Bulletin i: ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Bulletin Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois A Century of Biological Research HARLOW B. MILLS GEORGE C. DECKER HERBERT H. ROSS J. CEDRIC CARTER GEORGE W. BENNETT THOMAS G. SCOTT JAMES S. AVARS RUTH R. WARRICK BESSIE B. EAST STATE OF ILLINOIS* Willum G. Stratton, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION • Vbra M. Binm, Director NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION • Harlow B. Mills, Chief ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Bulletin Volume 27, Article 2 December, 1958 Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois A Century of Biological Research HARLOW B. MILLS GEORGE C. DECKER HERBERT H. ROSS J. CEDRIC CARTER GEORGE W. BENNETT THOMAS G. SCOTT JAMES S. AYARS RUTH R. WARRICK BESSIE B. EAST STATE OF ILLINOIS* William G. Stratton, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION • Vera M. Binks, Director NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION • Harlow B. Mills, Chief Urbana Illinois STATE OF ILLINOIS William G. Strathin, Cot'/rnor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION \'era M. Bisks, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION Vera M. Binks, Chairmtin; A. E. Emerson, Ph.D., Biology; L. H. Tiffany, Ph.D., Forestry; Walter H. Newhouse, Ph.D., GeoloRy; Roger Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry: Robert H. Anderson, B.S.C.E., Engineering; W. L. EvERiTT, E.E., Ph.D., Representing the President of the University oj Illinois; Delyte W. Morris, Ph.D., President oj Southern Illinois University NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION, Urbona, Illinois .SCIENTIFIC AND TIXHNICAL STAFF Harlow B. Mills, Ph.D., Chiej Bissii: H. East, M.S., .Vvji.Vani to Ih,- Chi,-! Section of Economic Entomology George- C. Decker, Ph.D., Principal Scientist and Head J. H. Bigger, M.S.. Entomologist L. L. ITnglish, I'll D., Entumologisl Willis N. Bruce, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Norman Gannon, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist W. H. LuCK.MANN. Ph.D., Associate Entomologist John D. Briccs, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Ronald H. Meyer, M.S., Assistant Entomologist John D. Paschke. Ph.D., Assistant Entomologist Robert Snetsinger, M.S., Field Assistant Carol Morgan. B.S.. Laboratory Assistant Eugene M. Bravi, M.S., Research Assistant Richard B. Dysart, B.S., Technical Assistant Reginald Roberts, A.B., Technical Assistant James W. Sanford, B.S., Technical Assistant Earl Stadelbacher, B.S., Technical Assistant Sue E. Watkixs, Technical Assistant H. B. Petty-, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Entomology* Steve.nson Moore, III, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Entomology* John W. Matteson, M.S., Research Associate* Zen AS B. Noon, Jr., M.S., Research Assistant* L'LARtNtt F.. White. B.S.. Research Assistant* John Arthur Lowe, M.S., Research Assistant* J. David Hoffman, B.S., Research Assistant* Carlos A. W'hite, B.S.. Research Assistant* Roy E. McLaughlin, B.S., Research Assistant* Costas Kouskolekas, M.S., Research Assistant* Louise Zingrone, B.S.. Research Assistant* Mary' E. Mann, R.N., Research Assistant* Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification H. H. Ross, Ph.D., Systematic Entomologist and Head Milton W. Sanderson, Ph.D., Taxonomist Lewis J. Stannard, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Taxonomist Philip W. Smith, Ph.D.. Associate Taxonomist Leonora K. Gloyd, M.S.. Assistant Taxonomist H. B. Cunningham. M.S.. Assistant Taxonomist Edward L. Mockford, M.S., Technical Assistant Thei.ma H. Overstreet, Technical Assistant Section of Aquatic Biology George W. Bennett, Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist and Head William C. Starrett. Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist R. W. Larimore, Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist David H. Buck, Ph.D., Associate Aquatic Biologist Robert C. Hiltibran. Ph.D., Associate Biochemist Donald F. Hansen, Ph.D., Assistant Aquatic Biologist William F. Childers. M.S., Assistant Aquatic Biologist John C. Cralley. B.S., Field Assistant Richard E. Bass, Field Assistant Robert D. Crompton, Field Assistant Section of Aquatic Biology—continued .Mai'Rici: ,\. U'liiiMRi, M..^., Assistant Aquatic Biologist* Arnold W. Fkii/., B.S., Field Assistant* Damp J. .\'1(;;ini\. Field Assistant* Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology I. Cedric Carter, Ph.D.. Plant Pathologist and Head J. L. FoRSBERG, Ph.D., Plant Pathologist G. H. Boewe. M.S.. Associate Botanist Robert A. Evers. Ph.D., Associate Botanist E. B. Hi.MELiCK, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist Robert Dan Neely, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Walter Hartstirn, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Donald F. Schoeneweiss, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Rovenia F. Fit?.-Gerali), B..A.. Technical Assistant Section of Wildlife Research Thomas G. Scott. Ph.D.. Came Specialist and Head Ralph F.. Yeatter. Ph.D., Game Specialist Carl O. Mohr. Ph.D., Game Specialist I'. C Bellrosk, B.S., Game Specialist H. C. Hanson, Ph.D., Associate Game Specialist \\ . R. Hanson, Ph.D., Associate Game Specialist Richard R. Graber, Pli.D.. Associate Wildlije Specialist Fr'.nces D. RoBBiNs, B..A.. Technical Assistant Virginia A. Langdon. Technical Assistant Howard Crum, Jr., Field Assistant Rexford D. Lord, D.Sc Project Leader* Frederick Greeley, Ph.D.. Project Leader* Glen C. Sanderson, M.A., Project Leader* Paul A. Vohs, Jr., M.S., Project Leader* Ronald F. Labisky, M.S., Project Leader* Iack A. Ellis, M.S., Assistant Project Leader* Thomas R. B. Barr, M.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S.. Research Assistant* Bobbie Joe Verts. M.S.. Field Mammalogist* Erwtn W. Pearson, M.S.. Field Mammalogist* Kenneth L. Johnson. A.B., Field Assistant* Keith P. Dauphin, Assistant Laboratory Attendant* Section of Publications and Public Relations Iames S. Avars, B.S., Technical Editor and Head Bi.ANciii 1' Yuvsi.. B.A.. Assistant Technical Editor Diana R. Braverman, B.A., Assistant Technical Editor William F.. Clark, Assistant Technical Photographer Mar(.uerite Veri.ey, Technical Assistant Technical Library Ri IH R. Warrick. B.S.. B.S.L.S.. Technical Librarian Nell Miles, M.S.. B.S.L.S.. Assistant Technical Librarian CONSULTANTS: Herpetology, Hobart M. Smith, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois; Parasitology, Norman D. Levine, Ph.D., Professor of Veterinary Parasitology and of Veterinary Research, University of Hlinois; Wildlife Research, Willard D. Klimstra. Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Zoology and Director of Co-operative Wildlife Research, Southern Hlinois University. 'Employed on co-operative projects with one of several agencies: University of Illinois, Illinois Agricultural Extension Service, Illinois Department of Conservation. United States Army Surgeon General's Office. United States Department of Agriculture, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Public Health Service, and others. (8.^0.'{2—r.M— 0-.')8) FOREWORD THE record of one hundred years of the scientific progress of the Illinois State Natural History Survey inspires us to reflect on its origin and brilliant achieve- ments. We pay the highest tribute to those early educators and scientists who had vision beyond the exigencies of the moment. And we express the highest commenda- tion to the present Chief, Dr. Harlow B. Mills, and all of his staf¥ for their contri- butions to the well-being and pleasure of our citizens. The important results of their research extend well beyond the borders of Illinois. In contemplating the future, we are con- fident that this group of dedicated men and women will meet the increasing demands for assistance in the problems of the pro- duction of the necessities of life, that they will continue their research on the devel- opment and protection of our natural re- sources. In the future we may be depend- ent for our very existence on scientists such as these. We know they will meet the challenge. Illinois Is justly proud of the century of progress of one of its own agencies. Congratulations! Vera M. Binks, Director Department of Registration and Education The original building of the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, spring, 1880. In this building the Illinois Natural History Society was founded and its museum was housed. Here the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History had its headquarters from its founding in 1877 until late in 1884, and here the fourth State Entomologist was located for approxi- mately 2 years. CON TENTS ¥kom 1858 TO 1958 85 Natural History Society 86 State Laboratory of Natural History. 87 State Entomologist 88 Benjamin Dann Walsh 91 AV^illiam Le Baron 91 Cyrus Thomas 93 Stephen Alfred P'orbes 94 Reorganization 97 Natural History Survey 98 The Future 101 Economic Entomology 104 Early History 104 Practical Problems and Progress 106 Fruit Insects 106 Truck Crop Pests Ill Cereal and Forage Crop Pests 113 Pests of Forest and Shade Trees and Ornamental Plants 118 Insects Attacking Man and Animals 119 Biological Control 120 Value of Insect Control 123 Emphasis for the Future 124 ^"aunistic Surveys 127 Early Background 127 Changing Habitats 128 Periods of Faunistic Activities 128 Initial Period, 1858-1869 129 Expansion Period, 1871-1922 130 Specialization Period, 1923 to Present 132 Research Collections 134 V^ertebrates 134 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. .134 Insects 134 Faunistic Reports 135 Vertebrates 135 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. .137 Insects 137 Retrospect and Prospect 144 \ppLiED Botany AND Plant P.athology 145 Early Activities 146 Recent Activities 149 Plant Disease Survey 149 Botanical Collections 152 Shade and Forest Tree Pathology 154 Floricultural Pathology 158 Identification and E.xtension 159 Past and Present 160 Unsolved Problems 160 Future Possibilities 161 Aquatic Biology 163 Beginning of Aquatic Ecology 163 First Field Laboratory 165 Fishes and Plankton 166 The Fishes of Illinois 167 Illinois River Plankton 167 Bottom Fauna 168 New Lines of Research 169 Early Management Attempts 170 Modern Management 170 The Last Twenty Years 172 Direction of Future Studies 177 Wildlife Research 1 79 Development 179 Organization 181 Research Contributions 183 Birds 183 Mammals 195 Wildlife Management 198 The Future 199 Publications and Public Rel.ations.202 Early Publications 203 Publications Series 205 Editorial Personnel 207 Public Relations 208 Editorial Policy 208 Library 210 The Library at Normal 210 The Library at Urbana 210 Library Collections 211 Library Personnel 213 Financial Support 213 Former Technical E.mployees 215 Literature Cited 219 h - M C From 1858 to 1958 HARLOW B . MILLS THE mid-point of the nineteenth cen- tury in the United States was marked by ferment, by excitement, by great ideas. River traffic was at a peak ; rail- roads had been built and were being ex- tended. New areas were becoming more easily accessible to settlers. The point of departure to the exciting and mysteri- ous Far West was on the Mississippi River, and two things happened just before 1850 which focused attention on that vast and largely unexplored area —the movement of the Mormons from Nauvoo, Illinois, on the banks of the Mississippi, to the Great Salt Lake, and the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California. The United States tried its muscles in the Mexican War in its first inter- national conflict since its last test with England, and it ended Mexican domi- nance in California with the assistance of the Bear Flag Revolution. Politically the young country was go- ing through the series of events which ultimately led to the Civil War. On August 27, 1858, the most important of the Lincoln-Douglas debates, according to the estimate of some historians, took place at Freeport, Illinois. This debate is said to have won for Judge Douglas the Senatorship in his contest with Lin- coln, but at the same time it lost the Presidency for the Judge in a later con- test with the same adversary. At the debate, there was a boy of four- teen who wormed his way to the front of the crowd and gained some renown by vocally taking issue with Douglas at one point in this historically climactic discussion. The youngster was consider- ably chagrined by reproof from those around him, but perhaps he was caught by the character of that meeting, for it is reported by George W. Smith (1927: 410) that There was much confusion—some real dis- order. ... It appears from the reports that orators, reception committees, invited guests, and newspaper reporters ail engaged in a hand-to-hand conflict for seats and in some cases for standing room. This boy who had the courage to chal- lenge Judge Douglas was Stephen Alfred Forbes, later to be the person most re- sponsible for the development of the Illinois State Natural History Survey, the centennial of which this number of the Bulletin commemorates. Not only was this point in history one of swift movement and of critical impor- tance in the politics and development of the country ; it also brought science into clearer focus. Many scientific societies were organized. Darwin's Origin of Spe- cies appeared in 1859. Scientists were just beginning to play with the idea that their field was not a mental toy, that it could be put to practical use; and some scientists were announcing that they were interested in the practical application and popularization of their knowledge, much to the distress of most of their colleagues. As an illustration, there is a rather long apology which Walsh (1868Z':9) felt con- strained to include in his First Annual Report of the Acting State Entomologist. Apparently this comment was written for the eyes of Walsh's scientific confreres ; in part it says : In a Memoir intended for publication in the Proceedings of some grave Scientific So- ciety, it would, of course, be highly indecorous to break the dreary monotony of scientific hair-splitting by a single remark, which had the slightest tendency towards exciting that convulsive movement of the midriff, which the vulgar herd of mankind call "laughter." . . . Four hundred years ago Martin Luther said, that "he could see no reason why the Devil should run away with all the good tunes." I can see no reason, in the year 1867, why the pestilent yellow-covered literature of the day should monopolize all the wit and humor. If there is one thing which I have at heart more than another, it is to popularize Science—to bring her down from the awkward high stilts on which she is or- dinarily paraded before the world—to show how sweet and attractive she is when the frozen crust, in which she is usually en- veloped, is thawed away bv the warm breath of Nature— ... If I merely succeed in en- ticing away a single young woman from her [85] 86 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 mawkish novelettes and romances into the flowerv paths of Entomology, or if I can only induce a single young man, instead of haunt- ing saloons and lounging away his time at street-corners, to devote his leisure to study- ing the wonderful works of the Creator, as exemplified in these tiny miracles of perfec- tion which the people of the United States call "bugs," I shall think that 1 have not written altogether in vain. The j^rowth of the population of Illi- nois resulted in the bringinj^ toj^ether, within the state's boundaries, of people with common interests in natural history. This field of knowledge had not gone un- noticed in this general geographical area, but the investigators here were individuals and worked pretty much alone. Just across the Wabash River to the east, Thomas Say had earlier done research on insects and other animal groups. Across the Ohio River to the south, John James Audubon had studied birds. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Because by mid-century people inter- ested in natural history had become more numerous in the state, Cyrus Thomas of Carbondale was able to propose to the December, 1857, meeting of the State Teachers' Association in Decatur that a Natural History Society of Illinois be formed (Bateman 1858fl). The next year, on June 30, 1858, the Society was organ- ized at Bloomington in the office of the Illinois State Normal University (Bate- man 1858^:258-9). It was given official sanction and notice when it was chartered by an act of the state legislature ap- proved February 22, 1861 (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1861:551-2). Immediately after its organization the new Society began the development of a museum and the collection of scientific literature. Among its active members mentioned by Forbes (1907r: 893-4) were C. D. Wilber, who later became a consulting mining engineer; Dr. J. A. Sewall, who later became President of the University of Colorado at Boulder; Major J. W. Powell, who was to gain renown as an explorer in the West; Dr. George W. Vasey, for many years botanist with the United States Department of Agricul- ture; A. H. \Vorthen, head of the first Illinois State Geological Survey; Cyrus Thomas, Benjamin D. Walsh, M. S. Bebb, Dr. Oliver Everett, James Shaw, Dr. Henry M. Bannister, Dr. J. W. \>lie. Professor J. B. Turner, Dr. Ed- mund Andrews, Dr. Frederick Brendel, and Newton Bateman. The above list in- dicates a great breadth of interest and no lack of intelligence on the part of the original members of the Society. The first officers of the Society included a General Agent, among whose duties were the collection and exchange of speci- mens (Batemen 1858^^:258). C. D. Wil- ber was named to this office. The Society's original constitution (Bateman 1858/': 258) and the revised constitution of 1859 (Francis 1859/^:662-3) provided that all specimens should be deposited in the Museum of the State Normal Uni- versity. The constitution as revised on June 20, 1859 (Francis 1859^:662-3), "dropped the General Agent, gave most of his du- ties to a newly created Superintendent, and added a Curator, whose duties were to receive and arrange specimens. Cyrus Thomas, who was elected Curator, lived in Jackson County, many miles from the Museum, and the elected Superintendent, Wilber, who taught geology at the State Normal University, according to Mar- shall (1956) acted as unofficial curator. At the 1860 meeting, R. H. Holder of Bloomington was named both Curator < and Treasurer (Wilber 1861^:538). 1 The state charter of 1861 gave the Society authority to establish its own Museum at the State Normal University (Illinois General Assembly 1861:551), and officers of the Society set December 25, 1861, as the date on which the Mu- seum was to be "dedicated, with appro- priate exercises, as a free offering to THE CITIZENS AND SCHOOLS of Illinois" (Wilber 1861^:675). Forbes (1907^:893) listed Sewall, Powell, Vasey, and himself as curators of the Society's Museum, Vasey serving only nominally as Powell's deputy. Powell was named Curator by the State Board of Education on March 26, 1867. His ap- pointment was ratified and consented to on the same day by the Directors of the Natural History Society (Bateman 1867: December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 87 8). Forbes was appointed to the same office on June 26, 1872, the day Powell's resignation was offered and accepted (Bateman 1872:6). Because the Natural History Society was composed principally of people who I were prosecuting natural history investi- ! gations as sidelines to other activities, and because it was not a strong cohesive agent, it finally reached the point where it could no longer sustain itself. Forbes (1907r: I 898) said of the times, "It should be I remembered, in this connection, that this I was a time when college men, as a rule, worked like dray-horses and were paid like oxen, . . ." The Society turned to the state for aid, and by an act approved February 28, 1867, $2,500, to be paid annually to the State Board of Education, was appropri- ated by the General Assembly for the salary of a curator and "for the necessary expenses of improving and enhancing the value" of the Museum (Illinois General Assembly 1867:21). Major Powell was the first curator to receive state aid. The state appropriations, according to Forbes (1907r:895), "were largely drawn upon to outfit and maintain the Powell expedi- tions to the far west." As a condition upon receiving further state aid, as pro- vided by legislative act approved April 14, 1871, the Society had to turn its Mu- seum over to the state (Illinois General Assembly 1872:152). On June 22, 1871, the Society agreed to the transfer and when, on June 28, 1871, the Board of Education accepted the transfer, the Mu- seum officially became state property (Bateman 1871:9; Forbes 1877:324-5)'. On December 15, 1875, the State Board of Education passed the following resolution (Etter 1876:17) : Resolved, That we regard the Museum as a State institution, devoted to the prosecution of a natural history survey of the State, to the encouragement and aid of original research, and to the diffusion of scientific knowledge and habits of thought among the people. Forbes, who in 1872 had been appointed by the State Board of Education as Cura- tor of the Museum, remained in that capacity until July 1, 1877, when by legis- lative act approved May 25, 1877, a State Historical Library and Natural History Museum were established at Springfield, and the Illinois Museum of Natural His- tory at Normal was "converted into a State Laboratory of Natural History" (Illinois General Assembly 1877:14-6). STATE LABORATORY OF NATURAL HISTORY The act that established the State Laboratory of Natural History relieved Forbes of the necessity of developing mu- seum exhibits and allowed him to turn more of his attention to research. Shortly after the establishment of the Laboratory, Forbes' title was changed from Curator to Director (Etter 1877:25). Forbes had not been occupying his time completely in the preparation of museum material while he was Curator of the Illi- nois Museum of Natural History. He had taught classes in zoology at Illinois State Normal University and he had started a series of bulletins reporting on research and investigation. The first number of the series is dated December, 1876, and carries the title. Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History. From the appearance of No. 2 of the first volume, in June, 1878, until the beginning of Volume 13, in 1918, the title was the Bulletin of the State Laboratory of Natural History, and from that time to the present it has been the Bulletin of the Illinois State Natural History Survey or Illinois Natural His- tory Survey Bulletin. The volumes have been numbered serially from December, 1876, to the present time. The work of the Laboratory and its young Director attracted the attention of the new Illinois Industrial University at Urbana. Not only had Forbes been pub- lishing actively, but in 1882 the duties of State Entomologist had fallen on his capa- ble shoulders. Shortly afterward the Uni- versity made an offer of employment to the Director of the Laboratory and State Entomologist. Forbes faced the choice of declining the offer, of abandoning the Laboratory, which had been established at the Illinois State Normal University by legislative act, or of moving the Labora- tory with him. Apparently at his suggestion, the mat- ter was taken up with the State Board of Education by the Trustees of the Illinois Industrial University, and an agreement 88 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 was made that the hivv be changed to allow for the nio\ e. In a report addressed to the Rejient and dated December 12, 1' staff at that time. On September 8, 1885, the Trustees approved the following ap- pointments (Burrill 1887^:55-6): Entomological Assistants Thomas F. Hunt $40 a month Clarence M. Weed $40 a month Botanical Assistant Charles F. Hart $45 a month Amanuensis Miss Mary J. Snyder $45 a month Services relating to botanical survey Prof. T. J. Burrill $300 for the vear F. S. Earle $83 1/3 a month Such other miscellaneous assistants as might be required and within the funds available The State Laboratory of Natural His- tory continued under that name until 1917. STATE ENTOMOLOGIST The rapid settlement of Illinois during the middle of the nineteenth century brought in a great number of agricul- turists. The country was new, and the breaking down of the original vegetation for the establishment of fields in which crops were grown brought about great losses from insects. These losses, while Ue 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 89 seen and experienced, were not well un- derstood. Official entomolog;y was born during this period. The agriculturists felt the need of assistance and cried out to the government for it. At the end of the Civil War, the Presi- dent of the young Illinois State Horticul- tural Society, John P. Reynolds, spoke \igorously on the subject at the December 19, 1865, meeting of the Society at Nor- mal. In his retiring address, Reynolds (1866:8) said: And, first, the appointment of a State Entomologist. The time has been in this State when it required some moral courage for any one to advocate the appointment and (ompfTisaiiou from the treasury of an officer to look after the bugs, but I venture the opinion that there is no subject in which you, as amateur or professional horticulturists, have a more direct, immediate or larger pe- cuniary interest, than in Entomology— . . . No one who has given the subject any atten- tion will question the truth of the statement that the people of Illinois are to-day many millions of riollars poorer bv reason of noxious insects; nor the additional statement that a very large proportion of this loss might have been averted by the labors of a competent Entomologist with a little means at his disposal. In 1866 the Horticultural Society, meeting at Champaign, passed the fol- lowing resolution (Deyo 1867:58): Resolved, That we most urgently pray the honorable legislature of our great state to appoint a State Entomologist, that Agricul- turists and Horticulturists may not quite despair of ever overcoming the giant insec- tiforous [j/t] difficulties in the way of suc- cess in their professions. As one eminently qualified, and the highest in his profession in the whole west, we most hopefully mention the name of Benjamin D. Walsh, of Rock Island. The Horticultural Society was not alone in this movement. At a meeting of the executive committee of the Illinois State Agricultural Society on January 3, 1866, G. W. Minier offered the following University Hall on the University of Illinois campus. This building, completed in 1874 and razed in 1938, was headquarters for the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and the Office of State Entomologist for a few years after they were moved from Normal to Urbana. 90 Illinois Natlrai. History Survey Hui.i.i;tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 specific and forthrij^ht resolution ( Re\n- olds 1868:18): Rfsolved. That whenever a sum of tifteen hundred dollars ($1,500) shall have been obtained, by legislative action or otherwise, for an annual salary, this Board will then appoint a competent scientific man as State Entomologist. Resolved, That Mr. B. I). Walsh be and he is hereby appointed State Entomologist, sub- ject to the preceding resolution. The lej^islature listened to these pleas and in 1867 passed a law which author- ized the Governor, with the consent of the Senate, to appoint a state entomologist. The work of this officer was considerably handicapped. While he was voted a salary, he was j^iven no work fund, and the first three persons to hold the position main- tained their offices in their homes or in offices devoted to other purposes. The job was a difficult one, and Forbes (1915: 7-8) once rather facetiously wrote: He [Walsh] performed as well as he could his various duties of private, captain, colonel, adjutant, and major-general of this new force—and in two years he was dead. He had two successors enlisted for the war on precisely the same terms, the first of whom, Dr. Wm. Le Baron, of Cieneva, HIinois, main- tained for five years the une(|ual contest, when he also died ; and the second, Dr. Cyru^ Thomas, of Carbondale, abandoned the field in despair after seven years of diligent serv- ice, going then to Washington for work in another department of science, where he lived to the good old age of eighty-five. I haxc sometimes wondered if his long survival was Benjamin Dann Walsh, State Entomologist, 1867-1869. December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 91 not largely due to his fortunate escape from an untenable situation. Forbes set out to disprove this conten- tion, and carried the duties, however with more help than his predecessors had, from 1882 to 1917, a span of 35 years. Let us now look at the four men who carried the title and responsibility of Illi- nois State Entomologist. Benjamin Dann Walsh Although the resolutions passed by the State Horticultural Society and the State Agricultural Society in 1866 mentioned specifically Benjamin D. Walsh as a potential State Entomologist, Walsh did not obtain this title without some compli- cations. An act providing for this officer was passed by the legislature and was approved on March 9, 1867 (Illinois General Assembly 1867:35-6). No ap- pointment was made at that time. How- ever, a special session was called on June 1 1 of the same year, and at that time the name of Walsh was presented for the Sen- ate's approval. The session was called for specific purposes, of which the approval of an appointee as State Entomologist was not a part. Therefore, the Senate decided that constitutionally it could not act on this matter. Walsh acted as State Entomologist, without legal status, and with an assign- ment of $500 by the Horticultural So- ciety, until the legislature passed an act "for the relief of the state entomologist," March 25, 1869 (Illinois General Assem- bly 1869:53-4). This act legalized what Walsh had been doing for nearly 2 years. It is interesting to note that Walsh's first annual report was made to the Horticul- tural Society and not to the Governor, and was signed by Walsh (1868^:3) as Acting State Entomologist. Walsh was a most interesting person. He was born in Frome, Worcestershire, England, September 21, 1808 (Weiss 1936:234). He was well educated, and, about 1830, received a Master of Arts degree from Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a classmate of Charles Dar- win. He was married in England, and in 1838 he came to America. His wife had relatives in Henry County, Illinois, and he purchased a 300-acre farm in that part of the state. He operated the farm until 1851, when he moved to Rock Island and entered the lumber business. He was not a politician, but in 1858, when he suspected that the city was being cheated by the city council, he placed his name in contention for alderman. His purpose was to get at the city's books. This action did not endear him to some elements of the city, and his life was threatened. Undaunted, he went ahead with a successful campaign, exposed the frauds, and resigned. Although he had made a small collec- tion of insects in England, he publicly had shown no deep interest in entomology until January, 1860, when he lectured for 2 hours to the State Horticultural Society. Thereafter he contributed regularly to the Prairie Farmer and other agricultural journals. Further, in the proceedings of scholarly societies, he published several excellent scientific papers on insects. He collaborated with E. T. Cresson, A. R. Grote, and J. W. McAllister in the pub- lication of a monthly called the Practical Entomologist, which lasted for only 2 years, until September, 1867. In Septem- ber of the following year, Walsh and C. V. Riley started the American Entomolo- gist. On November 12, 1869, as Walsh was walking down a railroad track, busily engrossed in reading a letter, a train ap- proached. When he saw the train, he was too late to clear himself completely, and his left foot was badly injured. The foot was amputated, and to console his wife he said, "Why, don't you see what an ad- vantage a cork foot will be to me when I am hunting bugs in the woods: I can make an excellent pin-cushion of it, and if perchance I lose the cork from one of my bottles, I shall simply have to cut another one out of my foot" (Riley 1869-70:65). He published an article exonerating the engineer from all blame in the accident. He appeared to be recovering well from the accident when suddenly he began to decline, apparently from some internal injurv. He passed away on the 18th of November, 1869. William Le Baron In 1870 Governor John M. Palmer requested William Le Baron to take over the position left vacant by the unfortunate 92 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 death of Walsh. This request was quite unexpected, for entomolojiy was onh an acti\c side interest of this competent physician. ThinjiS which are half-said in history pique the ima^^ination. We find that Dr. Godinji (1885:123), in a biographical sketch of Le Baron, had the following to say: In 1870 two caiuliiiates appeared for the office of Illinois State Entomologist made va- cant liy the untimely death of the lamented W'alsh^Dr. Henry Shinier of Mt. Carroll and Mr. Kmery of the Pruirir 1 aimer, both of whom were well qualified for the position. For reasons that cannot be given at this time, Gov. Palmer refused to appoint either, but named Dr. Le Baron for the place, taking him entirely by surprise. Le Baron was a native of North An- dover, Massachusetts, where he was born October 17, 1814. He came from a line of New England professional people ; his father was a medical doctor and his maternal grandfather was Dr. Thomas Kittredge, a well known and highly re- spected surgeon of his day. Le Baron's calling was decided at an early point in his life. After studying medicine under an uncle, Dr. Joseph Kitt- redge, he practiced for several years in his home town. Later he completed his medi- cal studies and was graduated from the William Le Baron, State Entomologist, 1870-1875. December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 93 Harvard Medical College. In 1844 he moved to Geneva, Illinois, where he con- tinued a successful career as a physician. As a child he was }i;reatly interested in nature, moving from ornitholoj^y to botany to entomoloii;y. In 1850, after 6 years in Illinois, he published his first article, a way. He died on October 14, 1876. The excellence of his four reports is a measure of the hijih ability that Le Baron possessed. Gyrus Thomas The third State Entomologist did not attend college (Coding 1889:106). The Cyrus Thomas, State Entomologist, 1875-1882. treatise on the chinch bug, in the Prairie larmer. This study was so exhaustive that Asa Fitch, the New York State En- tomologist, republished it in his Second Report. In 1865 Le Baron was made the entomological editor of Prairie Farmer. In the position of State Entomologist he labored diligently until his health gave competence Cyrus Thomas attained was the result of his own personal labors. He was a versatile and practical person. He was born in Tennessee, July 27, 1825, and his mother had hoped that he would become a physician. In 1849 he moved to Jackson County, Illinois, where he stud- ied law and taught school. In 1851 he 94 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 was admitted to the bar and was elected county clerk. About 1864 he dropped law and entered the ministry. For some time, Thomas had considered entering the field of science and, as evi- dence of his practicalness, in 1856 he de- liberately began the study of entomology as being a field which was inexpensive and in which there was an abundance of ma- terial close at hand upon which he could work. He became an authority on the Orthoptera. He wrote many articles on entomology, some of which he contributed to farm journals. From 1869 to 1874 he was associated with the federally sponsored Hayden Geo- logical Survey, paying special attention to the entomology and agricultural resources of the West. During this period he pub- lished many reports of entomological significance. In 1874 Thomas was elected to the Professorship of Natural Sciences at Southern Illinois Normal University, whereupon he severed his relationship with the federal survey. The next year, 1875, he was appointed by Governor Richard J. Oglesby to take the place of Dr. Le Baron as State Entomologist. Six re- ports were published by Thomas and his collaborators. On March 3, 1877, the United States Entomological Commission was authorized by Congress. Thomas found time, along with his regular work, to become a mem- ber of this Commission. Other members of the Commission were C. V. Riley and A. S. Packard, Jr. Thomas was not col- laborating with amateurs when he joined these two men on the Commission. Both were giants in the profession—names that still command respect. Riley was State Entomologist for Missouri, as well as a member of the Commission, and the real originator of entomological research in the federal government. Packard was a scholarly gentleman, a member of the National Academy of Sciences and other learned groups, and an author of note in his field. Thomas was a man of real capability, holding, as he did simultaneously, a pro- fessorship at Southern Illinois Normal University, the State Entomologist's re- sponsibility, and membership on the his- toric federal Entomological Commission. Thomas was interested in many things, and in July, 1882, he resigned his various Illinois positions and accepted employ- ment in the Smithsonian Institution's Bu- reau of Ethnology, leaving a brilliant and uncompleted career in entomology. He was to gain further laurels in archeology and to become an authority on the Mayan language. About some things he was adamant. He published a review of Darwin's works from an orthodox view, which so im- pressed the officials of Gettysburg College that they hastened to award him an honor- ary Ph.D. degree. Thomas lived to be 85 years old, pass- ing away on June 27, 1910. He bears a peculiar relationship to the Natural History Survey, for he is credited with having first proposed an Illinois Nat- ural History Society in 1857, and he was a State Entomologist. Thomas was a man of multiple apti- tudes, as the above sketch indicates. He moved his intellect in many fields: school teacher, lawyer, county official, minister, entomologist, explorer, college professor, and archeologist. Stephen Alfred Forbes No one has molded the character of the Natural History Survey so much as Dr. Forbes, a man of irrepressible intellect and insatiable curiosity, and the fourth and last Illinois State Entomologist. Forbes was born of pioneer parentage on May 29, 1844, in Stephenson County, Illinois. He was one of a large family. His father died when he was 10, and a brother assumed the responsibility for an invalid mother, Stephen, and a younger sister. Stephen attended district school un- til he was 14, and his brother carried on his education for 2 more years. For a short time in 1860 he attended Beloit Academy. He had an innate interest in language, and on his own he learned to read French, Spanish, and Italian. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Forbes was 17. He joined Company B, 7th Illinois Cavalry, in September of that year. He rapidly advanced from or- derly to sergeant to lieutenant to captain, reaching the last rank when he was 20. In 1862 he was captured while carrying dispatches near Corinth, Mississippi, and December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 95 Stephen Alfred Forbes in the 1880's, while State Entomologist and Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History at Normal. was in Confederate prisons for 4 months. During this period of enforced idleness he studied Greek from books he managed to buy at Mobile. He participated in 22 military engagements, and, other than suffering from scurvy and malaria while in prison, he emerged from the war unscathed. At the end of hostilities he entered Rush Medical College in Chicago. Be- cause of lack of funds and certain psy- chological difficulties revolving around surgery without anesthesia, he never fin- ished the course. After leaving Rush, he taught school and, on the side, studied natural history. His first publications ap- peared in 1870, and these led to his ap- pointment in 1872 as Curator of the Museum established by the State Natural History Society at Normal. He held this position until 1877, when he was appoint- ed to head the State Laboratory of Na- tural History, the child of the Museum. After the resignation of Thomas as State Entomologist in 1882, Governor Shelby M. Cullom appointed Forbes to that position. In 1884 Indiana University awarded Forbes the Ph.D. degree "by thesis and examination." He did not have a bachelor's degree. In 1885 he moved to 96 Illinois Natural History Survi-y Hui.i.etin \'ol. 27. Art. the University of Illinois, where he was Professor of Zoology and Entomology, Director of the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History, and State Entomologist. He was Professor of Zoology for 25 he directed the first forest surveys of Illi- ' nois. These represent only a few of his innumerable interests. He was a member of many learned so- cieties and the recipient of many honors. Stephen Alfred Forbes in about 1915, shortly before being named Chief of the Illinois Natural History Survey at Urbana. years. Professor of Entomology for 13 years, and Dean of the College of Science for 16 years. He was especially interested in the in- teractions of organisms and has been called "the father of ecology." His inter- ests covered all of biology. He investigat- ed or directed investigations of the food of fishes and birds, the fishes of the state, and the biology of the Illinois River, and Beyond this, he was active in his church, helped organize the first golf club at the University, was a member of a hiking club, and late in life delighted in driving an automobile. On his eightieth birthday he was arrested for speeding, an incident which gave him some pleasure. When the State Laboratory of Natural History and the State Entomologist's Of- fice were united in 1917 to form the Nat- December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 97 ural History Survey, Forbes became the first Chief of the new organization. He held this position until his death, March 13, 1930, when almost 86 years of age. The four sketches above cannot do jus- tice to the entomological pioneers who are their subjects, but they will give some indication of the high quality of the men. All were competent individuals with the State Laboratory Bulletin by Uni- versity staff members. The State Entomologist's responsibili- ties changed as time went on, and the agency became responsible for the admin- istration of some laws, as well as for research (Forbes 1909:64—5). With the discovery of the San Jose scale in Illinois in 1896, there was concern over the pos- fee The Natural History Building on the ITniversity of Illinois campus. About 1894 headquar- ters and laboratories of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and of the State Ento- mologist were moved into this building. From July 1, 1917, until the middle of 1940 it housed the main offices and most of the laboratories of the Illinois Natural History Survey. high standards, even though they came from widely different backgrounds and possessed widely different trainings. (Among the sources of biographical material on Forbes are Anon. 1930, E. B. Forbes 1930, Ward 1930, Howard 1932, Van Cleave 1930, 1947, and Marshall 1956.) Reorganization Forbes administered the State Labora- tory of Natural History and the State Entomologist's Office as a unit, inter- changing personnel and materials. Fur- ther, he made these agencies available to the University of Illinois in many ways, and considerable publishing was done in sible spread of other pests into the state. In 1899 legislation was passed giving the State Entomologist large powers in in- spection, certification, and quarantine. Other duties were added in 1907. According to Forbes (1909:55, 66), in 1909 the staffs of the two agencies con- sisted of the following: State Laboratory of Natural History 1 Director 1 Entomologist 2 Zoological Assistants 1 Artist 1 Secretary Special assistants from time to time State Entomologist's Office 1 State Entomologist 98 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 1 10 Assistants 1 Draftsman 1 Chief Inspector 4 Temporary Inspectors 1 Foreman 12 Laborers Forbes' interest was priniarih in re- search and not in aciniinisterin^ hiws. During! the reorganization of state jjov- ernment under Governor Frank O. Low- den's administration, the chance came to make chanj^es which would brinjj; Forbes' interests into clearer focus. I he State Laboratory of Natural Histor\ and the research activities of the State Kntomolo- {iist were brouj^ht to}j[ether in 1*^17 under a new name, the Natural History Sur- vey. This Survey was placed in the De- partment of Registration and Education along with the two other scientific sur- veys, Geological and Water. The admin- istration of (luarantine laws and the like was transferred to the State Department of Agriculture. NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY We have followed the meanderings of organization from the Illinois Natural Histor\ Society of 1858 through the So- Theodore Henry Prison, Acting Chief, 1930-1931, Chief, 1931-1945, Illinois Natural His- tory Survey. December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 99 ciety's Museum to the Illinois State Lab- oratory of Natural History. We have also discussed the development of the State Entomologist's Office from 1867 and have seen this office united with the State Laboratory in their research duties to form the State Natural History Sur- vey in 1917. A new type of administrative responsi- bility was set up in the Civil Administra- tive Code of 1917, which has remained essentially unchanged to the present time. The Code (Illinois General Assembly 1917:34) stated that: Unless otherwise provided by law, the func- tions and duties formerly exercised by the State entomologist, the State laboratory of natural history, the State water survey and the State geological survey and vested by this Act in the department of registration and education, shall continue to be exercised at the University of Illinois in buildings and places provided by the trustees thereof. Within the Department of Registra- tion and Education was established a Board of Natural Resources and Conser- vation ; this Board is the responsible agent for the activities of the Natural History, Geological, and Water Surveys. The charge (Illinois General Assembly 1917:34) under which this group has worked through the years has been to 1. Consider and decide all matters pertain- ing to natural history, geology, water and water resources, forestry, and allied research, investigational and scientific work ; 2. Select and appoint, without reference to the State civil service law, members of the scientific staff, prosecuting such research, in- vestigational and scientific work; 3. Co-operate with the University of Illi- nois in the use of scientific staff and equipment; 4. Co-operate with the various depart- ments in research, inv'estigational and scien- tific work useful in the prosecution of the work in any department. The Board consists of the Director of the Department of Registration and Edu- cation, who is chairman, the President of the University of Illinois or his repre- sentative, the President of Southern Illi- nois University or his representative, all of whom are ex officio members, and, in addition, experts in the fields of geology, biology, chemistry, forestry, and engineer- ing who must have had a minimum of 10 years of experience in their professions. Expert members are appointed by the Governor and they have traditionally held long appointments. The biological scien- tists who have given or are giving of their time in this important state activity were or are William Trelease, John M. Coul- ter, Henry Cowles, Ezra J. Kraus, Carl G. Hartman, Lewis H. Tiffany, and Al- fred E. Emerson. The present Board consists of Director Vera M. Binks, Dean William L. Everitt (the representative of President David D. Henry of the University of Illinois), President Delyte W. Morris of Southern Illinois University, Dr. Walter H. New- house, Dr. Roger Adams, Mr. Robert H. Anderson, Dr. Lewis H. Tiffany, and Dr. Alfred E. Emerson. The Board meets quarterly, receives reports from the Chiefs, counsels with them on their research programs, appoints their scientists, and examines and approves their budgets. To return now to 1917: When the re- organization took place, Forbes, who was Director of the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History and State Entomologist, was retained as Chief of the Natural His- tory Survey. He remained as Chief until his death in 1930, and was extremely alert mentally until 9 days before his death. Not long after the turn of the century. Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of Illinois Department of Entomology was walking down a street in Urbana when he discovered a youngster who was en- grossed in observing a colony of ants. Folsom engaged the boy in conversation and was impressed with his interest and knowledge. Thus began a close and per- sonal relationship between Dr. Folsom and young Theodore Henry Frison. Frison was born in Champaign, Illi- nois, on January 17, 1895, and was edu- cated in the schools of that city. Through Dr. Folsom he became acquainted with Dr. Forbes, and these two scientists al- lowed the boy to attend University courses prior to high school graduation (Campbell 1946). Frison was in the army for a short time in 1918, after which he returned to the University, which award- ed him all of his degrees. After short pro- fessional appointments in Wisconsin and New Jersey, and upon receiving his Ph.D. degree, he joined the staff of the Natural 100 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. History Survey as Systematic Entomolo- gist. This was in 1923. Upon Forbes' death in 1930, Prison was made Acting Chief, and on July 1. 1931, he was ap- pointed Chief. Prison was an indefatigable worker, becoming a specialist in bumble bees, concluded that it would be essential that the\- attempt to obtain funds for a sepa- rate building. In this attempt they were successful. The University assigned an area for the building, and in 1940 the two Surveys began the move into a new Natural Resources Building, built for I Leo Roy Tehon, Acting Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey, 1945-1947. aphids, and stoneflies. His tenure as Chief was marked by growth in staff and facili- ties. In the 1930's the growth of his or- ganization was such that it was difficult to find space for the personnel in the rooms which the University could devote to use of the Natural History Survey. Dr. Prison and Dr. M. M. Leighton, Chief of the Illinois Geological Survey, conferred on the problems of space and their occupancy. The building, and subse- quent wings which were completed in 1950. were given to the University and added to that organization's inventory. For the first time, the Natural History Survey had a home which it could really call its own. Prison had wide interests, and immedi- ately upon becoming Chief he began the development of wildlife research. This December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 101 field, as a separate discipline, was new. He was instrumental in organizing the Midwest Wildlife Conference, the initial meeting of which was held in Urbana in 1935. Also he was a charter member of the Wildlife Society. The stafF of the Natural History Sur- vey increased from 16 in 1930 to 38 at the beginning of World War II. In intellect and aggressive enthusiasm, Prison was a worthy successor of Forbes. He made many contributions to knowl- edge. He was a member of many learned societies and was given positions of re- sponsibility in them. Beyond that, he was a golf and tennis player, a fine violinist, and had a great interest in art, history, and current affairs. It was a loss to the Natural History Survey, and to science, when he passed away December 9, 1945, after 15 profit- able years as Chief. On December 10, 1945, Dr. Leo R. Tehon was appointed Acting Chief, a position which he held until February 28, 1947. Tehon was a meticulous scholar. He was not only a fine plant pathologist and mycologist, but also a good linguist and musician (Carter 1955, Avars 1956). On March 1, 1947, Dr. Harlow B. Mills, the present incumbent, took over the duties of Chief. THE FUTURE Throughout its century of existence, this organization has attempted to meet the needs of the economy of Illinois with an eye to the state's future requirements. The Board has appointed scientists with broad views and excellent training, men who were not satisfied with the present but who had a strong interest in the future. A half century ago Forbes (1907r:892) wrote, "I shall be governed by the reflection that we are to-day look- ing forward and not back—that we are preparing for the future and not studying the past— . . ." The same fresh view should govern us at the end of 100 years. The problems in nature are ever chang- ing, or, rather, our needs from and ap- proach to nature are ever changing. There are new demands and new approaches. New research techniques require re-eval- uation of what has been done. In agricul- ture there are new crops and new meth- ods of raising them. New plant diseases appear. New insect pests invade the state. New demands are made for recreation. New advances in pure scientific knowl- edge must be made. All of these demands and approaches require the attention of the research specialist. All are inextri- cably bound up in the future. A scientist who looks only to the past is professionally dead. Perhaps the greatest challenge of the future lies in the indisputable fact that human populations in the world — and that includes Illinois— are increasing. The demands which these people make on their environment are increasing more rapidly than are the people themselves! For most of our food and living room we are dependent on that surface which marks the boundary between the earth and the atmosphere, on that surface upon which the sun's rays strike. We are de- pendent on it for our food and for our relaxation. More people mean greater food demand and greater need for remov- ing ourselves periodically from the intri- cacies of a complex civilization. More peo- ple mean a reduction in space for both of these necessities. This is the dilemma of the future. As the years roll by and the population statistics pile up, our de- pendence for existence on our living re- sources constantly becomes greater, and our dependence on the research scientist in fields of interest to the Natural His- tory Survey becomes a complete necessity. Now, in 1958, we are concerned about the great strides made by the physical sciences. These advances have great po- tential for good and tremendous potential for human destruction. International scientific competition has raised its head. If the deleterious side of this physical science development is kept in check, we can be sure that the need for sustaining humanity, both physically and spiritually, will be colossal in the years ahead. We hear in 1958 of "crash programs" to develop in the shortest possible time certain phases of physical science applica- tion. When the collective human popula- tion of the United States has to tighten its collective belt just one small notch, we will hear of a "crash program" the like of which has not as yet even been 102 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Harlow Burgess Mills, Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey, 1947 to date. conceived. And when that time comes, the Natural History Survey will be called on for even greater activity. In closing this discussion, it would be well to call attention to a House Joint Resolution introduced in the Seventieth General Assembly of the State of Illinois by Representatives Ora Dillavou, Charles Clabaugh, and Leo Pfeffer (Illinois House of Representatives 1957). The Resolution reads as follows : Whereas, On June 30, 1858, a group of far-sighted citizens of this State met at Bloomington and organized the Illinois State Natural History Society which was incorpo- rated in 1861 by an Act of the legislature; and Whereas, In 1877 the name of the so- ciety was changed to the State Laboratory of Natural History, and in 1885 the laboratory was moved to Urbana where it was placed under the direction of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois; and Whereas, The State Laboratory of Nat- ural History and the research activities of the State Entomologist's ofHce were united in 1917 to form the State Natural History Sur- vey Division of the Department of Registra- tion and Education ; and Whereas, The Natural History Survey has rendered outstanding service in the field of natural history, especially in regard to the control of noxious insects, the control of December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 103 diseases attacking floricultural and ornamen- tal plants, the development of forestry in Illinois, the management of fishes in ponds and streams, the foods and movement of waterfowl in this State, the problems of up- land game species, and the periodic report of species which are especially endangered, such as the prairie chicken and wood duck ; and Whereas, The following world recog- nized scientists and scholars have been as- sociated with the wonderful work of the Natural History Survey: Stephen A. Forbes, Robert E. Richardson, David S. Jordan, Frank C. Baker, Charles A. Kofoid, Robert Ridgway, Benjamin D. Walsh, Wesley P. Flint, Victor E. Shelford, Theodore H. Frison, and Leo R. Tehon ; and Whereas, Since 1858 the Natural His- tory Survey has received wide recognition for its contributions to society, has gained the respect of scientists throughout the world, has brought considerable prestige to this State, and, above all, has contributed immeasurably to the welfare of all the people of this State; and Whereas, The 100th anniversary of the Natural History Survey will be celebrated in 1958; therefore, be it Resolved, By the House of Representatives of the Seventieth General Assembly of the State of Illinois, the Senate conciirrine/ herein, that this Oeneral Assembly, on behalf of all the people of this State, extend heartiest con- gratulations and sincere appreciation to the staff, members and employees of the State Natural History Survey Division, on the oc- casion of their 100th anniversary, for the outstanding contributions they have made to- ward the growth and development of this State; that we extend to them a wish for continued success and progress in the future, and that a suitable copy of this preamble and resolution be forwarded to the chief of the Stat? Natural Historv Survey Division, Mr. Harlow B. Mills. Economic Entomology G P: O R G E C . DECKER "\X7'HKN settlers moved into the lUi- nois country, established homesites, and be^an to till the virgin soil, they found that hundreds of species of insects nati\e to the area readily transferred their affections from wild plants to culti- vated crops, at times in hordes sufficient to destro\' the crops completely. It was inevitable that the Illinois settlers, like the eastern colonists, had brouf2;ht certain pests along with them. The hitch-hiking pests included the codling moth in apjile barrels, the hessian fly in straw used as packing material, bedbugs in bedding, and lice on the bodies of the settlers. As if these were not enough, other migrants, such as the Colorado potato beetle, the imported cabbage butterfly, the cotton leafworm, the San Jose scale, the Nor- way rat, and the fleas thereon, invaded the area. They were followed in later years by such notorious insect pests as the oriental fruit moth, the European corn borer, the sweet clover weevil, the Mexi- can bean beetle, and the Japanese bee- tle. The early Illinois settlers were a hardy, self-sufficient, and determined lot, gener- ally not rich but for the most part thrifty and aggressive. They took pride in the fact that they were skilled in the agricul- tural arts of their day. At the same time, they admitted that the problem of coping with the many insect pests that damaged their crops, annoyed their livestock, and in- vaded their homes was beyond their com- prehension. They sought the aid of neigh- bors, school teachers, doctors, and local amateur naturalists, who in turn sought the counsel and advice of Fitch, Harris, and other entomologists located in the far-ofif New England and Atlantic coastal states. When these sources of informa- tion proved inadequate, the settlers ap- pealed to the state legislature to appro- priate funds and to appoint a state ento- mologist to study what appeared to be the most perplexing of all their problems. On February 27, 1867, the Illinois Gen- eral Assembly created the office of State Entomologist. EARLY HISTORY Pleasant surprises await the curious who attempt to assay the extent and use- fulness of man's knowledge of insects, their habits, and control measures in the 1850's and 1860's. It is gratifying to note that local, self-trained entomologists such as Walsh, Le Baron, Thomas, Shimer, and Riley had collected and identified hundreds of species and that they possessed a remarkable knowledge of the life cycle and ecology of perhaps three-fourths of the economic species ordinarily included in any current list of noxious insects in the Midwest. Le Baron (1871:5-6) sum- marized the situation as he saw it at that time: The history of many of our noxious insects, and especially the most notorious of them, has been pretty thoroughly traced, not only hy the entomologists expressly employed by several of the States for this purpose, but also by many other active gleaners in this field. Still, any one who enters upon the study of this extensive subject, soon finds work enough upon his hands. It cannot be said that the history of any insect is perfectly and absolutely known, and it is a notorious fact that some of the insects which have been longest known and studied, such as the Plum Curculio and the Apple Worm, are the very ones which are causing the most damage to the horticulturist at the present day; and if we take into account the multitude of insects which are preying upon our shade and ornamental trees and shrubs, which, in the estimation of many, are scarcely inferior in value to the fruit bearing trees, we may safely conclude that the prospect is very remote when the work of the practical ento- mologist will cease or materially diminish. And the force of this view is greatly enhanced by the [occurrence], every year, to a greater or less extent, of new species of noxious in- sects, or rather of insects which, having ex- isted here or elsewhere in moderate numbers, from time immemorial, have suddenly sprung into destructive profusion in consequence of an abundant supply of congenial food, or the ab- sence of their natural enemies, or other condi- tions favorable to life, some of which are known, and some of which are obscure or in- [104] December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 105 scrutable. The Colorado Potato-beetle, the Currant Saw-fly, the Asparagus-beetle, and the Bruclius granarius; to which we might adrl the Pear-caterpillar {Callimorpha Lrcnntri) , and the Lesser Apple-leaf folder ( Tnrtrix malk'orana,) treated of in the following re- port, were all unknown here as noxious in- sects until within the last few years. It is true that some noxious insects, on the other hand, have greatly diminished, and some, which have been the sorest scourges of the orchardist, such for example, as the notorious Bark-louse of the apple tree, seem to be in the process of ex- tinction. Walsh and the others acquired much of their knowledge through their own ob- servations and experience, but obviously they were familiar with most of the world literature on the subject. Furthermore, it seems reasonably certain that then, as now, much unpublished knowledge on the subject was transmitted from individual to individual through correspondence and conversation, some of it even as tradition. We know that pioneer naturalists ob- tained considerable information from the Indians. For example, the English ex- plorer, Jonathan Carver (1778:493-4) wrote of his travels among the American Indians in 1766: I must not omit that the LOCUST [grasshop- per] is a septennial insect, as they are only seen, a small number of stragglers excepted, every seven years, when they infest these parts and the interior colonies in large swarms, and do a great deal of mischief. One may be more than a little sur- prised to discover that several local ama- teur naturalists—doctors, lawyers, college professors, orchardists, and agricultural- ists, never referred to as or considered to be entomologists—knew many of the common insects by name and possessed a knowledge of their biology and habits adequate to permit these men to engage in lengthy and intelligent discussions on the subject at meetings of agricultural and horticultural societies. For example, Dr. E. G. Mygatt (1855), a physician, wrote an essay, "Bark Louse of the Apple Tree," for the first Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society, 1853- 54, and J. B. Turner (1859), a professor of Latin and Greek, presented a paper, "Microscopic Insects," at the first meet- ing of the Illinois Natural History Soci- ety in 1858. It is interesting to note that at this time two men, Le Baron (1855) and Thomas (1859rt), each one later ap- pointed to the office of State Entomolo- gist, were presenting papers on Illinois birds and other topics in the field of nat- ural history. In the light of these pleasant surprises, one is amazed to realize that the com- bined knowledge of all the experts w\is almost nil when it came to questions of practical control measures that could be employed to eliminate these pests or even to reduce materially the annual losses attributable to them. It is possible that the paucity of practical information can best be understood if we recall that for many years it was believed well-nigh sac- rilegious for a scientist to consider the practical application of his accumulated knowledge; as the distinguished Professor Louis Agassiz (1863:24) once said, "the man of science who follows his studies into their practical application is false to his calling." Local and national repudiation of this philosophy contributed to the industrial and agrarian crusades that resulted in creation of state entomologists' offices and land grant colleges. Touching upon the new philosophy of science and educa- tion in addressing the founders of the Illinois Natural History Societv at their first meeting in 1858, Turner (1859: 647) said: In respect, also, to those grosser forms of vegetable and animal life, it seems to me that our research should in future aim more di- rectly at practical utility than in the past. We are quite too content with mere descrip- tion of forms and names, sometimes, without pushing our inquiries into the causes, relations and uses, and evils of things. . . . We need not simply to christen all these things—not simply to name the beasts, but also to rule over them, as did our great father Adam; and, also, all other forms of matter. And we cannot do this till we know minutely their history, habits and relations to other things and beings. The grand end to be aimed at, in reference to most forms of fungi and parasites of all sorts, is their prevention or destruction. But a vast amount of minute antecedent knowledge is needed before we can hope to say, "thus far and no farther," even to one single race or tribe, much more to the vast myriad of races and tribes. Benjamin Walsh, the first State Ento- mologist of Illinois, was in full accord with the views of Turner. In addressing 106 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 a incetinii at Cobden, Illinois, in No- \cmber, 1867, he said: I do not regret to say that I belong to the modern school of science, and think it no deg- radation, so far as my specialty is concerned, to bring science to the aid of practical men in the related departments of human industry. .And I need not tell you, for you know, that insects pick your pockets, and that to fight them successfullv it is necessary to know their habits and how to distinguish friends from foes (Walsh 1868rt:143). Cyrus Thomas subscribed to the new philosophy several years before he became State Entomologist. And the study of natural history is a useful study, having many direct practical advan- tages. Agriculture is the pedestal on which the stately fortunes of bankers and merchant kings are reared, and as the pedestal contracts or expands, so rises or falls the lofty column (Thomas 1859^:667). Therefore, we say, that natural history should be studied for the practical use made of the knowledge obtained. And, if it be a study so desirable and so useful, the question arises. Should not the study be c/enerally intro- duced into our schools and coUcgesf I answer, most emphatically, yes! There is no other branch of physics, nor any branch of metaphysics so important and so necessary to be studied in the school room as natural his- tory. And I am glad to see that quite a num- ber of institutions have ventured to cross the Rubicon; yet others are halting at the brink, fearful of the result (Thomas 1859fl:668). Thus, the first and third State Ento- mologists publicly expressed their views. They took office dedicated to the task of assisting the residents of the state of Illi- nois to find practical solutions for their numerous and complex entomological problems. Their successors followed the same course. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS Change is eternal in the insect world ; thus, it appears that the need for contin- ued study of insects will never end. This situation may be confusing to laymen, but entomologists and others who have closely studied nature realize that insects are dynamic creatures subject to constant change in characteristics. Because of their great mutability, insects have sur- vived in an ever-changing world for mil- lions of years and are still capable of making the necessary adjustments tol many of the important changes in their] environment. Most of the important eco- logical changes in an area or community! are accompanied by changes in the insect] fauna; some species drop out and others] move in. Every agricultural practice adopted or] discarded by man induces a significant en- vironmental change or modification which! will favorably or unfavorably affect in- sects and, for that matter, all other living] organisms in the area involved. Changes] in crop rotations, fertilization practices, pruning, or drainage will prove favorable] for some species and unfavorable for oth- ers. At the time the Office of State Ento-j mologist was established in Illinois, fruit] and vegetable crops could not be econom- ically produced and marketed in the state] without reasonably effective insect con- trol. Since the high per acre value of such! crops seemed to warrant expenditures fori insect control, Illinois producers of these crops demanded and received a large] share of the Entomologist's time. As the! nature and magnitude of insect losses inj other agricultural and nonagriculturalj areas became more apparent and better] understood, pressures from a multitude of] other sources necessitated a realignment] and much greater diversification of ento-J mological research. Space will not permit enumeration and] full discussion of all the insect problems] that have arisen to plague Illinois farm- ers in the past century and it will not] allow a detailed review of the thousands] of printed pages that have been used to] record the findings of research conducted! during this period. Therefore, in the] brief resume that follows we confine ourj attention to a few specific examples. Fruit Insects In 1868 an editor of The American\ Entomologist, probably Walsh, sum- marized the fruit insect situation as fol- lows : It is notorious among fruit growers, that the] Curculio has now almost entirely vetoed the! cultivation of the plum; and of late years this! pernicious little Snout-beetle has extended its| ravages to the peach, and even to the apple and pear, to say nothing of those rarer and] December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 107 choicer fruits, the nectarine and the apricot. The strawberry and the grape vine are in- fested by a host of insects, some of them known for many years back to science, others de- scribed and illustrated for the first time by the editors of this paper in various publications ; while there are still others the natural history of which has never yet been published to the world, and which will be figured and described bv the editors in the progress of this work. What with the Bark-louse in the North, the Apple-root Plant-louse in the South and the .\pple-worm everywhere, the apple crop in North America is gradually becoming almost as uncertain and precarious as the plum crop (Walsh & Riley 1868rt:l). To show that the testimony of an ento- mologist was not biased and that the con- ditions described above were more or less general, we may note a comment made by the eminent journalist Horace Greele\' (1870:301): If I were to estimate the average loss per an- num of the farmers of this country from insects at $100,000,000, I should doubtless be far be- low the mark. The loss of fruit alone by the devastations of insects, within a radius of fifty miles from this city, must amount in value to millions. . . . We must fight our paltry ad- versaries more efficiently, or allow them to drive us wholly from the field. The first white settlers in Illinois ob- served that the native fruits—plums, grapes, haws, and berries—were subject to attack by a variety of insects. More than three-fourths of the species recog- nized as fruit pests today were recognized and mentioned in agricultural or horti- cultural reports and farm journals prior to 1870. The plum curculio, for exam- ple, was to be found in every plum thicket and, when improved varieties of plums were introduced, the curculio took to them like ducks to water. In discussing plum culture at a fruit growers' meeting in 1852, a Mr. Brewster reported that for 4 years the curculio had destroyed his plum crop. Then followed a general dis- cussion of proposed control measures, such as jarring, banding, paving, and using lime, soap suds, and chamber lye. The following year a similar report pro- voked a repetition of the members' favor- ite control measures, but by then two gen- tlemen had the answer: Just fence the plum orchard and turn in chickens (J. A. Kennicott 1855:296, 314-5). The idea of using chickens for control of curculio paralleled a suggestion made by a Mr. Harkness at a horticultural meeting in 1853: Some twelve years since, a neighbor of his en- closed a wild plum thicket, as a yard for swine; trees bore full crops every year; never troubled by curculio, whilst other thickets about had fruit nearly all destroyed by them. Four years since the hogs were turned out, and the ground appropriated to other uses; the first year after, the fruit was mostly destroyed by curculio (J. A. Kennicott 1855:314). Gradually certain members of the cur- culio tribe developed a liking for related stone fruits and even apples. In his first and only report as State Entomologist, Walsh (1868/^:64) noted: Although the Curculio now infests the culti- vated species of Plum {Pruntts domestica, Lin- naeus,) to fully as great an extent as our com- mon wild species [Prunus amertcana,) yet it is oidy at a comparatively recent date that it attacked our cultivated Plums, and since that epoch it has been growing every year worse and worse, and making onslaughts upon other fruits, such as the Peach, the Cherry, and even the Apple. For 20 to 30 years the use of Hull's curculio catcher or similar devices to jar curculios out of infested trees, so that the insects could be destroyed, and the use of hogs and chickens confined to the or- chards to consume infested fruits as they fell were the two principal, and perhaps the only meritorious, control measures. One should note, however, that farm, journals carried glowing advertisements for numerous concoctions, which were almost worthless or which did more harm than good. The successful use of insecticides for the control of the plum curculio on peach and other stone fruits did not materialize until lead arsenate came into the picture in the late 1890's, because the more solu- ble arsenic compounds—white arsenic, Paris green, and London purple—then available nroved too phytotoxic for use on such delicate foliage as that of peach, plum, and cherry. With the aid of im- proved insecticide formulations, spray schedules, and equipment developed through years of continued research, Illi- nois orchardists were able to hold their own with the curculio until a crisis de- veloped during World War II. Then as labor and other overhead costs increased and lead arsenate becaine less effective, 108 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 many peach growers, after a few years in the red, pulled up their trees and aban- doned production. A hope that DDT would control plum curculio faded quick- ly, but BHC became available just in time to save the peach-growing industry. BHC was short-lived as an insecticide for plum curculio control ; it was replaced by more eftective and less objectionable materials such as chlordane, dieldrin, and parathion. However, it was BHC that saved the day for a number of orchardists. Orchards that could have been bought for a song, and a poor one at that, in the fall of 1946 and spring of 1947 were not for sale in 1948. After a century of research by the Nat- ural History Survey and its parent or- ganizations, we find the plum curculio is, for the moment at least, very well under control. Surveys conducted in 32 com- mercial peach orchards for the past 5 years showed that at harvest time less than 1 per cent of the fruit was infested or dam- aged by this weevil. Other insects of the peach that have required research attention include the oriental fruit moth, a group of sucking insects responsible for an injury known as catfacing, the peach tree borers, and at least three species of scale insects. For- tunately these, too, are successfully con- trolled by currently available measures. Even so, peach growers insist that the entomologist will have to find more eco- nomical control measures, or the high cost of producing peaches will put the growers out of business. The codling moth (mentioned by Walsh as the "Apple-worm"), unques- tionably the No. 1 apple insect in Illinois, apparently arrived in eastern United States from Europe about 1800 and made its first appearance in Illinois about 1850. In 1869, while checking his theory that this insect had been a hitch-hiker in apple barrels, Walsh reportedly found about 200 cocoons in a single barrel. The cod- ling moth wasted no time in becoming adapted to its new environment. In the early transactions of the horticultural and agricultural societies and in pioneer farm journals, there are numerous references to the ravages of this insect. For example, in the first issue of The American Entomol- ogist in September, 1868, we read: Jotham Bradbury, residing near Quincy, III., has an old apple orchard, which many years ago used invariably to produce nothing but wormy and gnarly fruit. A few years ago he plowed up this orchard and seeded it to clover, by way of hog pasture. As soon as the clover had got a sufficient start, he turned in a gang of hogs, and has allowed them the range of his orchard ever since. Two years after the land was plowed the apple trees produced a good crop of fair, smooth fruit, and have continued to bear well ever since (Walsh & Riley 1868/^:4-5). In the same article, further extolling the value of hogs, we read : But the plum curculio and its allies are not the only insects that we can successfully attack through the instrumentality of the hog; neither is stone fruit the only crop that can be pro- tected in this manner. For the last fifteen years or so, pip fruit, namely, apples, pears, and quinces, have been annually more or less deteriorated by the apple worm or larva of the codling moth boring into their cores, and filling their flesh with its loathsome excrement (Walsh & Riley 1868/;:3). In addressing the Southern Illinois Fruit Growers Association in 1867, Pres- ident Parker Earle (1868:137) said: The curculio and the tree borers have been dibcuised at length in our former meetings, but the codling moth—which threatens us even greater damage than the curculio—has re- ceived little attention. There is some hope that great promptness and energy may save us from the terrible devastation which this moth has wrought in all the older States, and in the older fruit-growing neighborhoods of Illinois. Its damage to the apple crop of the country each passing year should be reckoned at mil- lions of dollars. From all sections we have the same sad story of "the apples dropping prema- turely"—"the apples mostly wormy"—"the ap- ple crop used up," by the codling worm. In many districts of the East where apples were once abundant they now entirely fail, because of the worms, and they not only threaten the destruction of the apple crop of the country, the whole country, but pears seem equally exposed. In many sections of the West nine-tenths of the pears are reported spoiled by the codling moth. The comments of Earle and other early horticultural leaders clearly establish the codling moth as the outstanding pest of apples in Illinois in the third quarter of the nineteenth century. From 1850 to 1870 the pasturing of hogs in the or- chards and the use of straw or cloth bands around the tree trunks to trap larvae for later destruction were about the only con- trol measures of established merit. Even December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 109 these measures were only partially effec- tive, and a large percentage of the apples harvested showed insect damage. In fact, the situation was so bad that the fruit judges at county fairs protested the ad- mission of fruit damaged by codling moth, and eventually a rule was passed that the unmistakable evidence of codling moth damage or the presence of San Jose scale disqualified a fruit for competition. In- secticides did not come into the picture until after the value of Paris green had been established for the control of the Colorado potato beetle and a number of other pests. In his third report as State Entomolo- gist, Le Baron (1873:172) recommended only cultural practices for control of the codling moth : PRACTICAL TREATMENT. This may be reduced to the four following heads: 1st. Destroying the insects in their winter quarters. 2d. Picicing the wormy apples from the trees. 3d. Gathering the wormy apples from the ground, or letting swine and sheep have the range of the orchard. 4th. Entrapping the worms in bands and other contrivances. To which may be added the help to be de- rived from their natural enemies. In his previous report, Le Baron (1872:116) had mentioned the use of Paris green to control cankerworms on apple, and this may in part have led to the subsequent work by Forbes and oth- ers for control of codling moth on apple. We find but few references to trials with Paris green on crops in 1867 and the following decade. In 1880, however, with repeated warnings that suitable precau- tions must be observed, large-scale testing of Paris green and its companion, London purple, got under way. After 2 years (1885-1886) of experimentation, Forbes (1889:15) concluded: The experiments above described seem to me to prove that at least seventy per cent of the loss commonly suffered by the fruit grower from the ravages of the codling moth or apple worm may be prevented at a nominal expense, or, practically, in the long run, at no expense at all, by thoroughly applying Paris green in a spray with water, once or twice in early spring, as soon as the fruit is fairly set, and not so late as the time when the growing apple turns downward on the stem. He presented data showing that, in 1885, 68 per cent of the unsprayed apples were wormy, whereas only 21 per cent of the sprayed apples were wormy, and, in 1886, 40 per cent of the unsprayed apples were wormy and 12 per cent of the sprayed fruit. When lead arsenate became avail- able about 1895, entomologists began ex- perimenting with it, and for the next 30 to 40 years practically all codling moth research centered around attempts to improve formulations and spray sched- ules involving the use of this chemical. Between 1915 and 1918, in seven sep- arate studies, Illinois entomologists found that in unsprayed blocks fruit ranged from 9 to 84 per cent wormy and aver- aged 45 per cent wormy, whereas in the blocks sprayed with improved lead arse- nate formulations the fruit ranged from 1 to 20 per cent wormy and averaged 4.4 per cent wormy. With what appeared to be a satisfac- tory control measure working reasonably well year after year, entomologists and fruit growers alike became more or less complacent, only to be shocked by a dou- ble-barrelled attack. The codling moth began to show evidences of resistance to arsenical sprays, and, as dosage rates and numbers of applications were increased, the United States Food and Drug Ad- ministration began to bear down on lead and arsenic tolerances. The next three decades might be characterized as a pe- riod of mad scramble for cover. Attempts were made to find ( 1 ) ways to remove spray residues, (2) suitable substitute materials, (3) ways to synergize insecti- cidal action without increasing residues, and (4) better sanitation and other non- chemical procedures. Research did well to hold its own, during this critical pe- riod, until DDT came into the picture at the close of World War II. The success of DDT in controlling the codling moth was spectacular, and within 2 A^ears the growers' clamor for more work on codling moth control faded. A review of research data and the re- sults of harvest surveys made the past 3 years show that now 33 to 94 per cent of the fruit in unsprayed apple orchards is wormy, approximately the same percent- ages as in the 1860's, 1880's, and the sec- ond decade of the present century. In 1 no Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 contrast, we find that in sprayed orchards a dozen important scale insects alone 0.03 to 7.6 per cent, or an average of 2.2 One scale insect of great importance is i per cent, of the fruit is \vorm\ . Thus, we find that, in spite of adversities and re- verses, continued research has developed control measures that have enabled apple growers to reduce the percentage of the San Jose scale, which was introduced into California from China about 1880 and into Illinois about 1895. For a time this scale threatened to wipe out the Illi- nois commercial fruit industry. Parasites, Spraying equipment designed and used about 1897 by the State Entomologist and his assist- ants for experiments on control of San Jose scale. "The principal apparatus used is a large and complicated machine sprayer consisting of a one-horse power gasoline engine, a three-cylinder force pump, and a large double galvanized-iron tank with a powerful gasoline heater beneath for making the solution of whale-oil soap" (Forbes 1900:14). The sprayer was mounted on a two-horse baggage wagon. worm-damaged apples from possibly 60 to 100 per cent in 1867 to 21 per cent in 1885, 4.4 per cent in 1915, and 2.2 per cent in 1957. If it appears that entomologists have devoted too much attention to this one insect, let us recall that codling moth re- search has been the traditional guinea pig for the study of many insect control pro- cedures, and that the measures developed for the control of the codling moth for the most part have given satisfactory con- trol of a considerable number of other pests of apples. A list of the insects attacking fruit crops in Illinois would no doubt include 100 or more species. There are at least predators, and diseases have played an im- portant role in holding this insect at bay, but for over 50 years orchardists have found it necessary to apply a dormant spray or some other special treatment to bring this insect under control. As late as 1950, Illinois apple growers seemed to agree that if the use of sprays was to be forbidden San Jose scale would eliminate commercial orchards within 5 years. This insect, perhaps more than any other, has been responsible for the development of a strong plant inspection and quarantine system in Illinois, and, for that matter, in other states as well. Here we have an insect that can barely survive on wild or neglected trees but that thrives on young, December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 11 vigorously growing orchard trees—an ex- cellent example of how man creates, or at least aggravates, his own insect problems. The more man prunes and fertilizes, the more certain he is to develop a serious San Jose scale problem. Truck Crop Pests An article, probably by Walsh, pub- lished in 1869 makes it clear that at an early date a host of insects were recog- nized as important pests of a wide vari- ety of vegetable crops : There is scarcely a vegetable raised in our gardens that is not preyed upon by one or more grubs, caterpillars, or maggots, so that, when we eat it, we have positively no security that we are not mingling animal with vegeta- ble food. Two distinct kinds of maggots, pro- ducing two distinct species of two-winged Fly, burrow in the bulb of the onion. Scabby po- tatoes are inhabited by a more elongated maggot, producing a very different kind of two-winged Fly, and also by several minute species of Mites. Turnips, beets, carrots and parsnips are each attacked by peculiar larvae. And as to the multifarious varieties of the cabbage, not only are they often grievously infested by the Cabbage Plant-louse—a species which has been introduced from Europe into this country—but also by an imported cater- pillar producing a small moth, and by several indigenous caterpillars producing much larger moths, some of which caterpillars, when full- grown, are over one inch long (Walsh & Rilev 1869:114). Why the article failed to include the corn earworm, the squash vine borer, the cucumber beetles, and the melon louse is hard to say, for they were numbered among the best known pests at the time. One is amazed that the Colorado potato beetle was not mentioned, because this species was the most spectacular insect pest of vegetable crops in Illinois in the latter half of the 1860's. Presumably, prior to 1850 the Colorado potato beetle was unknown except as an interesting species found only in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, where it fed on a wild potato somewhat resembling the common horse nettle. When the pioneers planted Irish potato and egg plant in Nebraska and Colorado, the beetle found these closely related plants to its liking, in- creased its numbers many fold, and took off for the East, flying from one settler's potato patch to another's. Here again we have an example of how man may create his own insect control problems. The in- troduction of a crop highly attractive to a native insect invites this insect to trans- fer its affections to the newly introduced crop. The potato beetle transferred its affections from its native host to the in- troduced potato. It seems quite probable that the potato beetle's many natural en- emies did not travel eastward but con- tinued searching for it in its old haunts. With an abundance of lush, nutritious potato vines and a temporary release from its natural control agencies, the Colorado potato beetle, in the vernacular of today, "went to town" until a new system of checks and balances could be established. The eastward movement of the potato beetle was first noted in eastern Colorado in 1859. It did not appear in Illinois un- til 1864. Damaging populations of this beetle were reported in several Illinois counties in 1865. Some of the tales of wholesale potato destruction related in the local press and the Prairie Farmer were downright pathetic: "Let every man and woman in the country or in town, who has a potato patch, try experi- ments for the destruction of these pests and report progress. Something must be done to stop the destruction of the vines by these in- satiate creatures or we may as well quit trying to raise potatoes" (Cedar Valley, Iowa, Times, quoted by Riley 1866:432). I know of several cases near Rock Island, Illi- nois, where the owners of potato-patches, after persevering in a course of hand-picking for fully a month, finally gave up in despair, be- cause as fast as they killed off their own bugs, a fresh supply from their neighbors' potato- patches kept flying in upon them (Walsh 1866:14). All accounts seem to agree that neither lime, nor ashes, nor any available external applica- tion is of the least use in checking the depre- dations of this insect. The Prairie Farmer says that "Mr. Jones found, after many experi- ments, that neither hot lime, lime-water, brine, tobacco-water, wine (?) nor sulphur had any effect on them ; that turpentine, benzine and kerosene would kill them when copiously ap- plied, hut also killed the potatoes" and that "coal-oil mixed with water is ineffectual." . . . Although there is some contradictory evi- dence, yet the general result of all the testi- mony is, that neither domestic fowls, nor ducks, nor turkeys will eat them, at all events to any very extensive amount (Walsh 1866:14). Hand picking, or the manual collection and destruction of the beetles, their lar- vae, and their eggs, was about the only really effective control measure. During 112 Ilunois Natural History Survky HullI'Tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 the next several decades, it was said of many a farm boy who had risen to a prominent position, "He made his first dime collecting potato bugs on his grand- father's farm"—not his father's farm, for there, in accord with the tradition of the The value of predators and parasites was not overlooked, and at times dilifer- ent kinds of poultry, particularly turkeys, were noted as effective control agents. Hellebore, London purple, and calcium arsenate were later added to the list of Spraying equipment developed in recent years by entomologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey for the control of the corn earworm and the European corn borer on sweet corn and field corn. day, he performed the task without com- pensation as a member of the family. Many potato growers experimented with Paris green applied in several ways, and by 1870 dusting plants with a mix- ture of Paris green and flour or lime was quite generally accepted as the most ef- fective remedy available. However, there were many growers who were fearful of the poisonous properties of the arsenical compounds and they continued to place their trust in hand picking. Some grow- ers went so far as to design rather elab- orate mechanical devices which they mounted on skids and dragged up and down the rows to beat the beetles from the plants and collect them in pans, trays, or boxes, where the beetles could be de- stroyed. insecticides recommended for control of the Colorado potato beetle. As the potato leafhopper, aphids, blight, and other pests attracted increased attention, a variety of insecticide and fungicide combinations came into common use. Research pro- duced minor improvements in formula- tions and methods of application that en- hanced the effectiveness or economy of control measures, but there was no sub- stantial or basic change in control pro- cedures or practices until the advent of DDT in 1946. While potato growers and entomologists alike had been inclined to feel that the control measures in use in the early 1940's left little to be de- sired, they apparently overlooked or gross- ly underestimated the damage inflicted by the insects, for within 2 years after I December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 113 DDT came into general use the per-acre potato yields practically doubled. Numerous early reports indicate that the pioneer cabbage grower had to con- tend with about the same insects that plague the cabbage grower of today, but the pioneer had no arsenal of effective in- secticides. Lime, lye, and ash mixtures advocated by some growers were of little use except in those cases where the plants were so heavily coated with one of the mixtures that physical contact between the insect and the plant was practically impossible. The scalding water drench proposed by some persons was at times of value, but was very apt to damage the plants. The arsenicals were used spar- ingly and on small plants only ; they could not be safely employed on more mature cabbages. Thus, for many years the sound, unblemished head of cabbage was a rarity, and there was always danger of consuming protein with the slaw. In fact, it is very doubtful if any kraut made in those days could have passed present day Food and Drug Administration inspec- tions for insect fragments. There are those who contend that the prevalence of scurvy in the armies of the North and the South during the Civil War was in no small measure due to the fact that farm- ers could not produce adequate quantities of cabbage and related cole crops. Although some nicotine and pyrethrin products had been known for many years, they did not come into practical use until about 1910. Derris, cube, and other ro- tenone preparations made their appear- ance in the 1920's. When properly ap- plied, these insecticides were quite effec- tive, but they possessed very limited re- sidual properties and were relatively ex- pensive. Their acceptance by cabbage growers was not enthusiastic, and ento- mologists were under constant pressure to improve formulations by the use of synergists or stabilizing agents. Then came DDT and the organic phosphate in- secticides, and it looked for a time as if the cabbage growers' insect problems