




































The extent of Centrifugal Underdevelopment in Bekwara: A Household 

Descriptive Survey 

Omang, Thomas Achoda 
Department of sociology University of Calabar, Nigeria 

Omangta@gmail.com 
 

Abstract 

This study aims to examine the Extent of Centrifugal Underdevelopment in Bekwara: A 

Household Descriptive Survey. Adopting the descriptive quantitative research method, data were 

collected from 384 households in Bekwara Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria 

using a self-developed semi-structured questionnaire. Data collected from the field were analyses 

using descriptive statistics. from the analysis, result revealed that 75. 35 per cent of the 

household in Bekwara earn a maximum of 40,000 naira monthly. 96.61 per cent of the 

households' survey reported that income generated by the household head is not enough to take 

care of the household. 97.13 per cent of the surveyed household reported that they can hardly 

afford the most basic necessities. 64.84 per cent of the household surveyed reported difficulty in 

feeding properly. Result also revealed that 76.3 per cent of the participants use over the counter 

drugs or use traditional remedies when a member of the household is sick. 94.27 per cent 

reported that the health centres in the communities are ill-equipped and that there are not enough 

well-trained medical workers. 100.00 per cent reported that there is no constant supply of 

electricity in the study area. 57.81 per cent of the participant reported that they do not have 

portable drinking water. 77.34 per cent reported that there are no good roads in their community 

and that mobile network connectivity is very poor. The study thereby calls for policy change to 

address the problem of underdevelopment in Bekwara. 

Keywords: centrifugal, underdevelopment, Household, Bekwara 

Introduction 

The distance between Nigeria and economic catastrophe, civil unrest and social disaster 

is a thin line. The country referred to as the giant the African Continent is blessed with numerous 

human and natural resource but suffers from high rate of youth unemployment and 

underemployment, civil strife, corruption and inept governance. The country continues to fall 

behind its peers in the sphere of development. The country has a complete dysfunctional 

sociopolitical structure, unproductive economy and entrenched economy (Akinyetu, 2016; 

Ojong, Iji, & Angioha, 2019).  Even with the decline in global poverty, Nigeria's contribution to 

this statistic is very disappointing, with the country now statistically known as the poverty capital 

of the world (Aliyu & Amadu, 2017; Adeyanju, Tubeuf, & Ensor, 2017; USAID, 2020). 

According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2019), National Living Survey, the number of 

Nigerians living in abject poverty is estimated to be 82.9 million. The report covering 2019 

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estimates that 40.1 per cent of Nigerians are cl

figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 Nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per 

year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current 

National exchange rate is less than a dollar a day (Adesoji, 2020; USSAID, 2020). 

poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the National Bureau of 

Statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. According to the report, 51.1 per cent 

poor live in abject poverty, living on less than 1 dollar a day.

Source: NBC (2019) Nigerian Living Standards Survey (NLSS)

 The country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about

USAID (2020), the country has the second

maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. The 

United Nation (2019) revealed that 

death occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this 

period. The country accounts for

third of the global malaria death. USAID 

population have malaria. All these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system.

 The country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 

Nigerians visit India every year for medical emergencies (Tumba, 2019). In the National budget 

of 2020, only 4.5 per cent of the 

further breakdown reveals that just 2136.

current population of 200 million is considered (Aworinde, 2020; Tumba, 2020). The health 

sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly 

a year that health workers do not st

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estimates that 40.1 per cent of Nigerians are classified as poor. A further breakdown of this 

figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 Nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per 

year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current 

rate is less than a dollar a day (Adesoji, 2020; USSAID, 2020). 

poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the National Bureau of 

Statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. According to the report, 51.1 per cent 

poor live in abject poverty, living on less than 1 dollar a day. 

Nigerian Living Standards Survey (NLSS) 

The country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about

as the second-highest HIV/AIDs prevalence globally. The country's 

maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. The 

United Nation (2019) revealed that between 2005 and 2015, more than 600,000 maternal related 

h occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this 

accounts for 13 per cent of global child death under the ages of 5 and one

third of the global malaria death. USAID (2020) states that more than 42 per cent of the nation's 

population have malaria. All these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system.

