IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Mohammed A. N. A. Imam (Ph.D.) Department of Sociology, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria Abstract The aim of this paper is to conceptualize development and under development and discuss them based on the theories of development and their perspectives. The paper argued that development is a multi dimensional concept conceived as any significant change that involves economic, socio-cultural, political and even environmental aspects of a country. Issues of gender and economic wellbeing and equality, political inclusion or participation, social justice, and peace and stability are all important when it comes to the subject of development. Under development, on the other hand, is the antithesis of development represented with backward indicators, such as low per capita income/GDP, low level of literacy, and low level of technology, weak economic and political institutions, political instability and fragile statehood. The terms have been evaluated using modernization and dependency theories. The former theories see development as synonymous with the western models. The latter theories argued that the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries is an outcome global economic inequality and exploitation. In view of this, the paper concludes that development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. Keywords: Dependency Theories; Development; Modernization Theory; Third World Theories; Under development. 1.0 Introduction Development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. During the period following the First World War a massive scalestruggle for national liberation began to spread widely among the colonialand semi-colonial areas. In a number of places, these nationalist struggles led to the emergence of independent political units during theinterwar period. For the most part, however, the colonial areas havebeen decolonized since the Second World War; becoming Independent countrieslargely on the basis of their colonial heritage –without regardto ethnicity, language, or other aspects of cultural homogeneity (Kim, 1975). IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 35 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Since the Second World War, the newly Independent countries haveconsciously tried to construct some basis for national autonomy and eliminatethe legacy of imperialist domination. While some of these newstates took to the path of socialist reconstruction, others have been shapingtheir economies and social structures on the basis of “free market economies”. These newly independent countries are described popularly as the “Third World” (Horowitz, 1966; Worsley, 1964, as cited in Kim, 1975: 1), or simply as the “new states” (Shils, 1966). They are also characterized as “underdeveloped countries” and have been recently, in a more diplomatic sense, called “developing countries” or “less developed countries” (Myrdal, 1968:I, as cited in Kim, 1975: 1). According to W. W. Rostow’s thesis, in hiswidely read book The Stages of Economic Growth,economic underdevelopmentis only a stage that nations pass through on their way to becoming rich.But the data we have at hand tell a different story.The income gap between rich and poor countries has grown dramaticallysince World War II and shows few signs of shrinking (Seligson, 2014).For this period, then, there is clear evidence to support the oldadage that “the rich get richer.” It is not true, however, that the poor get poorer,not literally anyway, but this would be a perverse way of looking at the situation (Seligson, 2014). Whatever the case, there is the division of the world countries into developed and underdeveloped. Kim (1975) described these underdeveloped countries with certain characteristics whichdistinguish them from developed countries. These characteristics, asdescribed by a number of scholars, are: (1) technologically having a predominanceof human and animal power over Inanimate power (such as steampower, electricity, or other sources) as a means of production; (2) IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 36 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT economically having low levels of labor productivity and per capitaIncome, a predominance of the primary sector over the manufacturingsector and relatively low development of organized large-scale machinebased industry; (3) ecologically having a low level of urbanization; (4) socio- demographically having low levels of living standard for the mass ofpeople as is manifested in specific deficiencies (insufficient food-intake,bad housing conditions. Inadequate public and private provisions forhygiene and medical care, and inefficient educational and cultural facilities,massive Illiteracy, low level of health and nutrition, and rapidpopulation growth due to high fertility rates); (5)socio-culturally and psychologically, there is a prevalence of low levels ofwork discipline, a lack of punctuality and orderliness, superstitious beliefs and irrational attitudes, and fatalism (Kim, 1975). In view of this background, this paper will conceptualizedevelopment and underdevelopment and discuss them based on the theories of development and its perspective. 