were effectively solved. But the insects once again demonstrated their mutability, and soon cabbage worms were resistant to DDT. Today the entomologist is worse off than he was in the early 1940's, be- cause the cabbage growers, having once experienced the fine performance and economy of DDT in the early 1950's, are unwilling to settle for anything less effi- cient. The currently recommended spray schedule, which calls for using endrin un- til cabbage heads begin to form and fin- ishing with occasional applications of phosdrin or parathion, is a highly effec- tive treatment, but the growers remem- ber equally satisfactory results with the less complicated use of DDT. Sweet corn growers in Illinois, like the cabbage growers, must cope with an insect problem that requires both a thorough knowledge of the seasonal ac- tivities of the pest and a rather meticulous control treatment. The corn earworm is a native American pest that has long con- tested man's right to the sweet corn pro- duced in Illinois. Unlike the cabbage worm, this insect has continued to defy man's best efforts to control it. Several reasonably effective control measures have been developed, but none has been fully accepted by Illinois sweet corn growers. The corn earworm control measure cur- rently recommended involves precise but not unreasonable methods of application and accurate timing of treatments. Some Illinois sweet corn growers have been un- able or unwilling to apply the requisite control measures. When infestations of the corn earworm are light, mediocre con- trol practices prove adequate, but, when infestations are heavy, more meticulous practices are essential. In parts of Flor- ida and Texas, where sweet corn growers cannot afford to gamble on having light infestations, many growers produce 97 to 99 per cent clean ears of corn by care- fully following the control measures rec- ommended by entomologists. Cereal and Forage Crop Pests Insect depredations were by no means confined to the fruit and vegetable crops produced by the early settlers in Illinois. Wheat, corn, and even the native prairie grasses were subject to attacks that at times amounted to almost total crop de- struction. In an article in the first issue of The American Entomologist, a writer, presumably Walsh, observed : Few persons are aware of the enormous amount of wealth annually abstracted from the pockets of the cultivators of the soil by those 14 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 insignificant little creatures, which in popular parlance are called "bugs," but which the sci- entific world chooses to denominate "insects." Scarcely a year elapses in which the wheat crop of several States of the Union is not more or less completely ruined by the Chinch-bug, the Hessian Fly, the Wheat Midge, or the Joint Worm. . . . The White Grub attacks indiscriminately the timothy in the meadows, the corn in the plowed field, the young fruit trees in the nursery, and the strawberry beds in the garden; always lurking insidiously under ground, and only making its pres- ence known to the impoverished agriculturist by the losses which it has already inflicted upon him. ... at periodic intervals the Army-worm marches over their fields like a destroying pestilence; while in Kansas, Ne- braska, and Minnesota, and the more westerly parts of Missouri and Iowa, the Hateful Grasshopper, in particular seasons, swoops down with the western breeze in devouring swarms from the Rocky Mountains, and, like its close ally, the Locust of Scripture and of Modern Europe, devours every green thing from off the face of the earth (Walsh & Riley 1868a:l). Certainly Walsh was in a position to know the armyworm problem, because in 1861, 6 3'ears before the creation of the State Entomologist's Office, the Rock Island and Chicago and the Illinois Cen- tral railroads granted him, as a member of the Illinois Natural History Society, passes that permitted him to spend sev- eral weeks studying a major armyworm outbreak that developed in central and southern Illinois. That fall, in typical Walsh style, he wrote : . . . I always hate to give nothing for something, and having been obliged by the railroad companies, I endeavored, to the extent of my poor abilities, to return the obligation, by seeking a remedy for a little pest, that has this year destroyed one-fourth part of the tame hay grown within the limits of the State (Walsh 1861:350). This was the introduction to an ex- tremely interesting and informative 15- page report on the ecology of the army- worm and its natural enemies which he appended to an essay prepared for de- livery at the annual meeting of the Illi- nois Agricultural Society. Walsh re- ported : When they [armyworms] leave the meadows in which they originate, they travel on—some- times as far as half a mile—until they meet with wheat, r\'e, oats, corn, sorghum, or Hun- garian grass (Walsh 1861:351). Many instances are on record of the great difficulty with which they have been kept out of houses which happened to lie in their path (Walsh 1861:352). From the Prairie Farmer of July 4, 1861, Walsh (1861:351) quoted ' the words of "an accurate observer" who described an infestation of armyworms: "As to their number, they have been seen moving from one field to another, three TIERS DEEP. A ditch has been filled with thein to the depth of three inches in HALF AN HOUR." Walsh was fortunate in being able to acquire, through contacts with a number of pioneer settlers, valuable notes on his- toric arm^'worm outbreaks of the past. Some of these notes seem worthy of repe- tition as an example of the fund of un- published entomological history and knowledge that has passed from one gen- eration to another : As we might expect from the laws govern- ing the development of insect life, the army- worms make their appearance in noticeable numbers in different years in different parts of the State. I have no doubt that they exist in small numbers in every part of the State from year to year ; for although they have never appeared till 1861 in the neighborhood of Rock Island, in such numbers as to attract attention, yet I myself captured a single specimen of the army-worm moth in Rock Island county, in each of three years, '58, '59 and '60. At Okaw they are recorded to have appeared in 1850; in the south part of Vermilion county, in 1835; and Mr. Joseph Bragshaw, of Perry county, says that they visited that county in '25, '26, '34, '39, '41 and '42. Colonel Dougherty, of Jonesboro, in Union county, one of the oldest and most respected citizens of Southern Illi- nois, informed me that about 1818 or '20 they were far more numerous there than in 1861, and that in 1861 there would not be a single cock of hay put up in his neighborhood save one meadow which was part clover and part timothy, and which I can myself testify was badly "patchy," there not being more than an eighth part of it which would turn out a good swarth of clover, the timothy being "nil" throughout. In 1838 again, according to the Colonel, there were but few of them. In 1842 they were about as in 1861 ; and in 1856 they occurred only in small numbers (Walsh 1861: 353). It certainly is an encouraging sign of the progress of entomological discovery in this State, that a noxious insect of primary impor- tance should have been, for the first time, traced through all its transformations in the year 1861 by no less than four citizens of Illi- nois to my certain knowledge—I refer to Mr. Cyrus Thomas of Murphysboro, Mr. Emery of the Prairie Farmer, Col. Dougherty of Jones- boro, and last and least myself (Walsh 1861: 356). December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 115 While many of the observations made bj' Walsh and the other gentlemen men- tioned were sound and are still valid, one observation was in error and resulted in a recommendation which, although it had the desired effect, was based upon a false premise. Walsh (1861:349) advised, "Burn your tame grass ?tieadows over annually, in the dead of the year, and get your neighbors to do the same, and you u'ill never more he troubled with the army worm." Walsh thought that the armyworm passes the winter in the egg stage, but such is not the case, and there- fore burning, as he recommended, did not destroy the eggs. We now know that when the moths appear in the early spring they fly at night ; in the daytime, they hide in rank grass, preferably a dense mat of old, dead grass in a vigorous meadow. There, in April and May, they lay their eggs. Thus, while winter burning did not destroy eggs, it had a profound effect on the number of worms developing in burned-over fields and often, if not usu- ally, prevented serious infestations from developing. The recommendation for burning per- sisted for several years, and by 1880 it was supplemented by a recommendation for the use of dusty trench barriers to trap worms on the march. Spraying strips with Paris green was proposed by some, but was generally considered both dan- gerous and impractical. The use of poison bait (a mixture of bran and Paris green) for the control of armyworms, cutworms, and grasshoppers came into use about 1885, and with minor modifications remained the principal and most practical control measure available until the advent of the modern chlori- nated hydrocarbon insecticides. Since 1951, growers have been generally suc- cessful in controlling armj^worms by spraying with such materials as toxaphene, dieldrin, and endrin. Furthermore, with the insect outlook and warning service bulletins available weekly during crop seasons from the Natural History Survey, Illinois farmers are now able to control armyworms effectively when the worms are one-fourth to one-half grown. Ap- plied control measures save the small grain and the meadow grasses as well as protect adjacent crops from migrations. The chinch bug, another infamous pest, has been well known to Illinois farmers since 1820. This species, like the army- worm and many others, is not a serious pest every j^ear, but tends to be sporadic, perhaps somewhat cyclic, in its appear- ance. Weather, of course, is a factor that influences the chinch bug population. One is indeed surprised to learn that the farmers of 1860 were just about as much aware of this pest as are the farm- ers of 1958. In 1861 Thomas (1865: 466-7) observed: Although we cannot predict with certainty one season the action of insect enemies for the next, yet we often can from the character of the season itself, know that certain species are likely to be upon us in increased numbers. This was the case the present season in re- gard to the appearance of the "Army-worm." The cold, cloudy spring hanging so long before opening into summer weather, caused the ex- clamation from several of our older citizens, "I wouldn't be surprised if we had the Army- worm this season." Although this was rather guessing, yet there evidently pervaded the minds of the elder settlers a semi-conscious feeling of dread in regard to this insect, which most assuredly originated from the similarity in this spring to the previous seasons when it had appeared. And when the long dry weather we sometimes have in June and July has parched the vegetation, we may expect the grass-hoppers to multiply rapidly, and by their attacks on the plants already struggling for life, to soon effect a far greater injury than the same attack made on vigorous plants would have done. Later, Thomas (1880:242) observed, "The high temperature of 1854, '71 and '74, together with the diminished rainfall, furnish the key to the cause of the great development of the Chinch-bug during these years." One could cite hundreds of quotations, from the Prairie Farmer and other early farm papers, concerning damage by the chinch bug and other field crop pests that would put the potato beetle reports to shame. But let the words of Walsh and of Thomas suffice. Walsh wrote as fol- lows : It is only two years since the entire wheat crop of the State was so damaged by the chinch bug that a great deal of it was not cut at all, and a great deal that was cut barely paid for the harvesting. Scarcely a year elapses but what more or less damage is done to it by this insect, and by the Hessian fly and the wheat midge. A large breadth of winter wheat, which is commonly supposed to be "winter- 116 Illinois Natural History Survky Hullltin Vol.27, Art. 2 December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 117 killed," is in reality killed by the Hessian fly; and there may be, and probably are, many other insects which depredate upon this crop, but whose habits have not yet fallen under the notice of entomologists (Walsh 1861:335). Taking the average of years, we may safely assume that a fifth part of the wheat crop — or, which is the same thing, a quantity equal to one-fourth of what we actually do harvest — is destroyed by insects. Even at the low price, therefore, of 75 cents per bushel, we have over four and a half million dollars' ivort/i of wheat annually destroyed by "little vermin which it is not worth our while to notice." But this is not all. Other crops are damaged by other insects, though not generally to so ruinous an extent; so that we cannot put the whole annual damage done by insects to the State of Illinois at less than twenty million DOLLARS (Walsh 1861:336). And Thomas (1865:457) wrote: "So much has already been written in the pa- pers of this State concerning the Chinch- bug {Macropus leucopterus, Fitch,) that I shall pass it by in this paper without further notice." Shelford & Flint (1943) made a thor- ough study of the history of the chinch bug in Illinois. The figure on page 116 is presented to illustrate the type of his- toric records that have been made and preserved by the Natural History Sur- vey. The data on which the figure is based cover the century beginning in 1840. Records for subsequent years have, of course, been kept. Similar data have been collected for several other important pests. In the 1860's and '70's, many measures were proposed for control of the chinch bug: abandon wheat and barley or corn; burn fencerows and all wild grass areas to destroy hibernating bugs; plant border crops to retard migrations; fertilize crops to get dense stands unattractive to the in- sects; and construct barrier lines of lime, salt, and carbolic acid solutions. The measure most widely used was the dusty furrow. Each year saw some new version of the furrow proposed, such as pouring tar oil, road oil, or creosote into the fur- row to form a barrier; covering the fur- row with straw and setting it afire to de- stroy the bugs ; digging post-hole traps in the furrow and later spraying the trapped bugs with kerosene and burning them. There was no great change until the paper fence barrier, proposed in 1934, was widely adopted, but even this barrier was not without precedent; over 50 years earlier the use of tar-covered boards set on edge and placed end to end had been proposed. The later control measures, like the early ones, were scheduled to be used around harvest time. About 1945, the paper fence barrier was practically re- placed by the dinitro dust barrier, and in another 10 years this was replaced by diel- drin, sprayed on strips of ground along the margins of small grain fields where these fields adjoined fields of corn or later maturing grain. The more aggressive fol- lowers of research progress were spray- ing entire fields of heavily infested wheat as soon as chinch bug eggs began to hatch so as to protect the wheat crop itself from serious damage and to eliminate the necessity of establishing a barrier of any type 2 or 3 weeks later. In the past century, progress has been made in controlling many other insect pests that attack cereal and forage crops. Among the most important of these pests are the grasshoppers, the cutworms, the white grubs, and the hessian fly. Instead of attempting to summarize in detail, we note here some of the general trends in this area of insect control. Before extensive agricultural develop- ment of the state, a large part of Illinois consisted of broad expanses of prairie grass, much of which was replaced by timothy and other tame grass or cereal crops planted by farmers. Insects prefer- ring these crops became notorious pests, but as the acreage of grasses was reduced as a result of increased legume produc- tion, certain insects began to decline in importance. These included the white grubs, the billbugs, the armyworms, the sod webworms, and the corn root aphid. The burrowing webworm and the cut- worm Luperina stipata have all but dis- appeared ; not a single specimen of either has been received by us for identification in the last 20 years. As the rail fence was replaced by the wire fence, and roadsides and ditch banks were graded or otherwise cleaned up, the amount of giant ragweed and elderberry available to insects was greatly reduced, so that the common stalk borer became less important and the old spindleworm was practically extermin- ated. Likewise, as the pot holes and low spots were drained, wireworm damage in 118 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 those areas declined steadily. Conversely, in certain dry, sandy areas which were hrought under irrigation vvireworm dam- ajje increased. As lejjume production increased, the in- sect pests of lej2;umes tended to increase. Notable examples are the clover leaf wee- vil, clover root borer, pea aphid, bean leaf beetle, sweet clover weevil, ^reen clover- worm, and spotted alfalfa aphid. Two attempts to initiate and promote the commercial production of sunflowers in Illinois were doomed to failure largely because of the overwhelming insect prob- lems encountered when many species from the native sunflowers swarmed onto the cultivated varieties. In contrast, we find that in extreme southern Illinois cotton production survives in a rather unfavor- able climate, and under other adverse conditions, largely because important cot- ton insects are absent and planters are spared the cost of extensive insect control measures. Pests of Forest and Shade Trees and Ornamental Plants Effective control measures are now available for most of the insect pests of trees and ornamental plants; yet man seems to have little success in combating these insects. It is not that these insects are new or relatively unknown, for the majority of these pests were recognized and well known prior to 1850. The bark lice (scale insects), round-headed borers, flat-headed borers, bark beetles, bagworm, walnut caterpillars, cankerworms, and the 17-year locusts are frequently men- tioned in the Illinois entomological writ- ings of a century or more ago. Chemical control measures were not available at that time, but some of the proposed meas- ures were partially effective and more or less practical. Mechanical barriers and sticky bands were used to control the can- kerworms, sometimes successfully and sometimes not. It now appears that im- proper timing and failure to recognize the difference between the spring and the fall cankerworms accounted for most of the variation in control. Hand picking was often mentioned and, according to re- ports, if done diligently it was effective in controlling the bagworm, the walnut caterpillars, and the tent caterpillars. Hand grubbing, with a wire or knife, was considered an effective means of control- ling several species of borers. Several types of soapy washes were proposed for the control of aphids and scale insects, but perhaps the most positive, wisest, and most ingenious of all recommendations was that proposed by Dr. Mygatt (1855: 516) in his essay on the bark louse: "Whether you choose a seedling or graft, by all means transplant a clean tree, if you have to occupy hours and even days in examining and clearing your trees from every scale." As insecticides and means of applying them were being developed for use on various agricultural crops, it was nat- ural that most of them would be tested to determine their potential usefulness in controlling insects attacking trees. The value of Paris green in controlling the cankerworms was established at a very early date. By 1910 lead arsenate, first developed in 1891 for use against the gypsy moth, was being recommended for a variety of leaf-eating insects, and by 1925 high-powered sprayers, dusters, and even airplanes had been developed and were quite generally available for use in treating both shade and forest trees. Nev- ertheless, progress was slow ; apparently the weather and tree protection have something in common—everybody talks about them, but nobody does anything about them. The average citizen who professes an interest in and a love for trees is some- times like the kibitzer who, at an active poker table, talks a good game, but, for reasons best known to himself, fails to put his money on the line. In the past 2 years in many Illinois communities, beautiful landscape plantings, such as juniper, val- ued at hundreds of dollars were rendered unsightly and in many cases were killed outright by the bagworm ; a dollar's worth of malathion, or the old faithful, lead arsenate, and 30 minutes' time could have prevented any damage. In some commu- nities there has been a wholesale loss of elm, oak, and birch trees of inestimable value and irreplaceable in less than 3 dec- ades; little evidence was available that control measures were even considered. This seeming indifference in some com- munities is partially offset by the genuine December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 119 interest of a number of ardent tree lovers and conservationists in other communities. Some of these tree lovers, however, clamor for more research without mak- ing full use of the control measures al- ready available. Scientists have spent many years in developing fairly efficient and practical control measures for 90 per cent of the insect pests affecting shade trees and ornamental plants, yet we find that these measures either are ignored or are employed in less than 1 per cent of the cases in which they might be useful. It seems doubtful whether administrators will feel justified in diverting any con- siderable portion of their funds to similar projects until there is evidence that the control measures already recommended are being put to better use. A recently published circular (English 1958) will bring interested people up to date on con- trol of insects attacking ornamentals and shade plants. Insects Attacking Man and Animals Entomology has made its most pro- found and spectacular advances of the past 100 years in combating those insects that are pests to man and animals. There seem to be two good reasons why this is so. In the first place, we have learned consider- ably more of the habits and relative im- portance of these pests than was known in 1858, and, in the second place, as the medical implications of these pests became apparent, state and federal public health agencies, men in many branches of science, and the general public gave wholehearted support to large research and action pro- grams. Early Illinois entomologists had col- lected and identified many species of ticks, mites, mosquitoes, and flies, and it did not require the services of a scientist to advise farmers that large numbers of these species were sources of annoyance to their livestock, their families, and them- selves. A couple of very casual comments adequately attest to the ferociousness of these pests: "There are prairies in Cen- tral Illinois, as I am credibly informed by numerous witnesses, across which it is im- possible to ride or drive a horse in the heat of a summer's day on account of the Tabanus" (Walsh quoted in Cresson et al. 1865:18). The genus Simulium in- cludes "the Buffalo-fly of Illinois and the West, which I have observed killing poul- try in great numbers, and which is known to torment horses and other animals to death, when verv numerous" (Barnard 1880:191). While these reports may sound far- fetched and exaggerated, the latter is sup- ported bv a more recent experience. In 10 days of April, 1945, black flies killed 125 head of horses and mules and untold numbers of poultry in Franklin and Wil- liamson counties, Illinois. Possible relationships between these insects and several of the most dreaded diseases known to occur in the state were unknown in 1858 and for the most part were unsuspected. For example, no one thought of connecting the common house fly with the spread of cholera that took the lives of one-tenth of the population of several western Illinois communities in the 1830's or with the outbreaks of ty- phoid fever and dysentery that were so common during and immediately after the Civil War. It seems ironic that B. D. Walsh, the first State Entomologist, was driven from his farm near Cambridge by a malaria epidemic and that he never suspected the mosquitoes that increased with the dam- ming of the river as being responsible for the epidemic. All we know of this inci- dent is contained in two sentences of Walsh's obituarv bv C. V. Rilev (1869- 70:67). Finally, a colony of Swedes settled in his neighborhood, and, by damming up the water at Bishop Hill, produced so much miasma in the vicinity, that very much sickness prevailed there. His own health in time became im- paired, and at the suggestion of M. B. Os- born, of Rock Island, he removed to that city in 1851, and entered into the lumber business. Indeed, there is every reason to believe that neither Walsh nor any of his con- temporaries even suspected the relation- ship between mosquitoes and malaria. In his zeal to protect all beneficial insects and to maintain the balance of nature, Walsh was inclined to regard house flies, horse flies, and mosquitoes as possibly more beneficial than destructive. In 1865 he was quoted as saying: The scheme of the Creation is perfect and Na- ture is never at fault. It is only when Nature's 120 Illinois Natural History Survi-y Uulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 system is but half undcrstooil, that we heed- lessly complain of its imperfections. We blame the house-flies for annoying us, and fail to see that in the larva state they have cleared away impurities around our dwellings, which might otherwise have bred cholera and typhus fever. We execrate the blood-thirsty mosquito, and forget that in the larva state she has purified the water, which would otherwise, by its ma- larial effluvia, have generated agues and fevers. In all probability, when we rail at the Tahanus that torment our horses in the summer, we are railing at insects which, in the larva state, have added millions of dollars to the national wealth, by preying upon those most [insidious] and unmanageable of all the insect- foes of the farmer—subterraneous, root-feeding larvae (Walsh quoted in Cresson et al. 1865: 18). An editor of The Practical Entornolo- gist, in commenting on Walsh's paper, cautioned his readers: Before you undertake to kill off the larvae of the Horse-flies and the Mosquitoes, you had best make yourself quite sure that they are really your enemies, and not, as Mr. Walsh maintains, some of your very best friends (Cresson ct al. 1865:18). Flies and mosquitoes passed practically unmentioned until about 1880 when, be- cause of the insects' annoyance and nui- sance characteristics, a few workers began to investigate suppressive measures. Win- dow screens and the use of smoke came into the picture first, followed by oil sprays, crude repellents, and several fly traps. If we exclude the modern insecti- cides developed since 1940, most of the control measures that are recommended today for the control of flies and mos- quitoes had been developed by 1900. By the combined use of drainage, good sani- tation practices, screening, and the known insecticides such as lime, borax, oils, ar- senicals, and pyrethrins, public health agencies made remarkable progress in re- ducing the incidence of insect-borne dis- eases, but it was not until DDT and the more recent synthetic organic insecticides became available that it was possible to reduce fly and mosquito numbers to the near vanishing point and to eradicate al- most all insect-borne diseases of man. Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, the country embarked on an all- out "Swat-the-Fly" campaign that car- ried over into the dairy industry. This campaign stimulated interest in the devel- opment of sprat's for use on livestock, as well as space sprays for use in and around buildings. Unfortunately, many of the formula- tions used prior to the late 1930's were only partially effective in controlling flies, and in many cases the injury the\ inflicted on cows exceeded the benefits de- rived. It was difficult, if not impossible, to establish clearly the fact that flies did affect milk production and that good fly control would pay dividends in the form of higher milk production. In the last 10 3'ears, with the new insecticides such as DDT, methoxychlor, and several ef- fective organo-phosphates, and with some repellents far more effective and much more persistent than anything available prior to 1940, it has been possible to dem- onstrate that good control of flies, whether they be tabanids, stable flies, or horn flies, will result in an increase of milk production of as much as 10 to 25 per cent. The exact gains depend upon the intensity of the fly population, the species involved, and the duration of the attack. Significant findings in this field have been reported in a number of scien- tific articles (Bruce & Decker 1951, 1957, 1958; Bruce 1952, 1953). BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Man discovered at a very early date that not all insects are bad, that some are definitely his allies, some are indifferent or neutral, and some are in the category of Dr. Jekyll-Mr. Hyde—half good and half bad. Walsh, Le Baron, Thomas, and other early entomologists in their writ- ings repeatedly referred to the necessity of distinguishing between man's foes and friends in the insect world, and empha- sized, as did their successors, the import- ance and potentialities of parasites and predators in the natural control of insects. In December, 1854, William Le Baron, who 16 years later became the second State Entomologist of Illinois, wrote: Birds benefit the agriculturist by destroying countless myriads of noxious insects, whilst they injure him by consuming a part of those products which he would fain reserve for his own exclusive benefit. But it is the universal testimony of those who have investigated the matter, that the evil compared with the good which they accomplish is extremely trivial. Probably every reader of ornithology will call December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 121 to mind, in this connection, the computation of Mr. Wilson the ornithologist, the result of which was, that the single species of Red- winged Blackbird, which is usually considered one of the greatest pests of the farmer, con- sumes in one season, in the United States, six- teen thousand and two hundred million of noxious insects (Le Baron 1855:559-60). In an essay on insects, prepared in 1861 at the invitation of the Illinois Agricul- tural Society, Cyrus Thomas (1865:462, 464) made several pertinent comments on insect control measures, the balance of nature, and the biological control of in- sects : When we have obtained a complete knowl- edge of the laws of nature, and shall have at- tained to perfection in agricultural pursuits, then most assuredly our reliance for a check upon these insect enemies will be upon the parasites a kind Providence has provided for our benefit. And the reason for so doing will be that then we will work in accordance with the laws of nature which are adapted to our best method of living and acting. Then if this theory be true, the nearer we can approach such a condition, individually or collectively, the better it will be for us. Let the birds go unmolested, or even go so far as to entice them to abide near you. Learn to distinguish insect enemies from insect friends, and when you find the hiding places of the latter, as far as possible, protect them from injury. When you find a swarm of "Lady- bugs" huddling around the root of a tree in the winter, throw a few dry leaves over them that the birds may not see them. When you see the eggs of the Syrphus fly lying singly among those of the Aphis, do not molest it, for the young larvae will surely destroy that nest. And when the bright banded flies hover like bees around you, during the hot days of sum- mer, while resting beneath the shade, brush them lightly away, and remember they are your friends. And when you see the eggs of the Lace-winged fly (Hcmcrohiiis) mounted on their long stalks on the leaves of your plants, let them alone, the voracious larvae they pro- duce will soon destroy the most numerous colony of plant lice. Benjamin Walsh (1861:339-40, 341) likewise had something to say about the balance of nature and the value of para- sites and predators: Now it is universally the case, that when- ever man, by his artificial arrangements, vio- lates great natural laws, unless by some arti- ficial means he can restore the overturned bal- ance, he pays the penalty affixed to his offense. The voluptuary may overload his stomach, but, unless he has recourse to his dinner pill, he pays the penalty of an indigestion. So with the farmer and the horticulturist. Until they can restore the natural equilibrium which has been disarranged by their artificial processes, they pay the penalty in the damage inflicted on them by plant-feeding insects. They must as- sist nature, whenever, for necessary purposes, they have thwarted and controlled her, if they wish to appease her wrath. If these views be correct, it would seem to follow, as a necessary consequence, that one of the most efi^ectual means of controlling noxious insects is to be found in the artificial propagation of such cannibal species as are naturally designed to prey on them. Although, so far as I am aware, cannibal insects have never yet been bred for utilitarian purposes, yet it is by no means an uncommon practice to collect such as are found at large in the woods and fields, and apply them to sub- due some particular insect that is annoying us. The foregoing quotations portray not only the profound interest in biological control that these early entomologists pos- sessed but also the breadth and depth of the general knowledge of the day. Forbes, who followed Thomas as State Entomologist, was likewise interested in parasites and predators. The fact is im- pressive that, in studying the biology and ecology of insect pests, these men invaria- bly made extensive notes on the parasites and predators encountered. While others before him had made notes of entomopha- gous fungi and other evidences of disease, Forbes was the first to examine the possi- bilities of control of insects by their dis- eases. In fact, he is regarded by many as the father of insect pathology in the United States. His work on the chinch bug fungus and the work by Dr. F. H. Snow of Kansas are outstanding classics of early research in this field. Forbes did not limit his interest and research in insect pathology to chinch bug diseases. He noted, and in many cases studied in great detail, the diseases found in numerous lepidopterous larvae, aphids, white grubs, grasshoppers, and several other insects. In the late 1880's he was strongly advocating more thorough stud- ies on the possible advantageous uses of contagious insect diseases, and his Eighth Report (Nineteenth Illinois Report), published in 1895, contained a monograph of nearly 150 pages on chinch bug dis- eases. In general, the success of attempts to propagate insect diseases and to dis- seminate them as a means of controlling noxious insects in Illinois has not been as 4 122 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 spectacular as sponsors and interested ob- servers had hoped. These projects have been jjreatly underestimated by the pub- lic; control of insects by their diseases has a value that should not be ignored. If nothinji more, these studies demon- strate the important role that insect dis- eases play in the natural control of many important pest species. They also shed lijjht on the epizootiolojiy of these dis- eases, which may prove to have even fur- ther value. Unfortunately, in practically all cases these projects were initiated on the premise that an epidemic would be initiated that could and would completely eliminate the pest species in a matter of days or weeks. When extermination of the offendinjj; pest was not immediately forthcoming, public sentiment turned from hope to disgust and ridicule, and re- searchers were forced to abandon their studies for lack of financial support. It is doubtful whether there is a single case in which an honest appraisal of the long- range or even the immediate value of dis- ease inoculation or dissemination, or a combination of both, has been made. In recent 3'ears we have belatedly come to realize that insect pathogens have not been adequately explored nor their poten- tial value determined. We and others are renewing our efforts in this basic field of research. The performance of a protozoan dis- ease of the European corn borer, a disease which, like the parasites of the hessian fly, apparently accompanied the host when it migrated to North America, seems worthy of mention. In Illinois the disease was first observed in the north central part of the state in 1945, 6 or 7 years after the borer made its first appearance in Kanka- kee County. The disease was artificially introduced into all sections of the state by colonizing disease-infected borers in many widely scattered counties. It is now prev- alent in all parts of the state and has for several years been an important, if not the most important, factor in holding corn borer populations to relatively low levels, where they can be successfully con- trolled by other means at a greatly re- duced cost. In a co-operative effort, the Illinois Natural History Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, and Illinois Conservation Department introduced a virus disease obtained from Canada to combat a serious outbreak of a pine saw- fly, Xeodiprion sertifer, that in 1952 was raging out of control in the Henderson State Forest. The virus took hold in a spectacular fashion, and sawflies died by the thousands. Whether the virus can be given full credit or not remains to be de- termined. In any case, the sawfly has not been reported as doing serious damage in that area since 1953. The value of parasites imported from abroad to help control accidentally intro- duced species has also been underesti- mated. Here, as in an eiifort to control an insect pest by disease, the public seems to expect the immediate annihilation of the pest species or it regards the effort as a complete failure. To demonstrate that a species need not be annihilated to be prevented from causing appreciable dam- age, let us look at the record. The hes- sian fly and the wheat midge were both introduced in colonial days as immigrants from Europe. Fortunately, several of their European parasites came along with them in the same lots of straw, but, as usually happens, each pest reproduced and spread faster than its parasites. In due time the parasites overtook their hosts, and, for over a century, they have been important factors in preventing these pests from eliminating wheat production from the list of agricultural enterprises in Illinois. When the oriental fruit moth appeared in Illinois in 1927, the Illinois Natural History Survey, in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture, obtained, for release in Illinois, oriental fruit moth parasites (principally Macro- centrus ancylivorus) reared in New Jer- sey. These were colonized at several points in the infested southern Illinois counties. At first the results of the ex- periment did not appear promising, but consistent recoveries were made in 1934, and eight surveys made since then have shown that parasitism by this species ranged from 17.3 to 53.2 per cent and averaged 36.5 per cent. While the para- site has not eliminated its host, it has held the population to a level where peaches can be adequately protected with a mini- mum use of insecticides. The average December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 123 percentage of the fruit infested since the establishment of the parasite is less than one-tenth what it was before colonization of the parasite was initiated. Shortly after the European corn borer made its appearance in the Midwest, at- tempts to introduce several of its parasites into the infested area (1926-1930) were relatively, if not wholly, unsuccessful. Later attempts, in which the Illinois Nat- ural History Survey and the United States Department of Agriculture co-op- erated (1944—1950), were more success- ful, and a Tachinid fly, Lydella stahulans (/risesceris, became firmly established in all sections of the state. Surveys made annually for the past 10 years have shown that, for the state as a whole, 15 to 40 per cent of the overwintering corn borers are parasitized and destroyed by this fly. In many instances parasitism in some of the northern Illinois counties has run as high as 80 to 85 per cent. While this parasitic fly has not eliminated the corn borer, it plays a very important role in holding this pest in check. VALUE OF INSECT CONTROL Man's progress in applied entomology is partly obscured by the ever-changing circumstances and conditions of insect control. Quantitative data on the exact magnitude of insect damage are generally unavailable, and only the more or less catastrophic insect outbreaks are ade- quately recorded in the literature. There are few specific points of reference with which we can compare the present with the past. Our memories are often faulty. We recall that Grandfather had a home orchard and how much we enjoyed the fruit; only after prolonged meditation do we also recall that only 1 apple in 10 was fit for storage in the fall, and that even in preparing a pie from the stored apples Grandmother had to cut out numerous areas damaged by codling moth. Despite the paucity of precise quanti- tative data, entomologists have developed practical control measures for a long list of once serious pests. Orchardists are now able to produce fruit crops 90 to 99 per cent free of insect damage instead of crops only 10 to 50 per cent free of in- sect damage, as they were 100 years ago or as they are now in abandoned or un- sprayed orchards. The Colorado potato beetle, which came close to eliminating Irish potato production just about 100 Table 1.