



































 

 

A Critical Appraisal of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 

Chukwu C. James 
Department of History and International Studies 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria. 
Email: jimco4real@gmail.com, Tel: 07069408307 

 

Abstract 

This work focused ona critical appraisal of nuclear non Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Nuclear 

weapons proliferation is of major concern to the international community. As such many 

observers believe that the issue of nuclear proliferation is likely to be one of the most important 

issues facing the world today and it is also likely that nuclear proliferation is likely going to be 

the one issue to face the world for many years to come. Aside terrorism, nuclear proliferation is 

probably the single biggest political issue in the world today. This paper examined the workings 

of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT).The work also Focus on the structural operations 

and the need for the strict adherence by all countries to its provisions and the articles of the 

treaty is also mentioned. The paper, thus, argues that the NPT, notwithstanding its global 

acceptability and compliance has some loopholes which are exploited by some countries. Also 

some countries are very reluctant in disarming or eliminating their stockpiles of nuclear 

weapons.It makes use of secondary sources due to the dearth of primarymaterials. 

Keywords: Critical, Appraisal,Nuclear, Non-Proliferation, Treaty. 

 

Introduction 

In the years immediately after 1945, the United States together with two of her wartime allies, 

the United Kingdom and Canada, began efforts at banning the use of nuclear bombs. They also 

had early ideas about curtailing the spread of such weapons. As such they tried to limit the use 

and spread of the technology used in making nuclear bombs by keeping it as a secret to 

themselves. Also the growing hostilities and tensions between the United States andUnion of 

Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) over territorial ambitions in Europe as well as “Sphere of 

influence” sort of convinced the US government to keep such bombs in case if the Russians (The 

USSR) tried to push their luck too far. This was meant to be used as leverage for dealing with the 

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Russians. In 1949, Russia developed and tested its own nuclear bomb, thus bringing them at par 

with the US. This development came as a rude shock not just to the US but the world as a whole. 

Thus the era of mutual hostilities and tensions between east and west came to be perpetuated and 

termed “cold war”. With Russia having tested its own nuclear bomb, the era of nuclear 

proliferations was born. 

Early efforts at a worldwide non-proliferation drive started in 1953 with the atom for peace 

programme. But it was not until in 1957, when, in order to forestall the proliferation of nuclear 

weapons technology by too many states, the United States. Russia (The Soviet Union) and 22 

other countries which possessed nuclear energy as well as the technology signed and ratified the 

statute which created the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on July 27th of that year. 

The Agency was the direct result of US president Dwight Eisenhower’s dramatic proposals of 

December 8, 1953 when he made his famous “Atoms for peace” speech that year. But its 

objectives, after 3 years of negotiation were somewhat more modestly phrased than the 

president’s original objective.1 With this Agency created, it had as its primary objective, the 

prevention of nuclear weapons proliferation by safeguarding fissile radioactive material as well 

as inspecting nuclear installations. This it did in a bid to forestall proliferation by seeing to it that 

fissile material and isotopes were not diverted for weapons making. In order to do this 

effectively, it had to be backed legally, not just with the consent of member countries. Thus came 

the nuclear non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) which provided legal backing for the IAEA to carry 

out its activities. 

Both the IAEA and the NPT were meant to start and carry out a regime of non-proliferation and 

both were primary the ideas of the US, which was seriously seeking a way to prevent other 

countries, especially third world developing countries form either acquiring the bomb or the 

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technology to make one. It is difficult and debatable also, to understand precisely why the Soviet 

Union, after subsequent bilateral exchange of notes, the UN General Assembly discussion and 

the multi-state meetings and conferences, eventually decided to participate in the creation of the 

Agency.2 The determination of the US to create the IAEA with or without the Soviet Union and 

to proceed on parallel front with bilateral agreements, almost surely persuaded the Soviet Union 

that she could further her interest more effectively inside the organisation than outside.3 

