funded. who are their funders? if the government is able to do this, the government will have gone an extra-mile in solving the boko haram crisis in nigeria long time ago. 4. similarly, since the government under former president goodluck jonathan decided to adopt the carrot and stick approach, we recommend that government should please exhaust all the available options within the stick, no matter how long it takes. this is because the inclusion of the carrot at this stage shows a great weakness on the part of government. 5. the federal government on its part should make adequate legislative pronouncements that will discourage and close down all forms of ethnic based movements. the reason for the recommendation is that these groups threaten the sovereignty of the nation as they tend to be loyal to their ethnic groups. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 66 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “agitations for resource control by the niger-delta region." references abdullihi a. (1991). leading issues in economic development and social welfare, kano: samarib publishers. abdulli a.a. et al (2005). combating political violence in nigeria: issues, prospect and problems. ilorin: hamson printing communication. imam, y.o. (2004). religious crisis and social disruption in northern nigeria. ibadan: lovel books publishers. mohammed, i.z. (2002). the concept of economic growth and development. kano: samarib publishers. ojukwu, c.c. (2009). terrorism, foreign policy and human right concern in nigeria. abakiliki: willy publishing company. osuala, e.c. (2005). introduction to research methodology. enugu: afp first publisher limited. shehu, s. (2007). the killing fields, religious violence in northern nigeria. ibadan: spectrum book limited. taro yamani (1964). statistic: an introductory analysis. (3rd edition). new york: harper and row publishing limited. umar, s. (2011). the discourses of salafi radicalism and salafi counter-radicatism in nigeria. kano: evanston publishers. walker, a. (2012). what is boko haram? united state institute of peace retrieved. 2013 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/islamist insurgency in nigeria. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 67 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) dr.gbenemene kpae1* ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria okeke maryvivian chinasa, okoye chinedu o. and ukah chinomso corresponding author: maryvivian chinasa okeke affiliation: department of environmental management, nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state, nigeria abstract road construction projects play an important role in enhancing mobility, economic activities, and social well-being. however, when abandoned, they often create more challenges than benefits for affected communities. consequently, abandoned road projects have become recurring problems that disrupt environmental stability and socioeconomic development. this study evaluated the environmental and socioeconomic effects of abandoned road construction projects on residents of awka south l. g. a. of anambra state. the study employed a survey research design. the population for this study comprised all the residents of the five towns of amawbia, awka, isiagu, nibo and okpuno in awka south local government area. the selected roads are; dan mmaduka avenue, amawbia, ifite road, awka, isiagu road, isiagu, onyenwochi road, nibo and obyokoli avenue, okpuno. sampling combined purposive, proportionate stratified, and systematic techniques to ensure representativeness across five locations.the study employed structured questionnaire as the primary instrument for data collection, targeting residents within a 500-meter radius of abandoned road projects in awka south l. g. a. using yamane’s formula, a sample size of 399 was determined, with 386 valid responses returned (96.7% rate). in addition, semi-structured interviews with health workers, business owners, and drivers provided qualitative insights. data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and anova. environmental issues identified include air pollution (32.6%), erosion (23.1%), water stagnation (15.3%), and flooding (14.2%), while socioeconomic effects include increased transport costs (34.5%), loss of business income (23.1%), reduced market access (13.5%), among others. the anova and post hoc tests revealed that abandoned road construction projects significantly affect residents’ socioeconomic activities across the selected road locations in awka south l.g.a. (p = .000). impacts varied across locations, with dan mmaduka avenue least affected and onyenwochi most impacted. from the findings, it was recommended that active involvement of host communities in planning, land acquisition, and monitoring can reduce resistance and foster ownership. continuous dialogue with stakeholders ensures smoother execution and reduces the risk of abandonment. keywords: road abandonment, construction, projects, awka south, anambra state ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 1 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" 1.0 introduction road infrastructure is a vital component of economic development and the overall well-being of societies. it enables the movement of goods and people, fosters economic activity, and facilitates access to essential services such as healthcare, education, and markets. the issue of construction project abandonment is a global issue which is not peculiar to one country. construction project abandonment is a global challenge, not confined to nigeria. in malaysia, weak contract management and funding issues often lead to incomplete projects (zuhairi et al, 2024). similarly, in the united states, economic downturns and client bankruptcy contribute to abandonment (mauk et al, 2025). spain has experienced project failures due to financial crises and poor planning (quintas-soriano et al, 2023). in the united arab emirates and saudi arabia, delays stem from fluctuating oil revenues (al-kaabi, 2021). likewise, qatar, bahrain, kuwait, and russia encounter abandonment linked to political, financial, and regulatory constraints (alsulaiti and kerbache, 2020). in developing regions like sub-saharan africa, road infrastructure is especially critical for rural development and poverty alleviation (calderon et al., 2018; sewell et al., 2019). however, the abandonment of road construction projects can significantly hinder these benefits, leading to severe socio-economic and environmental consequences. road infrastructure plays a critical role in enhancing socio-economic development and improving the quality of life, particularly in developing countries like nigeria. the construction and maintenance of roads directly influence access to essential services, economic productivity, and the mobility of goods and people (pillay, 2023; sieber and allen, 2016). however, road construction projects in nigeria are frequently disrupted due to various challenges, including poor project management, inadequate funding, and political instability, which lead to project abandonment. such abandonment not only hinders the development of infrastructure but also causes severe socio-economic and environmental consequences for affected communities (damoah et al., 2020). in nigeria, many road construction projects are initiated but left unfinished due to various challenges, such as inadequate funding, political instability, poor project planning, and administrative inefficiencies (hirschman, 2014). the abandonment of these projects leads to ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 2 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" economic underdevelopment, deteriorated living conditions, and heightened environmental degradation in the affected areas. awka south local government area (lga) in anambra state, nigeria, is one such areas that experienced multiple abandoned road construction projects before 2022. road infrastructure plays a fundamental role in national development, particularly in economies dependent on transportation for commerce and daily living. efficient road networks lower the cost of trade and travel, thereby stimulating economic growth (saidi andomri, 2020). in nigeria, where agriculture and trade are key economic sectors, road infrastructure is critical for ensuring that products reach markets for both domestic and international trade. however, despite the essential nature of roads, nigeria continues to struggle with road infrastructure deficits, especially in rural areas (onokala and olajide, 2020). abandoned road projects exacerbate this infrastructure deficit, leaving communities disconnected, creating safety hazards, reducing property values, and slowing economic activities (cervero et al., 2017). over time, these incomplete projects disrupt access to essential services, forcing residents to rely on unsafe or inefficient alternative routes. in some cases, abandoned projects become symbols of government inefficiency, further eroding public confidence in development efforts. from a socioeconomic perspective, abandoned road projects significantly impact residents’ livelihoods. research by sewell and desai (2016) found that communities near abandoned road projects experience a 40% increase in transportation costs due to poor road conditions and restricted access to markets, schools, and healthcare facilities. business owners and traders in affected areas also report substantial income losses, as inadequate road networks limit customer access. furthermore, studies have established that poor road infrastructure discourages investment, leading to a decline in property values and business opportunities (aerni, 2016). although, all the previously abandoned roads in the study area have now been repaired, there is still limited empirical research that evaluates how their period of abandonment affected residents’ socio-economic conditions. while existing literature discuss the general effects of poor infrastructure, few studies have focused specifically on localized ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 3 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" evidence from awka south l. g. a. this study evaluated the environmental and socioeconomic effects of abandoned road construction projects in awka south l. g. a., anambra state. 2.0 materials and methods the study area this study is centered on awka south l. g. a, one of the 21 l. g. as in anambra state, nigeria (fig 1). strategically located in the southeastern region of the country, awka south l. g. a. serves as the capital of anambra state and is renowned for its vibrant urban environment. it functions as a significant administrative, commercial, and educational center. the l. g. a. features a mix of urban and semi-urban settings, with a rapidly growing population that relies heavily on road infrastructure for transportation and access to essential services. situated approximately 15 kilometers northeast of the niger river, awka south l. g. a. is bordered by awka north, orumba north, njikoka, and anaocha l. g. as (fig 2). it consists of nine towns namelyamawbia, awka, ezinato, isiagu, mbaukwu, nibo, nise, okpuno, and umuawulu. geographically, it is located at latitude 6°10'n and 6°15'n and longitude 7°00'e and 7°10'e (awka south lga, 2023), covering a total land area of 164.3 km². with a population density of about 1,600 people per square kilometer, the projected population for 2022 was approximately 270,300 (anambra state, 2022). awka south l. g. a. experiences two main seasons, the wet season and the dry season. the region records an average annual precipitation of approximately 2,950 mm, with a climate characterized by an average temperature of 27°c and relative humidity of 70% (awka south lga, 2023). the selected roads for the study are located within amawbia, awka, isiagu, nibo and okpuno. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 4 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria figure 1: map of anambra showing awka south lga source: department of surveying and geo anambra state, nigeria international journal of social science and humanities research 2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa volume 08 || issue 10 || effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" : map of anambra showing awka south lga department of surveying and geo-informatics, nnamdiazikiwe universit international journal of social science and humanities research okeke maryvivian chinasa * || october, 2025 || effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local informatics, nnamdiazikiwe university, awka, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 5 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" figure 2: map of awka south showing the study areas, minor roads and major roads source:department of surveying and geoinformatics, nnamdiazikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria methods this study employed a survey research design to evaluate the effects of abandoned road projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state. this design was selected to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem by integrating numerical data with in-depth insights from stakeholders such as residents, ministry of works, health workers, business operators and drivers. the quantitative data were collected through structured questionnaire administered to residents, while qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with ministry of works, health workers, business operators and drivers in the study area. the population for this study comprises all the residents of the five towns of amawbia, awka, isiagu, nibo and okpuno in awka south local government area. these towns were purposively selected because they experienced abandoned roads and subsequent road repairs. the selected roads are; dan mmaduka avenue, amawbia, ifite road, awka, isiagu road, isiagu, onyenwochi road, nibo and obyokoli avenue, okpuno. only residents who have lived in these areas for at least five years prior to the road repair in 2022 were eligible for the study. using satellite-based building footprint analysis, there were a total of 2,742 residential buildings across the selected towns. each building represents a housing unit from which respondents were drawn for administration of questionnaire. this group spans various demographic characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, education level, and socioeconomic status. their inclusion is essential for understanding the community’s experiences and perceptions regarding the environment, social, economic, and infrastructural impacts of both abandoned and repaired roads. the population of awka south l. g. a. in 2006 was 189,654 (npc, 2006). with population projection, the population was projected to 2024 using the formular; pt = po (1 + r)18 pt = population of the past ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" po = population of the present r = growth rate t = time with this formula, the projected population stood at 311,791. to determine an appropriate sample size, this study applied yamane’s formula (as cited by ukah and ejaro (2019), which is commonly applied to large populations. this formula calculates the sample size based on the total population (n) and the margin of error (e). thus; where: n is the required sample size n is the population size e is the margin of error (usually 0.05 for a 95% confidence level) from the calculation, a sample size of 399 was obtained and used for this study. table 1: proportional distribution of copies of questionnaire according to sample size road location no. of buildings sample size dan mmaduka avenue 820 119 ifite 314 46 isiagu road 409 60 obyokoli 608 88 onyenwochi 593 86 total 2742 399 administration of questionnaire copies to the respondents is considered the most appropriate data collection instrument for data collection from residents of the area of the affected projects. the total number of questionnaire copies administered were distributed based on the number of residential buildings which falls within the 500 meter radius of each then abandoned road construction project. out of the 399 copies of questionnaire distributed to the respondents, a total of 386 copies were returned and deemed valid, yielding a return rate of 96.7%. the questionnaire was structured as follows: section a this section collected ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 7 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" demographic information of respondents, such as age, gender, level of education, occupation and duration of residence in the town. section b this section contained environmental effects of abandoned road construction. section c the section contained the socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction on residents. section d this section contained the perceptions of the residents on road construction during abandonment and after construction in the study area. section e this section contained factors contributing to abandonment and non-abandonment of road construction projects.this high response rate suggests strong engagement and interest among respondents regarding the topic of abandoned road construction projects and their impact on residents of awka south l. g. a. such a high return rate generally reflects good rapport with respondents, possibly enhanced by the relevance of the study to community concerns. moreover, a high valid response rate strengthens the credibility and representativeness of the collected data, as it minimizes potential biases and sampling errors that can arise from a low response rate. a combination of purposive sampling, proportionate stratified sampling and systematic sampling techniques were employed. purposive sampling was used for the selection of towns. the five towns were selected based on their direct experience with both abandoned and repaired road projects. this purposive selection ensured that the sample population was contextually appropriate for the study. proportionate stratified sampling was used for sample allocation per town. this study employed a proportionate stratified sampling technique to ensure adequate representation from each of the five selected roads based on the number of residential buildings. systematic random sampling was used to select buildings within each town, from which respondents were drawn. the sampling interval (k) was calculated by dividing the total number of buildings in the town by the allocated sample size for that town. using amawbia for example; k = 820/119 = 6.9 approximately 7 a random starting point between 1 and 7 was selected using the lucky dip method, and every 7th building thereafter was selected. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 8 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" for this study, the descriptive and inferential method of data analysis were utilized. frequencies, percentages, tables, charts, among others provided a clear summary of the data, making it easier to identify patterns and trends. to test the research hypothesis and explore significant differences or relationships between variables, inferential statistical techniques, such as theanalysis of variance (anova), was employed. the anova specifically examined whether there were statistically significant differences in the socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects across the selected road locations. to further explore the sources of variation, post hoc multiple comparison tests were conducted. specifically, the least significant difference (lsd) test, tamhane’s t2, and dunnett t3 procedures were applied to compare mean differences between the road locations. these post hoc analyses helped to control for type i error and to identify where significant differences existed among the groups. the hypothesis was tested at a significance level of 0.05 (p < 0.05). 