—Number of acres treated with insecticides and estimated profit from treat- ment for a few important insect pests of cereal and forage crops in Illinois, 1953-1957. Number OF Number of Estimated Year Pest Species Acres Profit From Considered* Treated Treatment 1953 124 Illinois Natural History Survhy Hulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 commerce or even from beinji sold on the local market. Though it is not possible to establish monetary values for each of the accom- plishments just mentioned, the almost $8,000,000 average annual profit, table 1, resulting from the use of insecticides on cereal and forage crops in Illinois illus- trates the benefits of entomological re- search. There are those who will say that ag- riculture cannot afford the cost of insect control or that the farmer dare not add such charges to his overhead cost. Such assertions are economically unsound. The overhead charges associated with the planting, cultivating, and harvesting of each acre of crops are fixed. If a farmer can increase yields sufficiently to provide a cash return of two, four, eight, or more times the cost of insecticide treatment, the extra harvest is produced much more cheaply than the rest of the crop and thereby increases net profits and effects a reduction of operating costs. Insect control—or the lack thereof^ — may have an indirect bearing on economic and sociological considerations in addi- tion to those related to crop savings or crop losses. By increasing per-acre yields, maximum utilization of insect control measures might enable upwards of a mil- lion acres of Illinois farm land to be re- tired from cultivation and put to new uses. Some reactionaries will argue that increased yields would mean overproduc- tion and lower prices; this argument has been applied to almost every new techno- logical development. For years we have been attaining pro- duction goals by mining the soil—by wringing from it the fertility that must be replaced if future generations are to have their share. Economically and mor- ally, we are obligated to produce maxi- mum yields as efficiently as possible on a minimum number of acres. The surplus land should be removed from annual cul- tivation and its fertility maintained or improved with soil building practices em- ployed until such time as an expanding population requires further production. Even if Illinois could afford to squander its land resources and its manpower, the support of research for effective insect control would still be a foresighted invest- ment. When men of wisdom, interested in the nation's future, combine forces in building a sound agricultural program, insect control will rank high in the list of technological musts. EMPHASIS FOR THE FUTURE Throughout the past century in Illi- nois, the extent and variety of insect con- trol problems, which were often of an emergency nature, dictated that entomol- ogy be strictly applied and be aimed at immediate, practical goals. Perhaps the pressure for immediate, practical results reached its peak in the mid-1940's, when a number of new and apparently highly effective insecticides became available for study and use. Everyone wanted to know at once what these insecticides were good for, how they should be used, and what hazards might be involved in their use. Now this pressure is subsiding; the Illi- nois farmer is in possession of reasonably practical control measures for most of his important insect pests. Economic en- tomology in Illinois is now in a position to seek information on the basic problems of insect control. This statement does not mean that all the insect problems of Illinois are solved ; we should not be surprised that new prob- lems will arise as new insect species are introduced and as species already here modify their habits or adjust their re- sponses and behavior to an ever-changing environment. However, we have appar- ently reached a turning point that will re- quire a revision of our responsibilities and will materially alter our objectives and procedures. With reasonably effective control meth- ods available for most pests, and with the majority of our basic crops in surplus production, emphasis on the temporary solution of immediate problems and on increased production must logically be shifted to the development of more basic studies ultimately leading to new meth- ods of insect control. A review of the his- tory of chinch bug, armyworm, codling moth, and potato beetle control makes it apparent that progress came in steps spaced 10 or 20 or more years apart. In entomology, as in other branches of sci- ence, real progress is made through the i December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 125 development of some new fact, some bio- logical or chemical law or principle re- ferred to as a "break-through," discov- ered by scientists pursuing basic research. Practically all entomologists agree that Nature is more efficient than man in con- trolling insects; there is an urgent need for a return to the basic study of insect biology and ecology and for expanded work in the promising field of biological control. With a more thorough knowl- edge of the environmental factors that favor insect reproduction and survival and of those factors detrimental to these processes, man might conceivably control some pests by diminishing the favorable factors, enhancing the unfavorable fac- tors, or pursuing both courses. This type of basic research is expensive, and prog- ress comes slowly, but successful projects based on the accumulated results of such research pay handsome dividends. While more intensive studies in insect genetics, ecology, and biology may play increasingly important roles in the devel- opment of new insect control procedures, man will for many years find it necessary to rely on chemical weapons—insecticides —to fight many of his insect pests. As more and more toxic insecticides are de- veloped, it becomes increasingly important that they be thoroughly tested for safety before they are placed in general use. The evaluation of insecticide residues, their degradation products, and possible ad- verse effects on man and other animals, is currently time consuming and expen- sive. We must undertake considerable basic research to discover and to develop basic principles or natural laws that will simplify insecticide evaluation and reduce the cost of pursuing such routine studies. Come what may, man must never be- come complacent with his temporary suc- cesses nor assume that the insects have given up or will give up their struggle for supremacy. We must be ever mindful of the theses of L. O. Howard (1933) that insects are better equipped to occupy the earth than are humans ; insects have been on earth for 40,000,000 years, while the human race is only 400,000 years old. As Forbes (1915:2) soberly asserted: The struggle between man and insects began long before the dawn of civilization, has con- tinued without cessation to the present time, and will continue, no doubt, as long as the hu- man race endures. It is due to the fact that both men and certain insect species constantly want the same things at the same time. Its intensity is owing to the vital importance to both of the things they struggle for, and its long continuance is due to the fact that the contestants are so equally matched. We com- monly think of ourselves as the lords and con- querors of nature, but insects had thoroughly mastered the world and taken full possession of it long before man began the attempt. They had, consequently, all the advantage of a pos- session of the field when the contest began, and they have disputed every step of our in- vasion of their original domain so persistently and so successfully that we can even yet scarcely flatter ourselves that we have gained any very important advantage over them. There seems to be little question that insects will continue to demand tribute of enormous proportions which will have to be paid in terms of damage, pain, and suffering caused by the insects, or in ex- penditures for insect control. Man may, through judicious expenditures for re- search and practical insect control meas- ures, reduce or minimize the tribute to be paid, but he can never eliminate it entire- ly. In this connection, it should again be noted that entomology is not static. In- sects, as highly versatile living organisms, are constantly changing to meet each change in the environment, whether it be biological, physical, or chemical. If we are to hold our own in this continuing battle, research must be carried on un- diminished, and, if we are to make prog- ress, research must be expanded. At the moment, entomology and re- lated biological sciences appear to be los- ing ground. State and federal appropria- tions have not kept pace with rising costs. Basic research is currently financed largely by grants from the principal en- dowed foundations. If it were not for funds made available by chemical and other large industrial companies, applied research in entomology would have been greatly handicapped and curtailed in the last decade. Today, faced with the fact that an- other nation was the first to launch a man-made earth satellite, America is sub- jecting her own research facilities and educational system to critical review. At the moment, the physical sciences are in the limelight and apparently stand to profit from increased emphasis. That the 126 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 natural sciences can safely be relegated to a secondary or back-seat position is open to question. Almost 100 years ago, B. D. Walsh, deploring American neglect of the natural sciences, observed: "They manage these things better in Europe. In Russia and other continental states, En- tomology in its rudiments is made a por- tion of common school education" (Anon. 1860:12). There is every reason to believe that current entomological research in other countries is in no wav inferior to our own. If the biological sciences, including entomology, are neglected in a revitalized educational program, America may find herself again out-distanced by other coun- tries—by men who are trained in a sci- ence-oriented system that is balanced to include all areas of scientific endeavor. If one step forward in the physical sciences causes us to slide two steps backward in the biological sciences, all our efforts spent to initiate a sound program for the ad- vancement of science—all science—will have proved useless. Faunistic Surveys HERBERT H. ROSS T N their beginnings and early develop- -* ment, investigations of the fauna of the Midwest differed in several respects from similar endeavors in other parts of the world. The Midwest was explored and collected intensively considerably later than the eastern American seaboard, so that the advances in the knowledge of the North American fauna made in the eastern United States were available as an aid to moderately rapid advances when faunal studies were begun in the Mid- west. In the eastern United States and also in Europe, systematic investigations were begun in response to man's in- herent curiosity concerning the kinds of life in his surroundings and were de- veloped to a considerable state of ad- vancement chiefly under this stimulus. In the Midwest, the first serious syste- matic efforts were undoubtedly begun in answer to pure curiosity, but almost im- mediately after their inception, especially in Illinois, these studies were picked up and swept along by the tremendous de- mand for identification caused by the agricultural and scientific developments of the latter half of the nineteenth century. EARLY BACKGROUND The sudden formation of natural his- tory societies in the Midwest during the 1850's— at Louisville in 1851, Grand Rapids in 1854, Milwaukee in 1855, and Chicago in 1856—gives an impression in retrospect that before that decade there were no naturalists in the area. This was far from the case, for a few enthusiastic naturalists were active in various lo- calities through the Midwestern region even before these dates. Among the Midwestern naturalists were the famous zoologists Thomas Say, C. A. Le Sueur, and G. Troost, living and working on the banks of the Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana, in the 1820's and 1830's, and C. S. Rafinesque at Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1810's and 1820's. Many other persons collected material for these men or sent speci- mens for identification to taxonomists in the eastern United States or Europe. The early faunistic workers of the 1840's and the 1850's in Illinois included such men as Cyrus Thomas, John A. and Robert Kennicott, J. B. Turner, and Benjamin D. Walsh, all of them self- taught naturalists. These and other en- thusiasts made accurate observations on the fauna, built up collections of various animal groups, and kept in touch with their confreres in the eastern states. The Illinois entomologists published articles, some of them in the Prairie Farmer, and absorbed the ideas of such great early entomologists as T. W. Harris of Mas- sachusetts and Asa Fitch of New York. In Illinois the State Agricultural So- ciety, formed in 1853, was an important agent in bringing together Illinois zo- ologists, entomologists, and botanists into an organized natural history society. The progressive officers of the Agricultural Society were conscious from the first of the destructive nature of insects and were sufficiently versed in biological concepts to realize that applied biology requires a full knowledge of all forms of natural life. To encourage acquisition of this knowl- edge, the Agricultural Society ofifered prizes at its state fairs for collections in natural history fields. In 1854 Wm. J. Shaw of Tazewell County won first prize for the "Best suite of the animal king- dom, including insects and animals in- jurious to the farmer" (J. A. Kennicott 1855:122). In 1855 Robert Kennicott won two prizes, one for the "Greatest and best collection of named insects," the other for a zoological collection; in 1856 he won seven firsts—for a collection in each of the following classes: shells, named insects, zoology, botany, stuffed birds, rep- tiles, and fishes (J. A. Kennicott 1857:90, 142). In the State Agricultural Society's first Transactions, three lists of animals for Illinois were published, one on southern [127] I 128 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Illinois birds by Henry Pratten (1855), one on the Mollusca of southern Illinois by H. A. Ulffers (1855), and another (solicited by the Society's secretary) on the animals of Cook County by Robert Kennicott (1855). It is interesting that in this last article Kennicott recorded "buffalo" and elk for Cook County and noted that the "wild pigeon" (passenger pigeon) was "very abundant" and the magpie "not uncommon in winter." For a few years after the first corpo- rate form of the Illinois Natural History Survey had come into being as the Illi- nois Natural History Society, the Agri- cultural Society published the proceed- ings of the infant organization. In Illinois the faunistic worker of 1858 had few of the work aids which we en- joy today. The only Midwestern institu- tional reference collection was that at Northwestern University, built up by Robert Kennicott and considered out- standing in its day, although small and limited in group representation compared with collections now available. Most zoologists accumulated their own private collections, identifying their speci- mens with the aid of the few books avail- able and through consultation with other naturalists. Few libraries existed in the area. The reference shelves of the best zoologists contained comprehensive treat- ments covering the eastern North Ameri- can fauna for most of the vertebrates and the Mollusca. For the insects Say's vol- umes were available, but for many orders his treatment was fragmentary. For most insect groups and many other inverte- brates, extremely helpful world synopses had just been written by European au- thors, and some of them contained sepa- rate keys for the North American spe- cies. Aside from these basic references, there existed a number of journals carry- ing short papers, some of them published by the scientific societies of the Atlantic seaboard states, where such societies had been organized a century before their Midwestern counterparts. This period, the I850's, was a stirring one scientifically. Europe had just wit- nessed the successive development of com- parative anatomy and physiology, the cell theory, embryology, histology, and the theory of evolution. These basic concepts did not immediately influence faunistic work in North America but they did so later to a greater and greater degree. In North America prior to the 1850's, the great bulk of the invertebrate material, including insects, had been sent to Euro- pean specialists for description. Follow- ing the pioneer examples of Frederick Melsheimer and Thomas Say with in- sects and mollusks, American zoologists were beginning to describe more and more species of the native American fauna. In the invertebrate groups they had virtually a virgin field, for in 1858 great numbers of species were still un- known, and workable synopses were avail- able for only a small proportion of the native American fauna. CHANGING HABITATS iOriginally Illinois was chiefly a com- bination of forested hilly country and flat mesic prairies of a marshy nature. Inter- spersed with these main types were sand areas, bogs, river and stream habitats, and other local areas of diverse kinds. The rapid rise in the population of Illi- nois in the mid-nineteenth century initi- ated in the native vegetation drastic changes which have progressed steadily to the present time; these changes have had a marked effect on the distribution and composition of the animal life of the state. By 1858, towns or farms or logged- over areas had broken up large tracts of forest. Plowing had made great inroads into the prairies. Large area drainage op- erations in the marsh country had started about 1850, had gained great momentum by 1880, and by 1900 had turned the great bulk of the marshland into farms. The resultant changing ecology is a back- ground feature important to keep in mind when viewing the faunistic developments outlined in this chapter. PERIODS OF FAUNISTIC ACTIVITIES The faunistic activities of the Illinois Natural History Survey and its prede- cessors may be divided into three fairly distinct periods, the initial, chiefly vol- untary, period of roughly 1858-1869, the December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 129 expansion period of roughly 1871-1922, and the specialized faunistic survey pe- riod of roughly 1923 to date. Initial Period, 1858-1869 The Illinois Natural History Society, when formed in 1858, had as its primary objectives the exploration of the biota of Illinois and the establishment of a scien- tific library. Encouragement of animal studies was patently aimed at systematics ; yet even in the inaugural presidential ad- dress by J. B. Turner there is more than an overtone of putting systematics to work. In the words of Turner (1859: 647), A true philosophy, as it seems to me, would never let us rest content till we had truly and fully learned not the bare name and form, but the final cause and use, the good and evil, the full relation of each thing, object and being, to all other beings, and especially to man— to all his interests, enterprises, arts, uses and developments, physical, mental and moral. At the anniversary meeting in 1860 at Bloomington, certain objectives of the Society were expressed differently but in equally broad terms (Anon. 1860:3) : It is the aim of the Society ... to establish a Museum of Natural History, at the State Normal University, comprising every species of plants, birds, shells, fishes, insects, quad- rupeds, minerals and fossils, found in Illinois, together with such collections from various parts of the world as will assist our youth in gaining a knowledge of the general studies of nature. The Natural History Society did in fact found a museum at Normal, Illinois, which served as a rallying point for zo- ologists of the area. The Society's papers and proceedings continued to be published by the Agricultural Society, which fur- ther continued its active encouragement of faunistic work by awarding prizes for exhibited collections at the state fair. At about this time several Illinois nat- uralists began publishing accounts of the zoology of the state. C. D. Wilber (1861Z>) described a fossil mastodon, Thomas (1861^, \86\b) wrote lists of mammals and of some insects, R. H. Holder (\S6\a, \86lb) wrote about birds, and Walsh (1861-1868) published a re- markably fine series of papers before his death in 1869, Although a skeleton net- work of railroads crisscrossed the state, most of the collecting was local, because it had to be done as a hobby appended to the naturalist's business or other oc- cupation ; hence, the papers were based chiefly on material from a few localities. Collections exhibited at the state fairs give another informative light on faunis- tic activities of that time. At the 1859 fair three entries were exhibited, one a red deer, another a collection of stuffed birds, and the third a collection of in- sects. In 1860 seven entries (Reynolds 1861:190-1) and in 1861 eight entries (Reynolds 1865:137) were exhibited in zoology. There were no more exhibits in zoology until 1864; in that year the winners were chiefly the Illinois Natural History Society and Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington (Reynolds 1865:310). Apparently these two groups enjoyed some rivalry at that time in the development of natural history. An idea of the high merit of these ex- hibits can be gained from the 1861 Awarding Committee's remarks (Reyn- olds 1865:149) on the insect exhibits: In Entomology, a collection exhibited by T. G. Floyd, of Macomb, entitled the exhibitor to the "commendation" of the Society. In this department. Dr. Charles A. Helmuth, of Chi- cago, made a fine exhibition. His collection of Beetles is very valuable and attracted much attention. He has over 1100 species col- lected in Illinois, besides many fine species from other States and foreign countries. We think him entitled to "very high commenda- tion," especially for specimens exhibited be- longing to the order of Coleoptera. But by far the best collection exhibited was presented bv B. D. Walsh, Esq., of Rock Island. It is hardly possible to speak in too high terms of this extensive collection of the insects of Illinois. So far as Illinois insects are concerned, it outnumbers in the order of Coleoptera, the collection of Dr. Helmuth, and is very full in all the other orders. It could only have been collected and arranged by an exercise of industry, [perseverance] and skill, and by an application of scientific knowledge, reflecting great honor upon the collector and entitling him to high rank among the Naturalists of the State and of the country. The Committee do not hesitate to pronounce his the "best collection illustrating the Entomology of Illi- nois," and unanimously award to him the premium of the Society. In spite of the achievements in faunis- tic activities shown by both publications 130 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 and exhibits, the Natural History So- ciety itself faltered because it could not make ends meet on private subscriptions alone and by the end of the 1860's was a mere shell of an organization. Expansion Period, 1871-1922 The establishment of the State En- tomologist's Office in 1867 and the in- corporation of the Illinois Natural His- tory Society into the State Board of Ed- ucation in 1871 brought together as offi- cial state organizations two agencies in- vestigating natural science and marked the beginning of continuing state support for faunistic programs. The appointment of Walsh as first State Entomologist had little effect on this movement because Walsh confined his official writings almost entirely to nontaxonomic subjects. His successor, William Le Baron, introduced serious taxonomic contributions into the reports of the State Entomologist in 1871. In his first report as State Entomolo- gist, Le Baron described a new species of moth attacking apple, in his second described four more new species of in- sects of economic importance, and in his third gave an outline of and key to the orders of Illinois insects (Le Baron 1871 : 20-3; 1872:117-24, 138-9, 140, 157-8; 1873:25). Here he called particular attention to the great need for identifica- tion aids in the pursuit of economic en- tomolog}^ Le Baron's was the first of much faunistic work which continued as an integral part of the development of economic entomology in Illinois. At al- most the same time (1871), the educa- tors and scientists of the state, alarmed at the continued decline of their Natural History Society, induced the legislature to take over and assign the Society's mu- seum and library to the State Board of Education in exchange for state appropria- tions (Illinois General Assembly 1872: 151-2) for the Society's continued growth. Thus, the need for state aid in the de- velopment of faunistics arose from two different directions. Both Le Baron and Thomas as State Entomologists published many fine taxo- nomic insect studies in their reports. Un- der the auspices of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, naturalists in the state published faunistic papers on a wide range of Illinois groups, including Crustacea, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects. The period 1858-1878 witnessed the first concerted awakening of American naturalists to the taxonomic opportunities in the invertebrates, especially in the in- sects. Specialists in many states published comprehensive treatises on orders or fam- ilies of insects of North America. For these animals, this was truly the age of North American discovery. In 1877 the Museum of the Natural History Society, by that time known as the Illinois Museum of Natural History, was separated into two institutions: the Natural History Museum, designed as a public exhibition museum, in Spring- field, and the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History, at Normal (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1877:14-6). The duties of the State Laboratory, presumably as set forth by Stephen A. Forbes, its Di- rector, stressed ecological approaches to the animal life of the state and in this policy reflected thoughts expressed by Turner 20 years before. The primary in- tent of the systematic program described was "to monograph those groups which have not been thoroughly studied else- where" (Forbes 1882^:9) . In 1882 Forbes became State Entomol- ogist, as well as Director of the State Laboratory. Following the establish- ment of both of these offices at Urbana in 1885, the faunistic program received great impetus. Reading between the lines of the original reports of the Director, it seems safe to surmise that by this time the ecological studies already attempted had highlighted the pressing need for the accurate identification of the animal spe- cies encountered in these studies. In the revised list of duties of the State Labora- tory we find the directive, "he [the Di- rector] shall present for publication, from time to time, a series of systematic reports covering the entire field of the zoology ... of Illinois" (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1885:23). In its Bulletin. the Laboratory had previously published many papers by nonstafif members, but from this time on a larger and larger pro- portion of these papers was the product of staff members of the State Laboratory or of the State Entomologist's Office. December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 131 The main faunistic activities of these staff members concerned aquatic organisms and insects associated with the develop- ment of ecology and economic entomol- ogy. Forbes repeatedly mentions that the most important tools of the biologist are roads traversed the state and these were the only means of rapid travel. Collecting was done intensively around a few head- quarters, especially Urbana, Carbondale, and Havana. On the Illinois River and other waterways, boats were available Field party of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History at one of several collecting stations near Havana, 1894. This station was on the east shore of Thompson's Lake, which has since been drained. In the picture are, left to right, Frank Smith and Henry E. Summers, zoolo- gists, Charles A. Hart, entomologist, and Miles Newberry, fisherman and boatman. a reference collection for the identifica- tion of specimens and a scientific library. All staff members collected specimens as part of their duties, and every effort was made to obtain material from different parts of the state and from areas of in- terest in adjacent states. By 1894 the collections were of sufficient magnitude to be placed under the charge of a cura- tor, C. A. Hart. In 1903 Hart became Systematic Entomologist and Curator of the insect collections, and R. E. Richard- son was brought in to take charge of the fish collections. In 1915 J. R. Malloch was appointed to assist Hart with the insects. Collecting conditions from 1870 to well into the 1900's were greatly dif- ferent from those of today. A few rail- for travel up and down the rivers. Local travel was done by horse-drawn vehicles. As late as 1900 Forbes (1901:3, 5-6) wrote of the Laboratory : Its field operations have been conducted mainly from the Illinois Biological Station [at Ha- vana and Meredosia] as a center, . . . Besides this local work on the fishes of the State, two extensive wagon trips have been provided for, one made in the fall of 1899, and the other in progress at this date [Sep- tember, 1900]. . . . A considerable number of collections have also been made by high school principals and science teachers and sent to the Laboratory in aid of this survey. Hart and his assistants traveled to various points by train and in each town set up headquarters in a local hotel or rooming house, hired a buggy, and made 132 Illinois Naturai. History Survly BuLi.iiTiN Vol. 27, Art. 2 day trips into the surroundin^i territory. In this way, over the years a remarkably fine collection of insects was built up from almost every part of the state. The establishment of the Held laboratory at Havana formed a basis for many seasons of intensive insect collectinjj; in the rich waters of that area and on the extremely interesting; sand areas which line the east bank of the Illinois River through sev- eral counties. At the present time such restrictions on movement might seem a terrible handi- cap, but one must remember that in those days the land was not so intensively culti- vated as it is at present. Within a very short distance of almost any town, tracts of virgin forest, prairie, marsh, or other undisturbed habitats could be reached with little effort. Many of the old virgin landscapes which were the type localities of Illinois species are now either flooded by artificial lakes, under cultivation, or covered by urban developments. Most of the marshes, which were once common- place, have been drained. Because of the abundance and accessibility of varied habitats, the early collections were both large and diversified. The very nature of the substation headquarters method en- couraged the collection of all species of insects in a given locality, rather than specialization on any one group. Human labor was relatively cheap; hence, pre- parators and collectors could be hired and trained at a nominal cost. As a result, the State Laboratory in- sect collections (which constituted also the insect collections servicing the State Entomologist's Office) became the finest which had ever been assembled for any one state, and early in the twentieth century the collections of fishes and cer- tain other groups were equally fine. This faunistic program reached a peak about 1910 and continued into the next decade. In 1917, when the State Entomol- ogist's Office and the State Laboratory were combined to form the present Illi- nois State Natural History Survey, the reorganization did not effect any changes in the internal structure of the faunistic staff. Immediately afterward, however, the faunistic program began to dwindle. Many of the well-trained personnel ac- cepted positions in universities and other scientific centers which were growing^ rapidly. World War I drew away much of the younger help. Richardson concen- trated on ecology. Hart, the work horse! of the entomological collections, died in 1918, and in 1919 C. P. Alexander was appointed Systematic Entomologist. Al- exander and Malloch worked chiefly on stream surveys. The studies of Alexander resulted in a report on the Vermilion River (Alexander 1925). After the resignations of Malloch, in 1921, and Al- exander, in 1922, there were no faunistic taxonomists left on the Natural History Survey staff. No comprehensive faunistic projects had been in operation for several years, and these resignations left the Survey without even curators. Specialization Period, 1923 to Present The appointment of Theodore H. Pri- son as Systematic Entomologist in 1923 marked the beginning of a resurgence in the faunistic activities of the Natural History Survey. Until several years later this move was felt primarily in the in- sects, but eventually it spread to the other animal groups. Prison's first endeavors were to collate the insect collections, but his chief thoughts were aimed at meth- ods for revitalizing the old charge to publish a series of systematic reports covering the entire field of the zoology of Illinois (Illinois General Assembly 1885:23). Porbes was as anxious as Prison to see this program begin. By this time several factors had changed the faunistic outlook considerably from that of the beginning of the century. Good roads reached almost every hamlet in the state, and the automobile had supplanted the train and buggy as a ready means of travel. The ease of reaching all points of the state made up in large measure for the increasing destruction of large tracts of native habitats and the necessity of seeking primeval collecting spots in re- mote and widely separated localities. Taxonomically the picture had changed to an equal extent, at least for insects. In 1900 it was generally considered that except in groups like aphids and ecto- parasites, species could be readily identi- fied by external characters through use of, at most, a hand lens. Variation had December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 133 been little recognized as a factor in and a difficult)' of identification. A reference series of a few specimens was considered thoroughly adequate for each species. Al- though the value of series of specimens was becoming recognized at the beginning of the twentieth century, the true neces- sity for larger population samples was not fully recognized in insect groups un- til about the 1920's. By this time, in group after group of insects and indeed of other invertebrates, many of the older species units were each being divided into several species separated only by micro- scopic characters, which were often minute in character and difficult to see. So detailed was the knowledge required to identify many of these groups that it was no longer possible for one person to cover reliably the tremendous number of groups which Hart had done so success- fully according to the standards of his day. Influenced by these changes, a faunistic program was evolved centering around in- tensive studies of individual groups. The program called for each staffs member to study some special group, collect material throughout the state at different seasons and in different habitats, identify the ma- terial, and write up a report of the group for Illinois. It was hoped that the serv- ices of specialists at other institutions could be obtained during the summer months to work with Natural History Survey personnel on Illinois reports. In the original plan, the thought was that these reports could be restricted quite closely to Illinois material and to Illinois species. This plan did in fact prove satisfactory for the aphids and Orthop- tera, which were relatively well known for the country as a whole. When, how- ever, projects were started for groups which were poorly known for the conti- nent, it was found essential to extend the scope of the reports to cover roughly the mid-central states, as Forbes had implied as a general policy as early as 1900. It was recognized early in this pro- gram that many insect groups of little importance economically were neverthe- less of great importance ecologically. An attempt was therefore made to develop a program which would alternate the treatment of groups having principally economic importance with those having principally ecological importance. Within the bounds of a primarily systematic treatment, it was hoped that basic information could be obtained on the place of the species in nature. Collect- ing programs therefore stressed discover- ing the microhabitats, hosts, seasonal ap- pearance, or other ecological attributes of the different species. An aim of great importance which de- veloped for these reports concerned their usability from the viewpoint of the be- ginning student. Many keys made by specialists contained language too tech- nical to be readily understood by non- specialists. Prison was acutely aware of this fact and insisted that all keys in the faunistic bulletins be couched in language as simple as possible and that, wherever helpful to an understanding of characters or specialized terms, illustrations should accompany the keys. Prison's plan for faunistic reports was not put into operation until 1928, when F. C. Hottes was employed during the summer as a special appointee to work on the aphids of Illinois. The appointment of Hottes was the first of several of its kind. In 1931, when Prison became Chief, Herbert H. Ross became Systematic En- tomologist. In 1935 the insect systematic program became the Insect Survey Sec- tion of the Natural History Survey. The identification of economic insects, always a duty of the Systematic Entomol- ogist, became an important feature of the Section. The Section was called on also for the identification of certain other invertebrates important in agriculture or public health, especially mites, ticks, aquatic Crustacea, and earthworms. In these activities, changing taxonomic con- cepts and the introduction of economic insects and mites new to the state con- tinually increased the difficulties of ac- curate identification and the need for ob- taining additional specialists for the staff. In 1947 the faunistic program was expanded to cover all animal groups, with the idea of extending to groups other than the insects the faunal survey aims which had been developed for insects. The Insect Survey Section was renamed the Section of Faunistic Surveys and In- sect Identification, and it became the 134 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 custodian of all the Survey's taxonomic collections of animal groups. Over the years several artists have contributed greatly to the utility and ap- pearance of the Survey's faunistic publi- cations—Lydia M. Hart, H. K. Knab, C O. Alohr, Kathryn M. Sommerman, and Elizabeth Maxwell. Miss Hart and Dr. Mohr, especially, have graced Nat- ural History Survey publications with a multitude of remarkably fine total views of insects. RESEARCH COLLECTIONS The great value of research and refer- ence collections to programs in natural history was stressed in the founding ar- ticles of the Illinois Natural History So- ciety and has been evident ever since in all phases of applied ecology. The Natural History Survey has therefore stressed the assembling and maintenance of adequate research collections of animal groups as a corollary to its faunistic activities. The general aims in augmenting the collections have varied over the years, but in recent decades have approached closely the policy expressed at the 1860 anniversary meeting of the Natural His- tory Society and have emphasized first the species found in Illinois and then species or additional material from other regions which contribute to analyzing or interpreting the Illinois fauna. Taxonomists in other institutions have aided the Illinois Natural History Survey greatly by identifying Survev material in their respective specialties. This aid has not only resulted in keeping the Survey collection up-to-date but has afforded needed reference material in many genera or families. Vertebrates During the early periods of Survey history, Forbes and his assistants built up and maintained a large collection of Illi- nois fishes, but kept only a small reference collection of other groups. Much of the fish collection is intact at present, but the older material of other vertebrate groups has become dissipated. In recent decades emphasis has been placed on build- ing up collections of amphibians and reptiles, especially variational series from Illinois and surrounding states; on start- ing reference collections of birds and mammals; and, more recently, on as- sembling fish collections designed to be a basis for a re-study of Illinois fishes. Invertebrates Other Than Insects In early records of the Survey, there is no indication of the extent of invertebrate collections other than that given by inci- dental mention in a few small published papers. The largest of these collections comprised the molluscs ; the aquatic spe- cies were obtained chiefly from river sur- veys and the extensive series of land spe- cies from the collecting of Frank C. Baker and Thural Dale Foster. Early collections of other groups were made, at least of phalangids, crustaceans, and cer- tain protozoans, but only scattered vials or slides of these materials are extant at the present. Since 1930, special Illinois collecting has been initiated for a few groups, and in the pseudoscorpions and ticks excellent Illinois series have been assembled. Insects From the late 1870's to the present, the insect collections grew steadily. The first official collection was Walsh's pri- vate collection purchased by the State for Le Baron in 1870. Le Baron picked out duplicates for a reference collection in his office and then sent the main Walsh col- lection to the Chicago Academy of Sciences for safekeeping. There it was destroyed in the Chicago fire of 1871. Ironically, some of the material Le Baron selected from the Walsh collection may have persisted and be represented in the present Natural History Survey collec- tion. Since the extant Le Baron specimens lack locality data, however, it is impos- sible to determine their original source. A collection of aphids made by Thomas was preserved, also. The insect collection which Forbes be- gan in the State Laboratory was quite small while he was at Normal. As soon as he became established in Urbana in 1885, he started to place great emphasis on building it up. About 5 years later Forbes (1890:3) gave the following ac- count of the collection : DecemDer, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 135 The entomological collection has been great- ly enlarged, especially in Diptera, and a large number of determinations in all orders have been made. The named collection is now con- tained in 160 double boxes, and numbers about 5,000 species, each being represented, as a rule, by four selected specimens. The pinned and determined duplicate insects on hand— largely in process of distribution to public schools—amount to 42,600 specimens. The alcoholic insects, including large numbers of larvae, are contained in about 10,200 bot- tles and vials. Although we have no later estimates of the size of this insect collection, it is obvious from material now in the collec- tion that by 1910 Hart was keeping much larger series of each species. In addition to material gathered by the staff, in the Natural History Survey col- lection are several collections of note that have been given to or acquired by the Survey. Notable items include the W. A. Nason collection (insects of Algon- quin, Illinois), the C. W. Stromberg collection (insects of northwestern Illi- nois), the Andreas Bolter collection (all orders of insects), the Emil Beer Lepidop- tera collection, the Charles Robertson collection (insects on flowers), the L. J. Milne caddisfly collection, the C. L. Metcalf flower fly collection, the W. P. Hayes weevil collection, the A. D. Mac- Gillivray sawfly collection, the P. N. Musgrave water beetle collection, and the K. F. Auden beetle collection. Amateur entomologists, such as Murray O. Glenn of Henry and Alex K. Wyatt of Chicago, have made numerous valuable additions to the collection. Because of special taxonomic interests on the part of staff members, the collec- tion is unusually comprehensive in certain groups of insects. To this category be- long the stoneflies, mayflies, and caddis- flies; the aphids, mirids, and leafhoppers ; the leaf beetles, rove beetles, and June beetles; the sawflies and bees; the thrips and psocids; the springtails; and a few groups of the true flies. In many orders the collection contains a great deal of ma- terial of the immature stages, which have been emphasized in our reports. The large collections of rove beetles, sawflies, and ectoparasitic groups are associated with plans for future projects. Since 1925 primary types at the Nat- ural History Survey have been segregated for reference and protection. In 1927 these represented about 1,000 species; the number now stands at about 2,500 spe- cies. At present the total insect collection contains roughly 2,000,000 specimens, in- cluding over 50,000 slide mounts, repre- senting about 40,000 species and housed in 2,700 insect drawers and 100,000 vials. FAUNISTIC REPORTS The preparation and publication of re- ports on the animals of Illinois, a respon- sibility repeated several times in mandates to the Natural History Survey and its predecessors, was begun with the first publications of the Illinois Natural His- tory Society and has been continued to the present. Many of the first reports were mere lists, often local in nature, and have needed revision or complete retreatment. In addition to the chiefly systematic accounts outlined below, ecological and economic studies over the years have con- tained a wealth of records and descrip- tions of a large number of species. This is true especially of surveys of the sand areas, prairie and forest areas, and exten- sive bottom fauna and shore studies of the large rivers. Vertebrates Faunistic reports have been published on all the vertebrate groups occurring in Illinois. Certain of the older reports are now out-of-date because of our greatly increased knowledge of the fauna. Fishes.—The work on Illinois fishes may truly be considered the first sustained faunistic project carried on by personnel of the Natural History Survey or its par- ent organizations. The project was begun with Forbes' first connection with the Illinois Natural History Society and con- tinued as a cohesive svstematic studv until 1909. At the time of birth of the Illinois Nat- ural History Society, approximately three- quarters of the Illinois fishes had been de- scribed and named by such distinguished early ichthyologists as Rafinesque, Le Sueur, Girard, Agassiz, Mitchell, and Kirtland. Half a dozen of these species were first discovered in Illinois waters. During the next three or four decades, 1.^6 Illinois Natural History Survlv Hulli-tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 when Illinois waters were beinji studied intensively by Forbes and his colleagues, most of the remaininji Illinois fishes were described by such famous zoologists as Jordan. Cope, Gilbert, Nelson, and Forbes himself. A regional list treating the fishes of the Chicago area was prepared by Robert Kennicott (1855), and comprehensive catalogs of the fishes of the entire state appeared in the first volume of the Bulle- tin (Nelson 1876; Jordan 1878). Sev- eral years later Forbes (1884) prepared a third catalog of Illinois fishes, and early in the present century Thomas Large (1903) published a fourth list. Some time in the 1870's Forbes seems to have developed the idea of producing a w^ell-illustrated and detailed account of the Illinois fishes which would be useful for all the Mississippi River states. Year after >'ear, wagon parties were sent to ex- plore and collect in different streams of the state until finally records were avail- able for virtually every river and rill in Illinois. Along the Illinois River large collections were made year after year. Some extensive collecting parties visited localities in neighboring states. The amount of human endeavor that went into this project is monumental and rep- resents the steadfast patience and toil of 30 years. The final report, The Fishes of Illinois and its Atlas, by Forbes & Rich- ardson (1908), summarized all this in- formation and featured a remarkable set of color plates prepared by Lydia Hart. Since the appearance of the Forbes & Richardson report, two other contribu- tions have been made by the Natural His- tory Survey to Illinois fish taxonomy. D. H. Thompson & F. D. Hunt (1930) published a report on the fishes of Cham- paign County, and D. J. O'Donnell (1935) published an annotated list of Illinois fishes. Birds.—Before 1858 there was an abundance of illustrative and synoptic references to North American birds by Wilson, Nuttall, Audubon, and others, and there were local lists of Illinois birds by Robert Kennicott (1855) and H. Pratten (1855). Later, R. H. Holder (1861fl) published a list of Illinois birds and a short taxidermy manual in the Transactions of the Illinois Natural His- tory SocietN. In 1881 Robert Ridgway published a revised catalog and, a few years later, two large reports, the two volumes of The Ornithologx of Illinois (Ridgway 1881, 1889, 1895). The first volume was destroyed by fire in the state printer's office and had to be completely reprinted before it was issued. These two volumes were among the pioneers in the use of structural characters in keying the birds of an area. Ridgway, a native of Illinois, was not an employee of the state- but wrote these volumes because of his intense interest in Illinois birds. In later years Forbes, A. O. Gross, and Frank Smith made many observations on Illinois birds, but these studies were pri- marily of an ecological nature. Amphibians and Reptiles.—Survey studies concerned with these animals did not start until the 1880's. In the first vol- ume of the Bulletin, N. S. Davis, Jr., & F. L. Rice (1883) published a catalog of amphibians and reptiles found east of the Mississippi River. H. Garman (1890) also studied these groups. No synoptic collections were kept of the early ma- terial. In the 1930's Francis Lueth and Willard Stanley accumulated records and assembled several hundred specimens. In the early 1940's the Natural History Sur- vey focused attention on these groups through the co-operation of H. K. Gloyd of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, C. H. Pope of the Chicago Natural History Museum, and H. M. Smith of the Uni- versity of Illinois. In 1947 P. W. Smith initiated an intensive Study of these ani- mals, making collections in all parts of the state and plotting the variation and distribution of each species. In 1957 this project culminated in a comprehensive report on the amphibians and reptiles of Illinois; the report is now awaiting pub- lication. Mammals.—The Natural History Survey and its parent agencies have pub- lished only a small number of reports on Illinois mammals. The first, by Cyrus Thomas (1861/'), was published by the Natural History Society. Early in the present century, F. E. Wood (1910rt) published on the mammals of Champaign County. In the 1930's C. O. Mohr be- came interested in the mammal fauna of Illinois and gathered a great deal of in- December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 137 formation on distribution and habits. After Mohr left the Natural History Sur- vey in 1947, the work on mammals was taken up by D. F. Hoffmeister of the Uni- versity of Illinois, and the resultinj^; field- book appeared shortly after Mohr had rejoined the Survey stafi (Hoiifmeister & Mohr 1957). Invertebrates Other Than Insects Most of the invertebrate studies made during the early history of the Survey concerned chiefly aquatic orj2;anisms which were important in limnological inves- tigations. The first paper by Forbes (1876) in the Bulletin was a list of the Illinois Crustacea; this was followed by a paper on Crustacea by L. M. Under- wood (1886). A. Hempel (1896, 1899) described a few rotifers and protozoans from the Illinois River, and C. A. Kofoid (1898, 1899) described a few plankton organisms of Illinois. R. W. Sharpe (1897), F. W. Schacht (1897, 1898), and Ernest Forbes (1897) made addi- tional contributions to a knowledge of the Crustacea. C. M. Weed (1890) did con- siderable work on the phalangids of Illi- nois and published a partial catalog of the group. Several other invertebrate studies pub- lished in the Bulletin were almost en- tirely the work of nonstaff members, some of whom worked actively in co-operation with the Survey. J. P. Moore (1901) treated the Illinois leeches; Frank Smith (1895-1928) published many papers on earthworms; H. J. Van Cleave (1919) studied Illinois River Acanthocephala ; Henry E. Ewing (1909) studied the orobatid mites; and F. C. Baker (1906) published a catalog of the Illinois Mol- lusca. Ecological work on the rivers amassed collections of the various plankton groups, but only those portions noted above were ever analyzed taxonomically. Much of the material was discarded after being recorded, and much was lost by desicca- tion. Except for the collections of Mol- lusca, by 1947 only a small amount of the early invertebrate collections re- mained. About 1930 a survey of the land snails of Illinois was organized under the lead- ership of F. C. Baker. The field work was done primarily by T. D. Foster. Foster used a motorcycle on collecting trips and shared with S. C. Chandler the distinction of being one of the few mem- bers of the Survey's motorcycle brigade. For 2 years he conducted a whirlwind search over the entire state for land snails and brought together a remarkable num- ber of records. The material was iden- tified by Baker, who prepared a report that appeared as a fieldbook of the Illinois land snails (Baker 1939). The book was beautifully illustrated by C. O. Mohr. Berlese collecting, instituted about 1933 primarily for exploring the insects in dufi, netted not only insects but large numbers of terrestrial invertebrates, mainly arach- noids. About 1940 C. C. Hoff of the University of New Mexico became inter- ested in co-operating in a study of pseudo- scorpions of Illinois. He found that many species collected in these Berlese samples were new and represented a Midwestern faunal element which had remained un- seen because other pseudoscorpion spe- cialists lived in either the East or the West. Hold's report on the Illinois fauna was published bv the Natural History Survey (Hof¥ 1949). Insects Considering not only the economic im- portance of insects but also the exceed- ingly large number of species expected in the state (approximately 20,000), it is not surprising that the Natural History Survey's most extensive faunistic contri- butions have been made in this group. Many of the studies have resulted in de- scriptions of new species, life history notes, and distribution records contained in short papers; many others have resulted in comprehensive accounts of various groups found in Illinois. Orthoptera.