Against this backdrop, EL Baradei sees four critical areas or aspect of non-proliferation regime 

that must be strengthened. These are: firstly, the development of a more effective approach for 

dealing with proliferation threats; secondly securing existing nuclear materials stockpiles and 

tighten controls over transfers and production of nuclear material; thirdly, strengthening the 

verification authority and capability of the IAEA and fourthly, the need to find a way for 

disarmament to be given the prominence and priority it deserves.4 

David B. Walter in his article entitled ‘Managing the nuclear dilemma sees nuclear technology as 

a dilemma which countries are faced with. To him, the pressing issue is how to further develop 

and promote peaceful application of nuclear technology while at the same time prevent the 

spread of weapons technology. This is the current nuclear dilemma. He sees the IAEA as an 

organisation central to a global nuclear enterprise.5 Tariq Rauf in his article “The Long Road to a 

Nukes-free world”, views the NPT as the best option in preventing proliferation. Although the 

IAEA is not a party to the NPT, it is entrusted with key roles and responsibilities under it.6 

Fischer in his article on “Nuclear safeguards Evaluation and the future”, provides an insightful 

overview of international nuclear safeguards. In it, Fischer focuses on the steps to strengthen the 

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global nuclear verification regime. To him, safeguards aim to verify that nuclear material and 

technology are only used for peaceful purposes.7 

It is important to mention at this juncture that with the creation of the IAEA, the first step at 

curtailing nuclear proliferation was taken. With the signing and ratification of the NPT treaty, 

began the non-proliferation regime as seen in the world today. 

The paper is divided into seven parts. The first part is introduction.  This is followed by the 

conceptual clarification of some words used in the work that may look ambiguous to the reader. 

The third section deals with the theoretical framework on which the work derives its analysis. 

This is followed by an analysis of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. The fifth part discusses 

pillars of the treaty. The sixth part highlights the major articles of the treaty. The penultimate 

section looks at the merits of the NPT treaty. The last part is the conclusion. The argument tends 

to suggest that nuclear non-proliferation treaty has achieved a lot in the fight against nuclear 

proliferation. The NPT is the most widely adhered to treaty in the world and this is significant 

because countries are bound by its provisions and thus are barred from manufacturing or 

acquiring nuclear weapons. However, the existence of the NPT notwithstanding, the world has 

continued to witness the quest by some countries to acquire nuclear weapons despite its 

prohibition costs as well as the catastrophic consequences of its utilisation. 

Conceptual Clarification 

This work has some terms which, for some, are scientific in nature and definition. But they could 

be applied in politics. Some of such terms have now come to take up political meaning and 

interpretations. Some of such terms are: 

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Nuclear proliferation – Is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile 

material and weapons – applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not 

recognised as nuclear weapon states by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).8 

Radioactive Isotope – These are atoms of an element which have the same proton (atomic 

number) but different nuclear (mass) number. In this case their nucleons or atoms are unstable.9 

Radioactivity – This is the phenomenon characterised by the spontaneous emission of radiation 

from a substance, in this case an element.10 

Nuclear Energy – This is the energy released when a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay 

occurs. It is characterised by large amounts of energy and heat.11 

Nuclear Fission – is the process in which a nuclear bombardment of a nucleus of a heavy 

nuclide by particles such as neutrons results in the splitting of the nucleus into two smaller nuclei 

with a release of huge amounts of energy.12 

Nuclear Fusion – is the process in which light nuclides combine to give heavier nuclides. Mass 

is lost in the process and large amounts of energy is released.13 

Highly Enriched Uranium – This is a form of the element called uranium. In this case an 

isotope of the uranium atom (Uranium 235) has been enriched. Highly enriched uranium is 

uranium in which one type of unstable uranium atom, an isotope known as uranium 235 has been 

artificially concentrated.14 

Nuclear Safeguard – This is a set of instrument which the IAEA uses in order to contain the 

spread of nuclear weapons proliferation and ensure that countries do not expose nuclear 

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installations to great risk. They are essentially arrangement to account for and control the use of 

nuclear material. 