4.0 results and discussion this section presents the findings from the data collected through the questionnaire and provides an in-depth discussion of the results. the analysis of the extent and impact of abandoned road construction projects in awka south local government area, anambra state was extensively done. table 2: environmental effects of abandoned road construction projects environmental effect frequency percentage (%) air pollution 126 32.6% erosion and land degradation 89 23.1% water stagnation leading to mosquito breeding 59 15.3% increased flooding 55 14.2% noise pollution from stalled machinery 35 9.1% others (e.g., loss of vegetation, disruption of natural drainage systems) 22 5.7% total 386 100% ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 9 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" the analysis of responses to table 2, which examines the environmental impacts of abandoned road construction projects on residents of awka south l.g.a., reveals significant challenges impacting the local environment. the data, as shown on table 2, highlights multiple environmental issues reported by respondents, with air pollution being the most frequently cited effect as mentioned by 32.6% of respondents. this finding suggests that unpaved surfaces and exposed construction materials on abandoned road sites are major contributors to air quality deterioration in the area. air pollution not only affects visibility and cleanliness but also poses health risks, particularly respiratory issues such as asthma and bronchitis, for residents living near these sites. erosion and land degradation ranked as the second most reported environmental effect, with 23.1% of respondents identifying it as a significant concern. the incomplete and unattended state of roadworks often leaves the soil vulnerable to erosion, especially during rainy seasons, which destabilizes land structures and reduces soil fertility. this effect is particularly detrimental to agricultural activities, as it may render surrounding farmlands less productive and increase the risk of landslides in hilly areas. water stagnation, reported by 15.3% of the respondents, was another pressing issue linked to abandoned road construction projects. incomplete drainage systems and trenches left open during construction create stagnant water pools, which serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. this contributes to the prevalence of mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever, adding a public health dimension to the environmental impact of these abandoned projects. increased flooding as agreed by 14.2% of the respondents, further underscores the negative implications of abandoned road construction. unfinished drainage systems and disrupted natural water flow patterns exacerbate flood risks, particularly during heavy rainfall. this flooding not only damages property and infrastructure but also affects access to homes and businesses, thereby disrupting daily activities and increasing repair costs for affected residents. noise pollution, although less frequently reported (9.1%), remains a concern for ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 10 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" some respondents. this issue is associated with machinery left on-site or sporadically operated during partial resumption of construction activities. such noise disturbances can disrupt community tranquility, particularly in residential areas close to abandoned sites. other effects, mentioned by 5.7% of respondents, include loss of vegetation and disruption of natural drainage systems. vegetation loss can lead to reduced biodiversity and the destruction of local ecosystems, while altered drainage patterns exacerbate water management issues, contributing further to flooding and erosion problems. the socioeconomic effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south l.g.a table 3: socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects on residents socioeconomic effect frequency percentage (%) increased transport costs 133 34.5% loss of business income 89 23.1% reduced access to markets 52 13.5% delay in access to healthcare services 48 12.4% decreased school attendance 37 9.6% others (e.g., reduced property values) 27 7.0% total 386 100% the analysis of responses on table 3, which investigates the socioeconomic effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south l.g.a, highlights several significant challenges faced by the communities. the most frequently reported socioeconomic effect was increased transport costs, identified by 34.5% of the respondents. this finding suggested that the poor state of abandoned roads lead to higher transportation expenses due to longer travel times, detours, and increased vehicle maintenance costs. for residents and businesses reliant on efficient transportation, these additional expenses strain household budgets and operational finances. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 11 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" loss of business income, reported by 23.1% of the respondents, was another critical socioeconomic effect. the disruption of road networks affects customer accessibility and supply chains, reducing the profitability of local businesses. traders and small-scale enterprises, which depend heavily on steady market flow, are particularly vulnerable to these disruptions. over time, this loss of income undermines economic stability and growth within the affected communities.reduced access to markets, as opined by 13.5% of respondents, further emphasizes the economic implications of abandoned road construction projects. poor road conditions hinder the movement of goods and services, making it difficult for farmers and traders to reach markets to sell their products. this limitation results in unsold goods, especially perishable items, and diminishes income potential for individuals who rely on market access for their livelihoods. delays in accessing healthcare services, identified by 12.4% of the respondents, reflect the critical impact of abandoned road projects on public health. poor road conditions can prevent timely transportation of patients to healthcare facilities, potentially exacerbating medical emergencies. pregnant women, children, and individuals with chronic illnesses are particularly affected, as their health outcomes depend on swift and reliable access to medical care.decreased school attendance as mentioned by 9.6% of the respondents, highlighted the indirect impact on education. abandoned road projects create physical barriers that discourage or prevent students from reaching schools, especially during adverse weather conditions. this disruption contributes to irregular attendance, learning delays, and increased dropout rates, which, in the long term, affect the educational development and opportunities available to children in the area. other socioeconomic effects such as reduced property values, were reported by 7.0% of the respondents. abandoned road construction projects decrease the attractiveness and usability of residential and commercial properties in affected areas, leading to a decline in their market value. this decline discourages investments and reduces the wealth of property owners, further compounding economic challenges.the socioeconomic effects of abandoned road construction projects in awka south l.g.a. were far-reaching, affecting transportation, ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 12 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" business operations, market access, healthcare delivery, education, and property values. these challenges not only disrupt daily life for residents but also hinder the overall economic and social development of the affected communities. addressing these issues require prioritizing the completion of road projects and implementing policies that mitigate the socioeconomic disruptions caused by construction delays. test of hypothesis research hypothesis: the abandonment of road construction projects have no significant effect on the socioeconomic activities of the residents across the selected locations inawka south l. g. a. table 4: tests of between-subjects effects on the socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 925.803a 4 231.451 1186.176 .000 intercept 2452.559 1 2452.559 12569.261 .000 road_location 925.803 4 231.451 1186.176 .000 error 74.342 381 .195 total 3622.000 386 corrected total 1000.145 385 a. r squared = .926 (adjusted r squared = .925) the analysis of variance (anova) results in table 4 tested the research hypothesis that abandonment of road construction projects has no significant effect on residents of awka south l. g. a. the corrected model produced a type iii sum of squares of (925.803), with a mean square value of (231.451), yielding an f-statistic of (1186.176) and a significance level of (p = .000). this indicates that the model is statistically significant at the 0.05 level. the intercept accounted for a large variation, with a type iii sum of squares of (2452.559), fstatistic of (12569.261), and significance of (p = .000). road location as a factor contributed significantly to the variation, recording a mean square of (231.451), f-value of (1186.176), ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 13 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" and significance of (p = .000). the error term was relatively small, with a sum of squares of (74.342) and mean square of (0.195), compared to the corrected total of (1000.145). the rsquared value of (.926) and adjusted r-squared of (.925) show that about 92.6% of the variance in residents’ socioeconomic activities is explained by the abandonment of road projects across different locations. hence, the test of hypothesis shows that the effect of abandoned road construction projects on residents’ socioeconomic activities is statistically significant. therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, and it is inferred that abandonment of road projects significantly affect the socioeconomic activities of the residents in the study area. the multiple comparison tests (lsd, tamhane, and dunnett t3) were conducted (appendix two) to determine how the socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects differed across road locations in awka south l.g.a. the results consistently showed significant mean differences (p = .000) between all pairs of locations, with the error term being very low (0.195), indicating reliability of the estimates. comparisons using lsd revealed that residents along dan mmaduka avenue reported significantly lower negative impacts compared with other locations. the mean differences were (−0.70) with ifite, (−1.05) with isiagu road, (−2.39) with obyokoli, and (−4.12) with onyenwochi. this suggests that onyenwochi experienced the highest negative impacts, while dan mmaduka avenue had the least. similarly, ifite differed from isiagu road (−0.35), obyokoli (−1.69), and onyenwochi (−3.43). these differences consistently demonstrated a gradient of impact severity. when isiagu road was compared to other locations, the mean differences were significant: (1.05) against dan mmaduka avenue, (0.35) against ifite, (−1.34) against obyokoli, and (−3.07) against onyenwochi. this again highlighted onyenwochi as the most adversely affected. comparisons involving obyokoli revealed significant differences of (2.39) with dan mmaduka avenue, (1.69) with ifite, (1.34) with isiagu road, and (−1.74) with onyenwochi. onyenwochi showed the widest disparities. the mean differences were (4.12) with dan mmaduka avenue, (3.43) with ifite, (3.07) with isiagu road, and (1.74) with obyokoli. these consistently large positive values emphasize that residents of onyenwochi ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 14 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" bore the heaviest socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road projects. the tamhane and dunnett t3 post hoc tests confirmed the lsd findings, with nearly identical mean differences across all pairwise comparisons, though accompanied by slightly varied standard errors. importantly, all mean differences across locations were significant at the 0.05 level (p = .000), strengthening the conclusion that the impacts varied systematically by road location. figure 3: estimated marginal means of socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects on the residents across road locations in awka south l. g. a. the figure 3 presents the estimated marginal means of socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects across five road locations in awka south l.g.a. the plot shows a steady upward trend, indicating increasing levels of negative impacts from dan mmaduka avenue to onyenwochi. at dan mmaduka avenue, the mean impact is lowest at approximately (1.0), suggesting that residents in this location experienced minimal disruption in terms of socioeconomic wellbeing. moving to ifite, the estimated mean increases to about (1.7), reflecting higher adverse effects compared to dan mmaduka avenue. similarly, isiagu road shows a mean of around (2.1), indicating a moderate rise in residents’ challenges caused by project abandonment. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 15 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" the impacts become more pronounced at obyokoli, with the mean reaching approximately (3.3). this value indicates that residents of this location experienced relatively severe socioeconomic consequences. the situation peaks at onyenwochi, where the estimated mean is highest at about (5.2). this sharp rise illustrates that residents in onyenwochi bore the heaviest burden of abandoned road construction projects, facing considerable disruptions in mobility, access to services, and overall quality of life. the progressive increase across locations demonstrates a clear gradient of impact severity. the gap between dan mmaduka avenue (1.0) and onyenwochi (5.2) represents the widest disparity, highlighting location as a critical determinant of socioeconomic effects. this pattern aligns with the anova results, which revealed significant differences among road locations. discussion of findings the data from table 2 showed that air pollution is the most reported environmental impact of abandoned road construction in awka south (126 respondents; 32.6%). in contrast, noise pollution from stalled machinery is much less frequent (35 respondents; 9.1%). this finding agrees with recent evidence from lagos, where residents living near abandoned road projects reported respiratory illnesses caused by dust and particulate matter (adeniran, odediran, ogunlade, adeagbo, akanbi, and adesina, 2025). erosion and land degradation were also common (89 respondents; 23.1%). in a related study in ibadan, erosion in peri-urban zones was found to worsen land degradation, affect soil fertility, and increase flooding risks (adewoyin, falegan, abimbola, ajijola, adediran, and adedire, 2024). water stagnation and mosquito breeding accounted for 15.3 percent of responses. in a related study, stagnant water in lagos due to poorly maintained or abandoned drainages contributed significantly to malaria and diarrheal infections (aminu and udeze, 2023). similarly, in gombe state, abandoned water projects forced residents to depend on unsafe water sources, further contributing to stagnation and disease risks (icir, 2022). these studies confirm that abandonment directly creates public health hazards, aligning with findings in awka south. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 16 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" increased flooding (55 respondents; 14.2%) is strongly linked to erosion and blocked drainage systems. this finding agrees with the anambra report that described how incomplete flood control works left residents vulnerable to flooding that damaged homes and infrastructure (efobi and anierobi, 2013). while flooding was not the most frequent response in awka south, its destructive potential cannot be underestimated. other effects such as vegetation loss and disruption of natural drainage (22 respondents; 5.7%) appear less frequent but remain significant. vegetation loss has been linked to worsening erosion, while disrupted drainage contributes to flooding and mosquito breeding, reinforcing the interdependence of these environmental problems (nwokeabia, odoh, ezealaji and odinye, 2025). the findings in awka south are consistent with patterns reported in other nigerian communities. while air pollution is most prominent locally, the broader literature shows that erosion, flooding, and health risks from water stagnation are equally critical. the most frequent socioeconomic effect shown in table 3 is increased transport costs (34.5%). this finding aligns with reports across nigeria in recent years. in a related study, transport fares were noted to have risen substantially due to poor road infrastructure, as operators pass extra fuel, maintenance and delay costs onto commuters (wheat, stead, huang and smith, 2019; onwuamaeze, 2025). in contrast, although loss of business income (23.1%) is the second highest effect for awka south, some studies show business income being even more severely impacted when road access is cut off entirely. for example, the icir (2023) report on an abandoned road in akwaibom showed markets shutting down and traders unable to recover losses because of transport disruptions and customers staying away. additionally, eduok, (2024) found connection between abandoned buildings and crime in uyo, akwaibom state. reduced access to markets (13.5%) is also reported in awka south. this agrees with findings from rural areas where farmers lose market access because perishable goods spoil in transit and transport delays escalate (olowosoke, 2022). delay in access to healthcare (12.4%) is less frequent but still important. in contrast, a qualitative study in li, pandian, davidson, song, chen, and fong, (2025) on non-communicable disease patients showed that poor road ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 17 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" condition and lack of reliable transport significantly delayed clinic visits, worsening health outcomes. the effect of decreased school attendance (9.6%) is lower in your table than some findings elsewhere. for instance, in ekiti state, studies found that bad roads make students skip school or arrive very late, particularly during rainy season when roads are impassable (samuel, oluwole, israel, timothy and oladimeji, 2025). this suggests that although school attendance is affected, other socioeconomic impacts (transport, loss of business) may be more immediately felt by households in awka south. others (reduced property values, etc., 7.0%) appear less frequent in your sample but are echoed in literature. in findings from national surveys, poor road infrastructure reduces property values in areas close to neglected or abandoned roads because accessibility declines and visible neglect reduces investor confidence. the pattern in awka south is consistent with recent literature: increased transport costs and business income loss tend to be among the most severe socioeconomic consequences when roads are abandoned (ryan, 2020). in a related study of road conditions crippling business and inflating food costs, poor roads were shown to drive up the cost of getting goods to market, thus reducing profit margins and sometimes forcing businesses to close or relocate. the cumulative effect of these socioeconomic burdens emphasizes that road abandonment does not only harm infrastructure, but strongly undermines livelihood, health, education and local economic resilience among affected residents (kahangirwe, and vanclay, 2024). the results of the anova and post hoc tests provide strong empirical evidence that the abandonment of road construction projects significantly affects the quality of life of residents in awka south local government area. the rejection of the null hypothesis is supported by the high f-statistic (f = 1186.176, p = .000) and the substantial explanatory power of the model (r² = .926), indicating that over 92% of the variation in residents’ socioeconomic conditions can be attributed to abandoned projects. this finding agreed with venter et al., (2019), who reported that incomplete infrastructure projects significantly constrain mobility, access to services, and economic activity in urban settings. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 18 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" in a related study, the world bank (2022) found that poorly executed road projects in developing countries led to a decline in household income and property values, corroborating the present study’s conclusion that project abandonment has profound socioeconomic implications. in contrast, nadal-romero et al., (2021) observed minimal impact in cities where alternative routes and transport infrastructure mitigated the effects of abandoned projects, highlighting the moderating role of infrastructural substitutes. the multiple comparison tests further demonstrate spatial disparities in the impacts across locations. for instance, mean differences between dan mmaduka avenue and onyenwochi (−4.12) and between ifite and onyenwochi (−3.43) reveal that residents in onyenwochi experienced the most severe consequences. this finding agreed with okereke (2017), who noted that communities located at the endpoints of abandoned projects suffer disproportionately due to isolation and reduced economic opportunities. moreover, the observed upward gradient in figure 4, from dan mmaduka avenue (1.0) to onyenwochi (5.2) illustrates that the degree of negative impact increases with project incompleteness and poor accessibility. this aligns with the african development bank (2023), which reported that communities farthest from functional roads experience higher transport costs and reduced access to social services. similarly, kahangirwe and vanclay (2024) emphasized that abandoned road projects exacerbate poverty and social exclusion. 5.0 conclusion the findings of this study demonstrated that abandoned road construction projects in awka south l. g. a of anambra state have profound negative impacts on both the environment and the socioeconomic well-being of residents. the effects range from environmental degradation to air pollution, erosion, and flooding to socioeconomic disruptions including inflated transport costs, loss of business income, reduced healthcare access, and educational setbacks. importantly, the paired analysis confirmed that residents’ quality of life significantly improves after project completion, underscoring the indispensable role of road infrastructure in sustainable community development. the persistence of abandonment is largely driven by systemic issues such as inadequate funding, policy inconsistency, and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 19 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" corruption, pointing to structural governance and financial challenges within the construction sector. 6.0 recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to address the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of abandoned road construction projects and to prevent such occurrences in the future: i. adequate and sustained funding should be ensured through transparent budgeting and timely disbursement of allocated funds. project financing should be monitored using independent audit mechanisms to prevent diversion of resources. ii. active involvement of host communities in planning, land acquisition, and monitoring can reduce resistance and foster ownership. continuous dialogue with stakeholders ensures smoother execution and reduces the risk of abandonment. iii. given the centrality of roads to healthcare, education, and economic growth, government should prioritize completion of road projects in high-impact areas such as markets, schools, and hospitals. 7. references adeniran, j. a., odediran, e. t., ogunlade, b. t., adeagbo, t. o., akanbi, o. f. and adesina, o. a. (2025). polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) in urban park dusts from lagos, nigeria: pollution levels, sources and exposure implications. international journal of environmental research, 19(3), 74. adewoyin, i. b., falegan, a. v., abimbola, m. l., ajijola, s. o., adediran, a. f. and adedire, f. m. (2024). anthropological and legal dimensions to mitigating land degradation in the peri-urban interface of ibadan, nigeria. journal of built environment and geological research, 5(4). aerni, p. (2016). the sustainable provision of environmental services. csr, sustainability, ethics and governance, 10-1007. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 20 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" al-kaabi, m. s. h. (2021). factors influencing timely completion of construction projects in the oil industry in the united arab emirates—an exploratory study [doctoral dissertation]. aberystwyth university, uk. alsulaiti, a. a., &kerbache, l. (2020). analysis of critical delay factors in construction projects with a focus on qatar. international journal of business and economics research, 9(3), 130-139. aminu, f. o., &udeze, e. (2023). relationship between water, sanitation, hygiene practices and the incidence of water borne diseases among urban slum households in lagos state, nigeria. journal of agriculture, food, environment and animal sciences, 4(1), 1-20. ansah, j., ampofo-ansah, c., antiaye, e., &kotey, r. (2021). the economic effect of abandoned projects in ghana-the study area of selected regions in ghana. international journal of social science and economic research, 6(11), 43664393. beatley, t., & manning, k. (2013). the ecology of place: planning for environment, economy, and community. island press. calderon, c., cantu c., and chuhan-pole, p. (2018). infrastructure development in subsaharan africa: a scorecard. policy research working paper series 8425, washington, d.c. world bank group. cervero, r., guerra, e., and al, s. (2017). beyond mobility: planning cities for people and places. island press. damoah, i. s., mouzughi, y., and kumi, d. k. (2020). the effects of government construction projects abandonment: stakeholders’ perspective. international journal of construction management, 20(5), 462-479. eduok, i. m. (2024). exploring the connection between abandoned buildings and crime in uyo, akwaibom state. environmental sustainability, economic development, and conflict resolution, 79. efobi, k., &anierobi, c. (2013). urban flooding and vulnerability of nigerian cities: a case study of awka and onitsha in anambra state, nigeria. jl pol'y& globalization, 19, 58. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 21 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" geels, f. w. (2013). the impact of the financial–economic crisis on sustainability transitions: financial investment, governance and public discourse. environmental innovation and societal transitions, 6, 67-95. hirschman, a. o. (2014). development projects observed. brookings institution press. icir nigeria. (2023). tales of waste and hardship over abandoned akwaibom road. retrieved 20/09/25 from https://www.icirnigeria.org/tales-of-waste-agony-andhardship-over-abandoned-ikot-akpan-abia-oboyo-ikot-ita-enen-nsit-road/ kahangirwe, p., &vanclay, f. (2024). social impacts arising from road infrastructure projects in sub-saharan africa: better management of social issues is needed in road construction, upgrading and rehabilitation. impact assessment and project appraisal, 42(4), 309-322. lee, b.t., barber, g.p., benet-pagès, a., casper, j., clawson, h., diekhans, m., fischer, c., gonzalez, j.n., hinrichs, a.s., lee, c.m. and muthuraman, p., 2022. the ucsc genome browser database: 2022 update. nucleic acids research, 50(d1), pp.d1115d1122. li, j., pandian, v., davidson, p. m., song, y., chen, n., & fong, d. y. t. (2025). burden and attributable risk factors of non-communicable diseases and subtypes in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021. international journal of surgery, 111(3), 2385-2397. mauk, j. l., karl, n. a., pierson, j. s., & san juan, c. a. (2025). the abandoned mine inventory of the united states—a brief summary (no. 2025-3003). us geological survey. nadal-romero, e., juez, c., khorchani, m., peña-angulo, d., lana-renault, n., regüés, d., lasanta, t. and garcía-ruiz, j.m., 2021. impacts of land abandonment on flood mitigation in mediterranean mountain areas. in nature-based solutions for flood mitigation: environmental and socio-economic aspects (pp. 189-214). cham: springer international publishing. nwokeabia, n., odoh, b. i., ezealaji, i. p., &odinye, a. c. (2025). morphometric analysis of drainage basins using arcgis: a case study of the anambra river basin for ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 https://www.icirnigeria.org/tales-of-waste-agony-and-hardship-over-abandoned-ikot-akpan-abia-oboyo-ikot-ita-enen-nsit-road/ ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" understanding erosion patterns and hydrological characteristics. journal of tropical resources and sustainable science (jtrss), 13(1), 173-182. okereke, o. c. (2017). causes of failure and abandonment of projects and project deliverables in africa. pm world journal, 6(1), 1-16. olowosoke, c. b. (2022). indiscriminate food insecurity: road transportation management contribution in low/middle income economy. journal homepage: www. ijrpr. com issn, 2582, 7421. onokala, p. c., & olajide, c. j. (2020). problems and challenges facing the nigerian transportation system which affect their contribution to the economic development of the country in the 21st century. transportation research procedia, 48, 2945-2962. onwuamaeze d. (2025). report: insecurity, poor infrastructure make road travel unsafe, expensive. retrieved 20/09/2025 from https://www.thisdaylive.com/2025/01/11/report-insecurity-poor-infrastructure-makeroad-travel-unsafe-expensive/ pillay, t.d., hettiarachchi, s.u., gan, j., diaz-del-olmo, i., yu, x.j., muench, j.h., thurston, t.l. and pearson, j.s., 2023. speaking the host language: how salmonella effector proteins manipulate the host. microbiology, 169(6), p.001342. quintas-soriano, c., torralba, m., garcía-martín, m., &plieninger, t. (2023). narratives of land abandonment in a biocultural landscape of spain. regional environmental change, 23(4), 144. ryan, m. (2020). the future of transportation: ethical, legal, social and economic impacts of self-driving vehicles in the year 2025. science and engineering ethics, 26(3), 11851208. saidi, k., &omri, a. (2020). the impact of renewable energy on carbon emissions and economic growth in 15 major renewable energy-consuming countries. environmental research, 186, 109567. samuel, o. s., oluwole, t. a., israel, b. a., timothy, d. o., & oladimeji, s. t. (2025). transforming inner-city neighborhoods in ado-ekiti, nigeria: a critical analysis of housing quality and policy strategies for sustainable urban development. journal of the nigerian institute of town planners, 30(2), 150-167. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) okeke maryvivian chinasa * https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 10 || october, 2025 || “effects of abandoned road construction projects on the residents of awka south local government area, anambra state, nigeria" sewell s.j., desai s.a., mutsaa e., lottering r.t. (2019). a comparative study of community perceptions regarding the role of roads as a poverty alleviation strategy in rural areas. journal of rural studies 71:73-84. sieber, n., & allen, h. (2016). impacts of rural roads on poverty and equity. transport and communications bulletin for asia and the pacific, 86, 23-40. taber, k. s. (2018). the use of cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. research in science education, 48(6), 1273-1296. taherdoost, h. (2016). sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique for research. international journal of academic research in management (ijarm), 5. ukah, c., &ejaro, s. p. (2019). the socioeconomic impacts of boko haram activities on the host community of yankari game reserve, bauchi state, nigeria. advanced journal of social science, 5(1), 37-44. venter, c., mahendra, a., & hidalgo, d. (2019). from mobility to access for all: expanding urban transportation choices in the global south. world resources institute, washington, dc, 1-48. von bertalanffy, l. (1968). general theory of systems: application to psychology. social science information, 6(6), 125-136. wheat, p., stead, a. d., huang, y., & smith, a. (2019). lowering transport costs and prices by competition: regulatory and institutional reforms in low income countries. sustainability, 11(21), 5940. zuhairi, s. n. a., zainal, r., redzuan, n. r., shamsudin, z., & musa, s. m. s. (2024). factors and impacts to abandoned housing projects in malaysia. international journal of sustainable construction engineering and technology, 15(1), 127-136. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 10 | october 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites obiora peters, emeka phd school of postgraduate studies,kigali independent university ulk, kigali,rwanda executive summary the systematic review looked into the economic, healthcare, and education opportunities and issues before and after withdrawal of usaid in africa. it detects considerable economic upheavals, damaged healthcare system, and failures in access and quality of education. nevertheless, the possible cases of sustainable development can be seen as the emerging local initiatives and greater cooperation in the region. it is important to make strategic policy changes in order to reduce adverse effects. abstract this review synthesizes studies conducted on the economic, healthcare, and education difficulties and opportunities in the aftermath of usaid withdrawal in africa to discuss the complex effects of donor exit on the institutional and socio-economic systems. the review assessed economic implications, benchmark adaptations to healthcare systems, determine the weak spots of education, examine alternative financing structures, and compare policy reactions after the usaid exit. a mixedmethod investigations in sub-saharan africa, which were composed of econometric, qualitative, and policy examinations were used. evidence shows that the difficulties of usaid withdrawal include moderate economic growth and fiscal gaps but the resilience of health systems relies on the sustainable domestic financing, corruption reduction, and reinforced infrastructure. the effects of education sector are understudied yet may imply indirect interference related to health crises and reveal the necessity to harmonize health-educational investments. innovative financing systems provide some very important opportunities to decrease the dependence on donors, depending on the political and institutional preparedness. policy frameworks focus on better governance and multi-sector strategies, and evaluations of actions about the effectiveness of reforms are rare. the findings cumulatively support the need to employ a peculiar-sensitive design with integrated strategies to maintain health and education gains through a donor transition. the review guides policy and strategic https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 22 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" actions to prepare sustainable domestic resource and institutional capacity needed to ameliorate negative economic and social impacts after the withdrawal of usaid in africa. 1.0 introduction usaid has been a key development driver in africa, disbursing over us$400 billion globally since 1961, with sub-saharan africa receiving the largest share—us$12.1 billion in 2023 alone (usaid, 2024; crs, 2025).the departure of usaid in africa can be detrimental to economic development, healthcare funding, and education in the region considering the region depends greatly on external assistance and having their systems that are already weak before the aid in africa (apeagyei et al., 2024; nonvignon et al., 2024; mhazo & maponga, 2024; uwaezuoke, 2020). the burdens of diseases, interruption of education and poor health expenditure further raise the concern as donor funding is decreasing (agyei & kumah, 2024; ifeagwu et al., 2021; ly et al., 2017), especially when many countries are facing the inability to sustain quality of service (onyango et al., 2024; atim et al., 2020). little is known about long-term consequences (dolan et al., 2020; ko et al., 2024; dianda, 2020), and there is a debate on whether withdrawal is a sustainable move or will exacerbate inequalities (nonvignon et al., 2024; mhazo & maponga, 2024), which would be a step backward in uhc, affordability and human capital (ifeagwu et al., 2021; brown & essi, 20 with the aid of a framework built on sdgs and health systems (cerf, 2019; arhin et al., 2023; ly et al., 2017; sukran et al., 2023), this review pulls multidisciplinary evidence to sustain policy-focused transitions (brikci, 2023; hollingworth et al., 2023; dzingirai, 2023; omaghomi et al., 2023). the 2025 executive order 14169 cut us$27.7 billion in funding, suspending 90% of projects and threatening decades of progress, with forecasts of 5.7 million more in extreme poverty and 14 million preventable deaths (africa practice, 2025; the lancet, 2025; iss africa, 2025). while the withdrawal poses severe risks, it also offers opportunities for self-reliance through afcfta trade growth, expanding african dfis, us$53 billion in diaspora remittances, and fintech-enabled capital flows (world bank, 2024; afdb, 2025; gsma, 2024). however, research gaps remain on africa’s adaptive capacity, alternative financing, and sectoral resilience, as prior studies emphasize aid dependency and disruptions (moyo, 2023; okonkwo, 2025; kariuki, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 23 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" 2025; abebe, 2023; karamoko & diallo, 2022; van der merwe, 2024; ssenyonga, 2024) without exploring endogenous solutions (nelson & adeyemi, 2023; tadesse & asiedu, 2025; gomez & hearn, 2024). this study addresses both the challenges and opportunities of usaid’s withdrawal to guide africa’s shift from dependency to resilience by bridging fragmented peer-reviewed literature across sectors. 1.2 purpose and scope of the review this reviews critically evaluate the study of the consequences of the withdrawal of usaid in africa in terms of healthcare, education, and economical stability, including the multiple influences on the institutional integrity and social economic stability. policies and methods that support resilient health and education systems while reducing adverse economic consequences are intended to be informed by the synthesis of evidence on the constraints and new opportunities. a thorough body of information is included in the review to help stakeholders manage the shift from foreign aid to sustainable domestic funding and governance and research direction. specifically,the review measures what is presently known about the economic consequences of usaid withdrawal in africa; benchmarks established strategies to healthcare system adaptation and resilience usaid exit in africa; determines and analysis of challenges and opportunities, facing education sector, after declines in external aid. also, deconstructs alternative financing mechanisms used to maintain health and education at a post usaid pull-out level; and weighs the policies and institutional reforms undertaken to reduce the excruciating effects of aid stoppage in the social areas. 2.0 methodology of literature selection the review used economic impact, healthcare, and education challenges and opportunities following usaid withdrawal in africa and expand it into multiple, more specific search statements. it ensures that literature search is both comprehensive as not to miss niche or jargon specific studies and manageable where each query returns a set of papers tightly aligned with a particular facet of the topic. the transformed querries were; economic impact, healthcare, and education challenges and opportunities following usaid withdrawal in africa; impact of economic policy changes on healthcare system resilience and educational reforms in africa after the reduction of external aid; assessing the https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 24 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) https://ijojournals.com/ “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta resilience of healthcare and educational systems in africa post alternative financing models and their economic implications. the queries applied inclusion &exclusion criteria to retrieve a focused 30 papers. the review identified additional relevant works through citation chaining through backward and forward citation chaining and this uncovered emerging debates, replication studies, and recent methodological advances.a total of 126 additional papers are found during this process. on relevance scoring and sorting, 156 candidate papers (30 from search relevance ranking so that the most pertinent studies rise to the top of our final papers table. we found 150 papers that were relevant to the research query. out of 150 papers, 50 were highly relevant. 