The country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 

visit India every year for medical emergencies (Tumba, 2019). In the National budget 

of 2020, only 4.5 per cent of the total budget allocation is allocated to the healthcare system. A 

breakdown reveals that just 2136.5 naira is allotted to each Nigerian for the year when the 

current population of 200 million is considered (Aworinde, 2020; Tumba, 2020). The health 

sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly 

a year that health workers do not strike (Welcome, 2011; Enukoha&  Angioha, 2019

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Axis Title

Poverty Count by States In Nigeria, 2019 (%)

assified as poor. A further breakdown of this 

figure revealed that 4 out of every 10 Nigerian has a per capital expenditure of 137,430 naira per 

year, translating to a worrying figure of 376.5 naira per day, which according to the current 

rate is less than a dollar a day (Adesoji, 2020; USSAID, 2020). The country's 

poor population is concentrated in mostly rural areas and according to the National Bureau of 

Statistics (2019) stands at 48.48 per cent. According to the report, 51.1 per cent of these rural 

 

The country's health statistics are grim and nothing to write home about. According to 

highest HIV/AIDs prevalence globally. The country's 

maternal mortality is very high, contributing 20 per cent of the global maternal deaths. The 

between 2005 and 2015, more than 600,000 maternal related 

h occurred in the country, while there was more than 900,000 near miss death within this 

13 per cent of global child death under the ages of 5 and one-

per cent of the nation's 

population have malaria. All these are attributed to the state of the nation's health system. 

The country's healthcare system is an eyesore, statistic revealed that more than 200,000 

visit India every year for medical emergencies (Tumba, 2019). In the National budget 

budget allocation is allocated to the healthcare system. A 

gerian for the year when the 

current population of 200 million is considered (Aworinde, 2020; Tumba, 2020). The health 

sector is bridled with corruption, lack of equipment, poor health infrastructure and there is hardly 

2019). 

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 Nigeria's agriculture sector which was the main source of income before the discovery of oil has 

been neglected. Nigerian, which use to be known as the food basket of West Africa is now a net 

exporter of agriculture products such as sugar, fish and even toothpick (Inegbedion, Obadiaru, 

Obasaju, Asaleye, & Lawal, 2018; Omang, Liu, & Eneji, 2013: Ofem& Omang, 2018; Omang, 

Liu, Eneji, & Eneji, 2012;Iji, Ojong & Angioha, 2018; Angioha, Nwagboso, Ironbar, & Ishie, 

2018). The level of public infrastructure in rural areas in the country is very poor. There is lack 

of any good road network and this is has caused high transportation fares to, reduced the chances 

of having adequate access to input and access to the local market to sell their agricultural 

products, as well as assess other social infrastructures such as education and healthcare (Omang, 

Liu, wang, Eneji, Makundi & Eneji, 2011). Other social infrastructures such as constant power 

supply, good drinking water are lacking, especially in rural areas. 

 Though considerable attention has been paid to the level of underdevelopment of Nigeria 

over the past two decades, National Studies such as the various surveys by the National Bureau 

of Statistics and other international and local agencies have looked at the level of 

underdevelopment. There is a dearth in studies that looked at Nigeria's under development at the 

Household level or local level, hence an empirical gap. This study examines the extent of 

underdevelopment at the centrifugal level. 