Theoretical Framework 

The theoretical conception of this work is based on the system theory. System theory basically is 

a theory in which the world or international community is seen as a system.15 According to 

Joshua Goldstein, one of the proponents of this theory views the world as an international system 

based on a set of relationships among the world’s states, structured according to certain rules and 

patterns of interactions. Some of such rules are explicit, some implicit. They include who is a 

member of the system, what rights and responsibilities the members have and what kind of 

actions and responses normally occur between states.16 Going by this view of the world as an 

international system, then theoretically, this system is divided into sub-system. Each sub-system 

makes up the complete international system. These subsystems are represented by actors, in this 

case nation state actors while an international organization, in this case International Atomic 

Energy Agency (IAEA) represents the main system.17 

In system theory, any problem or defect in the sub-system affects the rest of the system as a 

whole. The nation state actors are members of the IAEA and have decided collectively to abide 

by its statute in order to protect global security. Going by this analogy of the IAEA being the 

system or the representatives of their own individual or regional systems, therefore, any problem 

or potential problem within the various sub-systems would inadvertently affect the general 

system. The IAEA is an international organization made of states that are member of it. The 

IAEA of the representative of the international system tries to forestall any problem or 

breakdown of global security by preventing states, both members and non-members states of the 

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IAEA from proliferating nuclear weapon, then it becomes a problem which will affect the 

international security (in this case the IAEA) as it would lead to political and military tensions 

which ultimately, would lead to a breakdown of global peace and security. The IAEA thus tries 

to uphold the values of the international system through its functions. It also tries to uphold 

peace and security in the international system. 

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT is an international treaty to limit the spread of 

nuclear weapons. The treaty was opened for signing on July 1st, 1968. There are currently 189 

states that are party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons. The five nuclear weapons 

states are the United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia and China. Only four countries are 

not yet signatories to the treaty and they are India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea. India and 

Pakistan both possess and have openly tested nuclear bombs. Israel has a policy of opacity 

regarding its own nuclear weapons while North Korea ratified the treaty, violated it and later 

withdraw from the treaty. 

The impetus behind the NPT was the growing concer4n for the safety of a world with many 

nuclear weapon states. It was recognised that the Cold War deterrent relationship between just 

the United States and the then Soviet Union was fragile. More nuclear players reduced security 

for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accident or unauthorised use or through the 

escalation of a small nuclear conflict.18 

The treaty was proposed by Ireland and was opened for signature in 1968. Finland was the first 

country to sign it. The treaty came into force in 1970. By 1992, all five then declared nuclear 

powers had signed the treaty. The treaty was renewed in 1995 followed by the (Comprehensive 

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Test Ban Treaty in 1996). Several NPT signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear 

weapons programmes.19 Among such countries was South Africa which undertook a nuclear 

weapons programme, allegedly with the assistance of Israel signed the treaty in 1991, after 

completely destroyed its small nuclear arsenal. Other states which have since renounced their 

nuclear programmes include Libya, Brazil, Argentina, Sweden and Former Soviet Republics. 

Pillars of the Treaty 

Although, the NPT itself does not make any mention of pillars. However the treaty is divided 

into 3 parts which many scholars have referred to as its pillars. 

The first pillar of the treaty deals with non-proliferation. Under the treaty, five states are 

recognised as Nuclear Weapons States or NWS. These states are: France (signed in the treaty in 

1992), China (signed in 1992), the Soviet Union (signed in 1968 but its obligations and rights are 

now assumed by Russia), the United Kingdom (signed in 1968) and the United States (signed in 

1968). The US, UK and the Soviet Union were the only states openly possessing such weapons 

among the original rectifiers of the treaty, which entered into force in 1970. These 5 nations are 

also the 5 permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These 5 countries or 

Nuclear Weapons states agree not to transfer “nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive 

devices and not in any way assist, encourage or induce” a Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) 

to acquire nuclear weapons (Article 1). 20 

Non-nuclear weapon states parties to the NPT agree not to “receive, manufacture or acquire” 

nuclear weapons or to “seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons” 

(Article II).21 Non-nuclear weapon states also agree to accept safeguards by the International 

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Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to 

nuclear weapons or other explosive devices. 

The five nuclear weapons states (NWS) parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear 

weapons against a non-nuclear weapon state 9NNWS) party except in response to a nuclear 

attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a nuclear weapon state. However, these 

undertakings have not been formally incorporated onto the treaty. 