2.0 Development and Underdevelopment 2.1 The Concept of Development: Development is a concept that went through various interpretations over time. According to Rodney (1972: 9), development refers to expansion of the economic capacity of a country and of the state of society andits institutions as whole. In simple terms, development signifies progress in human well-being, used to be equated with economic growth, but it is now widely acknowledged that this is a very inadequate characterisation. As long noted, average per capita incomes are one important means to achieve such progress, but not the only one.Not only does average income fail to capture distribution across households, but IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 37 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT it also may not be a good indicator of many important aspects of human well-being, such as people’s health, education or their security (Stewart, as cited in Jamri, 2017). One of the earliest development indices that provide alternative to the above definition is the PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index). Sen has suggested that the development objective should be the enhancement of people’s capabilities, or the opportunities open to people of being and doing a variety of things. UNDP’s Human Development Report defined the objective succinctly as enlarging people’s choices in a way which enables them to lead longer, healthier and fuller lives (Stewart, as cited in Jamri, 2017). The UNDP developed the concept of ‘human security’ to encompass not just the achievement of minimal levels of material needs, but also the absence of severe threats to them of an economic or political kind: ‘Job security, income security, health security, environmental security, security from crime – these are the emerging concerns of security all over the world’ (Stewart, as cited in Jamri, 2017). In a seminar paper, Dudley Seers (as cited in Augustine, 2018: 1) conceives of development as notonly involving economic growth but also conditions in which people ina country have adequate food, jobs and the income inequality among them is greatly reduced. According to Seers, the questions to askabout a country’s development are threefold: • What has been happening to poverty? • What has been happening to inequality? • What has been happening to unemployment? IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 38 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Seers noted that if these three aspects: poverty, unemployment and inequality have witnessed significant decline, then there had beenfundamental development for the country involved. In a post-thesisreview eight years later in 1977, Seers asserted that he had left anessential element which must now be added: ‘self-reliance’ (Augustine, 2018: 1). In a nutshell, development is any significant change that involves economic, socio-cultural, political and even environmental aspects of a country. Issues of gender and economic well being and equality, political inclusion or participation, social justice, and peace and stability are all important when it comes to the topic of development. In brief, Mukhtar&Abdullahi (2022) mentioned that development is a concept that goes through gradual process of expansion over time. In simple terms, development signifies progress in human wellbeing,used to be equated with economic growth, but it is now widely acknowledged thatthis is a very inadequate characterization. As long noted, average per capita incomes are oneimportant means to achieve such progress, but not the only one. Not only does averageincome fail to capture distribution across households, but it also may not be a good indicatorof many important aspects of human well-being, such as people’s health, education or theirsecurity. 2.2 The Concept of Under-Development: Underdevelopment, according to Rodney (1972), isa term only meaningful in comparison to levels of development;when one group appears to become wealthier, it happens with a contrasting outcome. Anothercrucial component of underdevelopment is a dimension of exploitation of one country byanother (p 21).Acheoah (2018) conceptualizes underdevelopment as the antithesis ofdevelopment manifestly in backward IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 39 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT indicators: low per capitaincome/GDP; the preponderance of rural and agricultural populations;low literacy levels; the predominance of inferior technology; weakeconomic and political institution; underdeveloped political culture;the prevalence of a ruling class that stresses and rationalizes values thatare incompatible with socio-economic and political development as well as fragile statehood (Acheoah, 2018). Characteristics of underdevelopment include extremepoverty; disparity in delivery of social services includingformalized education systems, medical facilities, and safedrinking water; poor or lacking infrastructure and governancecapacity; and an environment of physical insecurity.All of these factors can collectively lead to a poverty trap, inwhich poverty is widespread, cyclical, and intractable. Thecombination of these challenges contributes to a vicious circleof underdevelopment and fragility, which can overwhelma state’s operational capacity to deliver services and hinderlong-term economic growth (International Peace Institute, 2009). Over the past two decades, global economic integration andgrowth have contributed to poverty alleviation and higherliving standards around the world. Trade, capital flows,foreign aid, technological improvements, and idea-sharingacross international borders have enhanced humandevelopment and economic prospects in many developingcountries. Yet, too many countries continue to suffer fromwidespread poverty and underdevelopment. Progress towardsreaching the globally endorsed Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been uneven. With notable exceptionslike China, most countries are predicted to fall short ofmeeting most MDGs by the target date of 2015, withfragile states lagging furthest behind.At the regional IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 40 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT level,sub-Saharan Africa is behind on all eight goals, while SouthAsia is struggling to meet the MDGs that concern humandevelopment (International Peace Institute, 2009). In a nutshell, the basic assumption is that there is a dialectical relationship between development andunderdevelopment. (Frank, 1975: 10) "Development and underdevelopment are twodifferent sides of a universal historical process’’. He asserts that what causes underdevelopmentin third world is as a result of what brought about development in Europe and America" Frank, as cited in Alaye, 2019). 