 

Methodology 

Settings 
 Bekwara the study setting is one of the 18 local Governmental Areasin Cross River State, 

Nigeria. Covering a land area of 304.30 square kilometres and a population of 105,822, 

according to the 2006 National Population Commission Census (NPC, 2006), the local 

government area lies at the North-Eastern part of the state. It is bounded to the North by 

Vandikiya in Benue State, to the East, by Obudu Local Government Area, Ogoja to the South 

and Yala local Government area to West. Bekwara local government is divided into sixteen 

clans, made up of two Ethnic groups, Bekwara and Afrike, with Bekwara the dominant ethnic 

group making up more than 70 per cent of the Local Government Area (Ochiche, Ajake& 

Okpilia, 2013). Politically, the study area is divided into ten political wards, with headquarters at 

Abuochiche. The major economic activity of the area is agriculture, which as a rural Area 

engages more than 85 per cent of its population. The area like other rural areas in Nigeria lacks 

major infrastructural facilities. 

Study Method 
 The descriptive quantitative research method was adopted for the study. the method allowed the 

researcher to descriptively analyze data collected from the field using a survey instrument 

(Angioha, Enukoha, Agba & Ikhizamah, 2020). The method allows the researcher to 

systematically and accurately describe an issue or situation using data collected with the aid of a 

survey instrument. A self-developed questionnaire was used to collect the needed data for the 

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study. the instrument was semi-structured, designed to elicit household information on the extent 

of centrifugal underdevelopment in Bekwara.  

Participants 

 384 household was randomly selected from this study. the number of households used 

was arrived at using the survey monkey sample size determinant technique at 95 per cent 

confidence level and a margin of error of 5 per cent. The households were selected using the 

stratified, purposive and random sampling technique. Bekwara was stratified into ten strata, 

according to the wards that make up the Local Government Area. From the wards, six political 

wards were selected using the purposive sample technique. the wards were selected because of 

easy access and terrain. From the selected wards, 64 households were randomly selected.  

Ethical Consideration 

 The relevant ethical clearance that allows the research to be carried out in Bekwara was 

obtained. A written letter of approval was sent to the office of the National population 

commission for approval for the research to be carried out. The researcher also attached a written 

consent note to the research instrument in addition to the verbal consent was obtained from the 

participants of the study. all researcher ethics required for successful research was followed. 

Data Collection and Analysis 

 Data collection was a two months process, with the aid of five research assistants who 

were trained on the ethics and process of distribution and collection of survey instruments in the 

field. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data collected from the field. This includes 

the use of tables, frequencies, counts, percentages and graphical illustration 

Findings and Discussion 
Findings 

 Data collected for this study was to analyze those centrifugal factors influencing the 

underdevelopment of Bekwara Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. Data 

collected was to analyze those internal factors (Centrifugal) contributing to the under-

development variables such as corruption, household income, family size, healthcare of the study 

area. The results were analyzed descriptively. 

 Household demographic data were analysed using frequency distribution, simple 

percentage and table. Data on the distribution of household according to family size, 25.52 per 

cent (98) of the households studied was made up of between 1 and 4 members, 56.51 per cent 

(217) pf the household had between 4 and 7 members, 9.90 per cent (38) of the household had 

between 8 and 11 members and 8.07 per cent (31) of the household had between 12 and above 

members. The distribution of households according to the number of children revealed that, out 

of the 384 households surveyed, 48.70 per cent (187) of the households have between 1 and 3 

children, 41.41 per cent (159) have between 4 and 6 children, 5.21 per cent (20) of the 

households have 6 and above children and 0.26 per cent (1) of the household have just one child. 

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The distribution of households according to the level of income revealed that 25.52 per cent (98) 

of the households make a maximum of 10,000 naira monthly, 45.83 per cent (176) of the 

household surveyed make between 10,001 and 40,000 Nigerian Naira monthly, 18.75 per cent 

(72) of the households survey make between 40,001 and 70,000 naira monthly and 9.90 per cent 

(38) of the household surveyed make 70,0001 naira and above. The distribution of households 

according to the occupation of the household head revealed that 13.80 per cent (54) of the 

household heads are civil servants, 55.47 per cent (213) of the household heads are farmers, 

17.45 per cent (67) of the household heads are traders, 8.33 per cent (32) are employed in the 

public sector and 7.29 per cent (28) are unemployed. 