The second pillar of the NPT deals with disarmament. The NPT’s preamble contains language 

affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthening 

international trust so as to create someday, the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear 

weapons and in general, complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular nuclear weapons and 

their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The NPT’s article VI elaborates on the preambles 

language, urging all state parties to the NPT, both nuclear weapon states and non-nuclear 

weapons states, “to pursue negotiations in good faith on effectively measure relating to cessation 

of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament and in general, the complete 

disarmament under strict and effective international control.22 

The third pillar of the treaty focuses on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Since very few of the 

nuclear weapons states and states using nuclear reactors for energy generation are willing to 

completely abandon possession of nuclear fuel, the third pillar of the NPT under Article IV 

provides other states with the possibility to do the same, but under conditions intended to make it 

difficult to develop nuclear weapons. The treaty, under this pillar, recognises the inalienable right 

of sovereign states to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but it restricts this right for NPT 

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parties to be exercised “in conformity with Article I and II”, both of which deals with non-

proliferation obligations.23 

Major Articles of the Treaty 

The nuclear non-proliferation treaty has 12 articles. But for the purpose of space, only the six 

most important articles are listed and briefly summarised. 

Article I: Each nuclear weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer to any recipient, nuclear 

weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state 

(NNWS) to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices.24 

Article II: Each non-nuclear weapon state party undertakes not to receive from any source, 

nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, not to manufacture or acquire such 

weapons or devices and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. 

Article III: Each non-nuclear weapons state party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the 

IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear materials in all of the state’s peaceful 

nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear 

explosive devices. 

Article IV: 1. nothing in this treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all 

parties to the treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful 

purposes without discrimination and conformity with Article I and II of this treaty. 

2. All the parties to the treaty undertake to facilitate and have the right to participate in the fullest 

possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the 

peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in 

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contributing alone or together with other states or international organisations to the further 

development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the 

territories of non-nuclear weapon states party to the treaty, with due consideration for the needs 

of the developing areas of the world. 

Article VI: States undertakes to pursue “negotiations in good faith on effective measures to or 

relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament and 

towards a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international 

control”. 

Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months’ notice. It also 

establishes the duration of the treaty (which lasts for 25 years before it was extended indefinitely 

at the 1995 treaty extension initiative).25 

These are the major articles which define and explain the treaty in derail. They are only 

summarised here. 

Merits of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 

The nuclear non-proliferation treaty has achieved some success in its over 50 years history. For 

one, the treaty is the most widely accepted and widely adhered to treaty in the world with 189 

countries being signatories to the treaty. This is in fact almost all the sovereign independent 

countries of the world. Although 3 countries: India, Pakistan and Israel are only non-signatories, 

it nevertheless enjoys wide popular support and is a significant achievement. 

Another of the treaty’s merits is that it encourages the countries that are signatory to it to work 

towards disarmament. This is equally focused on the 5 nuclear weapons states which are legally 

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recognised by the treaty as possessing nuclear weapons prior to 1965. The treaty aims at putting 

pressure on these 5 countries to reduce or totally destroy all their existing nuclear arsenals. It also 

aims at bringing countries to work towards a treaty for disarmament. Although so far none of 

these 5 countries are willing to completely disarm, yet efforts have been made by them to reduce 

some of their existing nuclear arsenal. For example, the US and Russia (then Soviet Union) 

signed several treaties between them limiting their strategic nuclear arsenals examples of such 

treaties include SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), START (Strategic Arms Reduction 

Treaty) and the ABM (Anti-Ballistic Missile) treaty.With these treaties or agreements reached, 

the objective of disarmament as elicited by the NPT has been achieved. 

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty goes a step further in combating nuclear proliferation by 

compelling countries that are signatories to submit their nuclear facilities to the IAEA for 

inspections and safeguards. This is for the purpose of preventing nuclear proliferation and 

ensuring transparency in signatory parties to nuclear programmes and policies. 

Finally, another merit of the treaty is that it makes provision for cooperation in the area of 

civilian nuclear technology. This is in a bid to promote the peaceful application of nuclear 

technology. Developing countries have benefited variously from the peaceful application of 

nuclear technology in solving pressing humanitarian problems. 

Conclusion 

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has so far been able to curtail the spread of 

nuclear weapon proliferation.26 Through its safeguards and verification programme, a lot of 

countries have instead opted to use nuclear power to generate electricity and carrying out 

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research on medical, agricultural and industrial uses. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 

(NPT) has achieved a lot in the fight against nuclear proliferation. 