2.1 flow chart fig.1: meta analysis chart 3.0 findings the results are a synthesis of various research on the economic, healthcare, and education effects of usaid withdrawal in africa, which have turned out to be dimensional consequences, response mechanisms, and financing models that can shape long-term transition policies. 3.1 table 1: descriptive summary study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience (apeagye i et al., 2024) moderate gdp growth; donor funding decline risks fiscal gaps low health spending prioritization; moderate government health spending growth international journal of social science and humanities research 2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd volume 08 || issue 09 || september usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites resilience of healthcare and educational systems in africa post-usaid withd alternative financing models and their economic implications. the queries applied inclusion &exclusion criteria to retrieve a focused 30 papers. the dentified additional relevant works through citation chaining through nd forward citation chaining and this uncovered emerging debates, replication studies, and recent methodological advances.a total of 126 additional papers are found during this process. on relevance scoring and sorting, 156 candidate queries and 126 from citation chaining) and impose a relevance ranking so that the most pertinent studies rise to the top of our final papers table. we found 150 papers that were relevant to the research query. out of 150 papers, 50 were highly relevant. fig 2: prisma chart the results are a synthesis of various research on the economic, healthcare, and education effects of usaid withdrawal in africa, which have turned out to be dimensional consequences, response mechanisms, and financing models that can term transition policies. table 1: descriptive summary healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response low health spending prioritization; moderate government health spending growth not addressed limited donor aid; need for domestic financing growth calls for governance reforms and health prioritization international journal of social science and humanities research obiora peters, emeka phd* september, 2025 || analysis of challenges and opportunites" usaid withdrawal: alternative financing models and their economic implications. the transformed queries applied inclusion &exclusion criteria to retrieve a focused 30 papers. the dentified additional relevant works through citation chaining through nd forward citation chaining and this uncovered emerging debates, replication studies, and recent methodological advances.a total of 126 additional papers are found during this process. on relevance scoring and sorting, 156 candidate queries and 126 from citation chaining) and impose a relevance ranking so that the most pertinent studies rise to the top of our final papers table. we found 150 papers that were relevant to the research query. out of 150 the results are a synthesis of various research on the economic, healthcare, and education effects of usaid withdrawal in africa, which have turned out to be multidimensional consequences, response mechanisms, and financing models that can policy and institutional response calls for governance reforms and health prioritization https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 25 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response (nonvign on et al., 2024) dah doubled but may substitute domestic funding; uneven regional impact dah unevenly distributed; limited increase during covid-19; uhc progress modest not addressed dah substitution effects; need for domestic financing focus urgent oda transformation; country-centered aid use (onyango et al., 2024) economic shift challenges sustaining health interventions post-donor exit declines in service coverage postfunding; political leadership and policies mitigate not addressed increased domestic funding and policy support critical stakeholder engagement improved; policy frameworks vital (mhazo & maponga, 2024) external assistance supports but does not strengthen health system covid-19 exposed system bottlenecks; funding fragile and unsustainable not addressed domestic resource mobilization potential highlighted need for government stewardship; reexamination of donor roles (agyei & kumah, 2024) economic growth potential linked to healthcare improvements healthcare financing, governance, infrastructure key for resilience not addressed emphasis on strengthening financing and governance multi-sector collaboration needed for sustainable progress (arhin et al., 2023) gdp growth linked to health spending efficiency; uhc progress variable efficiency influenced by education, governance, financing models not addressed reducing out-ofpocket payments; less donor reliance advised governance quality and financing reforms recommended (hutchins on et al., 2024) workforce surplus amid shortages affects economic productivity health worker unemployment and migration challenge system resilience not addressed governance and labor market reforms needed policy gaps in workforce management identified (dzingirai , 2023) economic fragility and corruption hinder health financing budget constraints and political commitment affect system sustainability not addressed calls for improved financial management and anti-corruption policy recommendations to enhance financing stability (nandaku mar & farag, 2024) health expenditure driven by income, technology, and donor aid donor aid distorts domestic investment; covid-19 increased health spending not addressed donor aid impact complex; insurance increases spending need for balanced financing and technology adoption (atim et al., 2020) domestic financing gains stronger than donor aid; borrowing viable shortterm fiscal space limited; borrowing constrained by debt sustainability not addressed tax reforms and borrowing as financing options calls for innovative domestic resource mobilization (brikci, limited revenue political and not addressed taxes on mobile need for policy https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 26 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response 2023) from innovative domestic financing mechanisms institutional readiness critical for implementation phones, alcohol, money transfers explored dialogue between health and finance sectors (limong, 2023) covid-19 caused economic hardship; lockdowns impacted livelihoods pandemic exposed weak health infrastructure and political will education disrupted; psychosocial impacts on children economic safety nets and community involvement needed emphasis on community health workers and gender-based violence (kabajuli zi, 2022) covid-19 containment reduced sector output; welfare declined increased healthcare spending expanded health output but unevenly not addressed calls for rural infrastructure and domestic production policy focus on integrated rural economy development (uwaezuo ke, 2020) pandemic highlighted health system weaknesses; funding increased shift towards infrastructure and workforce motivation post-covid not addressed increased funding for health insurance and training peer-review mechanisms suggested for sustained funding (ifeagwu et al., 2021) donor funding dominant; outof-pocket payments high; uhc progress uneven dependency on donor funding challenges sustainability enrollment and quality gaps noted; rural disparities emphasis on equitable national health insurance schemes need for multisectoral strategies and policy dialogue (hollingw orth et al., 2023) economic evaluations limited by data quality; capacity building needed data quality affects health system efficiency assessments not addressed calls for improved local data and evaluation capacity strengthening health technology assessment recommended (achieng & ogundain i, 2024) not directly addressed digital infrastructure gaps hinder disease surveillance not addressed big data analytics potential for surveillance emphasized regulatory frameworks and skills development needed (arewa, 2024) covid-19 led to sovereign debt crises; economic distress severe pandemic policies reflected exclusion and colonial legacies not addressed economic impact compounded by policy exclusion calls for addressing systemic inequalities in policy design (berardi et al., 2024) economic crises induce health system reforms; spending fluctuates re-centralization and temporary spending increases post-crisis not addressed reforms aim to enhance resilience and efficiency understanding reform dynamics critical for future shocks (oppong et al., 2021) innovation mitigated economic impact of covid-19 resourcefulness in disease control noted not addressed innovation as opportunity amid crisis need for scholarly attention on african innovations https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 27 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response (oppong, 2020) not directly addressed disruptive technologies offer healthcare access solutions not addressed telemedicine and drones potential; infrastructure needed policy support essential for technology deployment (cerf, 2019) economic stability key for health outcomes and uhc environmenteconomic-health nexus critical for implementation not addressed integrated sdg approach supports health financing global partnerships and knowledge sharing vital (ly et al., 2017) domestic resource mobilization essential amid donor decline health spending projections vary; outof-pocket payments persist not addressed policy opportunities tailored to country contexts emphasis on progressive pragmatism in financing (hailemic hael et al., 2011) workforce shortages and attrition affect economic productivity deployment imbalances and attrition rates challenge system not addressed budget constraints and career development issues need for retention and equitable distribution policies (masiye et al., 2020) informal payments impose economic burdens on patients resource shortages drive informal charges; urban facilities more affected not addressed increased budgets and staffing recommended informal payments undermine trust in free healthcare (owolabi & tijani, n.d.) not directly addressed medical education resilience critical for health system sustainability education delivery and quality affected by covid-19 infrastructure and institutional culture reforms needed focus on pedagogy and resource allocation (moatti & ventelou, 2009) economic growth linked to health improvements; paradigm shifts noted shift from cost recovery to risk insurance emphasized not addressed vertical programs as leverage for system strengthening theoretical and empirical paradigm limitations discussed (d, 1999) hiv/aids impacts workforce productivity and economic costs workplace management critical to mitigate economic losses not addressed holistic solutions needed for epidemic impact collaboration between management and labor essential (dolan et al., 2020) aid transition effects on child health funding inconclusive donor exit may affect health service alignment education impacts implied via health outcomes transition challenges in financing child health need for further research on aid transition effects (datta, 2023) pandemic shocks affect financial markets and economic stability unmet investments in preparedness highlighted not addressed insurance and spending pattern shifts anticipated calls for research on post-pandemic financial agendas https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 28 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response (nyambur a, 2024) malaria burden hampers economic productivity in northern uganda infrastructure and access barriers limit health service use not addressed strengthening infrastructure and delivery systems needed multi-stakeholder collaboration essential (willis & khan, 2009) health sector reforms influenced by neoliberal policies decentralization and user fees impact equity and access education reforms linked to health sector changes mixed effects on financing and service delivery socioeconomic inequalities persist post-reform (fleming, 2023) economic austerity reduced health workforce resilience workforce morale and motivation declined post-2008 crisis not addressed transparent communication and value-driven policies needed lessons for future health system shocks (cn & ej, 2000) hiv/aids causes significant productivity losses in industry direct and indirect costs burden employers not addressed economic impact grows as epidemic matures workplace interventions critical (kabajuli zi, 2016) health financing reforms boost gdp and reduce poverty fiscal space from prioritization, taxes, and aid analyzed not addressed increased health sector resources recommended health investment linked to economic growth (bello & ijaiya, 2012) hiv/aids treatment costs substantial; economic burden high prevalence affects national income and productivity not addressed long-run antiprevalence policies needed regional cooperation emphasized (brown & essi, 2021) communicable diseases negatively affect gdp growth health expenditure positively correlates with economic performance not addressed prevention and control improve economic outcomes mixed effects of tb and hiv on gdp noted (quamruz zaman, 2017) infrastructure provisioning enhances health service use governance quality influences access and utilization not addressed governance improvements needed alongside infrastructure multi-level governance focus recommended (omagho mi et al., 2023) telemedicine improves rural healthcare access and outcomes infrastructure and policy barriers limit deployment not addressed telemedicine reduces travel costs and enhances diagnostics training and integration into health systems vital (cavagne ro et al., 2008) aid inflows risk inflation and economic competitiveness macroeconomic risks depend on aid spending patterns not addressed fiscal space linked to aid management dutch disease concerns in health aid discussed (haacker, 2004) hiv/aids reduces labor supply and economic and social impacts extend beyond health sector not addressed poverty and education access affected long-term economic development https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 29 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" study economic impact assessment healthcare system resilience education sector adaptation financing model effectiveness policy and institutional response human capital challenged (odugbes an & rjoub, 2020) hiv/aids prevalence negatively impacts sustainable development health expenditure influences epidemic control education indirectly affected via health outcomes bi-directional causality between health and development increased health spending needed for sustainability (ko et al., 2024) sanctions reduce child vaccination rates; economic effects severe health spending mitigates sanctions' adverse effects education disruptions linked to health service access policy needed to protect health resources under sanctions poorer countries disproportionately affected (conteh et al., 2024) emergency response capacity affects economic and health outcomes trained health workforce improves system resilience not addressed multi-sectoral approaches enhance emergency response financial constraints challenge implementation (paul et al., 2020) budget constraints limit health insurance expansion operational inefficiencies affect service delivery education not directly addressed financing fragmentation and inefficiencies noted inclusive policy dialogue needed for reform success (haacker, 2002) hiv/aids reduces per capita income via human capital loss health sector and education impacts analyzed not addressed economic growth affected by epidemic severity policy focus on human capital preservation (russo & bloom, 2017) economic downturns threaten health financing sustainability resource-dependent countries face coverage challenges education system vulnerabilities implied need for resilient health financing models policy responses critical for coping with shocks (resch et al., 2011) art investments yield economic returns exceeding costs productivity gains and cost offsets substantial not addressed donor and domestic funding critical for art sustainability economic rationale supports continued investment (sukran et al., 2023) government health spending improves human resource quality education spending effects less clear education quality linked to health investment coordinated longterm investments recommended sharia perspective on human capital development (dianda, 2020) political factors influence government health spending levels democracy and accountability increase health expenditure education sector not directly analyzed political stability supports financing reforms governance improvements essential for health funding 3.2 thematic synthesis economic impact assessment https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 30 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" about 30 studies have revealed that withdrawal of usaid or decreasing donors results in moderate gdp growth obstacles or fiscal deficits or an economic recession , communicable diseases and pandemics enhance economic weaknesses(apeagyei et al., 2024)(nonvignon et al., 2024)(brown & essi, 2021). some articles pointed out the negative economic impacts of hiv/aids and other ailments on labor supply, productivity and income and indicate a necessity to invest continuously in health to curb some losses(bello & ijaiya, 2012)(haacker, 2004)(haacker, 2002).in some studies, the possibility of economic recovery and growth in terms of health financing reforms and investments in art, reveal a positive outcome in terms of returns on investments in the health sector(kabajulizi, 2016)(resch et al., 2011). healthcare system resilience about 25 studies pointed out that sustainability financing, good governance, and infrastructure reinforcement are vital in ensuring resilience in the health system in the aftermath of the withdrawal of the usaid(apeagyei et al., 2024)(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(arhin et al., 2023).effects of donor aid replacement and regional imbalance in the supply of assistance, occurrence of health systems performance and universal health coverage (nonvignon et al., 2024)(ifeagwu et al., 2021). innovations relating to telemedicine and analytics of large data are known as opportunities to improve surveillance and delivering of service not minding infrastructural and policy barriers(achieng & ogundaini, 2024)(omaghomi et al., 2023). education sector adaptation: there is a lack of research on the adaptation of the education sector as such, but covid interruptions of health services and pandemics cause indirect impacts that can impair enrollment, quality, and psychosocial wellbeing (limong, 2023)(dolan et al., 2020). the association between health investments and advances in the quality of human resources was established in some reviewed studies, which indicates that aligned health and education expenditures seem beneficial(sukran et al., 2023). weaknesses of the education system are recorded in situations of financial crisis and health crises, which means that sectoral responses should be integrated(russo & bloom, 2017). financing effectiveness models https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 31 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" more than 20 works examine the models of financing, and it is observed that donor dependence has its limitations, and domestic resource mobilization, innovative taxes, and public-private collaborations are important (atim et al., 2020)(brikci, 2023)(ifeagwu et al., 2021).the creative sources of funds are not promising in terms of revenue potential, yet they create an opportunity to pursue tax restructuring and diversification(brikci, 2023). governance and political factors greatly refocuseshow effective and sustainable health investment becomes(dianda, 2020). the institutional and policy response according to many studies, governance reforms, stakeholder and inclusive policy processes are emphasized to control transitions in donor aid(onyango et al., 2024)(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(paul et al., 2020). some examples of policy responses to economic and health shocks are re-centralization policies, emergency response capacity building policies, and health system strengthening policies(berardi et al., 2024)(conteh et al., 2024). political will, transparency, and social consultation are some of the challenges that influenced the success of health financing reforms and institutional adaptations (dzingirai, 2023)(paul et al., 2020). 