Table 1: Household Demographic data’ demographic data  
Variable  Category  N  Per cent (%) 
Household Size Less than 4 98 25.52 
 4 to 7 217 56.51 
 8 to 11 38 9.90 
 12 and above 31 8.07 
 Total  384 100 
Number of Children 1-3 187 48.70 
 4 - 6 159 41.41 
 6 and above 20 5.21 
 None 1 0.26 
 total 384 100 
Level of income of the 
household 

Less than 10,000 (#) 98 25.52 

 10,001 (#) and 40,000 (#) 176 45.83 
 40,001 (#) to 70,000 (3) 72 18.75 
 70,000 (#) and above 38 9.90 
 Total  384 100 
Occupation of the 
household head 

Civil servant 54 13.80 

 Farmer 213 55.47 
 Trader 67 17.45 
 Public sector 32 8.33 
 Unemployed  28 7.29 
 Total 384 100 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Level of Poverty 

Table 2 
Response on Household Type 
S/N Item Mud Bricked  Moulded 

block 
Wooden  

1 House type 113 - 265 (69.01%) 6 (1.56%) 

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Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

graphical Illustration of Participants Household Type
Source: Field survey, 2020 

Table 3 
Response on Household Roofing Type
S/N Item 

2 Roofing type 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

graphical Illustration of Participants 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

Table 4 
Response on How household built

500

Mud

(29.43%) 

 
Figure 1:  

graphical Illustration of Participants Household Type 

Roofing Type 
Thatched  Aluminium

28 (7.29%) 353 (91.92%)

 
Figure 2:  

graphical Illustration of Participants Roofing Type 

 

builttheir houses 

Mud

Molded block

0

500

House type

113 0

265
6

paRticipants household type

Mud Bricked Molded block Wooden

28

353

30

Roofing type

Thatched

Aluminum

Stone coated 

Aluminium Stone-
coated 

(91.92%) 3 (0.78%) 

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S/N Item Savings Mortgage  Bank 
loan 

Employee 
loan 

Community 
effort 

inheritance 

3 How did you 
build your house 

152 
(39.58%) 

- 3 
(0.78%) 

28 
(7.29%) 

68(17.71%) 133 (34%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Figure 3:  
graphical Illustration of How household built their houses 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

Table 4 

Response to poverty level 

S/N item Yes  No Not sure 
4 The family depends on the income of the 

breadwinner 
224 
(58.33%) 

160 
(41.64%) 

- 

5 The income of the household is enough for the 
wellbeing of the family 

5 
(1.30%) 

371 
(96.61%) 

13 (3.39%) 

6 My household afford the necessities of life 7 
(1.82%) 

373 
(97.13%) 

4  
(1.04%) 

7 My household affords three square meal a day 89 
(23.18%) 

249 
(64.84%) 

46 
(11.98%) 

8 All Children in my household attend school or are 
educated 

247 
(64.32%) 

137 (35.68) 0 

9 The children in the household attend public schools 367 
(95.57%) 

17 (4.43%) 0 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

152
0
3

28
68

113

0 50 100 150 200

Savings

Employee loan

How did you build your house

How did you build your 
house

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graphical Illustration of 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

 Data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that 

the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 

(1.56%) households reported wooden house. On Roofing type; 28 (7.29%) house

thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how 

household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 

(0.78%) households reported bank loans, 28 (7.29%) reported employe

reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. On the family depends on the 

income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported No. On The 

income of the household is enough for the wellbeing of th

reported Yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported No and 13 (3.39%) reported Not Sure. On my 

household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported Yes, 373 (97.13%) 

reported No and 4 (1.04%) reported Not Sure. 

89 (23.18%) households reported Yes, 249 (64.84%) reported No and 46 (11.98%) reported Not 

Sure. On All Children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households 

reported Yes and137 (35.68) reported No. On the children in the household attend public 

schools; 367 (95.57%) households reported Yes and 17 (4.43%).