—Thomas was early a keen student of the Orthoptera and in the first of the Transactions of the Natural History Society published a list of this or- der for Illinois (Thomas 1859/^). His in- terest continued and he published a second, enlarged list in the first volume of the Bulletin (Thomas 1876). In the earlv 1900's, Hart and A. G. Vestal made large and extremely interesting collections of this order in the Illinois sand areas, in which an appreciable number of western 138 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 species occur. In 1932 Morgan Hebard of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia offered to prepare an account of the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois. For this project staff members made additional collections in areas of the state not previously covered for the group. The report appeared 2 vears later (Heb- ard 1934). Aphids.—This group was one of the Hrst emphasized in studies by the Natural History Survey's parent organizations. Thomas, one of the leading early investi- gators in the taxonomy of this group, pub- lished a synopsis of one of the tribes and described many new forms from Illinois (Thomas 1878). About the same time Nettie Aliddleton (1878) described an- other species, and several years later C. M. Weed (1891) published the results of his studies on the life histories of a number of species. Little more was done with this group until J. J. Davis started further taxonomic investigation of the aphids about 1908. In the Bulletin, Davis (1913) published a commentary on the Cyrus Thomas collection and in addition 20 papers on aphid taxonomy in various entomological journals. Most of this work he did while an assistant in the State Entomologist's Office. In 1928 Prison and F. C. Hottes, the latter now at Grand Junction, Colorado, took up a study of Illinois aphids. This was the first study to be based on a com- bination of intensive collecting for one group and opportunities for rapid travel to all parts of the state. Field investi- gations were made during the summers of 1928-1930. Each year collecting parties started in the southern part of Illinois and worked north and then reversed the pat- tern so that each locality was collected at different seasons. A complete set of slide mounting equipment was taken into the field, and temporary headquarters were I An Illinois Natural History Survey entomologist making field notes relating to insects he has collected. The association of insects with their host plants is an important phase of the work of Survey entomologists. December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 139 set up in hotels at various towns. Each party consisted of three persons. Usually all three collected during the first half- day spent in each locality ; after that one person stayed in the headquarters hotel and mounted aphids while the other two continued collecting. Lists of potential hosts, with especially interesting ones in- dicated, were used as a tick sheet in each locality. About a hundred species, 36 of them new to science, were added to the state list. The report on this project was published in the Bulletin (Hottes & Pri- son 1931). Odonata.—Nymphs of this order were frequently encountered in limnological work, and H. Garman and Hart reared many of them during the 1880's and 1890's. This work set the stage for the first report on Illinois dragonflies, an ar- ticle by J. G. Needham & Hart (1903). Later Philip Garman did much work on the group and wrote an excellent account of the damselfiy suborder Zygoptera in Illinois (P. Garman 1917). Pentatomoidea.—This group includes the stink bugs, a group of sucking insects for which Hart had a special interest. He assembled a remarkably fine collection of the Illinois species and had virtually com- pleted an account of the state fauna at the time of his death. The manuscript was completed by J. R. Malloch and was pub- lished in the Bulletin (Hart 1919). This report was especially useful because it in- cluded not only keys to the Illinois spe- cies but also keys to the Nearctic genera. Diptera.—The first serious work on the flies done for the Natural History Survey or a parent organization was by J. R. Malloch. Although interested in Diptera in general, Malloch specialized in the Chironomidae or midges, of great importance in the economy of Illinois waters. He reared a large number of these insects and was one of the first workers to delve into the minute char- acters of the male genitalia and the larval mouthparts as an aid in species discrimina- tion and identification. His rearings were done chiefly in the vicinity of Havana and Urbana, with a great deal of help from Hart, who also collected adult ma- terial from various parts of Illinois and surrounding states. The report by Mal- loch (1915) on the midges was outstand- ing among faunistic works. Not only did it give equal emphasis to the adults and larvae, a most unusual feature for the time, but it benefited from two remark- able faculties of Malloch's. One was Malloch's ability to spot new characters (dipterists agree that Malloch was a genius at this not only in the midges but in every group in which he worked). The other was his ability to prepare un- usually clear keys, which made his publi- cations quite out of the ordinary in their usefulness to other workers. The breadth of Malloch's interest in Diptera was expressed when he published in the Bulletin a classification of the order based primarily on larval and pupal characters (Malloch 1917). This study was one of the first in which recognition was given to the value of characters of the immature stages in determining the relationships of families within a large in- sect order. Certainly it is a classic and contains cogent ideas of fly classification which even at this date have not been fully incorporated into accepted classi- fications of the order. The next intensive Natural History Survey work on Diptera was a study com- menced by H. H. Ross about 1938 on the Illinois mosquitoes. Because of restric- tions on travel and lack of availability of personnel during World War II, field work and rearing progressed at a rela- tively slow rate. The report on these in- sects was published in the Bulletin (Ross 1947). Plecoptera.—Although the Plecop- tera or stoneflies are an abundant com- ponent of many aquatic communities, no state-wide taxonomic work on the Illinois species was done until Frison became in- terested in them in 1927. Previously Walsh (1863, 1864«) had observed and recorded many of the species occurring in the vicinity of Rock Island. Frison and another entomologist, R. D. Glasgow, loved to hike and picnic, especially in the hilly country along the Salt Fork River south of Oakwood, Illinois. On fall ex- cursions to this locality they noticed that, in some of the very small streams, the smallest of the stonefly nymphs kept in- creasing in size as winter approached. This observation excited Prison's curios- ity and from it arose an abiding interest 140 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 in and love of stoneflies which continued throufjh the rest of his life. Frison fol- lowed the development of these little stoneHies, which proved to he the small jjroup called winter stoneflies. He discov- ered that little was known concerning;; the fauna of the Midwest and hegan a study of the group for Illinois. The first report on stoneflies treated a few small families comprising the winter stoneflies (Frison 1929). Ihe collecting and rearing of species of the other families in the order were begun. Rearing these insects proved to he difficult because the laboratory water available at Urbana did not sustain the stoneflies. Copper cages on a raft placed in a stream were eventually devised to overcome this difl'iculty, but the losses of these expensive cages by vandalism finally proved so great that the practice was dis- continued. A considerable number of species were reared from emerging nymphs caught at the water's edge. By one means or another, all the Illinois spe- cies were finally reared. Six years after publication of the winter stonefly report, a report covering all the Illinois Plecop- tera appeared (Frison 1935). Frison found sets of nymphal charac- ters which appeared to have great prom- ise for indicating natural groupings of the species and genera, Indications such as Malloch had previously found when exploring characters of the larvae and pupae of Diptera. The studies of stone- fly nymphs set the stage for what might be called the modern classification of the order and stimulated emphasis on the study of immature stages in subsequent Survey projects on several other orders of Insects. These insects proved so fascinating that Frison's studies did not long stop at the boundaries of Illinois. Through material obtained on vacation trips and at other opportunities, the stonefly collection was enlarged to cover all of North America. With large series available from diverse areas of the continent, it became apparent that many of the old species were in real- ity species complexes, and as a result many of the Illinois populations had to be described as new. The results of these latter developments in the stoneflies were published in the Bulletin (Frison 1937, 1942«) and as shorter papers In various entomological journals. Megaloptera.—These, the alderflles and dobsonflies, were collected during the aquatic work on stoneflies and caddls- flles; some specimens were received from fishermen who had encountered them along streams and had sent them In for identification. Attempts to identify these Megaloptera by means of then current literature proved unsatisfactory. In the alderfly genus Sialis, characters noticed in the male genitalia seemed to provide an excellent means for positive determina- tion of the species and an analysis of these characters led to a re-evaluation of the species In the genus, many of which proved to be new. About half a dozen species were found in the material from Illinois and surrounding states. As part of an effort to learn something of the en- tire distribution pattern of the Illinois species, the study was extended to cover the fauna of the whole continent. The report on this study was published in the Natural Historv Survey Bulletin (Ross 1937). Miridae.—As the aphid project was coming to a close, H. H. Knight of Iowa State College agreed to work summers with the Illinois Natural History Survey and prepare a report on the Miridae or plant bugs of Illinois. Knight was on the Survey payroll for three summers. Pre- viously Hart had assembled and identified an excellent collection of this group for the state, but since Hart's time Knight had shown that characters of the genitalia indicated a much larger fauna than ear- lier workers had suspected on the basis of the external characters they used. The mirid field trip pattern followed that of the aphids, with the trips around the state scattered through the different seasons. Again host collecting was em- phasized, and field headquarters were set up locally in hotels. The general plan was to collect until about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, and then pin up the day's catch. With the Miridae, this was thought desirable because of the fragile nature of certain diagnostic characters, especially pubescence, which might be brushed off if the specimens were relaxed and pinned later. Many thousands of specimens were collected each year, and December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 141 again a large number of species, including about 20 new ones, were added to the state list. Members of the staff served as "guinea pigs" to try out the keys, to point out spots difficult for the uninitiated, and to suggest improvements. Mohr did his usual excellent job in providing many total views of various species. The report resulting from this project was published in the Bulletin (Knight 1941). Ephemeroptera.—The mayflies were early recognized as being one of the most important components of the fresh-water biota of Illinois, but, except for early local studies by Walsh (1863, 1864^), lit- tle was done concerning their systematics in this state until about 1925. At that time collections were sent to J. W. Mc- Dunnough at Ottawa, Canada, who iden- tified a considerable amount of material. Collecting and rearing of species in the order were only sporadic until about 1937, when B. D. Burks, assigned to the project, began an intensive field program. Certain genera of the mayflies proved difficult to rear because the subimagoes seldom survived in cages, and in some species the nymphs did not molt to the subimaginal stage in still water. For these genera Burks worked out a neat con- trivance. He placed fully mature nymphs (which emerge at night) in a pan of water containing a large stone, placed the pan on the floor of a car at nightfall, and had the car driven over a gravel road. The wave action produced in the pan by the rough ride broke the surface film enough so that the nymphs could emerge. As the driver guided the car along the road, Burks sat in the back seat and periodically examined the pan with a flashlight; he captured each subimago as it emerged, put it in a vial for emergence to imago, and associated the cast skin with it. The extremely short period of adult emergence of many species frequently necessitated camping out along a stream and keeping an around-the-clock vigil for emergence. During one summer a rear- ing station was established at a fish hatchery along Nippersink Creek, in the extreme northeastern part of the state, which is especially rich in mayfly species. A flash flood inundated the rearing rooms and nearly swept away the sum- mer's material. The material was res- cued as the vials were beginning to float out of the window in the shoulder-deep water. At first, Burks had difficulty obtain- ing good series of imagoes, although the subimagoes could be collected in quan- tity at lights. Burks found that he could catch great quantities of these sub- imagoes in paper bags, turn them loose in his hotel room, and have them emerge in fine shape, so that any desired number of imagoes could be secured. When Burks left the Natural History Survey in 1949, he had completed the mayfly report, which was published in the Bulletin (Burks 1953). Gicadellidae.—About 70 years ago, C. W. Woodworth (1887) published a short treatment of this family, com- prising the leafhoppers, and later Hart and Malloch made extensive collections of these insects, some of which were identified and recorded by W. L. Mc- Atee of the United States Biological Survey ( McAtee 1924, 1926). Malloch himself (1921) wrote a short paper on the group. In 1934 D. M. DeLong of Ohio State University agreed to tackle the job of working up a more extensive treatment of the leafhoppers of Illinois. A few years prior to 1934, DeLong had begun an investigation of the male genitalia in the leafhoppers and found that, as in a number of other groups, many of the species previously identified on the basis of external characters were in reality clusters of species which could be separated primarily on the basis of genitalic structures. Both in North America and elsewhere the discovery of these characters had set off a tremendous burst of activity by leafhopper workers to explore these structures. It was in the midst of this burst of effort that the Illinois project was launched. DeLong and other staff members spent almost all of the next three summers crisscrossing Illinois and collecting leafhoppers in the various habitats of the state. During rainy weeks and also during the winter back in Columbus, Ohio, DeLong iden- tified these collections and continued his revisional studies. Various members of the staff made special collections as in- dicated bv new taxonomic discoveries. 142 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 By 1945 it was apparent that a re- port embracing all the leafhoppers un- der one cover was impractical, and De- Long prepared the manuscript for about half of the fauna, which included all the subfamilies except the Cicadellinae. This report was published in the Bulletin (DeLong 1948). At this time, R. H. Beamer of the University of Kansas had drawn atten- tion to the tremendous number of Mid- western species contained in the genus Erythronettra. the largest genus of the untreated subfamily Cicadellinae. Mrs. D. J. KnuU had identified a large part of the Natural History Survey material in this genus. Most of the several hun- dred species were known only from hi- bernation collections, and it was felt that, before proceeding with the manu- script on this subfamily, the host rela- tionships and other ecological informa- tion should be ascertained for these species. As a result the project was re- aligned and a new host-collecting pro- gram for the entire subfamily was dele- gated to the faunistic staff of the Survey. The large number of host associations al- ready established have proved of interest in contributing ideas concerning evolu- tionary problems in insects having moder- ately rigid host associations. Trichoptera.—A study of the caddis- flies was prompted by the importance of this group in the economy of Illinois fresh- water habitats. The project was planned originally as a joint one with Dean Cor- nelius Betten of Cornell University, who had in manuscript at the time the first comprehensive and useful New World faunistic study of the group ; his study dealt with the fauna of New York. Bet- ten in America and A. B. Martinov in Russia had pioneered in the technique of clearing the male genitalia of Trichoptera in KOH in order to get a more exact- knowledge of these diagnostic structures. Betten spent 6 weeks on the Illinois Nat- ural History Survey staff in the summer of 1931, his time being spent partly on collecting trips around the state and partly in identifying the caddisfly ma- terial in the Survey collection. In 1932 press of other duties caused Dean Betten to retire from the project, which was then assigned to Ross. Much of the caddisfly collecting was done as an adjunct to stonefly, mayfl\ , mirid, and leafhopper collecting, but spe- cial trips were made to springs and cer- tain rivers, such as the Kankakee, which supported unusual species. As the taxo- nomic analysis of the material progressed, it became evident that the Illinois fauna differed in remarkable fashion from that of the only other state for which it was well known. New York. As a result, it was necessary to practically revise the entire North American fauna before the Illinois groups could be satisfactorily segregated to species. This was true espe- cially in the family Hydropsychidae and the so-called microcaddisflies, the Hydrop- tilidae. As with the other aquatic groups, an effort was made to rear the species and associate larvae and pupae. Some of this work was done with rearing cages, but the greater part was accomplished by as- sociating mature pupae with their corre- sponding larval parts in the cocoon or case. The report of the Illinois fauna of this order, including keys to the adults and immature stages, was published by the Natural History Survey (Ross 1944). After this report appeared, some ac- tivity relating to the Trichoptera was continued, primarily centered around at- tempts to reconstruct the origin of groups and the dispersal patterns which led to the formation of the present Illinois fauna. As genera and families from other parts of the world were studied, it was possible to get a better understanding of the classification and evolution of the or- der. It is reminiscent of Malloch's and Prison's work in the Diptera and Ple- coptera that the immature stages were found to hold the principal key to deduc- ing the evolution of the group. These studies made possible the publication of the book Evolution and Classification of the Mountain Caddisflies (Ross 1956). Goleoptera. — The beetles have fre- quently been the subject of intensive study by the Natural History Survey staff. Early in the history of the organization, extensive rearing was done, and volumes of important information on this work are scattered through the State Entomolo- gist's reports. The first extensive Illinois publication on the order was by Le Baron (1874) who, in his fourth report as December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 143 State Entomologist, published an outline of the Coleoptera of Illinois, with keys to genera and notes on many species. The next serious study of the order concerned the genus Phyllophaga, the June beetles. The larvae of these beetles were extremely serious pests, and before 1890 Forbes and his assistants set about making systematic collections of the genus throughout the state. Forbes (1891) pub- lished a survey of the Illinois June beetles; the publication included keys to the spe- cies written by Hart. R. D. Glasgow (1916) reviewed this material and pub- lished a synopsis of the synonymy and the description of a new species. Shortly after, J. J. Davis made a detailed study of the ecology of Phyllophac/a and also became interested in their taxonomy. The study resulted in one fine paper on the natural enemies of June beetles and in another describing new forms. These two papers appeared in the Bulletin (Davis 1919, 1920). Glasgow continued his in- terest in the genus, but subsequently pub- lished only one or two small papers on the subject. In 1944 another beetle project was in- augurated, this one on the leaf-feeding beetles, or Chrysomelidae, with M. W. Sanderson as the investigator. The be- ginning of the leaf beetle investigation was based on a need for supplying cor- rect names for various species of economic importance to Illinois crops. Early at- tempts at identification disclosed that much of the older literature on the fam- ily was unreliable, and diagnosis of spe- cies often was uncertain. Not only were there deficiencies in the literature; few attempts had been made in North Ameri- ca to relate larval and adult morphology for generic or species diagnosis. The proj- ect for Illinois was organized along the lines of earlier faunistic studies. Collec- tions were made throughout the state, with special emphasis on securing host- adult-larval associations. At present a report embracing two-thirds of the sub- families and including about a half of the Illinois species is nearing completion, and a large proportion of the field work for other subfamilies is in an advanced stage. Thysanoptera. — Survey activity re- lating to this order of little insects, the thrips, had its beginning about 50 years ago; J. D. Hood (1908) published a paper describing a group of species from Illinois. Late in the 1930's, when Berlese sampling was started in the Survey, inter- est in this group was again aroused be- cause of the large number of specimens and variety of species which appeared in the collections from moss and leaf mold. In 1947 L. J. Stannard planned a com- prehensive faunistic study of the order for Illinois. Many difficulties were encoun- tered, including the inaccessibility of critical types, difficulties in finding satis- factory mounting media, and difficulties in interpreting existing keys and descrip- tions. The genera were especially poorly defined and inconsistently used, and be- fore satisfactory names could be estab- lished for the Illinois species it was neces- sary to embark on major studies in the general classification of the group. The results of one of these studies, investigat- ing the generic categories in the suborder Tubulifera, were published by the Uni- versity of Illinois (Stannard 1957). As a consequence of all these factors the Illi- nois study of this group has come close to a treatment of the thrips for half the continent. Intensive collecting in all con- ceivable situations and at different sea- sons has brought to light large numbers of new state records. A report on these insects for Illinois is in an advanced state of preparation. Lepidoptera.—As mentioned earlier, in his first report Le Baron (1871) de- scribed a new species of moth. Since that time a great deal has been written, espe- cially in the State Entomologist's reports, on the moths of Illinois. Most of this material, however, is in the form of small contributions on the descriptions of spe- cies, their larvae, or their habits. How- ever, Thomas (1881), with the assistance of Nettie Middleton and John Marten, published a synopsis of lepidopterous larvae for Illinois. This report included a similar synopsis by D. W. Coquillett (1881). Later, Forbes and his assistants prepared keys to certain economic spe- cies, and W.' P. Flint & Malloch (1920) published in the Natural History Survey Bulletin a paper on the European corn borer and related species. In 1955 R. B. Selander began a fau- nistic project designed to cover many of 144 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 the families of small moths or micro- lepidoptera, which were poorly known in Illinois. The Blastobasidae were chosen as the first family for study because the j^enitalic structures of the Nearctic spe- cies had never been investij^ated. Selander, now with the University of Illinois, as- sembled lar the accumulated col- lection of plant specimens. Although col- lection, identification, and preservation of vascular plant specimens were curtailed during World War II, the herbarium contained 13,749 specimens in May of 1943 and 17,339 specimens in October of 1946. The abundant collection of plant material in succeeding years has in- creased the number of vascular plant specimens in the herbarium to 70,600, and approximately 8,000 additional speci- mens are on hand to be added to the herbarium. Under present conditions three student assistants are employed to prepare the plant material for placing in the herbarium. A card index is main- tained of all plant specimens. The bibliography of Illinois plants, started previous to 1931, is not up-to-date because of lack of funds and lack of as- sistants to examine the literature. In co-operation with L. E. Yeager, R. E. Yeatter, A. S. Hawkins, and D. H. Thompson, fellow staff members doing wildlife or fisheries research, botanists made a census of waterfowl food plants of the Chautauqua Drainage District, car- ried on a survey of Illinois plants useful to wildlife as food or cover, and con- ducted experiments on propagation of plants useful to wildlife as food or cover. A collection of 848 samples of seeds was developed for identification of seeds in- gested by waterfowl. Activities pertaining to the botany of Illinois include preparation of manu- scripts designed for publications, mainly of an educational or popular type. These publications are on such subjects as noxious weeds, directions for the study and identification of plants, drug plants (Tehon 1937«, 1939^, 1951r/), plants poi- sonous to livestock (Tehon, Morrill, & Graham 1946), and vegetation of hill prairies in the state (Evers 1955). The publication on the vegetation of hill prairies is a report on an extensive ecological study of 61 prairies on the brow slopes of bluffs of the Mississippi River from East Dubuque to southern Illinois, the Illinois River from the big bend near Hennepin to Grafton, and the Rock and Sangamon rivers. This type of publication by the Natural History Sur- vey is a continuation of those published earlier by the State Laboratory of Nat- ural Historv. IShade and Forest Tree Pathology The earliest reported conspicuous dying of trees in Illinois was among the elms ,^ in Normal-Bloomington and Champaign a in the period 1883-1886 (Forbes 1912rt). I The next reported conspicuous dying ' among elms occurred from 1907 through 1911, when manv trees succumbed in southern Illinois. During this period con- spicuous losses of elms were reported in Cairo, Carbondale, Centralia, Clayton, Du Quoin, Edwardsville, Fairfield, Ga- latia, McLeansboro, Mount Vernon, Quincy, Robinson, Sumner, and Van- dalia. These 14 towns are located in 13 counties of western and southern Illinois. Although the cause of the dying of elms during these two periods was not de- termined, it was suggested that some dis- ease might be involved. Dying of feeder roots, wilting of foliage, and dying of terminal twigs was followed by death of the trees. Many of the affected elms in southern and western Illinois were heavily infested with the elm borer, Saperda tri- dentata, and the red elm bark weevil, Magdalis arTtiicollis, called by Forbes the reddish elm snout-beetle. Elm Diseases.— A few years after the establishment of the Section of Bot- any in 1921, reports and inquiries were received about a widespread wilting of elms growing in commercial nurseries and in decorative plantings, most of them in northern Illinois. Some special exam- inations made of these trees by Dr. Christine Buisman of Holland, an expert on elm diseases, revealed that the malady was not Dutch elm disease. Research on the cause and control of this wilting was started in 1930. Until May, 1934, the work was carried on by graduate students — H. A. Harris, Leo Campbell, J. A. Trumbower, and A. S. Peirce. In May of 1934 J. C. Carter joined the staff as a full-time plant pathologist to study dis- eases of trees. Although intensive study of the elm wilt problem was continued for several years, other elm diseases and diseases of other species of trees were studied as they became evident. From 1934 to 1950 research on tree diseases was carried on by Carter. With the expan- December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 155 sion of the tree disease research program in 1950, additional plant pathologists were added to the staff. The recent re- search program has been carried on by four plant pathologists, Richard J. Campana, Walter Hartstirn, Eugene B. Himelick, and Dan Neely. In the studies on the cause and control of the wilting of elms, it was found that several fungi were involved. Although the first report on this work (Harris 1932) indicated that several fungi were capable of causing the wilting, later studies showed that most wilting was caused by the Dothiorella wilt fungus and it was most serious in plantings of trees that were weakened by overcrowd- ing and by repeated annual defoliations from heavy infestations of the spring cankerworm. Spraying with copper and sulfur fungicides was not effective in noticeably reducing or preventing wilting. This spraying included dormant and foliar applications, in some years as many as one dormant and seven foliar sprays. Al- though research failed to find a control for this type of wilting of elms, it showed that applications of either sulfur or cop- per fungicide in June and early July gave excellent control of the black leaf spot disease (Trumbower 1934). Control of this disease in commercial nursery plant- ings of elms increased the annual growth ; sprayed trees made as much growth in 4 years as unsprayed trees made in 5 years (Carter 1939). A conspicuous and widespread dying of elms which became evident in Danville and Peoria in the late 1930's appeared in other areas in succeeding years. It now is widespread and destructive throughout the southern two-thirds of the state. North of Peoria, Bloomington, Cham- paign, Urbana, and Danville, it occurs in only a few isolated places. The north- ernmost isolated infection is in Rockford. This disease, called phloem necrosis and described as a virus disease in 1942 (Swingle 1942), has killed thousands of elms in Illinois and is one of the tw^o major diseases that continues to kill thou- sands of elms annually. In Champaign and Urbana phloem necrosis killed 2,460 trees in a period of 14 years; this number represents over 16 per cent of the total elm population in the two cities. Mount Pulaski, with an elm population of ap- proximately 600 trees in 1940, had all but 19 elms killed by the disease by Sep- tember of 1948. During the late 1930's and early 1940's, in investigations of the wilting and dying of elms, several fungi capable of producing cankers were studied. Can- ker diseases usually were confined to a few trees in a planting of elms but were found in plantings in widely scattered locations in the state. The cankers caused bv species of Cytosporina, Phoma, and Coniothyrium were prevalent only on American elm. The canker caused by Tubercularia ulmi affected the Asiatic species of elm, Ulmiis pumila and U. p(trvifolia. A serious and widespread wilting of elms in Hinsdale was brought to the at- tention of the Natural History Survey by Village Forester W. E. Rose in 1939. Intensive research on these elms resulted in the discovery of a bacterial disease called wetwood (Carter 1945). Wet- wood is a chronic disease that affects most elms but usually does not result in the death of affected trees. Ulmiis pumila is especially susceptible to wetwood. Re- search on this disease is described in a 42-page article under the title "Wetwood of Elms" (Carter 1945). The National Arborist Association awarded a citation to the author in "recognition of his ex- cellent work" reported in the article. This work the Association "considered the outstanding research during 1945 on shade tree preservation." Dutch elm disease is the most destruc- tive disease of elms in Illinois. Although this disease was first discovered in the United States at Cleveland and Cincin- nati, Ohio, in 1930, it was not until 1950 that the first diseased elm was found in Illinois. Only one tree affected with Dutch elm disease was found in 1950, 11 were found in 1951, 24 in 1952, and over 500 in 1953. The numbers of counties in which the disease has been found each year were 1 in 1950, 4 in 1951, 9 in 1952, 15 in 1953. 55 in 1954, 74 in 1955, 86 in 1956, 94 in 1957, and 99 in 1958. The rapid destruction of elms by the disease is illustrated by the numbers of trees af- fected each year in Champaign and Ur- bana. Onlv one affected tree was found in 156 Ii-i.iNois Natlrai. History Survi-v Hui.i.htin Vol. 27. Art. 2 Plant pathologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey culturing sample of American elm suspected of being affected by the Dutch elm disease. Modern laboratory equipment enables the plant pathologists to substantiate field diagnoses. Urbana in 1951. The numbers of affected trees in succeeding years in Champaign and Urbana were 11 in 1952, 164 in 1953, 694 in 1954, 1,805 in 1955, 1,836 in 1956, and 2,116 in 1957. These 6,627 diseased elms represent over 44 per cent of the elm population of Champaign and Urbana when the disease was first found there. The Natural History Survey has had one full-time plant pathologist conducting research on elm diseases, including Dutch elm disease, since July, 1951 : Ralph W. Ames in 1951 and 1952 and Richard J. Campana in 1952 and later. Oak Diseases.—Numerous inquiries about diseases of oak during the 1930's led to a special investigation which culmi- nated in the publishing of a preliminary report (Carter 1941). Although a dozen fungi were associated with the develop- ment of canker and dieback diseases of oak in the field, only one fungus, Dothio- rella quercina, caused canker and die- back under controlled experimental con- ditions. The other organisms appeared to produce canker and dieback only on trees previously weakened by adverse growing conditions. Oak wilt, the most destructive and widespread disease of oak trees in the United States, was not found in Illinois until 1942, when a few affected trees were discovered in IngersoU Park at Rockford in Winnebago County. In fol- lowing years the disease was found in other counties; by 1958 it was killing trees in 70 of the 102 counties of the state. Extensive research on the disease was started in 1950 with a grant of money De 1958 Carter: Appmkd Botany and Plant Pathology :57 from the Forest Preserve District of Cook County, Illinois. A jjraduate stu- dent at the University of Illinois, E. A. Curl, was employed on a half-time basis. A second grant of money w^as received from the Forest Preserve District in 1951. Also in 1951, funds were obtained from the National Oak Wilt Research Com- mittee of Memphis, Tennessee, composed of 10 hardwood industries, and from state appropriations for research on the dis- eases of trees. These funds made it pos- sible to add three plant pathologists in 1951 to conduct full-time research on the oak wilt disease. The men employed were Bert M. Zuckerman, George J. Stessel, and Paul F. Hoffman. Additional funds were obtained from the National Oak Wilt Research Committee in 1952, 1953, and 1954. Funds appropriated by the state have continued to be a part of the Natural History Survey's regular budget. These funds have made it possible to em- ploy additional plant pathologists to do research on oak wilt and other tree dis- eases. In 1953 four men full-time and two men half-time were conducting re- search on oak wilt. At present, with only state funds to support the research on oak wilt, three full-time regular staff mem- bers are continuing research on this dis- ease. The men who have helped to carry on this program include E. A. Curl (1950-1954), Bert M. Zuckerman, George J. Stessel (1951-1952), Paul F. Hoffman, Eugene B. Himelick (1952- 1954), Richard D. Schein (1952-1953), Norman C. Schenck (1952-1953), Irving R. Schneider, Harry Krueger (1954- 1955), Arthur W. Engelhard, James D. Bilbruck (1955-1958), John M. Ferris, R. Dan Neely, and Walter Hartstirn. Persons whose names are followed by dates were employed on research funds granted to the Natural History Survey by the Forest Preserve District of Cook County, Illinois, or by the National Oak Wilt Research Committee. The dates in- dicate the periods of employment. Hime- lick was employed on research funds granted by the National Oak Wilt Re- search Committee (1952-1954) before he was employed by the Survey. As a result of this extensive research program on oak wilt, many papers were published. The phases of research covered in these papers include laboratory studies on the morphology and physiology of the fungus (Zuckerman & Curl 1953) and isolation of the fungus from species of oak on which it had not been previously re- ported (Carter & Wysong 1951) ; green- house studies on host range (Hoffman 1953) and experimental transmission of the fungus by insects, mites, and squirrels (Himelick, Curl, & Zuckerman 1954; Himelick & Curl 1955, 1958) ; green- house studies on infection by and spread of C ^-labeled fungus in inoculated oaks (Zuckerman & Hoffman 1953; Hoffman & Zuckerman 1954) ; and field studies on distribution and spread of oak wilt in Illinois (Carter 1952), availability of oak wilt inoculum in the state (Curl 1953, 1955r/, 1955/v; Himelick, Schein, & Curl 1953), characteristic growth of the fungus under natural conditions (Curl, Stessel, & Zuckerman 1952), discovery of the perfect stage of the fungus in nature (Curl, Stessel, & Zuckerman 1953; Stessel & Zuckerman 1953), and effect of the fungus on oak fence posts (Walters, Zuckerman, & Meek 1955). Other Diseases of Trees.—Al- though oak wilt, elm phloem necrosis, and Dutch elm disease are the most de- structive tree diseases in the state, other diseases of trees and of shrubs have been sufficiently destructive to require the at- tention of plant pathologists of the Nat- ural History Survey. A wilt disease that affects many species of trees in Illinois is Verticillium wilt. It is known to affect 27 species of plants, including 7 varieties of woody ornamentals representing 19 genera. Of the 27 species of woody hosts of this disease, 12 were first reported in Illinois: black locust, catalpa, Chinese, English, and slippery elms, goldenrain tree, linden, magnolia, multiflora rose, tupelo, wayfaring tree, and yellow-wood. Maple, elm, and catalpa are frequently affected by this disease. (^anker diseases found in Illinois affect different species of trees, including crab apple, hawthorn, juniper, maple, moun- tain ash, pine, poplar, redbud, spruce, sycamore, and willow. Rust diseases are widespread and destructive in some years. They include cedar apple rust, cedar- hawthorn rust, cedar-quince rust, pine needle rust, and poplar leaf rust. 158 Ii.i-iNois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Foliaj2;e diseases which cause especial damaj^e durinj^ cool, moist springs affect many species of trees. The most destruc- tive foliage diseases are anthracnose of ash, maple, oak, and sycamore ; blotch of buckeye and horsechestnut ; and leaf spot of elm, hawthorn, maple, oak, and walnut. Some trees decline and die each year because of unfavorable growing condi- tions that include physiological disorders, adverse weather conditions, and mechani- cal injuries. These conditions, as well as disease organisms, have received the at- tention of Natural History Survey plant pathologists. Research on the control of foliage dis- eases includes testing of numerous fungi- cides each year. In some years as many as 18 species of trees have been treated with fungicides and as many as 12 differ- ent fungicides have been tested on one or more species. An example of an effective control measure resulting from these tests is the use of organic mercury fungicides to control anthracnose of sycamore. Chemotherapy.—One phase of Nat- ural History Survey research on the con- trol of tree diseases relates to the effec- tiveness of various chemicals in prevent- ing fungi from infecting trees or from causing disease symptoms after they have infected the trees. The early studies were confined mainly to oak wilt ; the present studies include diseases of several species of trees and especially oak wilt, Dutch elm disease, and Verticillium wilt of elm, maple, and other trees. Of the hundreds of chemical compounds tested, a few systemic fungicides and antibiotic ma- terials appear to be effective in preventing disease development. To obtain more in- formation on what happens when these materials are introduced into trees, plant pathologists are studying the physiology of trees as well as the physiology of the fungi. The staff members who have car- ried on this program are Paul F. Hoff- man, Eugene B. Himelick, Irving R. Schneider, John M. Ferris, and Walter Hartstirn. Floricultural Pathology Little research by the Natural History Survey was done in floricultural pathol- ogy before 1939. In response to numerous requests for help in dealing with disease problems in floricultural crops, a pro- gram of research was initiated, and Don B. Creager was appointed to the staff in September of 1939. This program, car- ried on by Creager for 5 years and con- tinued by J. L. Forsberg, included work on diseases of greenhouse crops and field- and garden-grown floricultural plants. Much attention was given to bulbous ornamental plants, which were being propagated extensively in Illinois for shipment to other states. The early work was concerned with (1) obtaining as much information as possible about diseases important to Illi- nois growers, (2) conducting research on diseases for which vital information on cause and control was lacking, and (3) rendering every possible aid to growers in the recognition and control of diseases in their crops. As the work progressed more attention was given to developing disease control measures that would be more effective than those that were being used. Crops which have received attention during the course of this work are ama- ryllis, aster, azalea, begonia, calla, carna- tion, chrysanthemum, gardenia, geranium, gerbera, gladiolus, hollyhock, hydrangea, iris, ivy, lily, orchid, peony, peperomia, periwinkle, petunia, poinsettia, rose, Afri- can violet, snapdragon, stevia, stock, sweet pea, tuberose, tulip, violet, and zinnia. Of these crops, gladiolus, rose, and carnation are grown in greatest quantity, and, since all three crops are subject to a number of destructive dis- eases, more work has been done on them than on the other crops. Because of the serious losses due to diseases of gladiolus in the large com- mercial gladiolus growing area in Kan- kakee County, much research work has been directed toward developing effective control measures for these diseases. Prior to 1940, gladiolus corms generally were not treated for disease control, but in re- cent years nearly all commercial gladiolus planting stocks in all parts of the United States have been treated with a fungicide before being planted. This practice has developed largely as a result of the suc- cess of experimental treatments by Illi- nois Natural History Survey pathologists. If these or other equally effective treat- December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 159 ments had not been worked out, the gladiolus industry in Illinois would have succumbed. Among other noteworthy accomplish- ments achieved by Natural History Sur- vey pathologists in the field of floricul- tural pathology are the following: control of peony measles with an Elgetol ground spray (Creager 1941f, 1943«) ; control of black mold of rose grafts by chemical treatments (Creager 1941Z') ; control of calla rots by chemical treatments (Creager 1943Z') ; establishment of viruses as the causes of peperomia ringspot (Creager 1941fl'), carnation mosaic and streak (Creager 1943c, 1944, Forsberg 1947), and coleus mosaic (Creager 1945) ; clarification of the Fusarium dis- ease complex in gladiolus (Forsberg 1955rt) ; discovery of the vascular phase of the Curvularia disease of gladiolus (Forsberg 1957) ; discovery of scab on violets in Illinois (Forsberg & Boewe 1945) ; control of Thielavia root rot of sweet peas (Creager 1942) ; control of bacterial scab of gladiolus by use of soil insecticides (Forsberg 1955^*). The value of an insecticide in the con- trol of bacterial scab of gladiolus became apparent in 1953 when gladiolus corms were treated with a seed protectant which contained an insecticide in addition to a fungicide. This treatment resulted in the production of corms free of bacterial scab and free of injury caused by white grubs. Results of this treatment supported observations that white grubs are instru- mental in spreading bacterial scab. Suc- ceeding tests showed that 25 per cent al- drin granules applied to the soil at the rate of 4 or 8 grams per 10 feet of row prevented white grub injury and bac- terial scab. Identification and Extension During each growing season the Sec- tion of Applied Botany and Plant Pathol- ogy receives for examination and diagnosis several thousand samples of trees, shrubs, and other plants suspected by Illinois residents of being diseased. Diagnosis results and treatment recommendations are sent as soon as possible to the persons sending the samples. Most of the samples received are from elms suspected of being affected with Dutch elm disease. To handle the labora- tory diagnoses requires the full-time help during the summer months of four ad- ditional persons: one mycologist, two lab- oratory technicians, and one stenographer. It is anticipated that the demand oc- casioned by Dutch elm disease for service from Natural History Survey personnel will continue indefinitely. To supply the demand from hundreds of communities and individuals through- out the state for information on identifi- cation, control, and other aspects of Dutch elm disease has occupied a major portion of the time of one plant pathol- ogist. Educational material on Dutch elm disease has been prepared for distribution ; this has included mimeographed leaflets on control and other phases of the disease, a series of news releases, kodachrome trans- parencies, black and white photographs, specimens, exhibits, maps, tables, and graphs. Technical advice and information were furnished the Illinois State Cham- ber of Commerce for two state-wide con- ferences on Dutch elm disease, one in 1955 and one in 1956. These conferences provided specific and detailed information on the nature and control of the disease. Outstanding authorities on Dutch elm disease in the United States were on the programs. Additional activities have in- cluded aid in field identification of the disease, aid in local surveys, training and instruction in collecting specimens, set- ting up laboratories for final diagnosis of the disease, and making laboratory diagnosis of each of several thousand specimens received each year. Each year, activities of an educational or extension nature by staff members of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology include talks on plants and vegetation of Illinois, and on diseases of trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops. Ex- aminations are made of numerous plant- ings of ornamental and economic crops in various parts of the state. Numerous pasture lands are examined in co-opera- tion with members of the University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine for plants poisonous to livestock. Many plants examined in the field or received throu'^h the mail are identified for farm- ers, homeowners, and other interested persons. 