3.0 Theories of Development A litany of theories and Perspectives have been propounded andformulated to explain the factors behind the development of some regionsand the underdevelopment of other regions and proffer solutions to addressing the underdevelopment crisisin Third world Countriesfor which virtually all Sub-Saharan Africa fall into (Augustine, 2018). These theories include Modernization Theory, the Dependency school, the ThirdWorld Analysis and the Globalization Perspectives (Augustine, 2018). For the purpose of this paper, the theories of modernization, the third world analysis and the dependency perspectives will be reviewed. 3.1 Modernization Theory Modernization theory presentsthe Western models of economic development as the quickest andsurest way of taking underdeveloped countries out of theirunderdevelopment crisis. Its postulations interpose the Westernsocieties as a ‘mirror’ reflecting before the underdeveloped IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 41 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT societies afuture they should aspire (Augustine, 2018: 2).Modernization Theory is amongst the earliest theories of development and remedies to underdevelopment. The theory emerged as a response to growing concern on the subject of development. That is why the origin of modernization theories is usually traced to the aftermath of the Second World War (Rapley, 2007), yet Harrison (2005) believed that, the beginning of modernization theory can be traced to antiquity, when the notion of evolution was first used with reference to human society, however, it was not until the eighteenth century that the evolution of societies was studied in a systematic way (Jamri, 2017). Intense concern about the subject of development around the world is the main reason why the modernization represents the buzzword of the global agenda from the period immediately following WorldWar II. The post-World War II was theperiod in which Western world began to be confronted with the challenge of rebuildingcountries, especially those that had been shattered by war. To successfully face this challenge, international institutions, such as theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development, later called World Bank, were established to accomplish the objectives of industrializing backward or less developed and war stricken countries (Jamri, 2017). 3.2 Third World and Dependency Theories This section covers the contributions of scholars who havesentiments of the Third World and underdeveloped societies largely ofthe Latin American origin who emerged as a radical and offeredcounter perspectives to the Modernization School. A leading exponentof this School of Thought was Raul Prebisch who enquired into thedialectical growth in wealth between the IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 42 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT developed and under-developed, AndreGunder Frank, Walter Rodney, Immanuel Wallenstein and Samir Amin.They argued that the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) coveringSub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere in Asia and Latin America did notwitness underdevelopment until their coming into contact with theWestern Societies (Slave trade and Colonialism) this altered theirdevelopment trajectory in their course of nation building, thus, theybegan to experience arrested development (Augustine, 2018). They argued thatincorporation of third world economies into the international capitalistsystem orchestrated a structure of inequality skewed disproportionally against the Third world (Frank, 1981).They argued that the poor nations provide the resources, cheaplabor and consumer markets for the wealthy nations which ensured thedevelopment of the developed nations. The trajectory of this relationsis that development becomes two sides of the same coin; one sidedevelops, while the other under develops.Challenging the Linear model of Modernization TheoristsImmanuel Wallenstein in his World System Theory argued that notevery nation can develop simultaneously. The World System theoryargues that the development of underdevelopment is a simultaneousphenomenon in a character of one regional development and surplusesproduces it’s under development and deficit counterparts elsewhere inanother region (Augustine, 2018). The Guyanese Marxist historian Walter Rodney with reference to his magnum opus “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa”, nostalgically asserted that thedecisiveness of the period of colonialism and its negative impacts onAfrica sprang from the fact that Africa lost power - economic andpolitical (Rodney, 1972).Rodney (1972)argued that when one society is forced to relinquish power entirelyto another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment.Prebisch IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 43 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT considering the contradiction in the trade relationsbetween developed and underdeveloped nations began to question thenotion that countries can benefit equally and that mutual profitabilityin trade between developed and developing nations. Examining therelationship from the standpoint of balance of payment rather thanresource allocation, he asserted that there is a tendency for the terms oftrade