 

 

 

The family depends on the income of the 

The income of the household is enough 

My household afford the necessities of life

My household affords three square meal 

All Children in my household attend 

The children in the household attend 

A
xi

s 
Ti

tl
e

Figure 4:  
graphical Illustration of How household built their houses 

Data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that 

the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 

(1.56%) households reported wooden house. On Roofing type; 28 (7.29%) house

thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how 

household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 

(0.78%) households reported bank loans, 28 (7.29%) reported employee loans, 68(17.71%) 

reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. On the family depends on the 

income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported No. On The 

income of the household is enough for the wellbeing of the family; 5 (1.30%) households 

reported Yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported No and 13 (3.39%) reported Not Sure. On my 

household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported Yes, 373 (97.13%) 

reported No and 4 (1.04%) reported Not Sure. On my household affords three square meal a day; 

89 (23.18%) households reported Yes, 249 (64.84%) reported No and 46 (11.98%) reported Not 

Sure. On All Children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households 

.68) reported No. On the children in the household attend public 

schools; 367 (95.57%) households reported Yes and 17 (4.43%). 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

The family depends on the income of the …

The income of the household is enough …

My household afford the necessities of life

My household affords three square meal …

All Children in my household attend …

The children in the household attend …

224

5

7

89

247

367

160

249

137

17

0

13

4

46

0

0

Axis Title

Response on poveRty level

Not Sure No yes

 

Data analyzed showed household response pattern as follows; on the kind of house that 

the participants live in, 113 (29.43%) reported mud, 265 (69.01%) reported moulded block and 6 

(1.56%) households reported wooden house. On Roofing type; 28 (7.29%) households reported 

thatched, 353 (91.92%) reported aluminium and 3 (0.78%) reported stone coated. on how 

household built their houses: 152 (39.58%) households reported and d through savings, 3 

e loans, 68(17.71%) 

reported community efforts and 133 (34%) reported inheritance. On the family depends on the 

income of the breadwinner; 224 (58.33%) reported yes, 160 (41.64%) reported No. On The 

e family; 5 (1.30%) households 

reported Yes, 371 (96.61%) households reported No and 13 (3.39%) reported Not Sure. On my 

household afford the necessities of life; 7 (1.82%) households reported Yes, 373 (97.13%) 

On my household affords three square meal a day; 

89 (23.18%) households reported Yes, 249 (64.84%) reported No and 46 (11.98%) reported Not 

Sure. On All Children in my household attend school or are educated; 247 (64.32%) households 

.68) reported No. On the children in the household attend public 

400

367

371

373

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Level of Access to Healthcare 

Table 5 
Response on Type of health facility 
S/N item 

1 Type of health facility in 
your community 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

graphical Illustration of 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Table 6 
Response on Distance of health facility to you home
S/N item A 

walking 
distance

2 The distance of 
health facility to 
you home 

75 
(19.53%)

Source: Field survey, 2020 

Health post

health center

Secondary health facilities

Tertiary health facilities

Type of health facility in your 

Type of health facility in the community  
Health 
post 

health 
centre 

Secondary 
health 
facilities 

Tertiary 
health 
facilities

Type of health facility in 134 
(34.90) 

147 
(38.28) 

61 (15.89) - 

 

Figure 5:  
graphical Illustration of Type of health facility in the community

Distance of health facility to you home 

walking 
distance 

Not up to 
two 
kilometres 
away  

3 to 5 
kilometres 
away 

Local 
Government 
headquarters

(19.53%) 
148 
(38.54%) 

126 (32.81%) 35 (9.11%)

0 50 100 150

Health post

health center

Secondary health facilities

Tertiary health facilities

none

Type of health facility in your 
community

Tertiary 
health 
facilities 

none 

 60 
(15.63) 

 

the community 

Government 
headquarters 

Another local 
government 
Area 

35 (9.11%) - 

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Figure 6 
graphical Illustration of Distance of health facility to you home 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 
Table 7 
Response on treating a household member 
S/N Item Visit the 

hospital 
use mostly 
tradition 
remedy 

Buy over the counter 
unprescribed drugs or 
self-medicate 

3 When a member of the household is 
sick, how do you treat the  

91 (23.70%) 138 (35.94%) 155 (40.36%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 
 