160 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 PAST AND PRESENT Early botanical research in Illinois was concerned mainly with field surveys of plants native to the state and with the distribution of these plants in the state. Although botanical research in the state is still concerned with native plants, it is concerned also with the cause and control of diseases affecting ornamental plants — trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops — and losses caused by diseases of economic crops, including cereal, fruit, forage, pas- ture, and vegetable crops. Much of the early work with plants was done by amateur botanists who had very little formal training in botany. Some of these men were physicians who were interested in plants that had medic- inal values. These early botanists were individuals, engaged in various profes- sions or businesses, who were keenly inter- ested in nature, especially in the plant life around them. They usually studied plants in local areas, as their modes of travel were by foot, by horseback, or by car- riage. Their equipment and reference works were meager. Their efforts were directed mainly toward the collection and identification of plants. Many of these early botanists were members of the Natural History Society. Some of them became professional bot- anists and were employed by the State Laboratory of Natural History. Inheritors of some of the traditions of these early botanists are the present mem- bers of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology of the Natural History Survey. Unlike the early botanists, these men have received specialized botanical training in leading colleges and universi- ties of the United States. Their fields of specialization include botany, taxonomy, plant pathology, plant physiology, mycol- ogy, and biochemistry. They are provided with specialized equipment including high-powered com- pound and phase microscopes, high-speed centrifuges, pH meters, fluorescent lamps, spectrophotometer, and Geiger counter, and with excellent library facilities in- cluding numerous books on specialized subjects in botany and related fields. They are able to study plants in all parts of the state, as they can rapidly travel great distances by automobile, train, air- plane, or helicopter. They study the tax- onomy of plants, as the early botanists did, and in addition the pathology, physi- •>logy, mycology, and biochemistry of plants, including fungi, and especiallv the fungi that cause diseases of plants. UNSOLVED PROBLEMS The partially solved problems receiv- ing major attention of the Section of Ap- plied Botany and Plant Pathology at the present include the control of glad- iolus corm rots, oak wilt, elm phloem ne- crosis, and Dutch elm disease. Although these diseases have been investigated for several years, continued research is needed to develop more effective treatments for their control. Other unsolved problems include the abnormal growth, wilt, de- cline, or death of trees, floricultural crops, and shrubs used for ornamental, shade, or forest purposes. Some specific unsolved problems are a virus disease complex of gladiolus, a general decline of ash, elm, and oak in localized areas of the state ; a rapid decline and death of red pine in localized plantings in north- ern Illinois; wilt, occasionally followed by death, of ash, catalpa, fragrant sumac, Japanese quince, and hard maple ; a needle blighting of white pine; diseases of hackberry, Norway spruce, and white pine, with symptoms suggesting virus dis- eases ; and wetwood of elm. Although a research program on the control of diseases of fruit, grain, and vegetable crops is conducted by the Agri- cultural Experiment Station at the Uni- versity of Illinois, some of the unsolved or partially solved problems are men- tioned here. Because of the continued ap- pearance of new physiologic races of rust on small grains, it is essential to develop new varieties of grains resistant to these races. Also needed are varieties of small grains resistant to scab and loose smut. Another disease of small grains that needs further study is the virus disease known as yellow dwarf. Corn is affected by stalkrots caused by several fungi ; varieties of corn are needed that are resistant to the stalkrot caused by each fungus. Other problems include more effective control for bacterial spot December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 161 of pepper and for diseases caused by soil- borne microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. If the future can be measured in terms of experience in the past, new diseases and other types of new plant disorders will appear each year to require addi- tional attention of the research personnel of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES Future possibilities in the botanical survey include further collections of na- tive and naturalized vascular plants to increase the knowledge of the habitats and the range of these species in the state. As plants migrate, slowly under natural conditions but swiftly with the help of man, it is necessary to be on the alert for new additions to the state flora and to give warning if any introductions are of an obnoxious character. The final aim of a floristic study is to produce a manual of the flora of Illinois which will give not only good descriptions of the species but also a discussion of the variations of the species within the state and a discus- sion of their distribution in Illinois. Collections of the nonvascular plants —algae, fungi, and bryophytes—should be expanded. Although a small collec- tion of bryophytes—mosses and liver- worts—is housed in the herbarium, much collecting remains to be done before the present bryophyte flora and its distribu- tion in the state can be known. A nu- cleus of a phycological collection has been made and should be increased. Only a few of the nonpathogenic fungi are repre- sented in the Natural History Survey col- lections. Collections of slime molds, lichens, and fleshy fungi—mushrooms and bracket fungi—should be started, as these plants are a part of the flora of Illinois and thus a part of the natural resources of the state. Vegetational studies should be contin- ued. Although many of the original prai- rie types of Illinois have been destroyed and only remnants remain, these remnants should be described so that future citizens of Illinois will have some botanical knowledge of the prairie types. Hill prai- rie studies should be continued to solve some of the problems of succession in this type of prairie and to learn how such prairie recovers from heavy grazing. Ad- ditional study should be made of the vege- tation of the sand areas of the state. An ecological study of the forests in Illinois should be made. The ultimate aim of these studies is to produce a manual of the plant geography of Illinois. Not only should the various vegetations of Illinois be described; remnants of them should be preserved. This is true especially of the prairie types. As we do not know what lies in the future for land use in the locations of the present hill prairies, now one of the least disturbed prairie types in Illinois, several of these beautiful grasslands should be set aside as natural areas by the state or federal government and should be so adminis- tered that picnic parties, hunters, or oth- ers cannot disturb them but that inter- ested persons may view and study them. Although only very small remnants of the flatland and bottomland types of prairie remain, several such remnants should be set aside and allowed to expand so that future generations may have a general idea of the nature of these types of prairie which gave the name "the prairie state" to Illinois. Examples of sand prairies should be preserved. Some of these prai- ries which come under state control should be left as prairies instead of being converted into pine plantations. Aban- doned railroad trackways in sand prairie regions should be permitted to develop as a type of the sand prairie. Other vegeta- tions also should be preserved. The bogs in northeastern Illinois, in Lake County, are valuable from the botanist's point of view. The few remaining, sizable tam- arack bogs could be easily set aside for the study of bog plants and animals and of succession in the bogs. Future research on plant diseases will continue the advancement of present re- search, and new fields of research will open up. Some of the types of research that appear promising in the control of plant diseases include the use of chemo- therapeutants, antibiotics, and soil fungi- cides. Further research is needed on in- secticides and their indirect role in the control of plant diseases. One instance of this is illustrated in the control of bac- 162 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 terial scab of gladiolus by use of aldrin to prevent white grub injury to the corms. Chemical compounds obtained from min- eral deposits in the state hold promise for the control of some plant diseases (Schenck & Carter 1954). Research on these compounds through the co-operation of the Geochemical and Coal sections of the Illinois Geological Survey and the Wright Air Development Center of the United States Air Force has been fruitful in the development of fluorine compounds with fungicidal properties against certain disease-producing fungi. Research along these lines resulted in publication of six articles on the fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi (Tehon \95\h, \952b, 1954; Tehon & Wolcvrz 1952«, \952b; Finger, Reed, & Tehon 1955). Research on the physiology of plants and on organisms that produce plant dis- eases will aid materially in the develop- ment of more effective controls for these diseases. One objective of this research is to develop a more realistic approach to the control of diseases through obtaining information on the movement of raw ma- terials, elaborated foods, and chemical compounds introduced into woody plants. The addition of a plant physiologist to our stafif would materially increase re- search in this field. In our study of several thousand speci- mens of diseased ornamental plants eachj year, many unknown fungi are obtained,] These fungi need to be identified and! those that are found affecting new hosts' or that have not been found previously in the state should be added to our myco- logical collection. To adequately handle this work, to make monographic studies of economically important fungi, and to attack new mycological problems as they appear, a mycologist with special interestj in economic fungi would greatly facilitate our research. As we contemplate the future possibili-j ties for research by the Section of Ap- plied Botany and Plant Pathology, it is] evident that there are unlimited oppor- tunities not only to continue the research now in progress but to expand into new fields of research. This statement applies to the botanical survey, the study of vege- tation, the study of diseases of ornamental] plants, and the study of the various kinds] of fungi that occur in the state. Aquatic Biology GEORGE W. BENNETT THE research in aquatic biology that was so much a part of the endeavors of the staff of the Illinois State Labora- tory of Natural History and later the Illinois Natural History Survey was in- itiated by Stephen A. Forbes. From the very beginning of his active period in Illinois, Forbes showed great interest in fishes and he began collecting specimens for species records, distributional records, and food habits studies. He wrote ar- ticles on Illinois Crustacea and food of Illinois fishes for the first volume of the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural Historv (Forbes 1876, 1878«. 1880Z', 1880r, 1883^, 1883f). In the pe- riod 1876-1888 he collected 1,221 f^sh of 87 species, 63 genera, and 25 families; these he used to study their diagnostic characteristics, their distribution in the state, and their food habits. Forbes' inter- est in aquatic biology was broad, and he himself worked on or arranged for others to work on crustaceans, leeches, proto- zoans, rotifers, and aquatic insects, as well as fishes native to Illinois. BEGINNING OF AQUATIC ECOLOGY Many of the early publications of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- tory dealt with the taxonomy and distri- bution of aquatic animals new to science, or additions to the known distribution of named animals. Forbes was familiar with these subjects and also with the ecology of aquatic organisms at least as early as 1887. In that year his "The Lake as a Microcosm" was first published in the Bulletin of the Peoria Scientific Associa- tion ; later it was republished in volume 15 of the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory. In this short but epoch- marking paper, Forbes (1925) described a lake or pond as an environment in which the animals and plants were largely isolated from the surrounding ter- restrial animals and plants but were very much interrelated and interdependent among themselves ; each organism was producing more new individuals than the environment could support, so that many of them served as food for other types of animals, and competition was very keen. Forbes had observed the biological phe- nomena associated with fluctuating water levels—with floods following excessive precipitation and low waters following droughts—and described them as follows: Whenever the waters of the river remain for a long time far beyond their banks, the breed- ing grounds of fishes and other animals are immensely extended, and their food supplies increased to a corresponding degree (Forbes 1925:538). As the waters retire, the lakes are again de- fined ; the teeming life which they contain is restricted within daily narrower bounds, and a fearful slaughter follows; the lower and more defenceless animals are penned up more and more closely with their predaceous en- emies, and these thrive for a time to an extraordinary degree (Forbes 1925:539). Forbes recognized that periods of bio- logical expansion and contraction were normal and, without the introduction of abnormal forces, would tend to hold "each species within the limits of a uni- form average number, year after year." Every organism had its enemies that seemed to be balanced against its repro- ductive potential and, although every species had to "fight its way inch by inch from the egg to maturity," yet no species was exterminated. Apparently the Illinois State Fish Commissioners, assigned the duties of protecting the fisheries resources of the state during this period, either had not read Forbes' "The Lake as a Microcosm" or did not understand it, because their main activity for the 20 years following 1890 was the rescuing of fishes from the land-locked, drying backwaters of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers and the returning of these fishes to the open wa- ters. Perhaps the Commissioners should not be condemned severely, because their be- liefs and activities were in no wav dif- [ 163 ] 164 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulli-tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 ferent from those of similar bodies in other states throughout the country. The) were in tune with the times. In the re- port of the Commissioners to the Gov- ernor of Illinois for the period October 1, 1890, to September 30, 1892 (Bartlett 1893:3), is to be found the following statement : The number of fish left to die in the shal- low waters has been beyond computation, and has seemed to be greater than ever before, from the fact that the attention of the people generally has been called to them and the terrible waste ensuing. . . . We have been severely criticised because so many fish are allowed to perish, but when the fact is considered that the Mississippi river has a meandering frontage of 450 miles in this State, with bottoms varying in width from a few hundred yards to several miles, and the Illinois and other rivers adding per- haps as much more, it can readily be seen that, if the work were carried on to a suc- cessful completion, it would require hundreds of men and thousands of dollars of ex- pense; in other words, it would be simpl)' impracticable. Fish rescue operations were done with seines dragged through shallow waters by crews of men. The fish were separated from the mud and vegetation and carried by boat to open water, or in tubs to tanks on wagons when overland transportation was necessary. The operations were car- ried on in summer and early fall when both the water and the air were very warm. Today fisheries biologists are well aware of the fact that, even if the fish had been released "alive" in open water, their chance of survival was very low. Few fishes are able to survive even a short exposure to a lukewarm, mud- and-water suspension, such as is created when a seine is dragged through shallow backwaters in August. This statement applies particularly to the game and fine fishes. We now suspect that the phenomenon of fluctuating water levels, which cre- ated a fish rescue problem along the Illi- nois and Mississippi rivers for the Illinois State Fish Commissioners, may have been highly favorable to the well-being of the population of fishes, particularly large- mouth bass, northern pike, walleyes, crappies, and other pan fishes. A com- bination of natural predation (largely by fish-eating birds) and water level fluc- tuations prevented excessive competition among the coexisting species and allowed for excellent survival of game fish. The report of the Fish Commissioners (Bart- lett 1893:4) for the 2-year period ending September 30, 1892, contains the follow- ing statement: In the Quincy Bay [of the Mississippi River], this season, the number of black bass has been unprecedented, and a fair estimate of the number taken with hook and line would place it in the hundreds of thousands. Most of them were too small to use on the table, yet were as voracious as larger ones and fell an easy prey to the angler, whether he of the rod and reel or the small boy with a willow switch and a tow line, all caught bass. One man, who called himself a sports- man, boasted of having caught 800 of them in one day with hook and line, all too small to eat, but he carried them away and threw them on the ash heap. From my oHice win- dow I saw 225 taken by two little boys in one day, all of them wasted. The production of a dominant brood of bass (undoubtedly largemouth) such as this might be expected to follow a pe- riod of very low water in the late sum- mer and fall and a period of moderatel)' high water during the bass spawning sea- son the following June. The theory of the benefits of fluctuat- ing water levels is further substantiated by a published record of the catch of four commercial fishing firms operating in the Illinois River near Havana between July 1 and December 1 (5 months) in 1895 (Roe & Schmidt 1897). Their catch was 358,843 pounds, mostly of carp and buf- falo, which made up 85.7 per cent of the total. An unusual part of the catch was the proportion of "bass" (undoubtedly largemouth), 7,852 pounds, and walleye and "pike" (northern), each 200 pounds. The last two species are seldom taken in the Illinois River today. The catch of bass (7,852 pounds) was larger than the catch of crappies (7,405 pounds). Crappies arc easily caught in hoop and fyke nets or seines; bass do not enter hoop and fyke nets readily and when surrounded with a seine they show considerable aptitude for jumping over. Inasmuch as more pounds of bass than of crappies were caught, prob- ably many more pounds of bass were available. Today, with water levels of bottom- land lakes in the Havana region much more stabilized, it would be an impossi- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 165 ble task to catch 7,000 pounds of bass with commercial fishing gear. This im- portant game species is very much less abundant now than it was when the river was free to spread over its wide flood plain. FIRST FIELD LABORATORY Forbes was much interested in the Illi- nois River and in 1894 he established a biological station on its shores (Forbes 1895rt:39) "for the continuous investiga- tion of the aquatic life of the Illinois river and its dependent waters, near Havana." That Forbes (1895^: 46-7) had great breadth of vision in biological research is shown by his description of the objectives of the laboratory: The general objects of our Station are to provide additional facilities and resources for the natural history survey of the State, now being carried on, under legislative authoriza- tion, by the State Laboratory of Natural His- tory; to contribute largely to a thoroughgoing scientific knowledge of the whole system of life existing in the waters of this State, with a view to economic as well as educational applications, and especially with reference to the improvement of fish culture and to the prevention of a progressive pollution of our streams and lakes ; to occupy a rich and promising field of original biological investi- gation hitherto largely overlooked or neglect- ed, not only in America, but throughout the world ; and to increase the resources of the zoological and botanical departments of the University by providing means and facilities for special lines of both graduate and under- graduate work and study for those taking major courses in these departments. The Station differs from most of the small number of similar stations thus far estab- lished in this country from the fact that its main object is investigation instead of in- struction, the latter being a secondary, and at present an incidental object only. It has for its field the entire system of life in the Illinois river and connected lakes and other adjacent waters, and it is my intention to extend the work as rapidly as possible to the Mississippi river system, thus making a beginning on a comprehensive and very thoroughgoing work in the general field of the aquatic life of the Mississippi Valley, in all its relations, scientific and economic. The special subject which I have fixed upon as the point of direction towards which all our studies shall tend is the effect on the aquatic plant and animal life of a region produced by the periodical overflow and gradual recession of the waters of great rivers, phenomena of which the Illinois and Mississippi rivers afford excellent and strong- ly marked examples. Forbes (1895rt:47) believed that the natural sciences should be studied out of doors and that colleges and universities of his day were not doing well by their students in botany and zoology when they confined them to laboratory studies: Not many years ago, biological instruction in American colleges was mostly derived from books. Of late, it has been largely ob- tained from laboratories instead, but several years' experience of the output of the zoologi- cal college laboratory has convinced me that the mere book-worm is hardly narrower and more mechanical than the mere laboratory grub. Both have suffered, and almost equally, from a lack of opportunity to study nature alive. One knows about as much as the other of the real aspect of living nature and of the ways in which living things limit and de- termine each others' activities and characters, or in which all are determined by the in- organic environment. It is possible that Forbes' feeling on this point of training may have influenced the University of Illinois to require field courses at a biological station before granting a graduate degree in zoology. Havana was selected as the location for the Illinois Biological Station because of its several advantages: Forbes liked the bluffs along the eastern shore of the Illi- nois River because at their bases they furnished a clean, hard sand beach suit- able to work from and ideal for camping. Moreover, along these bluffs was an abundance of pure, cold spring water. The laboratory consisted of "three well-placed rooms" in the town itself and a "cabin boat" on the Illinois River. The office and laboratory rooms were sup- plied with running water and electric light, and liberally provided with the usual equip- ment of a biological laboratory, consisting of compound and dissecting microscopes (Rei- chert and Zeiss), microtomes, biological re- agents to the number of one hundred bottles, water and [paraffin] baths, laboratory glass- ware, tanks for alcohol, a coal stove, a kero- sene stove, laboratory tables for five assist- ants, and a working library of about one hundred and twenty volumes (Forbes 1895a:48). The cabin boat was stationed on Quiver Lake north of Havana, about 2.5 miles from town. The boat contained a well- furnished kitchen and sleeping quarters for four men. Most of the rest of the space was taken up by equipment, includ- ing limnological apparatus, seines, collect- ing nets, microscopes, and a small library. 16b Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 The original staff of the station, in 1894, consisted of Frank Smith, who was directly in charge and whose principal in- terest was aquatic worms; Charles A. Hart, entomologist and curator of col- lections for the State Laboratory ; Adolph Hempel, who worked on protozoans and rotifers; and Mrs. Dora Smith, who served as microtechnician and was in charge of the rooms in Havana. Miles Newberry, who lived in Havana, had charge of the cabin boat and acted as a general field assistant. Others who were present at some time during the first year of operation were Ernest Forbes, for 6 weeks of general collecting. Professor Thomas J. Burrill, a Mr. Clinton, a Mr. Yeakel, and a Miss Ayers, all of the Uni- versity of Illinois Botany Department, who were collecting aquatic plants; a Professor Palmer, who was making chem- ical anah'ses of the water ; Assistant Pro- fessor Henry E. Summers of the Univer- sity Physiology Department, who photo- graphed the region ; and the stafi artist. Miss Lydia M. Hart. Professor Forbes exercised general supervision over the sta- tion work, planning and following its op- eration. FISHES AND PLANKTON Within a year or so aquatic investiga- tions were stepped up through increased use of the laboratory and cabin boat at Havana. At the beginning of this cen- tury Frank Smith (1901:567) stated in Science that the ichthyological survey of Illinois had received much attention dur- ing the previous 2 years and that a com- prehensive report was soon to be pub- lished. He also stated that Dr. C. A. Kofoid had been studying the plankton of the Illinois River for the previous 5 years. This short statement in Science announced the progress being made on two of the important contemporary con- tributions to aquatic biology, namely Forbes & Richardson's The Fishes of Illinois (1908) and Kofoid's studies on the plankton of the Illinois River. Shortly after, in an essay dealing with "statistical ecology," Forbes (19070) pre- sented a method for showing relation- ships between individual species of fishes and preferences of certain kinds of fishes with respect to features of the physical environment. The validity of this method depended upon the numbers of collections that were available for study. Where sufficiently large numbers of collections could be mustered, Forbes compared ob- served relationships with expected rela- tionships and obtained a coefficient of as- sociation by dividing the former by the latter. A hypothetical example is given below : Given species A and species B inhabit- ing waters in the same general land area : In 1,000 collections, species J occurred 159 times and species B 85 times. Thus, the probability that they would occur to- gether in any single collection was 159/1,000 X 85/1,000 or 13,515 times in a million or 13.5 times in 1,000, and the probable number of these double oc- currences in the 1,000 collections was 13.5/1,000 X 1,000/1 or 13.5 times. However, in the 1,000 collections, spe- cies J and species B were found together in 40 ; thus, the coefficient of association for species A and B was 40/13.5 or 2.96: they were found together about three times as often as was to be expected. This same type of reasoning was ap- plied to show relationships between indi- vidual species and the physical environ- ment: stream, lake, pond, marsh; size of water area and water movement; bottom of mud, sand, gravel, or rock. These co- efficients of association are found fre- quently in Forbes & Richardson's The Fishes of Illinois. Unfortunately about half the collections referred to in this pub- lication were made without notes on wa- ter current and bottom materials, so that this method of showing association could be applied only to stream, lake, pond, or marsh, or to sectional distribution in the state. Thus, when Forbes & Richardson (1908:195) stated that the frequency ratios for a fish were "3.19 for the smaller rivers, 2.06 for creeks, and .58 for the largest streams," they meant that these fish exceeded expectancy in "smaller riv- ers" and "creeks" by about 3 and 2 times, respectively, and were considerably below expectancy in "the largest streams." A coefficient of association of 1 indicated correspondence with expectancy ; a co- efficient below 1 indicated a negative re- lationship. I December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 167 This method of showing ecological re- lationships between species and ranges, species and local habitats, or between spe- cies themselves, allowed the use of num- bers to show the degree of the relation- ship or lack of it. Its shortcoming was that it made no distinction between col- lections containing one fish of a species under consideration and those containing several hundreds or thousands. THE FISHES OF ILLINOIS The first edition of The Fishes of Illi- nois was published by the State of Illinois in 1908; a second edition was published in 1920. Collections and observations for this work had been started in 1876 by Forbes and had been expanded through the help of many assistants working at rather irregular intervals until 1903. Field work on fishes became nearly con- tinuous for a few years after establish- ment of the Illinois Biological Station at Havana in 1894. Special recognition was given to Wallace Craig, who collected during the winter and spring seasons of 1898 and 1899, to H. A. Surface, who collected during 1899, and to Thomas Large, who made extensive wagon trips, the most important of them in 1899, to collect fishes from streams in many parts of the state. Recognition was given also to unnamed high school teachers who col- lected fishes under specific instructions. Collections of fishes studied by Forbes and Richardson were taken from many sources : catches made by collecting par- ties with seines of various size and mesh (including minnow seines and bag seines), trammel nets, set nets (both fyke and hoop) ; catches made by commercial fishermen ; and selections from fishes on display in fish markets. More than 200,- 000 specimens representing 150 species were collected from more than 450 loca- tions in the state. The Fishes of Illinois was published in two parts, one of which was an atlas. The larger or first part contained a sec- tion on "The Topography and Hydrog- raphy of Illinois" written by Professor Charles W. Rolfe, at that time head of the Geology Department of the Univer- sity, a section entitled "On the General and Interior Distribution of Illinois Fishes," a section on "The Fisheries of Illinois," and one on the individual spe- cies of fishes found in the state. This last section made up by far the largest num- ber of pages and included keys for the identification of fishes and a glossary of technical terms. For each species of fish were given the scientific name, common name or names, synonomy of scientific names (where such existed), and a de- tailed description of the fish. The de- scription was followed by a statement of the fish's distribution within and without the state, a statement on average and maximum lengths and weights, and infor- mation on habitat preferences, food pref- erences, and other phases of biology. For most species, information was given on how the fish might be caught and its value (if any) as food. Many species were illustrated by black and white photo- graphs or by colored plates painted by Mrs. Lydia M. (Hart) Green and Miss Charlotte M. Pinkerton. These colored plates were so fine that for nearly a half century none published elsewhere was their equal. The second part, the atlas, contained maps of the 10 stream systems of the state. These maps showed the glacial ge- ology of Illinois, localities from which collections were made, and interior dis- tribution of 98 of the most important fishes. As a state publication on fresh-water fishes, The Fishes of Illinois remained unique for a period of more than 40 years. ILLINOIS RIVER PLANKTON Kofoid's studies of the plankton of the Illinois River appeared as five articles in volumes 5, 6, and 8 of the Bulletin of the State Laboratory of Natural History. Altogether Kofoid published nearly 1,000 printed pages on the plankton of the Illi- nois River. From 1895 to 1900 Kofoid was su- perintendent of the biological station at Havana. In 1900 he went to the Uni- versitv of California at Berkeley. At the time he left Illinois for California and a new position, he had published only three short papers on plankton, one dealing with methods and apparatus, one with a 108 Illinois Natural History Survky Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 169 1908, organic waste from Chicago in- creased until the volume approached the capacity of the river to oxidize it. Diver- sion w^as increased, and the fish yield dropped ; a peak diversion occurred in 1927 with a flow of 10,245 cubic feet per second (MulvihiU & Cornish 1930:57). The period of maximum pollution oc- curred between 1915 and 1920. From his studies of bottom fauna during this time, Richardson calculated a reduction in the total weight of bottom organisms in the reach from Chillicothe to La Grange of 34.5 million pounds, representing a po- tential loss of 7 million pounds of fish. By 1921 the fish yield of the river had hit an all-time low of 4 million pounds, partly from pollution and partly from ex- tensive bottomland lake drainage. After 1922 there was some reduction of the raw sewage going into the Illinois River, and from 1924 to 1930 the yield of commer- cial fish varied around 10 million pounds per year. Between 1913 and 1928, Richardson (with some assistance from Forbes on two of the early papers) published six articles in the Bulletin series. Because of the op- portune timing of his studies in relation to the pollution of the Illinois, Richard- son was able to set up a classification of seven degrees of pollution based on the presence of certain groups of aquatic or- ganisms. These groups were often better indicators of the degree of pollution than were oxygen analyses, because the animal associations were sensitive to small in- creases in pollution, or to fluctuations in pollution that might be missed unless oxygen analyses were made continuously. NEW LINES OF RESEARCH During the second decade of the twen- tieth century, biologists became interested in measuring the effects of physical and chemical changes in the aquatic environ- ment upon fish, and in the responses of the fish to these changes. From 1914 to 1925, members of the staff working in aquatic biology published papers on the suitability of bodies of water for fishes; the poisoning of fishes by illuminating gas wastes ; the reaction of fishes to carbon di- oxide and carbon monoxide ; a collecting bottle for quantitative determination of dissolved gases; methods of measuring the dangers of pollution to fisheries; and ob- servations on the oxygen requirements of fishes in the Illinois River. These publi- cations were the work of Victor E. Shel- ford (1917, 1918«, 1918A), Morris M. Wells (1918), Edwin B. Powers (1918), and David H. Thompson (1925). They represent a new approach to fisheries studies, e.g., the use of labora- tory studies to explain and expand the knowledge of the relationships of fishes and other aquatic organisms to their en- vironments. In the early 1920's aquatic investiga- tions were continued on the Illinois River, where the Natural History Survey main- tained a houseboat laboratory and attend- ing boats and equipment. At this time studies were begun on the lakes of north- eastern Illinois, studies that included the taking of quantitative plankton and bot- tom samples and collections of fishes and higher aquatic plants. In 1923, an inves- tigation was begun also on the Rock River (Forbes 1928). Surveys on the Illinois River, made in co-operation with the Illinois Water Sur- vey in 1923 and 1924, showed that the normal life of the river had been de- stroyed by pollution as far down as Peoria Lake. By 1927 the staf¥ had published in the Bulletin 20 articles, comprising 1,856 printed pages, on Illinois River biology. These articles apparently had had a pro- found effect on aquatic biologists in many parts of the United States; other states were engaged in making their own lake and stream surveys, for the most part not so comprehensive as those of the Illinois River, but adequate to give some informa- tion on physical and chemical conditions and rough measurements of the fish food resources, plus inventories of the kinds and relative abundance of fishes present. At this time (1927) the Natural His- tory Survey had expanded its own stream survey program to include, besides the Rock River, the Hennepin Canal, the Sangamon and Kaskaskia rivers, and the streams of Champaign County (Forbes 1928). The Rock River investigation was operated from 1923 to 1927 with David H. Thompson in charge of field collecting and R. E. Richardson in charge 170 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 of the analysis of data at Urbana. Thompson and three or four other men, working steadil\' each year throuj^h sprinji, summer, and fall, collected and shipped to Urbana about 90,000 fishes of 90 species, 2,400 fish stomachs, 15,000 river mussels belonging to 40 species, 820 collections of small invertebrates, and 500 collections of plankton and algae. Samuel Eddy (1927, 1931, 1932) worked on the plankton of Lake Michi- gan and the Sangamon River and on plankton collections from some sinkhole ponds in southern Illinois. EARLY MANAGEMENT ATTEMPTS Many of the early activities in the man- agement of aquatic resources of the United States were based on premises which later research proved to be inac- curate or erroneous. These included such measures as stocking and the protection of fish from human exploitation through re- strictions in the form of fishing seasons, length limits, and creel limits. Toward the end of the last century, James Nevin (1898:18), speaking before the American Fisheries Society, made the following statement: Personally I have been on the various spawning grounds of the whole chain of Great Lakes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior during the spawning seasons; and 1 have many times watched the salmon trout, white fish and wall-eyed pike spawn in their natural way; and I am convinced that only a very small percentage of the eggs so de- posited are fertilized. This Statement represented the attitude of the hatchery supervisors and most ad- ministrative personnel connected with federal and state agencies dealing with fisheries resources. As the spawning grounds of most fishes of the Great Lakes remain relatively unexplored even today, it is doubtful if Nevin was very familiar with them. Ideas having no scientific basis often become widely accepted. For example, al- most everyone has heard that one should wet his hands before handling a fish if he wants it to remain alive after release. Apparentlv this idea originated with G. H. Thomson, Superintendent of the Estes Park Fish Hatchery, Colorado. Thomson had cards printed with the title, "A Plea for the Fish." The cards stated : When removing an undersized trout from your hook, always moisten your hands before grasping the fish; otherwise the dry hand will remove the slime from the back of the trout, when it is only a question of time until fungus sets in and the fish will die. Thomson distributed these cards to residents of all states and of many foreign countries. In 1912 he reported that at the September 21-24, 1908, meeting of the American Fisheries Society in Wash- ington, D. C, the Society "recommended that the various state commissions educate the people by every means in their power to follow the directions given about wet- ting the hands" (Thomson 1913:171). He reported also that his program was endorsed by 28 fish and game commis- sioners throughout the United States. His idea was so widely disseminated that al- most everyone has heard of it ; yet there is no evidence that any attempt was made to test it through scientific experimentation. In spite of continued emphasis on arti- ficial propagation, new techniques were gradually discovered and put into use by researchers in the fisheries field, and these laid the foundation for modern thought in management. Borodin (1924) and Barney (1924) called attention to the value of using growth rings on scales and otoliths for determining the age of fishes; Wiebe (1929) proposed the use of fertilizers to increase plankton produc- tion ; Surber (1931) discussed the use of sodium arsenite in the control of aquatic vegetation; Burr (1931) used electrical equipment to stun fish; Markus (1932) investigated the relationship between water temperatures and food digestion in largemouth bass ; through tagging and re- covery, Thompson (1933a) studied mi- grations of stream fishes. These and other findings laid the groundwork for modern attack on the problems of fish management. MODERN MANAGEMENT The modern concept and use of the term "fish management" first appeared about 30 years ago. It was suggested December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 171 (if not named) by E. A. Birge in writing about fish and their food. Birge (1929:194) stated: Good fishing for sport calls for the con- tinued presence in a lake of a relatively few large individuals of the desired species, which are to be caught singly. They must be larger than the average adult. They are not caught primarily for food but for sport and as a basis for stories. A dozen half- pound bass are by no means an equivalent to one three-pounder from this point of view. But these large individuals are few in num- ber: they are old and have come to full size very slowly. It is easy to catch them and very hard to replace them in the presence of the vigorous competition for food that goes on in a lake. And as yet little thought and less study have been g'wen to the needs of this specific form of conservation of fish resources. (Italics mine.) This statement implies a concept of management for sport fishing. When Carl L. Hubbs described the organization of the Institute for Fisheries Research (Hubbs 1930), fisheries re- searchers in Michigan were working on a state-wide creel census, lake and stream surveys, stream improvement, nursery waters, fish migration, predators of fish, fish diseases, and fish growth. At about the same time, fisheries re- search at the Illinois Natural History Survey (Wickliff 1933) included studies of fish migration through tagging of fish, ages and growth rates of important fishes, general quantitative determinations of plankton and bottom organisms, a com- parison of fish population densities by means of standardized fishing methods, and the determination of the fish popu- lation of a lake by capture, fin marking, and recapture of adult fish. The point at which fish management emerged as a more or less discrete dis- cipline is not easily established. If fish management is assumed to be the art of producing sustained annual crops of wild fish for recreational use (modified from Leopold 1933), agreement as to the time management began is difficult to reach. Modern management could hardly have made a beginning until biologists had discovered enough basic information about fishes to be able to discredit the unfounded but strongly held theories relative to the values of stocking, closed seasons, length limits, and creel limits. This basic information came from many sources and was available before 1940. In Ohio, Langlois (1937) was convinced that the closed season was worthless for increasing the numbers of bass. In Mich- igan, Eschmeyer (1938) had poisoned the entire fish populations of several small lakes in which the fishing was poor and had discovered an "overabundance of fish" instead of a scarcity. Also in Mich- igan, Carbine (1939) had investigated the spawning and hatching of nest-build- ing centrarchids in Deep Lake and had discovered that many more young were produced than the lake could support. In Illinois, David H. Thompson had fol- lowed dominant broods of crappies in Lake Senachwine for 4 years (1933- 1936) and had come to the conclusion that, while sizes and numbers of fish varied, the total weight of the popula- tion remained fairly constant. Also in Illinois, Thompson & Bennett (1939r) had demonstrated relationships between length of food chains and poundages of fish supported by ponds. In Alabama, Swingle & Smith (1939) had demon- strated the capacity of fish populations to expand or contract in relation to the capacity of the habitat to support them. These researches on the dynamics of fish populations formed the bases for modern fish management. Yet old ideas were difficult to uproot. Clarence R. Lucas (1939) of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries published a paper titled "Game Fish Management," in which he listed what he termed the "operative" tech- niques of fish management: (1) regula- tion—closed seasons, bag limits; (2) fish culture—rearing of game fishes for stock- ing; (3) distribution—transportation and liberation of hatchery-reared fish; (4) stream and lake improvement; and (5) predator control—-the removal of preda- tory fishes or of fishes that otherwise interfere with the production of the game fish crop. This paper reflected exactly the old conception of operation, but under a new name. Thompson's ideas on fish management were summarized in his contribution to A Symposium on Hydrobiology. In a sec- tion titled "The Fish Production of In- land Streams and Lakes" Thompson (1941) stated that production and yield were synonymous—both represented the 172 Ii.i.iNois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 crop that was harvested. The total amount of fish in a lake or stream at any j^iven time was the standing crop; when the standing; crop reached "saturation" it represented the carrying capacity of the lake or stream. Thompson believed that the food resources and the carrNinji; ca- pacity of a body of water remained fairly constant but that the number of fish could vary widely. He reasoned that, if the weight of fish remained constant, then the removal of some fish would furnish more food per individual for those re- maining, and the growth rate would in- crease; if more fish were planted, less food would be available per individual, and the growth rate would decrease. To further this thesis, he was able to demon- strate from his own laboratory experi- ments that at a water temperature of 70 degrees F. a 10-inch bass required as food an amount of minnows equal to three- fourths of 1 per cent of its body weight per day in order to maintain a constant weight; and that, at an optimum feeding rate, 2.5 pounds of minnows were re- quired to produce 1 pound of bass. Complete censuses of nine Illinois lakes subject to floods and indiscriminate stock- ing showed that, although 46 different species were present, only 10 species of fish comprised more than 1 per cent each of the total weight of all fish. The rough fish listed were redmouth buffalo, mon- grel buffalo, and carp ; forage fish were gizzard shad and golden shiner ; catfish included only the black bullhead ; the pan or fine fish were bluegill, white crappie, and black crappie ; and the only game fish was the largemouth bass. These species must be considered as showing superior adjustment to the pond habitat in Illinois. Thompson had observed cycles in fish that were the result of interspecific and intraspecific competition. The "fine" fish in Lake Senachwine (Illinois) amounted to about 50 to 55 pounds per acre, regard- less of the number of fish or the area of the lake. In some years there were 10 times as many fish as in other years, and the individual fish averaged one-tenth the weight of the individual fish of other years. Large broods of crappies were pro- duced at intervals of about 4 years, and during interim seasons thev controlled the survival of their own young and the young of other species. Thompson attempted to construct a theoretical maximum cropping rate for any water area as a percentage of its carrying capacity. He believed that the cropping rate was related to latitude (length of growing season). He estimat- « ed annual cropping rates for Vilas Coun- ty and Madison, Wisconsin; Urbana and Cairo, Illinois; Memphis, Tennessee; Jackson, Mississippi ; and New Orleans, Louisiana. He assumed that in northern Wisconsin about 21 per cent of the carry- ing capacity could be replaced each year; in New Orleans the replacement could . be as much as 118 per cent ; other loca- tions fell between these extremes. Thompson also presented the idea that , fish predators were probably beneficial, al- though he gave no data to back this assumption. THE LAST TWENTY YEARS | With the death of Robert E. Richard- | son in 1935, the aquatic biology staff of " the Illinois Natural History Survey was reduced to Thompson and one full-time field assistant; however, several graduate students were working under Thomp- son's direction. At that time, Thompson was interested in beginning some pond management investigations. As a result of a policy of expansion for the Section of Aquatic Biology, I was employed on January 1, 1938, to work with Thompson on ponds. To gather experience in a new censusing technique