to shift against agricultural product and its impact on balance ofpayment far outweighs its benefits with respect to the efficient allocation of resources (Thomas, 1994).Using this argument as a parameter, Prebisch formulated a numberof hypotheses which came to be known as the ‘Prebisch Doctrine’ (Thomas, 1994). Inspired by the world economic crisis of the 1930s and hisexperience as ECOSOC for Latin America and UNCTAD, Prebischbecame concerned with two distinct but interrelated issues: • The first deals with the transfer of the benefits of trade from thedeveloping to the developed countries because of the adverse termsof trade being experienced by the former; • The second relates to the balance of payment effect of differencesin the elasticity of demand for agricultural and mineral productsvis-à-vis secondary products and the fluctuating earnings andforeign exchange shortages it induces for developing countries. Advancing the arguments, Prebisch declared that: International division of labor is governed by an asymmetry inwhich developed nations dominate the dynamic industries fromthe center while the developing countries are impoverishedbecause their exports of agricultural and mineral raw materialsfrom the periphery by extension while these produce of developingcountries are bought at under quoted prices, those of developedcountries of the center are sold and bought at over quoted IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 44 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT pricesthereby allowing the latter to take advantage of the differences (Quoted in Augustine, 2018: 3). According to Prebisch, the phenomenon is cyclical in character.Corroborating Prebisch, notes that not only is the system sustainedby unequal levels of technological acquisition, but also, progress andthe distribution of the benefits accruing from science and technology (Augustine, 2018: ). The development of the means of production determines of thestate and patterns of development experienced by any society. 4.0 Conclusion The paper has traced the evolutionof the concepts of development and underdevelopment as two sides of the same coin. The key terms: development and underdevelopment have been conceptualized and to address the question, the definitions of both terms (development and underdevelopment) was accompanied with explanations based on the theories of development and their perspectives. These theories are modernization, on the one hand, and third world and dependency theories, on the other hand. The modernization theory argued that the Western models of economic development are the ideal models forthe development of underdeveloped countries. Third world theories on the other hand, argued thatincorporation of third world economies into the international capitalistsystem has created a structure of inequality, obviouslyin favor of the developed countries and against the economic prospects of the Third world. Third world theorist argued that the poor nations provide the resources, cheaplabor and consumer markets for the wealthy nations which ensured thedevelopment of the developed nations. The trajectory of this relations has substantiated the claim of this paper that development is two sides of the same coin; one sidedevelops, while the other under develops. IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 45 IJO- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES RESEARCH ( ISSN 2811-2466 ) Mohammed A. N. A. Imam * https://ijojournals.com/ Volume 07 || Issue 05 || May, 2024 || EXAMINING DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT: CONTRASTING THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT References Acheoah, A. O. (2018).The Crisis of Underdevelopment in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Multi- Dimensional Perspective. Department of PoliticalScience, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria. Alaye, (2019).Dependency and underdevelopment of Nigerian economy.Global Journal of Politics and Law Research,7(1): 9-28 Augustine, A. O. (2018). The Crisis of Underdevelopment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Multi- dimensionalPerspectives. Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs, 6 (4): 1-9. Frank, A. G. (1981).Crisis in the Third World.Heinemenn EducationalBooks, Holmes Etmeler. Harrison, D. (2005). The Sociology of modernization and development. London: Routledge. International Peace Institute.(2009).Underdevelopment, Resource Scarcity, and Environmental Degradation. IPI Blue Paper No. 1 www.ipinst.org . Jamri, B., J. (2017). Modernization perspective: A review of Nigerian development. Department of Sociology, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Yobe State Kim, S. (1975). Reconsideration of underdevelopment andproblems of development: an application of analternative model of change to the Third Worldcountries. Retrospective Theses and Dissertations.5487.https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/5487. Mukhtar, J. I.&Abdullahi, A. S. (2022).Security-Development Nexus: AReview of Nigeria’s Security Challenges.Contemporary Sociological Issues,2 (1):18-39. Rapley, J. (2006). Understanding development: Theory and practice in the third world (Third edition). Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Seligson, M. A. (2014). “The Dual Gaps: An Overviewof Theory and Research”. In Mitchell A. Seligson& John T. Passé-Smith (eds.) Development and underdevelopment: the Political Economy of Global Inequality. USA. Thomas, L. J. (1994). Neoclassical development theory and the Prebischdoctrine: A synthesis. The American Economist 38: 75-81. IJO JOURNALS Volume 07 | Issue 05 | May 2024 | https://ijojournals.com/index.php/ssh/index 46 http://www.ipinst.org/ https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/5487