Figure 7 
graphical Illustration of treating a household member 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

A walking distance

Not up to two kilometers away 

3 to 5 kilometers away

Local Government head quarters

Another local government Area

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Distance of health facility to you home

Distance of health facility to you home

91

138

155

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Visit the hospital

use mostly tradition remedy

Buy over the counter unprescribed …

when a membeR oF the household is sick, how do you 

tReat the 

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Table 8 

Response on reasons for not using healthcare facilities 

S/N item Hospitals 
are too 

expensive 

No 
money 

Don’t 
trust the 
hospital 

Hospital 
is too far 

4 For families who do not use the hospital, 
why 

89 (30.38%) 95 
(32.42%) 

55 
(18.77%) 

54 
(18.43%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Figure 8 
graphical Illustration of reasons for not using healthcare facilities 

Source: Field survey, 2020 
 

Table 9 
Response to health 
S/N Item True Not True uncertain 
5 People do not have easy access to medical care in my 

community 
192 
(50.00%) 

123 
(32.03%) 

68 
(17.71%) 

6 The health centre in my community do not have the 
facilities to treat ill people 

362 
(94.27%) 

18 
(4.69%) 

4 (1.04%) 

7 There are no enough medical workers 371 
(96.61%) 

13 
(3.39%) 

- 

8 The medical workers are not well trained 357 
(92.97%) 

16 
(4.17%) 

11 
(2.86%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

89
95

55 54

0

20

40

60

80

100

Hospitals are 
too expensive

No money Don’t trust the 
hospital

Hospital is too 
far

FoR Families who do not use hospital, why

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Figure 9 
graphical Illustration of Response to Access to Healthcare 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

Data analyzed on access to healthcare showed household response pattern as follows; on 

the Type of health facility in your community; 134 (34.90) reported Health post, 147 (38.28) 

reported health centre, 61 (15.89) households reported Secondary health facilities and 60 (15.63) 

reported that there was no health care facility in their community. On the distance of health 

facility to you home; 75 (19.53%) households reported A walking distance, 148 (38.54%) 

reported Not up to two kilometres, 126 (32.81%) household reported 3 to 5 kilometres away and 

35 (9.11%) reported Local Government headquarters. on When a member of the household is 

sick, how do you treat the: 91 (23.70%) households reported Visit the hospital, 138 (35.94%) 

household reported using mostly tradition remedy and 155 (40.36%) reported buy over the 

counter unprescribed drugs or self-medicate.  On For families who do not use the hospital, why; 

89 (30.38%) household reported hospitals are too expensive, 95 (32.42%) reported No money, 

55 (18.77%) household reported don't trust the hospital and 54 (18.43%) households reported the 

hospitals are too far. On People do not have easy access to medical care in my community; 192 

(50.00%) households reported true, 123 (32.03%) households reported not true and 68 (17.71%) 

reported uncertain. On The health centre in my community do not have the facilities to treat ill 

people; 362 (94.27%) households reported True, 18 (4.69%) reported not true and 4 (1.04%) 

reported uncertain. On my household affords three square meal a day; 89 (23.18%) households 

reported Yes, 249 (64.84%) reported No and 46 (11.98%) reported Not Sure. On there are not 

enough medical workers; 371 (96.61%) households reported True and 13 (3.39%) reported not 

true. On the medical workers are not well trained; 357 (92.97%) households reported true, 16 

(4.17%) household reported not true and 11 (2.86%) reported uncertain 

 