that involved poisoning fish with rotenone, a technique developed by R. W. Eschmeyer in Mich- , igan, Thompson and I made a trip to Ann | Arbor, where Eschmeyer was censusing several small Michigan lakes. We helped in one of the censusing operations and were served some of the poisoned fish at the home of Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, Returning to Illinois, we (with the help of Donald F. Hansen) began cen- susing ponds, one of the first of which was Homewood Lake, a 2.8-acre pond on the property of the Homewood Fishing Club on the outskirts of Decatur, Illinois. From the standpoint of public relations, the operation was a huge success. The pond contained mostly carp, bufifalo, giz- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 173 zard shad, and stunted bluegills; all day, local sportsmen slipped through the un- derbrush to spy on the "fish killers," but, seeing few, or no, dead useful hook-and- line fish, they stayed to help us collect the outsized carp and buffalo. Through the able assistance of Sam A. Parr, at that time Investigator for the Department of Conservation for Macon County, we were able to census 22 arti- ficial lakes and ponds in central and southern Illinois. One of these ponds was Fork Lake, owned by Paul S. Smith (formerly Chief Inspector with the De- partment of Conservation), who gave us carte blanche use of the pond. These censuses, and the studies of the fish popu- lations that replaced those poisoned in these ponds, led to the publication of three reports on lake management (Thompson & Bennett 1939«, \939b, and Bennett, Thompson, & Parr 1940) and two articles of the Bulletin, "Management of Small Artificial Lakes" (Bennett 1943) and "The Bass-Bluegill Combination in a Small Artificial Lake" (Bennett 1948). Censuses of the ponds, most of which were poor fishing waters, brought out the fact that overpopulation and stunting and/or large numbers of fish of undesir- able species, rather than a lack of fish, were the causes of poor fishing. In fact, one of the poorest ponds for fishing was found to contain 1,145 pounds of fish per acre. At Fork Lake ("The Bass-Bluegill Combination in a Small Artificial Lake"), we attempted to crop heavily the large- mouth bass and bluegills in this 1.4-acre pond; we used six fyke nets of 1 -inch- mesh, set with leads to completely block off the pond into sections. When these nets were fished for 10 days each month from March to November of each year for 3 years, we discovered that we could not crop the bass because they refused to enter the nets, and the constant cropping of bluegills contributed to the well-being of both species. This discovery led to the belief that anglers had nothing to fear from commercial fishing operations. In July of 1938 Hansen was given charge of the scale collections for study- ing age and growth of fishes and the task of investigating the fish populations of water supply reservoirs where fishing was an important secondary function to water supply. At that time he was operating fyke nets at Lake Decatur and in other waters in order to gather material for a h'fe history study of the white crappie (Hansen 1951). In the late 1930's and the early 1940's federal agencies were engaged in con- struction projects under various work programs. The Natural History Survey was to benefit from these programs through the construction of a laboratory located on the Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge, near Havana, and a laboratory and artificial lake in Fox Ridge State Park, near Charleston. The Havana laboratory, completed in early 1940, became the headquarters for water- fowl and fishery research on the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. The laboratory and lake in Fox Ridge State Park were completed in 1941 and became a center for studies on largemouth bass management. About the same time the U. S. Forest Service constructed two lakes in the Shawnee National Forest in the southern part of Illinois. These were Pounds Hol- low Lake, near Gibsonia, and Lake Glen- dale, near Dixon Springs ; the latter has been used by the Natural History Sur- vey as a study area since it was first stocked in 1940. Lake Glendale is located in a region of low soil fertility and is fairly typical of impoundments in forested lands. Hansen has found that the lake produces excessive populations of both bass and bluegills, and that fishing may be improved at intervals by the removal of part of the population of both of these species. In 1942 Thompson and Hansen made a fish survey of the Illinois River from Channahon to the river mouth at Graf- ton. About 34,000 fish were studied, most of which were caught in hoop or fyke nets. Many of the carp in the upper part of the river (particularly at all sta- tions above Henry) showed the knothead abnormality which was an indication of gross pollution. At Channahon 94.8 per cent of the catch was composed of "rough" fish, most of them carp or gold- fish. In contrast, at the Creve Coeur station below Peoria, 88.4 per cent of the fish taken were "fine" fish (most of them white crappies or black crappies) and only 6.0 per cent were "rough" fish. 174 Ilunois Natural History Survey Bui.i.etin Vol. 27, Art. 2 In December, 1943, conservation representa- tives from the states of Illinois, Iowa, Mis- souri, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and from other interested agencies met at Dubuque, Iowa, and formed the I'pper Mississippi River Conservation Committee (Smith 19+9). This group was organized for the purpose of spon- soring studies of the fishery and wildlife re- sources of the Mississippi River from Ca- ruthersville, Missouri, to Hastings, Minnesota. The studies were designed to serve as a basis for making scientifically sound recommenda- tions for the management of these resources (Barnickol & Starrett 1951:267). Field operations in the Missouri-Illi- nois section were begun in March, 1944, with the Conservation Commission of Missouri, the Illinois Department of Con- servation, and the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey participating, A crew con- sisting of four men, working from the Natural History Survey's laboratory boat Anax, operated test nets and other types of fishing gear at 19 stations between Caruthersville, Missouri, and Warsaw, Illinois. Two years later, in 1946, field operations were resumed in the Iowa-Illi- nois part of the river with the Iowa Con- servation Commission and the two Illi- nois agencies co-operating. The survey in 1944 was begun with Thompson in charge of the laboratory boat and Paul G. Barnickol as the chief fisheries investi- gator for Missouri. Thompson resigned from the Natural History Survey to go with the Forest Preserve District of Cook County, and in May, 1945, Barnickol was employed to replace him. Barnickol was in charge of the crew that covered the upper part of the river from Burling- ton to Dubuque in 1946. In May, 1948, Barnickol was recalled to Missouri to be- come Head of Fisheries Research for the Conservation Commission. At that time data from 2 years of field work on the Mississippi River were only partly analyzed. On July 1, 1948, William C. Starrett began employment by the Natural His- tory Survey for the difficult task of work- ing over Mississippi River fishery data collected by others. In this he had the co-operation of Barnickol ; their combined efforts resulted in publication of two articles of the Natural History Survey Bulletin : "Commercial and Sport Fishes of the Mississippi River Between Caruth- ersville, Missouri, and Dubuque, Iowa" (Barnickol & Starrett 1951) and "Effi- ciency and Selectivity of Cominercial Fish- ing Devices Used on the Mississippi River" (Starrett & Barnickol 1955). The first of these articles listed the fishes caught in the Mississippi River, their distribution, size range, growth rates, and other information on their biologv. A total of 26,037 fish weighing 28,294 pounds were taken in 1944 and 1946. The second article presented a statistical study of the efficiency and selectivity of various types of gear used in the Mis- sissippi River survey. The study was made for the purpose of furnishing infor- mation to those assigned the task of man- aging the river's commercial fishery. It included a consideration of seines, tram- mel nets, basket traps, wing nets, hoop nets, trap nets, and trot lines, the kinds of fish most commonly captured or trapped, the sizes of fish taken with various mesh sizes, and the comparative efficiency of several types of gear. One of the interesting findings to come out of the Mississippi River survey was the collection of post-larval paddlefish, Polyodon spathula (Wal.), by Thomp- son and Barnickol. While minnow sein- ing off a sand bar in the Mississippi near Cape Girardeau, Missouri, on May 29, 1944, the Thompson and Barnickol party took four paddlefish ranging in length from 17 to 26 mm. Other than the col- lection of seven paddlefish larvae (17-20 mm.) taken by Thompson in 1933 (Thompson 1933Z'), these are the only young paddlefish of less than 35 mm. in length known to have been collected. These post-larval paddlefish and other paddlefish material were studied by R. Weldon Larimore (1949, 1950), who de- scribed the changes in the cranial nerves of the paddlefish accompanying develop- ment of the rostrum and gametogenesis of Polyodon and its relationship to prac- tical regulation of the paddlefish fishery. In 1948 Larimore was made a per- manent member of the Aquatic Biolog^^ staff. He had already nearly completed a study on the life history and ecology of the warmouth, Chaenobryttus gulosus (Cuvier), a fish that was being consid- ered as a possible companion species for largemouth bass in ponds. This study of December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 175 the warmouth was later published as an article of the Natural History Survey Bulletin (Larimore 1957). During the summer of 1950 Larimore, with the help of Leonard Durham and others, began an intensive investigation of the fishes in Jordan Creek, a small spring-fed, upland stream in Vermilion County. This project marked the be- ginning of upland stream investigations as a continuous program of the Section of Aquatic Biology. Through the use of the electric seine and other special equip- ment developed for stream work, it has been possible to make both intensive and extensive studies on the ecology of stream fishes in the central Illinois region (Lari- more, Pickering, & Durham 1952). The smallmouth bass, Micropterus doloniieiii Lacepede, was found to be the most im- portant anglers' fish in these streams. The fry of this bass were particularly vulnerable to floods on streams when the floods were accompanied by sudden changes in water temperatures. The adult bass showed well-developed homing in- stincts as did some other species (Lari- more 1952). Tests of the value of plant- ing 6— to 8—inch smallmouths in a stream already containing a population of smallmouth bass demonstrated that it was possible to build up numbers of these fish only temporarily. Minnows removed from a stream with an electric seine were replaced by other minnows through mi- gration and reproduction within a period of a few months (Larimore 1955). Ap- parently streams are quickly repopulated even when fish are killed by drought con- ditions, heavy winter ice, or temporary severe pollution. In studies of ponds and lakes, by 1945 evidence had accumulated to substantiate the idea that a lack of fish predators was an important problem to be faced in the management of these waters. Obviously, fishing was no substitute for natural pre- dation, and much of the task of the fish manager was that of functioning as a predator of small fishes (Bennett 1947). Fisheries technicians of the Illinois Natural History Survey using fish shocker for sampling the population of a stream. The shocker is a recent development that has been used successfully in both streams and lakes. 176 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Studies on the effects of fish predators were begun with the placing of six short- nosed gars in a 1-acre pond containing bass and bluegills; in this pond, bluegills were constantly in a state of overpopula- tion. Because the short-nosed gars were unable to reproduce in the pond, their numbers were easily controlled. From this experiment, Durham (1955) expand- ed the investigations of fish predation to include about a dozen additional ponds containing populations of stunted fish. Using gars and cormorants as predators, he was able to show improvement in growth and size of fish and an improve- ment in the survival rate of naturally produced bass. Ten years of recording catches of fish- ermen at Ridge Lake (Bennett 1954«) gave a yield figure of more than 11,000 largemouth bass following an original stocking of 435 ; the fact that, in the last 6 years of the 10, 155,000 bluegills had been removed following an original stock- ing of 129 of these fish indicated that the bluegills were not only more prolific but showed a higher survival rate than the bass. The annual hook-and-line yield of bass varied between 10.9 and 30 pounds per acre, although the lake was not con- sidered a highly fertile one. During this time the standing crop of bass varied be- tween 30 and 50 pounds per acre. The success of a bass spawn (and survival) was negatively correlated with the num- bers of yearling fish present in the lake, particularly yearling bluegills. Young bass surviving to post schooling fry stage had about 1 chance in 35 of living to reach a size of 7 to 10 inches; natural mortality remained relatively high until the fish reached an average weight of 0.75 pound ; then it dropped to less than 5 per cent per year until fish reached ages of 7 to 8 years, when the natural death rate again became high. With the system followed at Ridge Lake of culling the fish population at intervals of 2 years, the average length of bass at the end of the first growing season was 7.5 inches, at the end of the second growing season 10.8 inches, and at the end of the third 13.0 inches. The single most important finding at Ridge Lake was that a large new year class of bass could be produced at any spawning season by reducing the numbers of small bluegills in the lake prior to the spawning period. This re- duction could come about through arti- ficial culling of the fish population, or, as was later discovered, through concentrat- ing the fish during the fall months pre- ceding the bass spawning season by re- leasing a large proportion of the water from the lake and then allowing the lake to refill over winter. Studies of the ef- fects of these water releases, or draw- downs, were begun in 1951 (Bennett 1954/') and they are still in progress. Swingle & Smith (1942), working on fishes in Alabama ponds, built their man- agement practices around a program of pond fertilization ; they recommended fertilization for ponds in other parts of the country. In order to test the useful- ness of fertilization as a pond manage- ment technique in Illinois, Donald F. Hansen began a testing program in ponds located on the University of Illinois Ex- perimental Farm near Dixon Springs in southern Illinois, where soils are as poor as any within the state. After 7 years of fertilizing three ponds at various rates with complete fertilizers and using three other similar but unfertilized ponds for controls, Hansen concluded that the im- provement in fishing did not justify the cost of the fertilizer, if fish were cropped by hook-and-line. The unfertilized or con- trol ponds furnished better bass fishing than the fertilized ponds. Bluegills could be caught at a more rapid rate in the fertilized ponds, and the fish averaged larger in size. In terms of extra fish flesh produced by the fertilizer, the improved fishing cost about $1.00 per pound of fish. Tests on various combinations of fishes in ponds have been going on for many years (Bennett 1952). The combinations used include largemouth bass—bluegill ; largemouth bass-bluegill-warmouth—black bullhead ; largemouth bass-bluegill-war- mouth-channel catfish ; largemouth bass- golden shiner; largemouth bass—redear ; largemouth bass-warmouth ; largemouth bass—short-nosed gar ; largemouth bass- bluegill-short-nosed gar; smallmouth bass alone ; and largemouth bass alone. No combination appeared to be ideal, although several combinations proved to be as pro- ductive of good fishing as the highly ad- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 177 vertised largemouth bass-bluegill combi- nation. Redear sunfish, Lepomis rnicrolophus (Gunther), were not reported from Illi- nois prior to 1945. In that year Dr. C L. Schloemer, then located at Denton, Texas, sent a small number of adult red- ears to the Natural History Survey at Urbana. These fish were placed in sev- eral ponds near Urbana, but none ap- parently survived the winter of 1945—16. In the spring of 1946 Dr. William E. Ricker, then located at Bloomington, In- diana, furnished 30 large adult redears from central Indiana. These fish were planted in several locations; 12 were placed in a stripmine pond, near Danville, that contained largemouth bass. The redears in the stripmine pond multiplied very successfully and were the source for introductions into many lakes and ponds scattered through central and southern Illinois. Redears are now present in tribu- taries of the Illinois River (particularly the Sangamon) and in the Wabash drain- age along the eastern border of the state, as well as in the Big Muddy system of southern Illinois. As far as is known, all of these fish originated from the 12 fish released in the pond near Danville. In 1949 Starrett was placed in charge of the Natural History Survey labora- tory at Havana, where he began a study of Lake Chautauqua, a shallow flood plain lake of some 3,000 acres belonging to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and used principally as a waterfowl refuge. This lake was fairly typical of other areas in the Illinois valley that had been leveed to keep out the river, pumped dry so that they could be used for farm- ing, and later flooded. We wondered about comparative over-all values of these areas for recreation (duck hunting and sport fishing), fish production (com- mercial fishes), fur production (native furbearers), and timber production (wood pulp), as contrasted with values of these areas for corn production that required government help in the con- struction and maintenance of levees, pumping costs and equipment, and sup- port of corn prices. In spite of the fact that recreational values are often intangi- ble, it soon became evident that the value of this area for fishing and recreational activities by people in the nearby indus- trial towns of Pekin and Peoria were much greater than the value of the corn the lake bottom would produce if the lake were drained (Starrett & McNeil 1952). In addition to studies in recrea- tional values, Starrett has made intensive studies of the fish and bottom fauna of Chautauqua and similar lakes, and the physical, chemical, and biological factors which influence them. Through the as- sistance of biologists from the Illinois Department of Conservation he has col- lected annual commercial fishing sta- tistics on all of the large Illinois rivers and information on native lamprey dis- tribution. In many of our operations during the past 20 years we have had the co-opera- tion of the Illinois Department of Con- servation : in pond management studies, stream investigations, surveys of the fishes of large rivers, and statistical studies on yields of commercial fishes. Some- times this assistance has been in the form of funds for construction works or for physical equipment, sometimes for half- time or full-time assistants; occasionally personnel of the Department have par- ticipated in operations requiring many men for a short period of time. This co- operation has not been based on written agreement; rather, it has come about through an understanding of mutual needs and interests by certain personnel of the Department, particularly Sam A. Parr, formerly Investigator, Inspector, and Superintendent of Fisheries, now Administrative Assistant to the Director of Conservation ; and William J. Harth, recently made Superintendent of Fish- eries. We are grateful for this assistance and co-operation. DIRECTION OF FUTURE STUDIES In looking toward the future we find that some lines of research are taking shape now and others are still in the planning stages. One program that was begun in the spring of 1958 centers on a study of such basic concepts of fish management as carrying capacity and standing crop, as well as the effects of cropping and 178 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 stocking on populations of fishes. This work is centered at the Fin 'n* Feather Club near Dundee. At the Eighteenth North American Wildlife Conference held in Washington, U. C, in 1953, Max McGraw, Presi- dent of the North American Wildlife Foundation, suggested the development of a fisheries research unit at the Fin 'n' Feather Club. It was agreed that the McGraw Foundation (with the assist- ance of the Illinois Department of Con- servation) would develop a research unit of at least 15 1-acre ponds and provide space for laboratory and offices in the Fin 'n' Feather Lodge. When this would be accomplished, the laboratory and pond unit would be assigned to the North American Wildlife Foundation, which in turn would assign the use of the facility to the Illinois Natural History Survey and the Illinois Department of Conserva- tion for fisheries research. Some progress had been made in physical plant con- struction by 1956, and on February 1 of that year David Homer Buck was em- ployed by the Natural History Survey to give immediate supervision to the project. Soon after, Maurice A. Whitacre, biolo- gist with the Department of Conserva- tion, was assigned to this program to work with Dr. Buck. At the beginning of the 1958 season 11 ponds were ready for use. Eight other ponds are in various stages of construction, and as these are completed they will be stocked and added to the units in operation. A second program, already begun, has to do with studies of the biochemistry of fishes. A chemical laboratory was de- veloped in conjunction with the aquarium laboratories in the Natural Resources Building at Urbana, and Robert C. Hilti- bran was employed on May 1, 1957, to begin biochemical investigations. Hilti- bran was forced to pioneer in this field because little research had been done on fish biochemistry. He has begun by studying the "normal" enzyme systems of the bluegill, Lepornis macrochirus Ra- finesque. Once the "normal" enzyme sys- tems are known, Hiltibran will measure the action of various chemicals on these systems: waste products from commercial chemical processes and substances applied to aquatic areas for the control of noxious animals and plants. From these studies he may be able to suggest methods of re- ducing the toxicity of these chemicals to fishes and other aquatic organisms. Prior to 1934 Wilbur M. Luce (now Professor of Zoology, University of Illi- nois) and David H. Thompson developed a method for stripping and fertilizing sunfish eggs, which they used to produce hybrids between species of these centrar- chids. Luce raised many of these sunfish to maturity, and Thompson recognized that two of the hybrids were similar to fish pictured by Forbes & Richardson (1908) as being valid species. Recently we have revived the technique of artificial insemination of sunfish eggs in order to explore the possibility of developing hy- brids for use in fish management. In 1957 William F. Childers produced viable fry from all possible combinations of crosses of bluegills, redears, green sun- fish, and warmouths. Some of these com- binations appear to be superior to parent types. It is probable that within the next few decades great advances will be made in the management of fish populations for sport and commercial uses. Research basic to this management may lead to the discovery of ecological factors which con- trol the expansion of populations of im- portant sport species, such factors as have already been found for the large- mouth and smallmouth basses. Adjust- ments of these factors may be, to some extent, applicable to most natural waters, but they probably will be more practical in artificial waters and in controllable natural waters. It seems reasonable to as- sume that progress will be made in en- vironment control until waters can be made to produce crops of selected plants and animals much as terrestrial habitats can be made to produce wheat, rice, swine, and cattle. The development of water management may not only give ways to control the kinds and numbers of fishes but also to control the individual steps in the food chains of fishes. Wildlife Research THOMAS G. SCOTT WT ILDLIFE was high on the scale ^ ''^ of human values during the period of discovery and initial settlement in Illi- nois. When the Illinois Natural History Society was founded in 1858, most II- linoisans were self-reliant farmers who measured values in terms of the length of fences constructed, the acreage of cleared forest land, the acreage of land under cultivation, and the extent of drainage programs, roadways, and railroads. The Illinois Central Railroad line from Chi- cago to the junction of the Ohio and Mis- sissippi rivers had been completed only 2 years earlier. Representative of the period are the reflections of Benjamin F. John- son, chairman of a committee for the examination of farms and nurseries for the Illinois State Agricultural Society. In reporting on improvements in "northern Illinois" following inspections in 1859 by the committee, Johnson (1861:84) un- doubtedly impressed members of the So- ciety when he stated that the progress of improvement in this portion of Illinois is little less than wonderful. Ten years ago much of the country was wild, open prairie; now there is scarcely a rood of un- inclosed land, except portions of the timber along the rivers and streams. Today one cannot help but ponder why there weren't a few rebels hardy enough to stand against the surge of progress and insist that Illinois, the settlers' "prairie state," set aside a prairie park or primitive forest for future generations. The loss of primitive areas and much of what went with them was accepted as inevitable. Even Dr. Stephen A. Forbes {I9\2b :40), a giant among the naturalists of the time, pointed out that the reduc- tion and elimination of wildlife through settlement of Illinois by white man has evidently been a perfectly natural and inevitable one— as much so as the flow of the tide in the wake of the revolving moon — and immensely advantageous, also, from every point of view except that of the in- adequate, incompetent and ill-adapted popu- lation which it [settlement] has reduced or suppressed. Dr. Theodore H. Frison (1938:19), who knew and understood Forbes as well as anyone, quoted the above statement as representative of the philosophy of 1912. DEVELOPMENT Wildlife research, as it is recognized to- day, first became evident in the annals of the Natural History Survey in the late 1870's when Forbes initiated his inves- tigation of the food of birds. O. B. Ga- lusha (1881:238) provided insight into the conception of this research when, following Forbes' presentation of a paper on the food of meadowlarks at the Janu- ary, 1881, meeting of the Horticultural Society of Northern Illinois, he observed that when a few of us, six years ago, met in the Normal University, as a committee of the State Horticultural Society, to inaugurate the enterprise, I had serious fears that the work was too great for accomplishment. These studies accompanied and prob- ably assisted in the accomplishment of the reorganization which converted the Illi- nois Museum of Natural History into a State Laboratory of Natural History on July 1, 1877. The reorganization was ac- companied by a new conception of pur- pose, relieving the members of the staff of the preparation of museum displays and allowing them to concentrate on research. Although I have been unable to uncover direct evidence of it, I feel certain that the change was manipulated by Forbes and members of the Illinois State Horti- cultural Society. Of legislative action ap- proved May 29, 1879, to become effective July 1, 1879, Forbes (1880/:1) gener- ously reported : We were also directed to investigate the large and intricate subject of the food of birds, in the interests of agriculture and horticulture, $200 per annum being voted for the expenses of this work. Forbes' research on the food of birds was to become one of the outstanding con- tributions to avian biology. This research [179] 180 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 provides us with further insijjht into the motivations of the man who j^uided the projjram of the Natural History Survey and its parent orjjanizations for many years (1872-1930). I have come to be- lieve that wildlife research made such an auspicious start in the Survey program not only because of Forbes' professional quali- fications but also because of his intense desire to contribute to knowledge relating to human economv and welfare. W. L. McAtee (1917:2-^9) believed that F. E. L. Beal and Forbes were "the founders of the scientific method of studying the economic value of birds." Birds in Their Relations to Man (Weed & Dearborn 1903) is inscribed "To Stephen Alfred Forbes . . . whose classic studies of the economic relations of birds will long re- main the model for later students." In an early report Forbes (1882«:1) advised : The work of the State Laboratory of Natural History ... is essentially that of a zoological and botanical survey of the State, conducted with principal reference to economic questions, and to the interests of public education. Although economic consideration con- stituted a principal responsibility, such a responsibility is adequately met only when men are willing to meet it and are capable of meeting it. If the desire had not been there, it seems likely that Forbes and his associates would have been content to occupy themselves with the systematics and descriptive records of the native flora and fauna, and wildlife research would have had to find its beginning at a much later date. I marvel at the courage of Forbes' convictions when I consider the statement of Robert Ridgway (1901:1), a close associate of Forbes, on a prevailing attitude of the day : There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and pop- ular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life-histories. . . . Popular ornithology is the more entertaining, with its savor of the wildwood, green fields, the river- side and seashore, bird songs, and the many fascinating things connected with out-of-door Nature. But systematic ornithology, being a component part of biology—the science of lite —is the more instructive and therefore more important. It is unfortunate that Forbes' responsi- bilities were such that he could not have devoted more time to wildlife research, for he seems to have possessed an under- standing of wildlife biology which was much in advance of his time. In a single early paper (Forbes 1880^), a number of observations were made which, by their earliness, seem prophetic of views which are credited to relatively recent times. Current beliefs on predation may be seen' in "the annihilation of all the established 'enemies' of a species would, as a rule, have no effect to increase its final average numbers" (Forbes 1880fl:ll). Forbes (1880«:8) recognized a need for an understanding of animal popula- tions long before they received serious study. Of this he wrote: Our problem is, therefore, to determine how these innumerable small oscillations, due to imperfect adjustment, are usually kept within bounds—to discover the forces and laws which tend to prevent either inordinate in- crease or decrease of any species, and also those by which widely oscillating species are brought into subjection and reduced to a condition of prosperous uniformity. It is apparent that this view implies population management in the modern sense. Further implications of manage- ment may be seen in the following statement by Forbes ( 1880a :4): It is also plain that if man understands clear- ly the disorders which arise in the system of Nature as a result of the rapid progressive changes in his own condition and activities, and understands also the processes of Nature which tend to lessen and remove these dis- orders, he may, by his own intelligent inter- ference, often avoid or greatly mitigate the evils of his situation, as well as hasten their remedy and removal. Forbes (1880^:9) seems to have been well on the way toward an understanding of density dependent factors as used by today's students of animal populations, as well as modern views on predation, when he wrote: "The fact of survival is there- fore usually sufficient evidence of a fairly complete adjustment of the rate of re- production to the drains upon the species." That his understanding of the effect of density dependent factors on animal populations was astonishingly well advanced is evident in his (Forbes 1882^:122) reasoning that excessive pop- ulations are, "in one way or another, self- December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 181 limiting." Earlier he (Forbes 1880^:5) had written that "as a general rule, the rate of reproduction is in inverse ratio to the grade of individual development and activity ; . . ." The "grade of indi- vidual development and activity" refers to the degree of evolutionary progress from a primitive form. Forbes (1880«:11) seems to have been grasping at the role of density independent factors in population control when he observed that the "real and final limits of a species are the inor- ganic features of its environment,—soil, climate, seasonal peculiarities, and the like." What is today recognized as wildlife research continued to develop under Forbes' guidance in the form of bird censuses. The results of these censuses are classics in American ornithology. They constituted the first extensive, quantita- tive investigations of bird numbers, or of any wildlife population for that matter, and introduced a census technique. Despite Forbes' modern views, there is little evidence that he promoted wildlife management to any great extent. The thinking of Forbes ( 1912*5' :40) with re- spect to game management, despite earlier, more promising views, seems to have been limited to the encouragement of restric- tive laws, as evidenced by the following : "Our resident game birds would all have been gone long ago if it had not been for the restraints of law put upon the ac- tivities of the hunter ..." Forbes (1912Z':46) made a plea for the Illinois Academy of Science to support by resolu- tion the "Anthony bill" (Migratory Bird Act of 1913), then under consideration in the House of Representatives. It should be remembered that legal protection was virtually the only management concept of the times. ORGANIZATION Game research in the modern sense be- gan to receive recognition in the Natural History Survey's program in the early 1930's. Probably stimulation was re- ceived from the federal government's emphasis on conservation of natural re- sources, an emphasis that accompanied the search for work during that period of national economic emergency, and from the influence of Herbert L. Stoddard (1931) and Aldo Leopold (1931, 1933). By that time, progressive leaders in the field realized that restrictive regulations and game farms were not meeting wild- life management needs. Also, it had be- come apparent that game populations could be managed wisely only when man- agement practices were based on a fund of pertinent and precise knowledge. Fri- son, who became Acting Chief of the Illi- nois Natural History Survey upon Forbes' death on March 13, 1930, and then Chief on July 1, 1931, was among these leaders. An enthusiastic hunter, Frison had a con- suming interest in game management. Wildlife research was recognized in the organizational structure of the Natural History Survey for the first time when Frison (1938:31) established a Section of Game Research and Management on July 1, 1934. Dr. Ralph E. Yeatter, one of the nation's first game specialists, was employed in this section. Frison initiated formation of the now well-established Midwest Wildlife Con- ference, and the first meeting was held in Urbana on December 5, 6, and 7, 1935. This meeting, known as the North Cen- tral States Fish and Game Conference, was the first regional conference of wild- life technicians in the United States. Frison (1938:27) described the confer- ence as essentially a fish and game clinic at which scientists from all the north-central states, without being dominated by administrators or the political type of conservationists, freely discussed wildlife management practices in an effort to winnow out the chaff from the wheat, to coordinate such researches and to orientate scientific studies of wildlife re- sources in such a way that demonstrable sound management practices would result. By 1936 Frison (1938:31) had con- cluded that experimental wildlife areas were needed for the purpose of testing management theories under practical con- ditions, a need which has still not been adequately met. A Section of Wildlife Experimental Areas was listed on the stafif page of the Bulletin from March, 1938, to September, 1945. On June 1, 1938, a special program dealing with for- est problems in game management was un- dertaken by Dr. Lee E. Yeager, who had joined the staff in the Section of Forestry, 182 li.MNOis Natural History Survly Hui-lltin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Following passage of the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act in 1937, Frison undertook to arrange a co-operative wild- life research program with the Illinois Department of Conservation and the United States Bureau of Biological Sur- vey (now the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife). The first co- operative project, "Illinois Fur Animal Resources Survey," with Louis G. Brown as leader, was approved on May 23, 1939 (Frison 1940:8-9). In 1940 a Coopera- tive Wildlife Restoration Program, em- bracing interagency co-operation in Fed- eral Aid, was listed on the staff page on the section level. Of this program Frison (1940:8) recorded: "General program planning and supervision of projects deal- ing with wildlife research have been as- signed to the Chief and various other members of the scientific staff of the Illi- nois Natural History Survey." In evi- dence of its success this co-operative ar- rangement has survived through the years, and in 1956 the Conservation Advisory Board (Mann 1956:6) included, in a statement of policies, provisions for the development of an adequate game re- search program "through cooperation with and support of the Illinois Natural History Survey Division." Thus, by 1940 Frison had stimulated and obtained support for a wildlife re- search program which involved the pri- mary activity of four sections within the Natural History Survey's organizational structure. This compartition of the work was believed by those who knew Frison to have grown out of his extreme interest in wildlife resources and his desire to give each facet of study his personal direction. There was little change in the wildlife research program while Dr. Leo R. Te- hon served as Acting Chief, December 10, 1945, through February 28, 1947, follow- ing Frison's death on December 9, 1945. Dr. Harlow B. Mills, who became Chief on March 1, 1947, proved to have the same consuming interest in wildlife research which had marked Frison's lead- ership. In August, 1947, the Cooperative Wildlife Restoration Program was more properly designated Cooperative Wild- life Research, and a Section of Migratory Waterfowl was added to the organiza- tion. The latter section had been discon- tinued by June, 1948. Dr. Thomas G. Scott was apix)intedj the Head of the Section of Game Re- search and Management on January 1,1 1950. He was the first person to bear this title. Soon after that date, arrange- ments were made for formal co-operationj in wildlife research between the Natural* History Survey and Southern Illinois University, where Dr. Willard D, Klim- stra was guiding the program in wildlife research and education. That part of the Survey's organizational structure. Co- operative Wildlife Research, which em- braced the Federal Aid research, was dropped, and the personnel and admin- istrative responsibilities of this program were transferred to the Section of Game Research and Management in March,! 1950. On September 1, 1954, the Section] of Forestry was abolished, and all of its wildlife activities and personnel trans- ferred to the Section of Game Research and Management. Thus, by 1954 all, wildlife research had been assigned to one] section. The name of the section wasl more appropriately designated the Section! of Wildlife Research on May 1, 1956. The area of research assigned to the sec- tion was similar to that of its predeces- sors: the biology of warm-blooded verte- brates except that associated with taxo- nomy and classification. In 1956 the] extensive activities of the section were! divided and were assigned to branches to] provide for more effective supervision.] The new branches were Nongame Birds, Upland Game Birds, Migratory Game} Birds, Mammals, Co-operative Wildlife! Research, and Environmental Research.) As the first century of the Illinois Nat- ural History Survey ends, interest in] wildlife resources of Illinois and other! parts of the United States is greater than] ever before. The number of people en- gaged in the wildlife management pro- fession is at an all-time high and promises] to go higher. Frison's North Central! States Fish and Game Conference has' so grown in attendance and extent of in- terest that its facilities no longer seem] to meet the needs seen at the outspt. As] a consequence, there is a tendency for! specialists to draw apart in comrpitteesj or "councils." Some of those who lookl December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 183 into the future to a greatly increased hu- man population and a more intensive land-use program seem to be returning to f'orbes' "let's face the inevitable" phi- losophy of 1912. They seem willing to stand by while part of our wildlife her- itage, the prairie chicken, for example, goes down the drain. Foreign game birds are being feverishly investigated and re- leased with the hope of finding species which will supplement populations of na- tive game birds being reduced by a chang- ing habitat. In anticipation of the time when shootable wild game populations will no longer meet the demand, there are the programs for pen-rearing game birds to be released under the gun. The root- ing out of osage orange hedges throughout the state is symbolic of the cancerous-like growth in activities designed to bring in- creasing amounts of land into agricul- tural, residential, or industrial use. Public realization of the vital importance of habitat in the management of a wildlife resource is showing growth ; however, the area of desirable wildlife habitat, espe- cially that for upland species, is continu- ing to shrink. Thus, the most perplexing problem of the wildlife manager in Illi- nois today is that of developing and pro- tecting suitable habitat. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS A review of outstanding contributions made to wildlife biology and conserva- tion by employees of the Illinois Natural History Survey and its parent organiza- tions will aid understanding of work in these fields during the first 100 years. A few publications by non-Survey personnel are cited to provide perspective or to recognize Survey publications by workers who were not employed by the Survey. Birds Contributions on the biology and con- servation of birds may be conveniently grouped into three classes: those for non- game, those for upland game, and those for migratory game bird'^. Nongame Birds.—Of the meadow- lark, Forbes ( 1 88 U: 234-5) wrote: He is first cousin to the Indian, the prairie- wolf and the badger, but with a better l;nack than they at adapting himself to the new life of civilization. He is a perfect reflection of his most constant surroundings — with a bosom of prairie butter-cups, a back like the dead grass of autumn, and a song that harmo- nizes well with the whistling of prairie winds. This colorful description reveals some- thing of Forbes' deep feeling for birds. Sentiment, however, is not evident in his systematic and painstakingly conserva- tive evaluations of the place of birds in an economic scheme of things. Forbes' research on the food of birds constituted a milestone in ornithological history. "No part of the recent work of the Laboratory has excited a wider inter- est than that relating to the food of birds" (Forbes 1880/: 7). This work established Forbes among contemporary ornithologists as the ranking authority on the insect food of birds. Dr. Elliott Coues (1883:105) believed him to be "Our best authority upon the insect food of birds ..." Drs. Clarence M. Weed and Ned Dearborn (1903:19-20) con- sidered Forbes' publications on the food of birds to be "classic papers" and "the basis for the modern development of economic ornithology." The findings of Forbes' studies of the food of birds appeared in a number of papers. The most substantial contribu- tions, however, were brought together in two papers (Forbes 1880^, 1883rt). The first dealt with the food of certain birds in the families Mimidae and Turdidae. The second reported observations on the regulative action of birds feeding on an excessively high population of canker- worms and vine leaf chafers. The latter paper, "The Regulative Action of Birds Upon Insect Oscillations," was approved by Indiana University in fulfillment of Forbes' thesis requirements for the Ph.D. degree granted in 1884 (letter of May 2, 1952, from E. Lingle Craig, Reference Librarian, Indiana University, to Mar- guerite Simmons, Librarian, Illinois Nat- ural History Survey). Of lesser im- portance were notes on the food of the meadowlark (Forbes 1881Z'), the English sparrow (Forbes 188h'), and the kinglets (Forbes 1883^). The scope of these investigations may be seen in the following report (Forbes 1882^:5-6): 184 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 The colleclitiii ilcsiRHfd to illii>(ratr the fooil of bird* has been more than doubled in the la*t two years, and now numbers over six thousand stomachs, representing about two huntired species. Kight hundred and eighty of these have now been exhaustively studied, . . . Unftjriiinatflv, the analyses were ap- parently discontinued at this point, for there were no more publications on the fcK)d of birds, and the annual reports of the State Laboratory of Natural History indicate that nothinjj further on this sub- ject was done. Forbes' evaluations of his findings on the food of birds indicated awareness of the need for giving special consideration to the high mobility of birds, food prefer- ences, density effects, ability to diversify diet, and the importance of seasons, geo- graphic location, and specific ecological circum>tances. Forbes ( 1 S.S'()<' : 1 22-3 ) de- scribed what appears to have been a new method of evaluating proportions of food in the stomachs and crops of birds, a technique which is used yet today. He (Forbes lSKlrt:107) also showed himself to be aware of the importance of sample size and made crude tests for significance by comparing the results of analyses of small samples with those of larger samples to determine whether there were important departures in the pattern of the diet. Because Forbes believed that the num- bers and kinds of birds in specific habitat categories needed to be known before their economic importance could be evalu- ated, he encouraged studies based on sys- tematic censuses, which were carried out in 1906, 1907, 1908, and 1909. These studies are classics in American ornithol- ogy and introduce a new censusing tech- nique for birds. 