The NPT is the most widely adhered to treaty in the world and thus is significant because 

countries are bound by its provision and thus are barred from manufacturing or acquiring nuclear 

weapons. Both the IAEA and the NPT through the cooperative effort of some countries notably 

the United States of America work hand in hand in order to achieve a proliferation free world. 

In conclusion, the IAEA and its efforts at nuclear non-proliferation need to be better supported 

and equipped to face the arduous challenge of keeping the world safe from nuclear weapons. 

Through mutual cooperation and dialogue, the IAEA would be in a better position to encourage 

countries to resist the temptation of making nuclear weapons in order to ensure global peace and 

security. 

The loopholes in the NPT should be closed or amended and only countries which are signatories 

of the NPT’s Additional Protocol should be allowed to import equipment for civilian nuclear 

reactors. Non-proliferation initiatives such as the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) should be 

improved upon and expanded to allow more countries to participate in it. Research into the 

peaceful application of nuclear energy in the fields of medicine and agriculture should continue. 

Also, less developed countries of the world should be allowed to benefit from this.The best way 

to defeat a man in a battle is to cripple his economy.27 The economy of the less developed 

countries can be boosted when allowed to participate in research into the peaceful application of 

nuclear energy in the fields of medicine and agriculture.28 

Finally, it is recommended that countries being investigated for alleged NPT violations should be 

barred from holding positions of influence in the IAEA. Moreover, countries which 

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possessnuclear weapons like the USA, Russia etc., should disarm stop, gun-boat stratagem and 

engage in disarmament negotiations to ensure cooperation, equity as well as security.29 

Endnotes 

                                                           
1AmoldKramish, The Peaceful Atom in Foreign Policy, New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1963, 
232. 
2Kramish, The Peaceful Atom in Foreign Policy 232 
3Kramish, The Peaceful Atom in Foreign Policy 232 
4 Mohammed EL Baradei, “Nuclear Non-Proliferation: The Security Context”, Statements of the 
Director-General, www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/2007/ebsp2007n016.html 
5 David B. Waller, “Managing the Nuclear Dilemma”, IAEA Bulletin, 49(1), September 2007, 1 
6Tariq Rauf, “NPT: The Long Road to a Nuclear-Free World”, IAEA Bulletin, 49(1) September, 
2007, 1 
7 David Fischer, “Nuclear safeguards: The first steps”, IAEA Bulletin, 49(1), September 2007, 1 
8 P. N. Okeke, and M. W. Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics, Revised Edition, London: 
Macmillan, 1989, 290. 
9Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 290 
10Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 291 
11Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 291 
12Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 292 
13Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 292 
14Okeke, and Anyakoha, Senior Secondary Physics… 292 
15 J. C. Chukwu, “The Dualism in the Activities of the International Atomic Energy Agency 
(IAEA) Towards Nuclear Non-Proliferation”, Scientific Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social 
Sciences, 2(3) 2022, 55 
16 Joshua Goldstein, International Relations, fifth Edition: New Jersey: Pearson Educational 
Publishing Co., 2002 
17 K. A. Opuware, J. C. Chukwu, “International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Nuclear 
Non-Proliferation: An Assessment”, The International Scholar Journal of Arts, 1(1) 2018, 
18Rauf, “NPT: The Long Road to a Nuclear-Free…  2 
19Rauf, “NPT: The Long Road to a Nuclear-Free… 3. 
20 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty”, Pillars and Articles of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation 
Treaty,www.iaea.org/publication/npt 
21 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty” 
22 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty” 
23 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty” 
24 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty” 
25 “Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty” 
26J. C. Chukwu, “The Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Arms Race: The Post War 
Deterioration of Relations between United States and Soviet Union 1949 – 1964”, International 
Journal of Research in Education Humanities and Commerce, 3(2) 2022, 256. 

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27J. C. Chukwu, “Boko Haram Insurgency and its Implication on National Security”, 
International Scholars Journal of Arts and Social Science Research, 1(2) 2019, 9, 
www.theinterscholar.org/tisja 
28J. C. Chukwu, “Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism: Threat to Global Security ”, International 
Journal Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation, 3(3) 2022, 586 
29 J. C. Chukwu, “Challenges Faced by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 

Towards Nuclear Non-Proliferation”, GPH International Journal of Social Science and 

Humanity Research, 5(6) 2022, 28 

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