192
123

68

362

18 4

371

13

357

16 11

0

100

200

300

400

TRUE NOT TRUE UNCERTAIN

A
xi

s 
Ti

tl
e

Axis Title

Response on healthcaRe

People do not have easy access to medical care in my community

The health center in my community do not have the facilities to treat ill people

There are no enough medical workers

The medical workers are not well trained

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Infrastructural facilities 

Table 10 

Response on Infrastructural facilities 

S/N item Yes No Uncertain 
1 My community has electricity 384 

(100.00%) 
- - 

2 Each community have an electricity 
transformer 

- 384 (100.00%) - 

3 The electricity is constant and stable - 384 (384.00%) - 
4 The community has portable and safe 

drinking water 
222 
(57.81%) 

136 (35.42%) 25 (6.51%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Figure 10 
graphical Illustration of Response on infrastructural facilities 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

Table 11 
Response on Source of drinking water 
S/N Item Village 

stream 
Government 
built 
borehole 

Borehole at 
my house 

Buy drinking 
water 

5 Source of drinking water for 
the household 

127 
(33.07%) 

73 (19.01%) 62 
(16.15%) 

121 (31.51%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

0

100

200

300

400

500

Yes No Uncertain

Response on inFRastRuctuRal Facilities

My community has electricity

Each community have electricity transformer

The electricity is constant and stable

The community has portable and safe drinking water

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Figure 11 

graphical Illustration of Response on Source of drinking water 
Source: Field survey, 2020 

Table 12 
Response on infrastructural facilities 
S/N Item Yes No Not sure 
6 The good road leading to my family home 87 

(22.66%) 
297 
(77.34%) 

 

7 Motorable roads in the community 65 
(16.93%) 

319 
(83.07%) 

 

8 My community have good mobile 
technology network 

132 
(34.38%) 

202 
(52.60%) 

50 (13.02%) 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

 

Figure 12 
graphical Illustration of Response on infrastructural facilities 

Source: Field survey, 2020 

127

7362

121

0

Source of drinking water for the 
household

Village stream Government built borehole

Borehole in my house Buy drinking water

87

65

132

297

319

202

0

0

50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Good road leading to my family home

Motorable roads in the community

My community sound mobile 
technology network

Chart Title

Not Sure No Yes

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Data analyzed on access to on infrastructural facilities showed household response pattern as 

follows; on My community has electricity; 134 (34.90) reported My community has electricity.  On each 

community have electricity transformer; 384 (100.00%) households reported No. on the electricity is 

constant and stable: 384 (384.00%) households reportedNo. On the community has portable and safe 

drinking water; 222 (57.81%) household reported Yes, 136 (35.42%) household reported No and (25 

(6.51%) household reported uncertain. On the Source of drinking water for the household; 127 (33.07%) 

households reported Village stream, 73 (19.01%) households reported Government built borehole, 62 

(16.15%) household reported Borehole in my house and 121 (31.51%) reported buying drinking 

water. On Good road leading to my family home; 87 (22.66%) households reported Yes, 297 

(77.34%) reported No. On Motorable roads in the community; 65 (16.93%) households reported 

Yes, 319 (83.07%) reported no. On my community have good mobile technology network; 132 

(34.38%) household reported yes, 202 (52.60%) household reported No and 50 (13.02%) 

household reported Not Sure. 

Discussion of Findings 

Data for this study were analyzed using descriptive analysis. Underdevelopment which is 

the main issue understudy was checked using three main variables. Household poverty level, 

access to Healthcare and infrastructural facilities. The analysis was done using frequency 

distribution, tables, simple percentages and graphical illustration.  

Level of Poverty 

The result from the descriptive analyses revealed that 75. 35 per cent of the household in 

Bekwara earn a maximum of 40,000 naira monthly. Also, it was discovered that 55.47 per cent 

of the household surveyed. Head were farmers, 17.45 per cent were traders, while the rest were 

either civil servants, working in the private sector or are unemployed. This is true because 

Bekwara Local Government Area is a rural community. Most of its inhabitants engage in mostly 

subsistent agriculture for survival. There are hardly any industries in the area, with the little 

small-scale businesses existing belonging to the government or a very privileged few. In this area 

farm activities and the non-farm activities are complimentary. For example, most rural people in 

the areas buy lands for agriculture. The World Bank (2014) asserts that in Nigeria, the 

agricultural sector employs 60 per cent of the rural population.   