3.3 synthesis and critical analysis the study of the implications of the economic impact, healthcare and educational spheres that ensued after the withdrawal of the usaid in africa, exposes a complicated interplay between factors affecting health system resilience, economic stability, and education development. the quality of data, methodological rigor, and context sensitivity remains lacking although it is evidenced that considerable research has insightful information regarding the source of financing, changes in the health system, and policy responses. even though the overall focus of the research is an imperative need of sustainable domestic financial and governance reforms, the research often fails to provide in-depth evaluation of cross-sectoral integration and long-term outcomes. in addition, the heterogeneity of the african setting and the evolving health environment, especially after covid-19, makes generalising of results and policy advice complex. table2: synthesis and critical analysis aspect strengths weaknesses https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 32 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" economic impact assessment several studies employ robust econometric and computable general equilibrium models to quantify the macroeconomic effects of health financing reforms and disease burdens, providing nuanced insights into gdp growth, fiscal space, and poverty reduction potentials(atim et al., 2020)(kabajulizi, 2016). the integration of health expenditure data with economic indicators offers a comprehensive view of economic trajectories post-donor withdrawal(apeagyei et al., 2024)(brown & essi, 2021). despite methodological sophistication, many analyses rely on limited or aggregated data, constraining the granularity and accuracy of economic impact estimations(hollingworth et al., 2023)(atim et al., 2020). there is often insufficient consideration of informal economies and sectoral heterogeneity, which are critical in african contexts. additionally, the dynamic effects of donor exit on private sector engagement and labor markets remain underexplored(dolan et al., 2020)(haacker, 2004). healthcare system challenges and adaptation empirical case studies, such as kenya’s output-based voucher scheme, highlight practical challenges and adaptive strategies including political leadership and policy frameworks that sustain health interventions post-usaid withdrawal(onyango et al., 2024). reviews emphasize the importance of governance, infrastructure, and workforce management in maintaining service delivery(agyei & kumah, 2024)(hailemichael et al., 2011). the recognition of health system fragility and the call for domestic resource mobilization are well articulated(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(dzingirai, 2023). many studies focus predominantly on short-term outcomes or specific programs, limiting understanding of systemic resilience and longterm sustainability(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(ifeagwu et al., 2021). there is a tendency to conflate external support with system strengthening, overlooking structural bottlenecks and governance deficits(mhazo & maponga, 2024). workforce issues such as paradoxical surpluses and unemployment are insufficiently integrated into health system analyses(hutchinson et al., 2024). moreover, the impact of informal payments and corruption on service access is underreported(masiye et al., 2020). education sector challenges and opportunities research acknowledges the critical role of education in human capital development and the adverse effects of aid withdrawal on educational quality and access(sukran et al., 2023). some studies emphasize coordinated investment in education and health as synergistic for human resource development(sukran et al., 2023). there is a paucity of focused empirical studies on education sector responses to usaid withdrawal, with limited data on policy reforms, financing innovations, or adaptive strategies specific to education(owolabi & tijani, n.d.). the intersection between health shocks and educational disruptions, especially postpandemic, is inadequately addressed(limong, 2023). this gap limits comprehensive understanding of education sector vulnerabilities and opportunities. alternative financing mechanisms innovative domestic financing approaches, including taxes on mobile phones and money transfers, are identified as potential avenues to diversify health financing and reduce donor dependence(brikci, 2023). studies highlight the importance of political acceptability and institutional readiness in implementing such mechanisms(brikci, 2023). fiscal space analyses suggest tax reforms and improved public financial management as viable strategies(atim et al., 2020). the revenue potential of innovative financing mechanisms is often modest and implementation remains limited, raising questions about their scalability and impact(brikci, 2023). political and administrative complexities, including earmarking challenges and equity considerations, are insufficiently resolved(brikci, 2023). there is also limited empirical evidence on the effectiveness of these mechanisms in sustaining health and education services post-usaid withdrawal(brikci, 2023)(atim et al., 2020). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 33 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" policy frameworks and institutional reforms literature underscores the necessity of policy realignment towards domestic financing, governance improvements, and health system strengthening to mitigate aid withdrawal impacts(nonvignon et al., 2024)(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(ifeagwu et al., 2021). the call for transparent frameworks and multisectoral strategies tailored to country contexts is recurrent(ifeagwu et al., 2021)(cerf, 2019). post-pandemic reforms emphasize increased funding, capacity building, and institutional accountability(uwaezuoke, 2020)(berardi et al., 2024). despite policy recommendations, empirical evaluations of reform implementation and effectiveness are scarce(ifeagwu et al., 2021). many studies highlight the fragility and unsustainability of external funding without providing detailed pathways for institutional transformation(mhazo & maponga, 2024). political determinants of health spending are acknowledged but underexplored in depth(dianda, 2020). the heterogeneity of policy responses across african countries complicates the formulation of generalized strategies(nonvignon et al., 2024)(russo & bloom, 2017). data quality and methodological rigor some studies demonstrate adherence to rigorous reporting standards and utilize mixed-methods approaches to triangulate findings, enhancing validity(onyango et al., 2024)(hollingworth et al., 2023). the use of systematic reviews and econometric modeling contributes to evidence synthesis and policy relevance(ifeagwu et al., 2021)(hollingworth et al., 2023). a recurrent limitation is the reliance on incomplete, outdated, or non-country-specific data, which undermines the robustness of conclusions(hollingworth et al., 2023)(atim et al., 2020). methodological inconsistencies and limited longitudinal data restrict the ability to capture dynamic effects of usaid withdrawal(ifeagwu et al., 2021). publication bias and overrepresentation of certain countries (e.g., kenya, nigeria) skew regional generalizations(ifeagwu et al., 2021). the lack of integration of qualitative insights into quantitative models reduces contextual depth(hollingworth et al., 2023). cross-sectoral integration and long-term sustainability the literature recognizes the interconnectedness of economic, health, and education sectors and the importance of integrated approaches for sustainable development(cerf, 2019)(ly et al., 2017). some studies advocate for coordinated domestic resource mobilization and governance reforms to sustain progress postdonor exit(ly et al., 2017)(sukran et al., 2023). however, there is limited empirical research explicitly addressing the cross-sectoral impacts of usaid withdrawal, particularly on education and economic sectors in tandem with health(owolabi & tijani, n.d.)(dolan et al., 2020). long-term sustainability assessments are often absent, with a focus on immediate postwithdrawal effects rather than enduring institutional and socio-economic transformations(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(ifeagwu et al., 2021). this gap hinders comprehensive policy formulation for resilient transitions. 3.4 thematic review of literature literature evidence reveals that the effects of usaid withdrawal in africa on health financing, system resilience, and socio-economic stability are affected and key themes beyond these effects are donor dependence, domestic resource mobilization, innovative financing, workforce issues, technological acceptance, and economic https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 34 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" losses of diseases, which all influence the process of moving toward sustainable domestic governance. table 3: thematic review of literature theme appears in theme description health financing challenges and innovations 15/50 papers extensive research indicates persistent challenges in health financing across african countries, characterized by donor dependence, low domestic spending prioritization, and the necessity for innovative financing mechanisms such as sin taxes, health insurance schemes, and public-private partnerships to enhance fiscal space and sustain health services post-usaid withdrawal(apeagyei et al., 2024)(nonvignon et al., 2024)(dzingirai, 2023)(atim et al., 2020)(brikci, 2023)(ifeagwu et al., 2021). studies emphasize the need for tailored, country-specific strategies and highlight the risk of regressive financing methods like out-of-pocket payments undermining universal health coverage goals(ifeagwu et al., 2021). healthcare system resilience and adaptation 14/50 papers the withdrawal of donor funding has exposed fragilities in healthcare systems, prompting adaptive strategies focused on governance reforms, political commitment, and technological innovations such as telemedicine and big data analytics to enhance disease surveillance and service delivery(onyango et al., 2024)(mhazo & maponga, 2024)(agyei & kumah, 2024)(achieng & ogundaini, 2024)(oppong, 2020)(fleming, 2023)(omaghomi et al., 2023). workforce challenges, including paradoxical surpluses and attrition, complicate these efforts, necessitating strategic deployment and retention policies(hutchinson et al., 2024)(hailemichael et al., 2011). the covid-19 pandemic further highlighted systemic weaknesses but also opportunities for sustainable health systems strengthening(limong, 2023)(uwaezuoke, 2020)(conteh et al., 2024). economic impact of health crises and aid withdrawal 12/50 papers research documents significant macroeconomic repercussions due to health crises like hiv/aids and pandemics, with impacts on labor productivity, gdp growth, social fabric, and fiscal sustainability(kabajulizi, 2022)(bello & ijaiya, 2012)(brown & essi, 2021)(haacker, 2004)(haacker, 2002)(resch et al., 2011). the reduction of usaid and other aid funding exacerbates these effects, stressing the importance of domestic resource mobilization and efficient allocation to mitigate adverse economic outcomes(apeagyei et al., 2024)(ly et al., 2017)(datta, 2023)(russo & bloom, 2017). economic evaluations reinforce the benefits of sustained investments in treatment programs for long-term economic gains(resch et al., 2011). education sector challenges and opportunities post-aid withdrawal 5/50 papers literature addressing education highlights disruptions due to reduced external funding, with impacts on medical education quality and continuity, especially amid pandemics(owolabi & tijani, n.d.). challenges include infrastructure deficits and the need for resilient systems and innovative pedagogies to sustain educational outcomes in health-related fields, critical for maintaining healthcare workforce capacity(owolabi & tijani, n.d.). policy and institutional reforms for sustainable financing 10/50 papers studies underscore evolving policy frameworks and institutional reforms aimed at reducing donor dependency by enhancing domestic financing mechanisms, improving governance, and fostering stakeholder engagement(nonvignon et al., 2024)(atim et al., 2020)(ifeagwu et al., 2021)(paul et al., 2020)(dianda, 2020). political factors such as democratic governance and accountability are linked to increased public health expenditure, highlighting the interplay between political environment and health financing sustainability(dianda, 2020). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" theme appears in theme description impact of communicable diseases on economic and social systems 7/50 papers the persistent burden of communicable diseases like hiv/aids and malaria exerts substantial economic and social strain, affecting workforce capacity, healthcare costs, and overall development(d, 1999)(nyambura, 2024)(bello & ijaiya, 2012)(brown & essi, 2021)(haacker, 2004)(odugbesan & rjoub, 2020)(haacker, 2002). effective control and treatment programs demonstrate positive returns on investment, emphasizing the necessity of integrated disease management post-donor withdrawal(resch et al., 2011). technological innovations in healthcare delivery 4/50 papers emerging technologies such as telemedicine, medical drones, and big data analytics are highlighted as transformative tools to enhance healthcare access and disease surveillance in resource-constrained settings(achieng & ogundaini, 2024)(oppong, 2020)(omaghomi et al., 2023). however, successful deployment requires supportive infrastructure, regulatory frameworks, and skilled personnel(oppong, 2020)(omaghomi et al., 2023). socioeconomic and community-level implications of aid withdrawal 3/50 papers the literature identifies community involvement and socio-cultural factors as critical in health and education service continuity, particularly in pandemic contexts where lockdowns and economic hardships disproportionately affect vulnerable populations(limong, 2023)(masiye et al., 2020)(ko et al., 2024). informal payments and resource scarcity further undermine trust and access to services(masiye et al., 2020). macroeconomic policy responses to aid fluctuations 3/50 papers analyses explore macroeconomic policy adjustments in response to fluctuating aid, including concerns about inflation, exchange rates, and fiscal space constraints that influence sustainable health and social service financing(cavagnero et al., 2008)(berardi et al., 2024)(datta, 2023). strategic allocation and efficiency improvements are recommended to mitigate negative economic consequences. 3.5 chronological literature review over time, literature in the area of economic impact, issues related to health care and education opportunities and challenges post-usaid withdrawal in africa has greatly changed. the initial researches mainly looked at the macroeconomic impacts of health epidemics like hiv/aids and the contribution of foreign support in the health funding. entering the second decade of 2000s, studies broadened to encompass more complex analyses of health system funding, workforce issues and the impact of shocks to the health services provision. subsequent efforts have focused on the shift to self finance, rather than donors, in domestic financing, the role of pandemics such as covid-19 on health systems and healthcare innovations in delivery and funding. this chronological overview traces how impact character has evolved, moving through perceptions of base-level impacts through to policy-sponse and adaptive options within a changing aid environment. table 4: chronological literature review year range research direction description https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" year range research direction description 1999–2004 early focus on hiv/aids economic and social impact initial research concentrated on quantifying the economic costs of hiv/aids on labor productivity, healthcare spending, and broader social consequences in african countries, highlighting the urgency of addressing this epidemic’s macroeconomic effects. these studies underscored the need for proactive workplace and public health interventions to mitigate rising treatment costs and lost productivity. 2008–2012 donor aid and health financing challenges this period featured analyses of development assistance for health and its macroeconomic implications, including concerns about aid dependency and fiscal sustainability. studies explored the balance between external funding and domestic health spending, emphasizing the risk of aid substitution and the necessity for improved governance and health system strengthening. 2013–2017 health systems reform and economic transitions research focused on health system reforms, workforce deployment, and the economic transitions affecting health financing in africa. key themes included decentralization impacts, health workforce shortages and attrition, and the challenges of mobilizing domestic resources amid changing economic conditions and donor dynamics. the shift towards progressive pragmatism in health financing was advocated to address emerging fiscal constraints. 2018–2020 pandemic exposure and health system resilience the emergence of covid-19 brought attention to the fragility of african health systems, revealing gaps in infrastructure, governance, and financing. studies highlighted the need for increased investment in health infrastructure, workforce motivation, and universal health coverage to build resilience. the pandemic's socioeconomic fallout also prompted calls for integrated emergency response mechanisms and more strategic health budgeting. 2021–2024 transition from donor dependence to sustainable domestic financing and innovation recent literature emphasizes the decline of development assistance and the imperative for african countries to strengthen domestic financing mechanisms for health and education sectors. innovations such as telemedicine, big data analytics for disease surveillance, and alternative financing models have been explored. research also scrutinizes policy adaptations, health system governance, and the interplay between economic growth and health investment in a post-usaid withdrawal context. 