The analyzed result revealed that most of the household, 73.58 per cent built their house 

either through savings or inheritance. 58.33 per cent of the households surveyed point out theta 

the household depends on the income generated by the breadwinner of the households alone and 

96.61 per cent of the households' survey reported that income generated by the household head is 

not enough to take care of the household. 97.13 per cent of the surveyed household reported that 

they can hardly afford the most basic necessities. 64.84 per cent of the household surveyed 

reported difficulty in feeding properly. Result also revealed that most of the children in the 

household survey attend public schools that the learning environment is inadequate, with poor 

teaching staff and inadequate teaching equipment. This finding is supported by the work of the 

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World Bank (1996), who describes the poverty situation in Nigeria as a paradox. Omonona 

(2017), who asserts that 54.4 per cent of Nigerians in rural areas are poor. 

Level of Access to Healthcare 

Result from the analysis of data on the level of access to healthcare, result revealed that 

most of the study area does not have well-equipped healthcare facility. This is according to the 

response of the participants who reported that their communities only have health post or health 

centres (73.18 per cent) and 16.63 reported that their community did not have any. Result also 

showed 71.35 per cent of the participants revealed that the closest health centre to their 

community as 2 to 5 kilometres away. Findings also revealed that most of the participants, 76.3 

per cent of the participants use over the counter drugs or use traditional remedies when a member 

of the household is sick, while only 23.70 per cent use health facilities. The reasons for this is 

according to the response of 62.8 participants are lack of financial resource for visiting the 

hospital and being poor.  

The result from the analysis of data also revealed that most respondents (50.00 per cent) 

feel that the government does not make healthcare accessible to them. Most of the participants, 

94.27 per cent also feel that the health centres in the communities are ill-equipped and that there 

are not enough well-trained medical workers. The works of Titus, Adebisola and Adeniji(2015) 

supports the findings of this work. They assessed healthcare and utilization in rural areas in 

southern Nigeria. The result from the analysis of data revealed that Most of the respondents 

(40.5%) travel a distance of 5-9 km before accessing health care facilities. Accessibility indices 

reveal unequal access to modern health facilities in the study area. 

Availability of infrastructure 

From the analysis of data, result revealed that most of the communities’ studied 

electricity connection, butall the participants reported that not all communities have electricity 

transformers that supply power to each community. All the participant, 100.00 per cent reported 

that there is no constant supply of electricity in the study area. 57.81 per cent of the participant 

reported that they do not have portable drinking water. 33.07 per cent of the participants reported 

that they get their drinking water from the stream, 31.51 per cent reported that they buy water to 

drink, 19.01 per cent get their drinking water from a government built borehole, while 16.15 per 

cent get drinking water from a borehole in their home. 

Most of the participants, 77.34 per cent reported that there are no good roads in their 

community and that mobile network connectivity is very poor. Gaal and Afrah (2017) reported 

that most people in rural community are poor and live in areas where public infrastructure 

especially roadsseems low. The inadequate roads and poor road access put high cost of 

transportation; reduce the ability to use access high-quality inputs; limit the uses of local markets 

to the sales of their products, the purchase of consumer goods and opportunities for off-farm 

employment. 

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Conclusion and Policy Implication 

This study has descriptively revealed the extent of centrifugal household poverty in 

Bekwara, Cross River State, Nigeria. Hence, there is need for government at both local, state and 

federal level to formulate an all-inclusive policy that will help developed Bekwara and other 

rural areas in the state and the country. The government and other financial institutions should 

provide low-interest loan for the rural people that will help them expand their farm holding or 

start a business. The federal government need to increase the budget allocation to the health 

sector, increase the number healthcare centres in rural areas and well as send well equipped and 

trained, medical personnel to rural areas  plan More infrastructural facilities should also be 

providedfor the rural people especially in terms of good road, electricity, and storage facilities 

etc., all these will contribute to their development 

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