3.6 alignment and divergence of studies many studies agreed that usaid withdrawal created huge gap in economy,health care and education. also they agreed on the urgent need for local sustainable financing and institutional reforms to ameloriate the negative effects and leverage emergent opportunities. dissimilarly,divergence exists in how effective the model of finance, sustainability of healthcare system post donor exit and the size of economic woos. theses variations springs from methodological strategies,regional settings,and focus of the studies. table 5: alignment and divergent studies https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" comparison criterion studies in agreement studies in divergence potential explanations economic impact assessment most studies agree that the withdrawal of donor aid such as usaid leads to notable economic challenges, including slowed gdp growth and fiscal strains, especially due to health burdens like hiv/aids and pandemics affecting workforce and productivity (apeagyei et al., 2024) (brown & essi, 2021) (odugbesan & rjoub, 2020). the need to scale up domestic resource mobilization is consistently emphasized (atim et al., 2020) (ly et al., 2017). some studies find mixed impacts, such as positive effects of increased government health spending on gdp in certain countries or a paradoxical positive correlation of tb incidence with gdp, suggesting nuanced local economic dynamics (brown & essi, 2021). there is inconclusive evidence on the alignment of aid post-transition on child health needs (dolan et al., 2020). variations arise from countryspecific economic structures, disease burden profiles, and methodological differences like econometric modeling versus qualitative case studies. the time frame and scale of analysis also influence observable economic outcomes. healthcare system resilience there is consensus that healthcare systems in africa experience considerable strain following donor exit, with risks of funding gaps, reduced service coverage, and fragile infrastructure, necessitating strengthened governance and policy reforms (nonvignon et al., 2024) (mhazo & maponga, 2024) (uwaezuoke, 2020) (ifeagwu et al., 2021). universal health coverage (uhc) is a central goal requiring innovative health financing and improved system efficiency (arhin et al., 2023) (ifeagwu et al., 2021). divergence appears in the success stories of adaptation, for example, kenya's output-based voucher scheme showed declines post-donor funding but was partially offset by political commitment and domestic initiatives (onyango et al., 2024), while zimbabwe’s experience suggests external funding often supports rather than strengthens systems (mhazo & maponga, 2024). the role of donor substitution effects on domestic funding is debated (nonvignon et al., 2024). differences emerge due to countryspecific political will, economic capacity, and health system governance. the nature of donor exit (gradual vs. abrupt) and the presence of domestic policies like social insurance schemes influence resilience outcomes. education sector adaptation studies highlight education sector vulnerabilities post-aid reduction, including disruptions during covid19 and challenges in maintaining enrollment and quality, emphasizing the need for integrated social protection (limong, 2023) (dolan et al., 2020). there is acknowledgment of the importance of sustained investment to safeguard human capital development (sukran et al., 2023). there is less extensive consensus on specific education financing mechanisms or empirical evaluations of post-usaid withdrawal education outcomes, reflecting a research gap in this area. some analyses focus more on health than education (atim et al., 2020). gaps reflect limited data and fewer studies directly addressing education postdonor exit. variability in national education policies, sociocultural factors, and pandemic-related disruptions complicate generalization. financing model effectiveness a strong agreement exists on the importance of increasing domestic financing for health through tax reforms, innovative mechanisms, and public-private partnerships to reduce donor dependency (atim et al., 2020) (brikci, 2023) (ifeagwu et al., 2021). innovative financing such as sin taxes and mobile levies are explored as supplementary avenues (brikci, 2023). however, the actual revenue potential and implementation success of innovative financing is debated, with some studies pointing to limited revenue gains and political-administrative challenges (brikci, 2023). the substitutive effect of donor aid on domestic spending is also contested (nonvignon et al., 2024). variability in institutional capacity, political acceptance, and economic contexts explains differences. some innovations remain theoretical or pilot-phase, with real-world scaling posing challenges. methodologies focusing on projections versus field data contribute to differing conclusions. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" comparison criterion studies in agreement studies in divergence potential explanations policy and institutional response authors concur that policy reforms and institutional strengthening are critical for managing transitions from donor aid, with emphasis on governance quality, stakeholder engagement, and the creation of sustainable financing and accountability frameworks (nonvignon et al., 2024) (mhazo & maponga, 2024) (ifeagwu et al., 2021) (dianda, 2020). political stability and democratic governance are linked to increased domestic health spending (dianda, 2020). divergence is evident in the degree of actual policy implementation and ownership; some countries show advanced reforms and stakeholder participation, while others struggle with fragmented systems, lack of transparency, and limited public consultation (paul et al., 2020). differences reflect political economy, governance maturity, donor coordination, and civil society involvement. historical legacies and crisis experiences (e.g., covid-19) shape reform trajectories and stakeholder dynamics. 3.7 practical & theoretical implications practical implications policymakers are expected to focus on enhancing domestic health financing by improving their tax structures, public financial management, and innovative sources of funding, they should understand and address the shortcomings in addition to the political obstacles of such a strategy(atim et al., 2020)(brikci, 2023). sustainable health financing needs a coordination of efforts between ministries of health and finance. the stoppage of usaid prompts healthcare management and institutional capacity to maintain health interventions post-withdrawal. this is shown by case studies of kenya’s output-based voucher scheme(onyango et al., 2024). stakeholder engagement and political commitment are critical for sustaining service coverage. the health financing reform ought to consider lowering the number of individual (out-of-pocket) expenses to guarantee effective financial risk security as well as the access of quality health services in keeping with universal health coverage (uhc) models(ifeagwu et al., 2021). this entails the need to increase equitable national health insurance programs and the involvement of the government and the private sector. the costs of communicable diseases, especially hiv/aids illustrate why there is a need to reduce productivity loss through disease control programs and country-level economic and social policies which should be incorporated to facilitate sustainable development(brown & essi, 2021)(resch et al., 2011). investments in art programs have high economical returns and thus they should be continued and even more funding should be devoted. investments in health infrastructure, technology, and digital health solutions like telemedicine can help fight disparities in access, particularly to rural and underserved regions, which would also help to enhance health outcomes and economic output(agyei & kumah, 2024)(omaghomi et al., 2023). but, these need-friendly regulatory supports and capacity building. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" the issue of budgeting by benin, had to face when implementing uhc reforms emphasizes the necessity of transparent and inclusive policies developed via the participation of key stakeholders and the needs to manage public expenses successfully to guarantee their sustainable funding and equitable access to health services(paul et al., 2020). reform implementation in political feasibility and stakeholder ownership is highly recommended. 3.8 limitation of review table 7 area of limitation description of limitation papers which have limitation geographic bias many studies focus predominantly on anglophone or specific african countries, leading to limited external validity across the continent. this geographic bias restricts the generalizability of findings to francophone or less-studied regions. (ifeagwu et al., 2021) (dolan et al., 2020) (brikci, 2023) data quality and availability several analyses are constrained by limited access to high-quality, comprehensive, and comparable data, especially regarding health financing and economic indicators. this limitation affects the robustness and reliability of conclusions drawn. (atim et al., 2020) (hollingworth et al., 2023) (dolan et al., 2020) methodological constraints the reliance on cross-sectional or limited longitudinal data, and the use of econometric models with assumptions that may not hold universally, restrict causal inference and may introduce bias, weakening internal validity. (dolan et al., 2020) (hollingworth et al., 2023) (brown & essi, 2021) publication and reporting bias systematic reviews and meta-analyses may suffer from publication bias, with underreporting of negative or null results, and exclusion of grey literature or policy documents, limiting the comprehensiveness of evidence synthesis. (ifeagwu et al., 2021) (brikci, 2023) limited focus on non-financial factors many studies emphasize financial aspects of health and education systems but insufficiently address sociocultural, political, and institutional factors that critically influence outcomes post-usaid withdrawal. (atim et al., 2020) (mhazo & maponga, 2024) (hutchinson et al., 2024) short-term analysis a number of studies assess immediate or short-term impacts without capturing long-term effects of donor withdrawal on economic, health, and education systems, thus limiting understanding of sustained consequences. (onyango et al., 2024) (dolan et al., 2020) (resch et al., 2011) limited examination of policy implementation there is a scarcity of research on the dynamics of policy implementation, stakeholder collaboration, and governance reforms following aid withdrawal, which are crucial for effective transition and sustainability. (ifeagwu et al., 2021) (brikci, 2023) (paul et al., 2020) small or nonrepresentative samples some case studies or evaluations rely on small or localized samples, which limits the representativeness and generalizability of findings to broader african contexts. (onyango et al., 2024) (hailemichael et al., 2011) 3.9: future research directions https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" gap area description future research directions justification research priority limited longitudinal data on economic impact post-usaid withdrawal most studies provide short-term or cross-sectional economic impact assessments without capturing long-term trajectories or dynamic effects of donor exit on economies. conduct longitudinal, country-specific econometric studies to track economic indicators over extended periods post-usaid withdrawal, incorporating informal sector and labor market dynamics. long-term data is essential to understand sustained economic consequences and inform policies for economic resilience and diversification post-aid reduction (apeagyei et al., 2024) (hollingworth et al., 2023) (dolan et al., 2020). high insufficient empirical research on education sector adaptation education challenges and adaptive strategies following usaid withdrawal are underexplored, with few studies directly addressing education financing, policy reforms, or quality impacts. investigate education sector responses to donor exit through mixedmethods case studies, focusing on financing models, enrollment trends, and quality outcomes in affected countries. education is critical for human capital development; lack of focused research limits understanding of sector vulnerabilities and integration with health and economic policies (limong, 2023) (owolabi & tijani, n.d.) (dolan et al., 2020). high underexplored health workforce paradox and its economic implications the paradox of surplus unemployed healthcare workers amid system shortages is poorly integrated into health system resilience and economic productivity analyses. examine health labor market dynamics, including workforce deployment, unemployment, migration, and policy interventions to optimize employment and system capacity. addressing workforce imbalances is vital for sustaining health services and economic productivity postdonor withdrawal (hutchins on et al., 2024) (hailemichael et al., 2011). high limited evaluation of innovative domestic financing mechanisms existing studies show limited revenue potential and implementation challenges of innovative financing (e.g., taxes on mobile phones), with scarce evidence on their effectiveness post-usaid exit. conduct rigorous impact evaluations and feasibility studies of innovative financing approaches, including political economy analyses and equity assessments. understanding practical viability and scaling potential is crucial for sustainable health and education financing (atim et al., 2020) (brikci, 2023). high inadequate assessment of policy implementation and institutional reforms while policy recommendations exist, empirical evaluations of reform adoption, effectiveness, and governance improvements post-usaid withdrawal are scarce. perform comparative policy implementation studies across african countries, focusing on governance, stakeholder engagement, and institutional capacity building. effective institutional reforms underpin sustainable transitions from donor aid; empirical insights can guide tailored policy design (onyango et al., 2024) (mhazo & maponga, 2024) (paul et al., 2020) (dianda, 2020). high data quality and methodological limitations in economic and health system studies many analyses rely on aggregated or outdated data, lack longitudinal depth, and insufficiently integrate qualitative context, limiting robustness and policy relevance. invest in strengthening local data systems, capacity for economic evaluations, and mixedmethods research to improve evidence quality and contextual understanding. high-quality data and rigorous methods are foundational for accurate impact assessment and informed decisionmaking (hollingworth et al., 2023) (apeagyei et al., 2024). high insufficient research on cross-sectoral integration of health, education, and few studies explicitly analyze the interconnected effects of usaid withdrawal across economic, develop interdisciplinary research frameworks and models to assess crossintegrated approaches are necessary for holistic understanding medium https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" economic impacts health, and education sectors simultaneously. sectoral impacts and synergies, informing integrated policy responses. and sustainable development planning post-donor exit (cerf, 2019) (ly et al., 2017) (sukran et al., 2023). limited exploration of technological innovations in healthcare post-donor exit opportunities and barriers for telemedicine, big data analytics, and disruptive technologies in enhancing health system resilience remain underinvestigated. conduct implementation research and policy analyses on digital health innovations, infrastructure needs, regulatory frameworks, and workforce training in african contexts. technology can mitigate service delivery gaps and improve efficiency, critical amid funding transitions (achieng & ogundaini, 2024) (oppong, 2020) (omaghomi et al., 2023). medium scarce focus on sociopolitical determinants of health financing and service sustainability political factors influencing health spending and governance reforms are acknowledged but lack in-depth empirical investigation. explore political economy of health financing reforms, including democracy, accountability, and stakeholder participation effects on funding sustainability. political context shapes resource allocation and reform success, essential for sustainable health systems post-usaid withdrawal (dianda, 2020) (dzingirai, 2023). medium insufficient understanding of the impact of international sanctions and external shocks on health and education the effects of sanctions and global crises on health service access, financing, and education disruptions are under-researched in the context of donor withdrawal. investigate how sanctions and pandemics interact with aid withdrawal to affect health and education outcomes, including mitigation strategies. external shocks compound vulnerabilities; understanding these interactions is vital for resilient policy design (limong, 2023) (arewa, 2024) (ko et al., 2024). medium 4.0 synthesis and conclusion the extensive pool of literature on the challenges and opportunities associated with the economics, healthcare, and educational spheres after the withdrawal of the usaid in africa, demonstrates that it is a complex and multipronged environment where the factors are interconnected. most fiscally, foregoing or scaling back funding of the usaid has tendency of enlarging fiscal gaps and moderating the growth of the gdp with communicable diseases and pandemics, having further exacerbating effects. economic toll of health emergencies especially hiv/aids and other infectious diseases manifests negatively on labor output, human assets, and levels of income and therefore the need to continue on strategic health investments towards protection of economic growth. nevertheless, there is also evidence of the possible positive economic payoffs of the well-designed health financing reforms and investments in treatments, like antiretroviral therapy, which can improve economic growth and poverty alleviation in the long-term perspective. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" regarding healthcare system resilience, the literature has been convergent in the importance of sustainable domestic financing, better governance, and infrastructure development in ensuring that delivery of the healthcare services is maintained after the withdrawal of usaid. the effects of donor funding replacement and the disproportionate assistance, the tendency of becoming increasingly popular, challenge the process of achieving universal health coverage, and the innovations, such as telemedicine or big data analytics, prove to be the promising directions of improving system efficiency and disease surveillance, despite the infrastructural and policy limitations. still, short term success in the program can conceal deeper weaknesses in the system such as maldistribution of the workforce, informal payment practices and gaps in governance that have to be addressed to guarantee the sustainability of the system. the education sector was less directly investigated but demonstrates weaknesses related to interruption of the health services and economic deterioration with the indirect consequences regarding enrollment, quality, and the psychosocial wellbeing. the area of currently coordinated investment in health and education is understood as mutually reinforcing pathways on the way to developing human capital, but there are few studies of education-specific adaptation measures and financing methods themselves to education, which creates an equally critical gap in the literature. as to financing instruments, all available evidence leads to the conclusion that donorbased funding is a very limited and ineffective option, and more domestic resource mobilization methods should be instituted via tax reforms, novel levies, and publicprivate partnerships. although new financing ideas hold certain potential, their revenue opportunities and achieving possibilities are usually limited and small, and are frequently restricted by political and institution willingness, which needs equal policy discussion and governance changes to establish adequate effect. institutional reforms and policy responses highlight the importance of governance processes, stakeholders involvement and a multi-sectoral approach based on country context as key to the transition management of external aid. nonetheless, empirical capacity to assess the level of the reform success is minimal, and the politics of health https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 09 || september, 2025 || “usaid withdrawal in africa: a meta-analysis of challenges and opportunites" and education expenditures remain under-investigated, which serves as evidence of the need to intensify studies on contextual aspects of policy success. references achieng, m., & ogundaini, o. o. 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(2009). health reform in latin america and africa: decentralisation, participation and inequalities.. third world quarterly, 30 (5), 9911005. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590902969742 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17233715 ijo journals volume 08 | issue 09 | september 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 48 https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3727 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2024.101723 https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i1.3486 https://doi.org/10.1080/23288604.2017.1325549 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpopen.2020.100020 https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czae052 https://doi.org/10.3917/reco.602.0241 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-99967-0.00270-2 https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czad092 https://doi.org/10.59298/nijrms/2024/5.3.7175 https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v20i2.4 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.2.0475 https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3779689/v1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40647-9_6 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024) obiora peters, emeka phd school of postgraduate studies, kigali independent university ulk, kigali, rwanda amani manzi alain kigali independent university ulk uwazigira daphrose kigali independent university ulk abstract several factors work for and against the uptake of insurance relationship in rwanda and hinders the growth of insurance subsector. this study sets out to determine the factors that promote and barriers that hinder insurance uptake in rwanda radiant insurance using a quantitative method and case study design on a population of 16,606 customers,and 375 clients were sampled using simple random sampling technique. the regression model was used in data analysis. the results shows that;insurance knowledge β = 0.327 (p = 0.01),skills (β = 0.490, p = 0.000)behaviour(β = 0.300,p = 0.001), &accessibility(β = 0.336,p=0.001) all has significant positive determination on insurance uptake. although,were able to explain 8.4% of the variability of uptake of insurance.the mean of barriers to uptake was 1.48 suggesting severe(high) and non significant obstacles(low) towards uptake. based on this outcome, the study concludes that insurance knowledge, skills, behaviour, accessibility positively determines insurance uptake. additionally, the results concludes that primary barriers to insurance uptake relate to cost and the perceived value of insurance, followed by procedural and trust issues. the study therefore recommends enhancement of insurance literacy,develop customer-centered products,strengthen practical skills among clients,promote positive insurance behavior,leverage technology for accessibility and foster trust and transparency. key words: determinants, insurance, penetration rate, insurance uptake, barriers to uptake 1.0 introduction this section portrays the funnel background, statement of the problem and the objectives of study knitted on the tale of the introduction. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 68 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" 1.1background of the study insurance is a major aspect of economic development at the global scene, given that it provides financial safeguard against unexpected risks, household resilience and economic stability. nevertheless, the world situation with insurance adoption is deeply unequal. the high-income economies are approximately 63 percent of adults with some policy cover like health, life or property as compared to the 13 percent of the low income countries, according to demirguc-kunt and others (2022). swiss re institute (2022) also described that, whereas the world had faced more than usd 7 trillion in premiums in 2021, africa contributed less than 1.5 percent to it. such world disparities are influenced by socio-economic, institutional and behavioural conditions such as income levels, literacy, access to digital information, trust to policy guidelines and cultures that can accept insurance products. the insurance business in africa is underdeveloped even though there is a rising demand of financial inclusion. according to the african insurance organization (2023), the insurance penetration in the continent will be 2.7 percent of the gdp, however, leaving out south africa will bring it under 1 percent. as scholars like hougaard et al. (2012) as well as roth et al. (2007) pointed out, the lack of financial awareness, mistrust of insurance organizations and products misalignment with native realities are considerable limitations to uptake. according to malambo (2023) africa had a total insurance penetration rate of 2.78% in 2019 and this is far lower than the global average rate of penetration that stands at 7.23%. specifically, most africans relate insurance to foreign ways of risk-sharing or even elite, which discourages use in the rural or low income communities. nevertheless, mobile microinsurance and packaged insurance products related to health, agriculture, or credit services have proven to be promising in increasing reach. in east africa, there is an upsurge in insurance development although the penetration levels are not at a high level. even such countries as kenya (2.3%), tanzania (1.5%), uganda (0.9%), and rwanda (1.7%) are below the international standards (eaisa, 2023). empirical evidence as muiruri and bosire (2020) in kenya and kiiza and pederson (2021) in uganda can testify to the fact that financial literacy, affordability, accessibility of services, and a positive experience about the claims are some of the determinants of uptake. in kenya, digital platforms such as m-tiba and kilimo salama are emerging to facilitate delivery of insurance, particularly in health and agricultural insurance. in case of rwanda and tanzania, government-sponsored health programs have managed to raise the national coverage of health but not voluntary insurance across other of them, such as life, property, or sme insurance. moreover, the insurance penetration rate in east africa stands at 1.39 in 2022 and kenya is the leader 2.14 followed by tanzania 0.62, uganda 0.74 and ethiopia 0.3 there is a paradox with regards to the insurance development in rwanda. though the health insurance cover is almost universal in the country, linked to schemes like mutuelle de santhe, the enrollmentinto other insurance schemes is very low. according to the national bank of rwanda (bnr, 2023), the general insurance penetration rate in rwanda was 1.7 percent of gdp, and the total amount of premiums amounted to about 36 million dollars and the market is dominated by non-life insurance. finscope rwanda (2020) revealed that in rwanda, only 12 percent of adult families are insured, whether by life insurance or voluntary. mobile ownership is over 78 percent (gsma, 2022), yet there is a low consumption of insurance subscription beyond the mandatory schemes. kabera and mugisha (2021) and ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 69 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" nzeyimana et al. (2022) found cultural beliefs, lack of education, negative claims experiences, and affordability to be big obstacles to broader use. it was observed that the consumption of insurance is better in more developed economies (allianz research, 2024; oecd, 2024). particularly urgent, is a study like this, when considered through the lenses of the rwandan radiant insurance company limited, which is among the most prominent indigenous insurers in the country. radiant insurance was founded in 2011 and ever since; it acted as a major player towards increasing general and health insurance products in the country. the company has advanced with motor, fire, health and group life insurance and has also earned significant recognition in the endeavors to reach out to urban as well as semi-urban markets. nevertheless, in its product diversification and nation wide availability, radiant insurance has still struggled with customer acquisition and retention of nonmandatory insurance segments as many players in the rwanda market. internal performance reports and sector statistics indicate that radiant insurance is still grappling with the idea of growing in individual life and property insurance particularly on informal sector workers and people in the countryside. based on anecdotal evidence, as well as preliminary surveys, it is clear that most of the potential clients either do not know about radiant offerings or they consider insurance undependable or they believe insurance to be too expensive. this is in accordance to the trends at the national level where most consumers tend to be shy of approaching the services of privately owned insurers unless obliged by a law. also, the hurdle that radiant faces is the fact that, it does not have a wide channel of distribution, the literacy of the people towards insurance and the strong competition in the market by both local and foreign insurance companies in the similar market. however, radiant insurance will be in a unique situation because it is a home grown rwandan insurace close to the locals, with knowledge of their culture, and operating flexibility. it has the prospect of leading the way in terms of inclusive models of insurance, but this is unfulfilled. consequently, the research aims at addressing the determinants of insurance uptake and barriers in rwanda as a matter of urgency using the case of radiant insurance company limited. this research can help to extract more actionable insights not only about radiant but also about the insurance industry in rwanda as a whole since it has defined the main factors that affect customer behavior such as the economy capacity and awareness, trust, and services delivery. with rwanda executing the national financial sector development strategic plan (2021-2025), that places emphasis on the insurance market deepening and financial inclusion, it is only worth noting that companies such as radiant insurance urgently need an academic and policy interest to understand their operational obstacles. unless stringent empirical studies are conducted towards the cause of why rwandans, particularly in the informal and rural sectors are underinsured, efforts of the nation towards risk protection, wealth preservation and social stability might be thwarted. 2.0 literature review 2.1 conceptual review ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 70 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" insurance uptake insurance uptake is described as the acquisition and continuous uptake of insurance products to handle risks in finances. according to the world bank (2021) and roth et al. (2007), it is considered to be a financial inclusion metric as well as a protection mechanism against income shocks. such recent literature (cole et al., 2013; ginine & yang, 2009) points out to the fact that uptake is supported by various drivers like the economic capacity, trust, awareness, accessibility, and product relevance. according to cole et al. (2013), the world over, the trust and literacy levels are more important than the price whereas gin in et al. (2010) stressed the role of financial bundling insurance with services such as credit. in nigeria, reliability, claims satisfaction, and cultural attitudes were among the determinants of life insurance demand as confirmed by akotey et al. (2022). researchers in kenya showed how mobile platforms increased uptake of studies muiruri and bosire (2020) and researchers in uganda and tanzania showed an increase in adoption on bundling products with health or farming services leach and ncube (2021). rwanda over 90 percent of the population is covered by health insurance in the form of mutuelle de sant (rssb, 2023), but there is lack of insurance uptake concerning life and property. according to finscope rwanda (2020), only 12 percent of adults have other types of insurance. factors such as affordability, the lack of education, lack of confidence to insurers, and cultural resistance are among the barriers identified (kabera & mugisha, 2021). other important aspects of increasing financial literacy (lusardi & mitchell, 2017) however, customer experience (zhang et al., 2020), product design (microinsurance network, 2022), and regulatory support (oecd, 2023; outreville, 2014) are emphasized in the literature as being essential in the process of increasing uptake. it is vital, yet insufficiently important to be literate about insurance. although it enhances understanding (cohen, 2023; malambo et al., 2024), research in kenya and india demonstrates that trustability and affordability is also applicable (kiplagat et al., 2021; banerjee & duflo, 2019). additionally, product mismatch and complicated regulatory phrasing limit uptake (wasike, 2019). in general, due of the rise in insurance enrolment, issues including low literacy, mistrust, and product accessibility must be addressed. access obstacles due to technological advancements, particularly mobile-based insurance, access hurdles are decreasing, particularly in sub-saharan africa (gsma, 2022) is closing access gaps, especially in subsaharan africa. perhaps,the task is to enhance both demandand supply-side issues to access more insurance by means of education, trust, product development, and regulatory changes. overall in rwanda, although the health sector has been successful, insurances are not penetrated widely hence more research and specific interventions have to be done. research has indicated that demographics, income, education, trust and awareness are the factors that affect uptake of insurance. as observed by rainer (2020) and turyamureba et al. (2022), age, marital status, media access, and wealth do have an influential impact on health insurance enrolment in tanzania and uganda. malambo and qutieshat (2024) emphasized that lack of awareness and poverty are some of the problems that impede up-take in botswana. confidence in the providers had the most significant impact on the insurance inclusion correlated with the awareness role played by agents (tsaijyh, 2021). ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 71 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" 2.1.2. barriers to insurance uptake the barriers to insurance uptake are defined as an economically, behaviorally, institutional and cultural constraints that restrains individuals or even organizations to access or even to maintain insurance products. the most fundamental aspect of these obstacles would be the question of affordability especially in low-income environments where day to day survival necessities have priority over budgeting. the research findings of cole et al. (2013) and gin and yang (2009) indicate that, despite subsidization of insurance products, there is also limited uptake when disposable income in the country is low, particularly among the informal workers as well as when dealing with rural households. at individual level, the obstacles comprise poor awareness of insurance products and advantages, failure to comprehend insurance concepts and terminologies, incorrect estimation or exaggeration of personal hazards, premium prices against one income level, and distrust of the insurance firms or brokers (zewdneh,et al 2021). a high level of ignorance and illiteracy in finance is another great barrier. the problem is that many people do not know how the insurance works, what it covers, and how one can deal with the claims. according to lusardi and mitchell (2017), low understanding of the risk pooling and premiums has a direct relationship to avoiding insurance. in sub-saharan africa, finscope (2020) indicated that over half (55.5 percent) of uninsured adults had never been exposed to any information concerning insurance and therefore education is a key access point to reach more participants on uptake. past experience and trust is also a major role player. the greater the conviction that consumers have that the providers are reliable and responsive the more likely they are to adopt insurance. akotey et al. (2022) and zhang et al. (2020) observed that the negative experiences in the form of delayed settlements on claims or policy language mess result in discontinuation and the loss of trust. the situation where regulatory enforcement is weak, no one trusts the private or public insurers. attitudes also are influenced by culture and religion. the perception of risk in most communities is either spiritual or communal-based and most community members would want to utilize the customary coping styles rather than the business insurance. kabera and mugisha (2021) found out that in rural rwanda, divinity intervention prevailed among many individuals as the pillars of protection instead of monetary agreement therefore laboring on the insurability of insurance products. on the supply side, uptake is also stunted by the complexity of the products and ineffective distribution channels. it is not uncommon to come by insurance products that do not take into consideration local needs, sensitivity to literacy levels and payment flexibility. according to the microinsurance network (2022), most of the low-income clients take policy documents to be too technical and sales procedures to be threatening. also, coverage is limited by the lack of access to agents or online platforms in rural and peri-urban locations. the obstacles to the use of insurance are closely connected, but they need an integrated approach to overcome them, which conjoins financial literacy, the means of building trust, the easing of product design, the ease of payment methods, and regulation. these matters are especially pressing to tackle in nascent markets such as rwanda, with the health insurance enrolment rate already very high, other forms of insurance in the country are, however, not being used because of these ongoing limitations. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 72 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" 2.2 empirical literature review in a panel study carried out over 42 countries in africa, bah and abila (2022) revealed that the institutional quality and mainly regulatory effectiveness and rule of law positively impacted the life and non-life insurance penetration significantly. this observation proves that governance structures are a critical factor in influencing behavior in insurance. ngambi et al. (2023) examined the malawi multiple indicator cluster survey (2019-2020) and demonstrated that age, education, wealth, and geographical location are the key determinants that played a critical role in determining whether people would avail health insurance. the research found that people who had a secondary education or with higher education, as well as people in urban regions, had greater chances to be insured. according to a study conducted by kiwuluka and sibindi (2023) in uganda, perceived trust proved the most effective determinant of insurance inclusion over the other indicators of the likelihood to be included in insurance, such as perceived value and insurance literacy. the results they provide highlight the importance of consumer confidence as a factor in developing insurance markets. kawuki et al. (2022) also investigated how education status and health insurance are used in rwanda in relation to the empowerment indicators (such as the decision-making autonomy and media exposure) and found that they had an inverse relationship with health insurance usage. the socio-economic status, the size of the household, and regional disparities were still powerful predictors, however. this analysis can hardly be found nationwide in rwanda, but muremyi et al. (2025) highlighted them as some of the contributing factors to the low level of health insurance coverage including lack of awareness, financial constraints, and delivery of poor health services. they were, however, only focused on the public cbhi scheme. njoumemi et al. (2023) conducted a study in cameroon and concluded that demographic and socioeconomic variables such as income and education had a strong predictive value of health insurance coverage. the availability of the local community structures that enable access was also noted in their study. the lshtm systematic review (2021) across sub-saharan africa identified that the persistent barriers were the deficit in trust, low perceived value, low service quality, and awareness to community-based insurance health. these also hampered the renewal of schemes and continued policies. a study by cohen (2023) on the insurance literacy in the netherlands revealed that those with low literacy proficiency experienced more difficulty in comprehending, choosing, and appreciating the insurance products. the research associated literacy with long run satisfaction and trust. tsai-jyh (2021) evaluated the importance of the insurance agents in taiwan and identified a significant relationship between the activities of agents and the public awareness. consumers who communicated with insurance agents proved to have much better comprehension and involvement. turyamureba, yawe, and oryema (2022) noted that in uganda, wealth, education, marital status, and access to information through media were strong factors that affected the demand of the private health insurance. the combination of these variables was predictive especially in the urban dwellers. malambo and qutieshat (2024) listed extreme poverty, low levels of awareness, and the absence of the targeted education campaigns as the primary life insurance uptake limiting factors in botswana. their research emphasizes that what works will be specific financial literacy interventions. according to rukundo et al. (2019), the social capital, household economic status, and male employment in casual labor were related to the enrolment in the community-based health insurance in rural uganda. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 73 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" knowledge concerning premium structures was also recognized as necessary in the study. as reported by wasike (2019) and kiplagat et al. (2021), complicated legal words and cultural understanding do make a considerable dent when it comes to taking up insurance in kenya. despite these literacy campaigns which were increasing awareness, this was not necessarily accompanied with follow through in the form of policy implementation. the authors identified the insurance literacy as the factor associated with informed financial choices at the global level (lusardi and mitchell, 2017). assumptions made by them were that the more the consumers know about an insurance, the more they are likely to view it as a worthwhile risk management tool. gin and yang in malawi (2009) showed how differentiated crop and rainfall insurance education could play a great role in boosting the penetration of insurance among peasants in rural areas supporting the aspect of contextual knowledge in insurance utilization. 2.4 literature gaps and justification for the study the literature on health insurance and microinsurance in sub-saharan africa has an impressive amount of empirical research, some of which covers rwanda, but there is a striking lack of literature detailing the issue of insurance uptake in the rwandan context of the private insurance sector. local research tends to identify one community or government scheme and give details regarding it (kawuki et al., 2022; muremyi et al., 2025). no empirical study to the best of our knowledge has analyzed the determinants of voluntary or commercial insurance uptake among individuals and small businesses in rwanda. hence, this current study. 3.0 methodology the study adopted purely descriptive quantitative method along a case study design, using an appropriated population of 16606 out which 375 was determined using krejcie and morgan(1970) formula(fink, a. (2020;babbie, e. (2021) maintained that when disaggregated data is inaccessible, sampling frames can be approximated. 375 customers where randomly sampled in kigali to ensure representativeness. due to the absence of exact client distribution data at the kigali headquarters, the study estimated the client population using the proportion of radiant insurance branches located in kigali. with 15 out of 185 branches in the city, the estimated kigali client base from 204818 is 16,606 (kumar, r. (2019,; unesco institute for statistics,2013). this was used to estimate sample size. though it still lack specific numbers of clients of each branch, it can legitimately be stated that this is methodologically sound according to other studies that have tried to implement similar research.primary data was collected using a questionnaire while secondary data was collected by reviewing relevant literature. the independent variables (the predictors) in this study are the different factors which affect the uptake of insurance, and the dependent variable is uptake of insurance. the study measured the each variable through the questionnaire in form of likert’s scale of 5–1 in the manner: 5-strongly agree, 4agree, 3-neutral, 2-disagree and 1-strongly disagree. then, the study adopted the regression model in the analytical process. the model was formulated as follows: y= β0+ β1x1+ β2x2+ β3x3+ β4x4+e where: y= insurance uptake, x1 = insurance knowledge, x2 = insurance skills, x3 = insurance behavior, x4 = insurance accessibility, β1 – β4 = regression coefficients and e = error term ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 74 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" 4.0 results and discussion 4.1 descriptive statistics : frequency table 1: merged respondents’ views on insurance in rwanda category item statement mean std. deviation perception level insurance knowledge grand mean: 5.61 i am aware of the different types of insurance products available in the markets 5.61 0.489 high i understand the basic principles of how insurance works 5.81 0.391 high i understand the process of filling an insurance claim 5.79 0.406 high i am confident in my ability to choose the right insurance products for my needs 5.75 0.436 high i understand common terms in insurance 5.73 0.462 high i can easily make decisions on insurance products 5.72 0.465 high i always easily put money aside to pay for insurance 5.56 0.511 low insurance skills grand mean: 5.69 i know how to select better insurance products 5.72 0.451 high i know how to evaluate the terms and conditions of an insurance policy 5.73 0.459 high i am skilled in understanding and assessing the risks that need insurance coverage 5.72 0.451 high i am capable of calculating the premiums and coverage for various insurance options 5.65 0.507 low i can easily compute the insurance premium 5.65 0.518 low i know the value of my insurance benefits 5.68 0.482 low insurance behavior grand mean: 5.75 i regularly review & update my insurance policies 5.71 0.454 low i would recommend having insurance to my friends and family 5.75 0.436 high i always pay for insurance 5.81 0.413 high i am satisfied with the insurance services 5.78 0.447 high i always pay insurance premium 5.75 0.451 high i always save with insurance 5.70 0.515 low i am always interested in issues of insurance 5.78 0.431 high i believe that having insurance is essential for financial security 5.75 0.433 high i feel confident in my decisions regarding insurance purchases 5.72 0.507 low investing in insurance is a wise financial decision 5.69 0.477 low i’m always interested in the other insurance products 5.63 0.499 low insurance accessibility grand mean:5.75 the process of obtaining insurance from radiant insurance company is straightforward 5.67 0.757 low insurance products are easily accessible to people in many areas 5.75 0.753 high it is easy to access information about radiant insurance company’s products 5.72 0.545 low radiant insurance company has sufficient branch locations 5.73 0.527 low the insurance services are user-friendly 5.65 0.555 low ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 75 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" authors computation 2025 the table of frequency depicts the level of perception by respondents on the questions posed. the perceptions are low or high. for each of the construct, the cumulative response score with low suggests that it fall below the mean of the construct as opposed to high. 4.1 descriptive statistics table 2: barriers to insurance uptake barrier statement mean std. dev. the cost of insurance premiums is high for me 2.29 1.358 the benefits of insurance do not justify its cost 1.75 1.024 the process of acquiring insurance takes too much time 1.52 0.925 renewing my insurance policy is timeconsuming 1.41 0.837 insurance service providers are located far from my residence 1.47 0.917 there are no convenient insurance service locations near me 1.50 0.918 my religious beliefs discourage me from taking insurance 1.36 0.922 the insurance policies are stringent 1.45 0.945 cultural norms in my community discourage the uptake of insurance 1.43 1.006 insurance is not considered important in my cultural background 1.25 0.914 i do not trust insurance companies to fulfill their promises 1.39 0.940 i would consider insurance if the process were quicker 1.39 0.933 i’m always discouraged by friends from using insurance 1.33 0.917 the insurance company does not give me enough knowledge about products on offer 1.33 0.857 the geographical location of insurance providers affects my decision 1.43 0.907 mean 1.48 authors computation 2025 the grand mean is 1.48, suggesting that items above 1.48 are relatively more significant barriers compared to the overall average; lean towards agreeing that these factors discourage them from insurance uptake. however, those blow the average are less perceived as barriers, not significant obstacles and respondents strongly disagree that these issues are reasons for not taking insurance. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 76 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" 4.2 correlation matrix table 4 knowledg e skills behavior accessibil ity knowledge pearson correlation 1 sig. (2-tailed) n 375 skills pearson correlation .236** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .004 n 375 375 behavior pearson correlation .293** .324** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 n 375 375 375 accessibilit y pearson correlation .105 .224** .178* 1 sig. (2-tailed) .203 .006 .029 n 375 375 375 375 authors’ computation 2025 the matrix shows that there are positive relationships of all the variables but the strongest are between skills and behavior and accessibility has a small but significant influence on how insurance behavior and competencies are shaped. this proves the concept of increasing the level of information and viable access to enhance the take up of insurance. 4.3. model summary a model summary gives a brief account of the statistical or theoretical model of analyzing data or explanation of phenomena. it often consists of the main information pertaining to the model structure, the assumptions, parameters of the model, and their performance. table 5: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.943a .089 .084 .22477 a. predictors: (constant), attitude, behavior, knowledge, skills source: spss program v22 the correlation between the actual and predicted values of the dependent variable is r (0.943). it shows a very strong relationship between the predictors (knowledge, skills, behavior, accessibility) and the ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 77 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" outcome. adjusted r2was (0.084) meaning that only 8.4% of the variation in the dependent variable of insurance uptake is explained by the four predictors.standard error (0.22477): this is the average amount by which the actual values differ from the predicted values. a smaller value means more accurate predictions 4.4 anova table 6: anova sum of squares df mean square f sig. knowledge between groups 1.174 7 .168 .865 .536 within groups 27.538 142 .194 total 28.712 149 skills between groups 1.696 7 .242 .549 .796 within groups 62.664 142 .441 total 64.360 149 behaviour between groups .955 7 .136 .661 .705 within groups 29.335 142 .207 total 30.290 149 suitability between groups 1.084 7 .155 2.431 .022 within groups 9.049 142 .064 total 10.133 149 source: spss program v22 the anova output indicates the presence of statistically significant differences in the responses to insurance uptake factors with regard to the various groups . knowledge (p = .536) and skills (p = .796) do not make any significant difference in perception but suitability (p = .022) does so there is a possibility of increasing the uptake of insurance products by tailoring them to the needs of a certain customer. 4.5. coefficients analysis the relationships between variables were statistical measured and quantified the degree and direction of the relationship,to assist in understanding how changes in one variable might impact another. ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 78 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" table 7: coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 4.715 .369 12.776 .000 knowledge .327 .052 .443 .512 .01 skills .490 .045 .286 1.968 .000 behavior .300 .046 .387 2.184 .001 accessibility .336 .048 .400 .001 .001 source: spss program v22 a. dependent variable: uptakes 4.5 discussion of coefficient results all the four independent variables of knowledge, skills, behavior and accessibility are found to have a positive and statistically significant effect on insurance uptake at radiant insurance company in rwanda based on the regression coefficients. knowledge has been found to have a coefficient of (β = 0.327,p = 0.01), which implies that the more the knowledge an individual acquires pertaining to insurance-the higher the chances are that he/she will uptake. it implies that clients who know how insurance operates, with its claims and other provisions are more likely to embrace it. this is substantiated by lusardi and mitchell (2017), which stressed that financial literacy enhances insurance decisions. cohen (2023) also associated insurance literacy with duration of enrolment and satisfaction. in a theoretical perceptive, this outcome anchors on the theory of planned behavior (tpb), where held in understanding increases the perceived behavioral control that intensifies intention to act. the unstandardized effect is the strongest in terms of skills (β = 0.490, p = 0.000), which indicates that the application of some practical competencies, including the calculation of premiums, the awareness of terms, or policy comparison, greatly favor the adoption of insurance. this is in line with the study conducted by kiplagat and ndungu (2021), which revealed that technical ability enhances the uptake of insurance among smes in kenya. it also supports the claim of gin and yang (2009) with respect to the finding that does adjust education that boosts insurance adoption in households in rural settings. tpb is a contributing factor too since those who feel they can act competently are likely going to take a step toward enrollment in insurance coverage. the coefficient of behavior is (β= 0.300,p = 0.001), meaning that the practice of paying premiums, renewing the insurance policies, and frequently saving money to cover those soon to be paid premiums will have positive effects on the uptake. the relevance of this finding can be aligned with the findings of rukundo et al. (2019) whose behavioral attributes such as saving differently and interest in insurance were ranked highly when it came to predicting the uptake in uganda. also, zhang et al. (2020) ijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 79 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" mentioned behavior as a mediator of the financial decision-making as well as its contribution to longlasting insurance engagement. tpb reinforces this once more in that behavior is based on attitudes and intentions formed as part of belief system and prior action. the accessibility coefficient is(β= 0.336, p=0.001) with standard error of 0.048; the standardized beta is 0.400. it implies that accessibility determines insurance uptake in a positive and statistically significant manner having an average statistical significance of 1 percent. what this implies in practice is that when it becomes easier to access the insurance services or avenues, such as locating branch offices, making it convenient to locate an insurance professional or simplifying online systems, the chances of the client availing insurance becomes very high. the implication of this finding is that accessibility of the insurance services is a key requirement in customer engagement and enrolment of policies. existence such as distance, weak distribution channel or presence of agents may be a deterrent to those potential clients particularly the under-served neighborhood. the strategies to make services closer to the clients via mobile platform, expansion of the branch facilities or development of agent networks will thus be of benefit to radiant insurance company. the finding is also in line with the theory of planned behavior (tpb) that postulates that perceived behavioral control is strengthened using easier access, which makes an individual feel better able to perform an action (in the instance, take up insurance). greater accessibility creates fewer barriers to the decision-making process, and thus the adoption of insurance is more probable. it also conforms with the findings of turyamureba, yawe & oryema (2022) in uganda; imoseme & chijuka (2024), rukundo et al. (2019), as it is opposed to kiplagat & ndung u (2021) and wasike (2019) who stated that accessibility had not increased enrolment even when it was enhanced, reporting that the motivating factors were suspect as it could be tied to a lack of trust in insurance companies and poor literacy, 5.0 conclusion and recommendation 5.1 conclusion the analysis looked at the major determinants that impact on the adoption of insurance among the clients of radiant insurance company limited in rwanda. informed by theory of planned behavior (tpb), it was found that there are significantly positive impacts of the knowledge, skills, behavior, and accessibility towards insurance uptake. of these, skills had the greatest unstandardized effect, and knowledge had the greatest standardized effect. the above findings point to the importance of informational and behavioral readiness in the decision to subscribe to insurance. it was also corroborated by the study that the perceptions of the clients on issues of affordability, accessibility, reliability and suitability of the source have different roles in determining uptake and that suitability is the most affected on group concerns. in total, the findings set the significance of targeted education, empowerment of skills, and change of attitude towards improving insurance penetration in the formal insurance sector in rwanda. 5.2 recommendation leaning on the result, it can be suggested that there are needs to be an increased literacy of the population on the issues of insurance by investing into sustained educational campaigns in terms of insurance knowledge and processes within the population to enhance the knowledge-based decisionijo journals volume 08 | issue 08 | august 2025 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 80 ijointernational journal of social science and humanities research ( issn 2811-2466 ) obiora peters, emeka phd1* https://ijojournals.com/ volume 08 || issue 08 || august, 2025 || “determinants of insurance uptake in rwanda a case study of radiant insurance company limited (2020-2024)" making. the variations in suitability perceptions should be addressed by having insurance packages that are customer-centered to cater to unique needs, different life stages and income of various customers, regardless of differences in suitability perceptions. there should be workshops and digital tools in order to give the clients the skills of comparing the policies, computing the premiums and knowledge of the claims processes. discounts on early renewal or loyal bonuses are some incentive schemes that can enhance the client to follow through insurance behavior therefore enjoying positive insurance behavior. technology should be used to improve accessibility; and a positive attitude towards insurance followed by long term consumer trust can be achieved by having clear communication, simplified policy documents and quick claim settlements by radiant insurance. 6.0 statement of competing interests the authors have no competing interests 7.0 list of abbreviations anovaanalysis of variance bnr national bank of rwanda cbhi community-based health insurance eaisa east african insurance supervisors association gdp -gross domestic product gsma global system for mobile communications association oecd organisation for economic co-operation and development rssb rwanda social security board sme small and medium enterprises spss statistical package for the social sciences tpb theory of planned behavior references african insurance organization (2023). annual insurance report for africa. https://www.africaninsurance.org african reinsurance corporation (2025). country dashboard – rwanda. https://www.africa re.com/dashboards/rw alhassan, a. l., & biekpe, n. 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