1 believe them to be the first extensive statistical analyses of bird p«»pulations in this country. Although the results of these surveys are presented in six papers, two of them contain most of the data (Forbes & Gross 1922, 1923). Unfortunnteh. a final paper in which it was hoped to present all of the findings for each species was never published. Plans for this paper are described (Forbes & Gross 1923:.397) as follows: It has been our general plan to work at first with broad strokes of the full brush, refining upon our neutral background by degrees and ending, as we hope to do in a paper follow- ing the pre>-ent one, with the final details for each species taken up separately and followed all over the state and around the year. Forbes' experience with plankton sur- veys guided him in the development of the census technique devised specifically for the bird surveys (Forbes & Gross l'^21:l). Forbes believed that two men walking abreast could identify and count all of the birds flushed by them or cross- ing their track on a strip 150 feet wide in relatively open country but 60 feet wide in heavier cover, such as orchards, open vv(H)ds, and patches of close shrub- bery. This census technique was pictured (Forbes & Gross 1921:1) as a huge net a hundred and fifty feet wide, drawn in straight lines across every kind of crop or other surface vegetation, by which ail the birds found there should be caught and held unt I they had been identified and counted. Results were obtained by application of this census technique during the suinmers of 1907 and 1909 (Forbes .Sc Gross 1922:189, 199); the census indicated an average of 852 birds per square mile for the state as a whole. The numbers of birds per square mile showed a striking increase of 54 per cent from the 1907 fig- ure to that of 1909. Orchards were found to have the greatest numbers of birds per square mile, 3,943 ; yards and gardens were a close second with 3,418. The state- wide number of birds per square mile in winter was estimated from data collected in 1906 and 1907 to have been 520 (Forbes & Gross 1923:398). Dr. Frank Smith (1930) prepared a thorough and useful paper dealing with a chronology of the spring migration of 221 species of birds through Urbana from 1903 through 1922. The objective of the study was to determine whether there was a correlation between migration flights of spring migrants and certain kinds of weather. Smith (1930:112) concluded: A careful study of the weather maps during the time when records were being made re- vealed that the greatest migratory activity in spring occurred at times when the weather maps showed an area of low barometric pressure approaching from the west, with the south winds and rising temperatures which normally accompany such movements. The monograph by Dr. Alfred O. Gross (1921) on the dickcissel must be December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 185 classified as one of the outstanding early habitat categories. He found that hay- studies of its kind. I was especially im- fields constituted preferred habitat; with- pressed by his statistical evaluation of the in this classification, clover and alfalfa abundance of the bird in relationship to v\^ere preferred to other kinds of hayfields Ornithologists in winter equipment ready to set out on a collecting expedition for the .Ulin?'* State Laboratory of Natural History, about 1906. At the right is Alfred O. Gross, and with him is Howard A. Ray. 186 Illinois Natural History Survkv Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 available at the time. Perhaps it is also appropriate to mention the paper by W. E. Loucks (18'^4) on the prothonotary warbler. While the paper is unfortu- nately more subjective than objective, it constitutes a colorful record of the find- ings of a talented observer. The participation of the Natural His- tory Survey staff in the efifort to obtain lethal protection for all hawks and owls in Illinois merits attention. At the urj^inji; of Dr. David H. Thompson, Director Ralph Bradford of the Illinois Depart- ment of Conservation soujjht and obtained let::islation, efifective July 1, 1929, to pro- tect all hawks and owls except the great horned owl, the goshawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, duck hawk, and pigeon hawk. Members of the Natural History Sur- vey stafif continued to advocate protection of hawks and owls, and, effective July 1, 1941, protection was obtained for all but the great horned owl. This condition pre- vailed until July 1, 1947, when, for some unexplained reason, the Cooper's and sharp-shinned hawks were removed from the protected list. In 1956 and 1957 a new efifort, spearheaded by Elton Fawks, representing the Illinois Audubon Soci- ety, was made to obtain protection for all hawks and owls. I presented a paper at the annual meeting of the Natural Re- sources Council of Illinois on October 20, 1956; this paper has been credited with having much to do with winning the sup- port of the Council and member clubs for the needed legislation (Fawks 1957:1). I read a second paper at the annual meet- ing of the Illinois Audubon Society in Rockford on May 18, 1957, at the time the bill was before the legislature (Bay- less 1957:3), and I made an appeal for further support in the official publication of the Illinois Federation of Sportsmen's Clubs (Scott 1957). Dr. Richard R. Graber assisted this effort by analyzing data on hawk and owl numbers reported in the Christmas counts of the Illinois Audubon Society for the past 50 years and by demonstrating that some species had declined in numbers and that there was no evidence of need for measures de- signed to reduce hawk and owl popula- tions. The bill proposed for the protec- tion of hawks and owls. House Bill No. 1063, included protection also for the crow, blue jay, cowbird, and grackle by the time it had passed the General As- sembly, June 27, 1957, and was signed into law by Governor William G. Strat- ton, July 8, 1957 (Illinois General As- sembly '1957:1937-8). The bill pro- vided for amending Section 21 of the Game Code to define all hawks and owls as protected species but, as a consequence of an oversight, Section 36 of the Code was not amended to include the Cooper's hawk, the sharp-shinned hawk, and the great horned owl among the hawks and owls which were unlawful to have in pos- session at any time. The Prairie Chicken.— If the Illi- nois farmer of the 1860's had taken time from his backbreaking work to sit down and figure out the cause of the enormous populations of prairie chickens which he alternately cursed and blessed, perhaps he would have seen that he had just com- pleted a gigantic habitat development project for upland game birds. He had extended the range of the chicken by clear- ing the timberland, and he had provided thousands of food patches by establishing grainfields. From these high populations, the prai- rie chickens declined in numbers with the gradual increase in grain farming and the accompanying reduction of grassland. The hunting season on prairie chickens was closed in 1903 and was not opened again until 1911. The relaxation of hunt- ing regulations at this time undoubtedly followed an increase in the population, probably associated with "The Indiana 'Comeback' of 1912" (Leopold 1931: 172). Contemporary data for Illinois had apparently not been called to Leo- pold's attention because Forbes (1912Z': 47-8), reported that prairie-hens—thanks to our protective laws — are now to be seen in at least seventy-four counties, so abundantly in some that farmers are beginning to protest against their further increase because of the amount of grain which they devour. The records on which this statement is based remain in the files of the Illinois Natural History Survey. Re-examination of them brings out the conservativeness of Forbes, for they indicate that the re- porting observers had found a few prairie December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 187 chickens in all of Illinois' 102 counties except 10 (Yeatter 1957:8). Despite an exaggerated confidence in protective regu- lations, Forbes {\9l2b-A8) recognized the basic environmental factor which was limiting the prairie chicken population be- cause he advised that: The very country in which it was formerly most numerous—that is, the open prairie — is now least favorable to it because of the agricultural operations, which disturb and destroy it during its breeding season. When it again became evident that the prairie chicken population was endan- gered, Director Bradford of the Depart- ment of Conservation, at the urging of Dr. Thompson of the Natural History Survey, obtained legislation, effective July 1, 1933, to prohibit the taking of the prairie chicken at any time. No open sea- son on this bird has been permitted since that date. It seems fitting that, with the upsurge of interest in wildlife conservation in the 1930's, one of the first comprehensive studies of a game species to be undertaken in Illinois was concerned with the prairie chicken. The valuable monograph (Yeat- ter 1943) resulting from this study in- cludes data on early distribution, range, life history, populations, mortality causes, food habits, and management. 1 believe that this publication was the first to direct attention to the importance of grass-seed farming in the management of prairie chickens. Yeatter (1943:409) advised that areas harboring a few prairie chick- ens might be converted into good chicken range by leasing, and converting to refuges for a term of years, 25 per cent of the total land in the form of 20-acre, 40-acre or larger tracts of the poorer farm soil throughout each township. In a later publication Yeatter (1957:8) revised his recommendation on grassland refuges to a minimum of 40 acres in each square mile of farm land. When unusually large numbers of young prairie chickens were found dead on a study area in Jasper County in 1935 and 1936, an investigation of parasites as a possible cause of these deaths was un- dertaken (Leigh 1940:186). Tapeworms were found in 10 of 14 partly grown birds and in not one of 14 adults which were collected in Jasper and Richland counties in the summers of 1936 and 1937. Because cestodes of a previously undescribed species of Raillietina occurred in 10 [ac- tually 9] of 14 young birds and in 4 cases were so numerous or so large as to occlude the lumen of the greater part of the small intestine, they should not be overlooked as a factor in prairie chicken mortality (Leigh 1940:188-9). Shelford & Yeatter (1955) interpreted year-to-year population fluctuations of male prairie chickens during a period of 18 years on the study area near Hunt in Jasper County, Illinois, in relation to weather and climate. Field observations indicated that the period of the late stages of development of the reproductive cells during April, the period of egg-hatching in June, and the period when young prai- rie chickens were 4 to 8 weeks old were critical times in the reproductive cycle of prairie chickens. Many trials in which various weather records were used showed that the population level tended to re- spond to only two weather combinations : (1) rainfall and sunshine in April and (2) rainfall and temperature in June. Reproduction was most successful in sea- sons when April rainfall averaged 2—5 inches and when 48-64 per cent of the possible hours of sunshine were experi- enced. As the amounts of rainfall and sunshine varied from these optimum lim- its, reproductive success became progres- sively lower. Thus, the prairie chicken in Illinois has passed from the enormous populations of Civil War times to small, scattered colo- nies, in only 24 counties in 1957 (Yeatter 1957). It seems evident that the prairie chicken will soon become something of the past in Illinois unless a positive pro- gram of management such as that being proposed at the present time saves them. The Bobwhite Quail.—To the up- land bird hunter of Illinois, events which established the present boundaries of Illi- nois proved inadvertently provident, for they led to the inclusion of excellent quail range over the southern one-third of the state as well as what was to become fairly good pheasant range in the northern one- third. Illinois has the distinction of being the locale of the first systematic and extensive Illinois Natural History Survey Kullhtin Vol. 27, Art. 2 census of quail populations. These cen- suses were carried out during the period 1906-1909 by a strip-census technique (Forbes & Gross 1921, 1922, 1923). The increase in the density of quail popula- tions from north to south in Illinois was just as clearly marked in the findings of Forbes and Gross as it is today. Cen- suses during the summers of 1907 and 1909 revealed quail populations of 21 birds on 7,966.5 acres or 1 bird per 379.4 acres in northern Illinois, 53 birds on 5,823.9 acres or 1 bird per 109.9 acres in central Illinois, and 241 birds on 5,527.2 acres or 1 bird per 22.9 acres in southern Illinois (Forbes & Gross 1922:191, 197). A similar distribution of quail popula- tion densities was evident in the winter counts made during the period November 23, 1906, through February 21, 1907, when 180 quail were counted on 1,422.4 acres or 1 bird per 7.9 acres in southern Illinois and 54 on 4,956.0 acres or 1 bird per 91.8 acres in central and northern Illinois combined (Forbes & Gross 1923: 398, 400). The data for the counts made during the summers of 1907 and 1909 in- dicated an increase in quail populations for the state as a whole; 91 quail were counted on 7,693.6 acres, 1 bird per 84.5 acres, in 1907 and 224 birds on 11,624.1 acres, 1 bird per 51.9 acres, in 1909 (Forbes & Gross 1922:191). The densities of quail populations were recorded by general habitat category. In a special study, August 19 to September 15, 1908, in which orchards in the vicin- ity of Centralia and Olney received spe- cial attention, 774.5 acres of orchard and 594.5 acres in other habitat categories were censused ; 356 quail, 1 per 2.2 acres, were counted in the orchards and 32, 1 per 18.6 acres, outside the orchard area (Forbes & Gross 1921:5, 7). The im- portance of undisturbed grassland to the management of quail was suggested by Forbes & Gross (1921 :3) in their consid- eration of reasons for the high densities of quail in orchards when they concluded : "Evidently it is not the trees that attract it, but the cover afforded by an undis- turbed growth of grass and weeds be- tween the rows." Following these early censuses, there was a pause in the attention given quail by Natural History Survey researchers. The species did not become the subject of further study until the hunting season of 1936, when 141 quail were collected in an investigation of helminth parasites by Leigh (1940:186, 190), who concluded "that the quail of Illinois are not so heav- il\ infested with the diversity of helminth parasites as are the quail of the southeast- ern states." In the summer of 1938 a brief investigation of quail productivity in Calhoun County was carried out by Bell- rose (1940:10), who pointed out the im- portance of undisturbed grassland and concluded that the possibilities for provid- ing suitable nesting sites were greatest in apple orchards. In 1948 and 1949 the hatchability of the eggs of the bobwhite was compared with that of the eggs of pheasants after experimental exposure to temperatures of 62, 73, 78, 83, and 88 degrees F. for a period of 7 days to simulate preincubation exposure (Yeatter 1950:529). Yeatter (1950:530) concluded that "No signifi- cant reduction of hatchability of the bob- white eggs by high temperatures was evi- dent." Bobwhite quail were investigated from 1948 to 1954 on the Crab Orchard Na- tional Wildlife Refuge, in Williamson County, to determine what types of cover importantly influenced the abundance of quail (W. R. Hanson & R. J. Miller un- published MS). Quail abundance was significantly correlated with the amount of "edge" between cultivated fields and brushy pastures. Twenty-five linear miles of multiflora rose hedges, planted on an area of about 5.5 square miles, failed increase the numbers of quail. A most important step was made in the direction of a thoroughgoing investigation of the biology of the bobwhite quail in Illinois by the signing, on October 3, 1950, of a memorandum of understanding providing for co-operation between the Natural History Survey and Southern Illinois University. The observations and impressions (Scott & Klimstra 1954) ob- tained during a trip to quail management areas in southeastern United States for the purpose of co-ordinating this co-oper- ative program of research in Illinois with work elsewhere are believed noteworthy and cover the following subjects: hunting, management of habitat, and populations. I 4 December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 189 The co-operative research has involved nearly all phases of quail biology and an experimental habitat management pro- gram. Among the important contributions are two studies, one on the diet of quail (E. J. Larimer unpublished MS) and the other on quail populations on an unman- aged area. The second study has empha- sized once again the great importance of undisturbed grassland to quail productiv- ity and provided evidence of the amount and distribution of undisturbed grassland required to insure high quail productivity. The quail investigations have received outside financial assistance from Max McGraw, A. E. Staley, the North Ameri- can Wildlife Foundation, and the United Electric Coal Company; the coal com- pany also has made available extensive landholdings for experiments with habitat management. The Ring-Necked Pheasant.—Al- though the attempt to establish pheasants in Illinois had gotten under way in the 1890's, this state's biological research- ers were apparently unimpressed with it as a subject for investigation. In a dis- cussion of the animal resources of the state, Forbes (1912/^:48) advised that he had not had time to appraise efforts to im- prove "the composition of our fauna by the introduction of exotic species." Little or no attention was given pheasants until Leigh (1940:190) made his limited sur- vey of the parasites of pheasants collected during the hunting season in 1936. Dur- ing the summer of 1938 Bellrose (1940) made nesting studies and population esti- mates of pheasants in the southern part of Calhoun County, which is outside the recognized range of pheasants in Illinois. His observations (Bellrose 1940:9) ap- peared to indicate that this population had been maintained by repeated releases. Intensive investigations of the ring- necked pheasant did not get under way until April 1, 1946, when the Illinois De- partment of Conservation, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (now the U. S. Bu- reau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife), and the Illinois Natural History Survey entered into a co-operative project with Federal Aid funds. Dr. William B. Rob- ertson (1958) described the results of this co-operative research from inception to December 31, 1951, together with an account of the early history of pheasants in Illinois and an analysis of the factors limiting the pheasant range. His report constitutes the first com- prehensive account of pheasant research in Illinois. It is a valuable historical rec- ord of early introductions of pheasants and the development of hunting regula- tions. Curves based on an annual aver- age of over 300 dates of the hatching of eggs in nests were constructed and ana- lyzed for effects of photoperiod, weather, and farming operations. Observations made on the breeding behavior of marked birds released in Kendall County are be- lieved to be especially enlightening. Of particular note to students of populations and behavior was the observation that adult hens tended to become associated in the harems earlier than did juvenile hens. One of the earliest attempts to eliminate bias from evaluation of the worth of artificial stocking is reported upon in the paper. Robertson (1958: 129) concluded "that 35 to 50 per cent of the cock pheasants in summer releases in Illinois were bagged in the succeeding hunting season. The recovery rate for spring-released adult cocks, estimated by similar methods, was only 6.1 per cent." In Livingston County a release of 1,000 adult hens in September of 1948 resulted in a survival of about 50 per cent to May, 1949; released hens made up one-third of the hens on the area at the latter date. It was found that about 33 per cent of the broods seen the following summer were accompanied by released adult hens. In Kendall County the effect of a release of 500 adult hens in August and 1,000 ju- venile hens in November and December of 1949 was evident when it was seen that 25 per cent of the broods in 1950 were accompanied by released hens. There has been much speculation as to the reason pheasants have failed to be- come established in southern United States. During brood studies beginning in 1937, Yeatter (1950:529) observed that the hatchability of pheasant eggs fre- quently declined in late spring in east- central Illinois, which is on the southern edge of the pheasant range. This observa- tion suggested that high environmental temperatures at the time of egg-laying con- stituted a critical limiting factor. In 1948 190 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 and 1949 Yeatter (1950:529) compared the effect of temperature on paired lots of pheasant and quail eggs during a 7-day preincubation period and stated "that the hatchability of pheasant eggs was reduced by heat exposures, the reduction increas- ing with the higher temperatures." It was concluded that this vulnerability of pheasant eggs to high air temperatures constituted an important barrier to the southern distribution of pheasants, and it was suggested that pheasants in the south- ern Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions might be more tolerant of higher temperatures. Recent experiments by \'eatter lend strong support for this sur- mise (Yeatter unpublished MS). At the present time, the Illinois De- partment of Conservation, the Illinois Natural History Survey, and the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife are co-operating in a comprehensive and intensive investigation of the ring-necked pheasant. This research is being carried on by Dr. William R. Hanson, Dr. Fred- erick Greeley, Jack A. Ellis, and Ronald F. Labisky and involves study of range- limiting factors, the biology of pheasants within the established range, and experi- ments with the establishment of self- maintaining populations outside the ex- isting range. The Canada Goose.—Canada geese wintering on the islands and bars in the Mississippi River from Chester, Illinois, southward to Cairo must have found the fight for survival during the early part of the twentieth century severe indeed. The conservationists who, with the ob- jective of providing for pole-and-line fish- ing, arranged for the purchase of Horse- shoe Lake, an ancient oxbow of the Mis- sissippi River in Alexander County, by the Illinois Department of Conservation in 1927 were unaware of the part they would play in protecting this goose popu- lation and setting the stage for its future growth. About 1,900 Canada geese win- tered at Horseshoe Lake, now famous as the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge, dur- ing the first year. During the winter of 1957-58, about 225,000 Canada geese wintered in southern Illinois; these geese constitute a resource which has been esti- mated to contribute about $1,500,000 an- nually to the economy of southern Illinois. The refuge was soon surrounded by commercial shooting clubs, and a problem which attracted national interest was created. Leopold (1931:206) wrote: "The question of whether public refuges should be surrounded by public shooting grounds is frequently debated. Horse- i shoe Lake in Alexander County, Illinois, fl is a good place to study the question." Nevertheless, it was not until 1939, when about 40,000 (the same number estimated to have been killed in southern Illinois in 1957) geese were wintering at the refuge, that the annual kill and the need for knowledge on which to base intelligent control became alarming enough to at- tract researchers. In 1940 Arthur S. Hawkins initiated the Illinois Natural History Survey's long-time research program on Canada geese (Hanson & Smith 1950:70), and in 1941 geese were banded in the area for the first time by Hawkins and John M. Anderson. The initial effort was necessarily directed toward the develop- ment of efficient trapping and handling methods (Hanson 1949fl), and colored bands were tested on geese (Balham & Elder 1953) for the first time. The massing of so large a portion of the Canada geese of the flyway at Horse- shoe Lake created a unique opportunity for population research. Practical meth- ods for aging geese were worked out for the first time (Elder 1946; Hanson \949b, \953a), and these methods, which were used for measuring the composition of the population, formed the basis for all subsequent investigations. Elder's (1946:94-8) analysis of the weight of Canada geese by sex and age constituted the first analysis of its kind for geese. Hanson {\949b) developed techniques for placing Canada geese in three age categories (juvenile, yearling, and adult), thus making possible a considerable ad- vancement in the understanding of popu- lation mechanics in these birds. A definitive investigation of the biol- ogy of the Canada goose constitutes the long-range objective of the research on this species. Early findings were reported in a 144-page article (Hanson & Smith 1950). In this article the four flyway populations of Canada geese breeding in the general area of Hudson Bay were December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 191 revealed for the first time. The breed- ing range, migration routes, wintering grounds, and populations were discussed for each flyway population. Later, the South Atlantic Flyway population was treated in greater detail (Hanson & Grif- fith 1952). Observations on the relation of hunting losses to the age structure of the population wintering at the Horse- shoe Lake Game Refuge proved especially useful. The heavy kills of immature geese in the first half of the 1940's not only altered the age composition of the fiock but reduced the average longevity of these geese as shown by life survival indices, the first constructed for a species of waterfowl (Hanson & Smith 1950: 172-88). A recent 3-year study of the kills of Canada geese by the natives of the Hudson-James Bay region has estab- lished the location and size of these hunting losses with exactness (Hanson & Currie 1957). The Canada geese on the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge provide a unique op- portunity for study of behavior. The adult males of the largest families usually dominate males leading smaller families, and the social rank of the adult female is determined by that of her mate (Han- son 1953^). The conception "that the small goose flock is usually a family and that larger flocks are frequently multiples of families rather than mere aggregations of individuals . . ." also became apparent in observations made at the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge (Elder & Elder 1949:139). Diseases and parasites of Canada geese have been investigated in anticipation of epizootics among geese crowding into winter refuges. Blood protozoa (Levine & Hanson 1953) and microfilaria (Han- son, Levine, & Kantor 1956; Hanson 1956) have been survej^ed. The preva- lence of helminths in relation to age and the incidence of Leucocytozoon infection in immature geese are currently under study. Dr. Norman D. Levine (1953) made a valuable review of the literature on coccidia in the avian orders Galli- formes, Anseriformes, and Charadri- iformes. Coccidial infection was initially investigated in the flock at the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge by Levine (1952), and the coccidia of North American wild geese and swans were subsequently con- sidered by Hanson, Levine, & Ivens (1957). Host specificity of some species of coccidia was shown, and certain coc- cidia seemed restricted to one flyway popu- lation. Thus, coccidia appeared to offer promise as biological tracers for confirm- ing the distribution of flj'way populations indicated earlier by band recoveries (Hanson & Smith 1950:74-9). Ducks.—The early settler found mul- titudes of ducks in Illinois, not only along major streams, but also on the prairie sloughs. The vast numbers of ducks migrating through the bottomlands of the Illinois River valley made this valley a famous shooting ground as far back' as the 1880's. Indeed, in 1886, a group of businessmen from the Peoria area founded the Duck Island Preserve, probably the first hunting club in the state. Prior to 1900 the Illinois River and its connecting waters were in a near pristine condition. Sloughs and lakes con- tained an abundance of aquatic vegeta- tion (Kofoid 1903), which provided food for ducks; other food was furnished by pecan nuts and pin oak acorns which be- came available when high water flooded the low-lying, timbered bottoms. In January of 1900 the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal was opened, greatly in- creasing earlier diversion of water from Lake Michigan (Mulvihill «& Cornish 1930:53). This increased diversion re- sulted in water levels which were high enough to destroy extensive tracts of bot- tomland timber, including most of the pecans and pin oaks, in the Illinois River valley. During the early 1900's not only were the tracts of mast-producing trees, so im- portant as sources of food for mallards, lost to the ducks, but drainage destroyed many other important feeding grounds. Between 1900 and 1922, almost 200,000 of 400,000 acres in the flood plain of the Illinois River valley were leveed and drained ( Mulvihill" & Cornish 1930). The number of ducks in the lower flood plain area and shooting success declined when the mast-producing trees were lost. Then the practice of feeding waterfowl was begun at some duck hunting clubs in the early 1900's, was prohibited by state J 92 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 law from 1909 to 1911, became a wide- spread practice in the 1920's, and was prohibited bv federal rej^ulation in 1935 (Bellrose 1944:333). Finally, in recognition of the import- ance of waterfowl problems in Illinois, the Natural History Survey employed Arthur S. Hawkins and Frank C. Bell- rose to initiate a waterfowl research pro- gram in 1938. Up to that time, the study feet of baiting and live decoys on water- fowl and "estimated that 6,000,000 bushels of corn were fed by Illinois clubs during the 1933 season" (Bellrose 1944: 365). About 1938 initial attention was given to the wood duck, and in 1939 the first successful nesting box of rough-cut lum- ber was developed for this waterfowl spe- cies (Bellrose 1953^). By experimenta- Wildlife technicians preparing to fluoroscope a mallard drake at the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey field laboratory near Havana. The fluoroscope has facilitated studies involving crippling by hunters and lead poisoning. of waterfowl had received little attention in Illinois. In 1922, at duck hunting clubs near the mouth of the Sangamon River, Dr. Frederick C. Lincoln (1924) of the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey (now the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife) made the first large-scale bandings of ducks in North America. Francis M. Uhler of the same agency examined the food contents of duck giz- zards collected at the Duck Island Pre- serve in 1933 (Uhler unpublished re- port). Also, Uhler investigated the ef- i tion, a nest box entrance with a 4-inch horizontal measurement and a 3-inch vertical one was evolved in 1942 for the purpose of excluding raccoons which were preying upon the hens and their eggs. In 1950, a cylindrical, galvanized metal house was developed to exclude fox squir- rels, as well as raccoons, as predators on wood duck eggs. Because diversion of Lake Michigan water, drainage, and sediment decreased the duck foods in the Illinois River val- ley, several of the early investigations December, 1958 Scott: Wildlifh: Research 193 dealt with duck food plants. A study of the ecology of aquatic and marsh plants revealed the relationships of fluctuating water levels and turbidity to plant growth (Bellrose 1941). As a result of this study, two techniques for production of duck foods were recommended: (1) dewatering certain areas to encourage growth of moist-soil plants on exposed mud flats and (2) stabilizing water levels at depths of 2 to 3 feet to promote growth of aquatic plants. A study of the relative value of various plants as duck foods (Bellrose & Ander- son 1943:432-3) showed that moist-soil plants, such as rice cut-grass, millets, smartweeds, and nutgrasses, were much more valuable as duck foods than such aquatic and marsh plants as the pond- weeds, coontail, duck potato, and bur-reed. This study is believed to be the first in which the food habits of waterfowl were related to food availability. Later, a study by Low & Bellrose (1944:21) re- vealed that, among 28 waterfowl food plants, 6 of the 7 heaviest seed producers were emergent or moist-soil plants. Harry G. Anderson (unpublished MS) made a little known but substantial con- tribution to knowledge of the diet of ducks in Illinois when he analyzed and reported upon the contents of 4,977 giz- zards of ducks, representing 17 species, taken during the hunting seasons in 1938, 1939, and 1940. In a sense, Illinois is at the bottleneck of the Mississippi Flyway, the flyway with the largest population of ducks in North America. The resulting constric- tion of duck populations streaming into Illinois has provided a remarkably fine opportunity for study of flyway popula- tions. A comprehensive investigation of sex and age among ducks, covering 1939 through 1954, has been completed (Bell- rose, Haw^kins, Low, & Scott unpublished MS). From 1938 through 1958, periodic censuses have been taken of waterfowl populations in the Illinois River valley during fall, winter, and spring. In 1946 the census route was expanded to include the Mississippi River valley between Rock Island and Alton. These censuses have provided information on the effect of weather, water levels, food, and refuges upon waterfowl populations. A 5-year investigation of duck popula- tions and kill by hunters revealed that "altering the length of the season is one of the most expedient ways to regulate the duck kill" (Bellrose 1944:371). The most desirable dates for waterfowl hunt- ing seasons of various lengths in Illinois were determined (Bellrose 1944:371): For a 30-day season, November 1-30; for a 45-day season, October 22-December 5; for a 60-day season, October 10-December 8; for a 70-day season, October 1-December 9; for an 80-day sea':on, September 26-December 14; for a lOO-day season, September 20- December 28. A study of flvway refuges in Illinois (Bellrose' 1954:169) led to the conclu- sion that they were of value both to waterfowl and to hunters. Flyway refuges permitted waterfowl to rest along the flyway during the hunting season and placed more food within their reach, thereby conserving food resources on the wintering grounds. Waterfowl concen- trating on the refuges fed in fields and marshes within their daily cruising range. Thus, the refuges provided for holding local concentrations of ducks which could be shot when they flew out to feed. One of the most impressive duck flights in a decade swept through Illinois on November 2, 1955 (Bellrose 1957). It was determined that most of the birds in the flight left Canada on November 1 and moved so rapidly that some reached the Gulf of Mexico by the morning of November 3. This mass migration of waterfowl was evaluated by Bellrose (1957:24) as follows: Low pressure areas in Canada resulted in a southward flow of a mass of Continental Arctic air. The low temperatures resulting from Continental Arctic air triggered the flight from the Great Plains of Canada and the United States. Over 75,000 ducks, largely mallards, have been banded by Natural History Survey investigators at four widely sepa- rated localities in the state. Recoveries from some of the bandings were used in calculating the annual mortality of the mallard, black duck, and blue-winged teal (Bellrose & Chase 1950). Of the three species, the mallard proved to have the lowest mortality rate, and this "amounted to 55 out of 100 birds the 194 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 first >ear, or year of banding, 20 the sec- ond year, 11 the third year, and 6 the fourth year" (Bellrose & Chase 1950: 25). The bandinji data have also been used to delineate the migration routes of ducks passing through Illinois. As part of an effort to evaluate losses from crippling by hunters, several thou- sand ducks were trapped and fluoroscoped for shot pellets and broken bones. Among apparently healthy mallards, 36.4 per cent of the adult drakes, 18.0 per cent of the juvenile drakes, and 21,4 per cent of the hens were carrying one or more shot pellets imbedded in flesh or internal organs (Bellrose 1953/): 344). "Of the ducks . . . knocked down by hunters, as reported from various sections of the United States, 22.5 per cent were not retrieved" (Bellrose 1953/^:357). A spectacular die-off of mallard ducks near Grafton in January, 1947, prompted a joint investigation by the Natural History Survey and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service [now U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife]. A still greater die-off in the same area a year later attracted the attention of officials of the Western Cartridge Com- pany of East Alton. As an outgrowth of the situation, a co-operative investigation of lead poisoning in waterfowl was begun in July, 1948, by the Illinois Natural History Survey, the Western Cartridge Company, which is a Division of the Olin Industries, Inc. [now Olin Mathieson Chemical Corpora- tion], and the University of Illinois (Jordan & Bellrose 1951:3-4). Although Lubaloy shot and several lead alloys were tested as substitutes for commercial lead shot, none showed prom- ise in alleviating lead poisoning in water- fowl (Jordan & Bellrose 1950:167-8). It was estimated by Bellrose (1959) that each year approximately 4 per cent of the mallards of the Mississippi Flyway die from lead poisoning and that an addi- tional 1 per cent are afflicted with lead poisoning but are bagged by hunters. Al- though several other species of ducks in- gested larger numbers of shot per bird than did the mallard, the mallard suffered the highest rate of loss. Mortality from lead poisoning proved to be greater among ducks of the Mississippi Flyway than among those of other flyways. The use of iron shot as a substitute for lead shot was suggested as a possible means of con- tending with the lead poisoning problem { in the event drastic measures should be- come necessary. The means by which ducks find their way from their breeding to wintering grounds has been under investigation. Juvenile blue-winged teals were captured in migration in Illinois and held in cap- tivity until all the other blue-winged teals had migrated south of the United States (Bellrose 1958^). They were then banded and released. From recoveries of bands it was found that these juveniles, though unfamiliar with the route, flew southward along lines of flight similar to those of adults. Experiments with wild mallards demonstrated an ability to orient by celestial means (Bellrose \95Sb). The initial flight of mallards released in unfamiliar areas was northward on clear days or nights and in apparently random directions when skies were cloudy and sun and stars were obscured. The Mourning Dove.—The mourn- ing dove became the subject of an in- tensive research effort in the autumn of 1948 when it was seen that data were needed for an objective evaluation of claims that doves were being shot to ex- tinction by hunters in Illinois. The kill of doves in 1946 and 1947 was estimated from hunter reports to have been 200,000 in each year and about 300,000 in 1949 (Hanson & Kossack 1950:31). It was later determined that the kill was fairly M evenly distributed over the state (Mar- m quardt & Scott 1952). A program of dove banding, particu- larly of nestlings, was undertaken to de- termine points of origin of populations. Banding by amateur co-operators was en- couraged (Kossack 1955), and a tech- ^ nique employing elastic adhesive tape to secure bands on small nestlings was de- veloped (Kossack 1952). These aspects of the program were later adopted on a country-wide scale by the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. A portable candler was constructed for aging dove eggs in the field (Hanson 1954). Photographic and descriptive guides for aging incubated eggs and nestlings were prepared (Hanson & Kos- sack 1957a). The predominance of uni- sexual broods in mourning doves was found in early studies (Kossack & Han- son 1953). This subject is being treated De 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 195 in greater detail in a report, now in preparation, on sex ratios in doves. The effort to appraise mortality among mourning doves included study of their parasites and diseases (Kossack & Han- son 1954; Levine 1954; Hanson, Levine, Kossack, Kantor, & Stannard 1957). The paper by Hanson et al. describes the ectoparasites of doves and the arthropod fauna of their nests and summarizes the results of a 7-year study of the incidence of blood parasites in relation to ages of the doves and to regions of the state. The relation of age and the stages of wing molt to body weight, body fat, and migration habits was studied (Hanson & Kossack 1957/'). In contrast to interpre- tations of fat deposition in passerines, the analysis of data on fat deposition in mourning doves showed no consistent re- lationship to migratory habits, but instead proved to be related to the energy de- mands of the molt, regional farming prac- tices, soil fertility, and food habits. Doves that had fed almost exclusively on corn in good soil areas had formed relatively heavy amounts of fat ; most of those taken on poor, sandy soil where they fed largely on seeds of wild plants had formed little or no fat. After 10 years of study there is still no evidence that dove populations in Illi- nois are controlled by hunting. Popula- tion declines which have taken place are generally traceable to habitat destruction, disease, and adverse weather. Mammals To the wildlife historian the apparent lack of interest in mammals by early re- searchers of the Natural History Survey and its predecessors constitutes something of an enigma. Almost half a century slipped away before Forbes, upon receiv- ing a letter from C. A. Rowe of Jackson- ville in April of 1907 reporting the de- struction of seed corn by moles and en- closing the stomach contents of a mole containing about 65 per cent corn, was stimulated to authorize research on a problem in economic mammalogy (West 1910:14). The resulting studies (Wood \9\0b; West 1910) provided the first evi- dence that moles included corn, or any substantial amount of plant food, for that matter, in their diet. Fur-Bearing Mammals.—Forbes (1912^) included fur-bearing mammals among the animal resources of Illinois, but a program of consequence did not get under way until the 1930's, when evaluations of fur resources were under- taken. Neither technical nor popular interest was great enough to focus further attention of the state's research agencies on furbearers until, in 1930, David H. Thompson, E. C. Driver, and D. I. Rasmussen of the Illinois Natural History Survey staff borrowed trap- pers' reports . . . from the Illinois State De- partment of Conservation, to which law provided that each licensed trapper report his catch monthly during the trapping season (Mohr 1943fl:505). Brown & Yeager (1943:437) stated that some of the figures derived by Driver and Rasmussen were published in the Blue Book of the State of Illinois (Frison 1931, 1933). Following a limited survey of helminth parasites in fur-bearing animals collected during the hunting seasons of 1935—36 and 1936-37, Leigh (1940:191) stated that "A study of the literature oiifers lit- tle information on pathogenicity of the parasites found in the hosts studied." This shortcoming in our knowledge con- tinues to prevail. The desire to obtain a reasonably re- liable evaluation of the fur resource in Illinois eventually resulted in two im- pressive reports (Brown & Yeager 1943; Mohr 1943«). Brown & Yeager (1943) based their evaluation on an intensive oral survey covering the 1938-39 and 1939-40 trapping seasons, and Mohr (1943rt) made an analysis of fur-taker re- ports beginning with the 1929-30 trap- ping season and ending with that of 1939-40, excepting the 1931-32, 1932- 33, and 1933-34 seasons. The results obtained by the two methods were rela- tively similar. The average value of the annual fur catch was estimated to have been a little over $1,000,000, about 80 per cent of which represented returns for muskrats and minks. To aid in investiga- tion of fur-bearing animals, Yeager (1941«) assembled a bibliography of over 2,600 references on North American fur animals. Some valuable contributions on the relationship of muskrat populations to 96 Ii.MNOis Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 fluctuating water levels in bottomland lakes flanking the Illinois River have been made bv Natural Historv Survev re- searchers. Bellrose c Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Levine, Norman I). 1952. Eimrria tniit/nalahia and Tyzzeriti sp. (Proto/oa : Eimerii(lae) from the Canada goose. Cornell Vet. 42(2): 247-52. 1953. A review of the coccidia from the avian orders CJaliiformes, Anseri- formes and Charadriiformes, with descriptions of three new species. Am. Midland Nat. 49(3) :696-719. 1954. Leufocytozoon in the avian order Columbiformes, with a description of L. martlinuxi Mathis and Leger 1910 from the mourning dove. Jour. Pro- tozool. 1(2) : 140-3. Levine, Norman D.. and Harold C. Hanson 1953. Blood parasites of the Canada goose, Branta canadensis interior. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 17(2) :185-96 + 1 pi. Lill, Althea 1942. Natural History Survey Library, an- nual report. May 1, 1941-May 31, 1942. 6 pp. [Not published, but available in University of Illinois Library. Urbana.] Lincoln, Frederick C. 1924. Returns from banded birds, 1920 to 1923. U. S. Dept. Ag. Dept. Bui. 1268. 56 pp. Lord, Rexford D., Jr. 1958. The importance of juvenile breeding to the annual cottontail crop. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 23:269-75. Loucks, W. E. 1894. The life history and distribution of the prothonotarv warbler in Illinois. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 4(3):10-35. Low, Jessop B., and Frank C. Bellrose 1944. The seed and vegetative yield of waterfowl food plants in the Illinois River valley. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 8(l):7-22-f 1 pi. Lucas, Clarence R. 1939. Game fish management. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1938, 68:67-74. Malloch, J. R. 1915. The Chironomidae, or midges, of Illinois, with particular reference to the species occurring in the Illinois River. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 10(6):275-543 + 24 pis. 1917. A preliminary classification of Dip- tera, exclusive of pupipara, based upon larval and pupal characters, with keys to imagines in certain fam- ilies. Part I. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 12(3) :161-409+30 pis. 1918. The North American species of the genus Tipliia (Hymenoptera, Acu- leata) in the collection of the Illinois State Natural Historv Survey. HI. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(1): 1-24+1 pi. 1921. A new species of Erythroneura (Ty- phlocybidae, Hem.-Hom.). Brooklyn Ent. Soc. Bui., U.S., 16(1) :25. Mann, Roberts, Editor 1956. Policies of the Department of Con- servation: a report by the Conserva- tion Advisory Board. State of Illi- nois, Springfield. 36 pp. .Vlarkus, Henry C. 1932. The extent to which temperature changes influence food consumption in largemouth bass (Huro floridana) . Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1932, 62:202-10. Marquardt, William C, and Thomas G. Scott 1952. It's in the bag. III. Wildlife 7(2): 4-5. Marshall, Helen E. 1956. Grandest of enterprises: Illinois State Normal University, 1857-1957. Illi- nois State Normal University, Nor- mal. xiii + 355 pp. McAtee, W. L. 1917. Life and writings of Professor F. E. L. Beal. Auk 34(3) :243-64. 1924. Notes on a collection of Erythroneura and Hymctta (Eupterygidae) chief- ly from Illinois, with descriptions of new forms. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(2) :39-44. 1926. Notes on Homoptera from Illinois, with descriptions of new forms, chiefly Eupteryginae. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 16(3): 127-36. McDougall, Walter B. 1917. Some edible and poisonous mush- rooms. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. ll(7):413-555. Mead, S. B. 1846. Catalogue of plants growing spon- taneously in the state of Illinois, the principal part near Augusta, Han- cock County. Prairie Farmer 6(1): 35-6; 6(2):60; 6(3):93; 6(4):119- 22. Middleton, Nettie 1878. A new species of Aphis, of the genus Colopha. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(2):17. Miller, Robert B. 1923. First report on a forest survey of Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 14(8) :291-377 + 27 pis. Miller, Robert Barclay, and L. R. Tehon 1929. The native and naturalized trees of Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 18(l):l-339. Minier, George W. 1865. Cultivation of forest trees. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1861-1864, 5:779-80. 1868. On the cultivation of forest trees. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1865-1866, 6:279-82. Mohr, Carl O. 1943rt. Illinois furbearer distribution and income. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 22(7):50S-37. 1943/'. A comparison of North American Decemner, 1938 Literature Cited 229 small-mammal censuses. Am. Mid- land Nat. 29(3) :545-87. 1947«. Table of equivalent populations of North American small mammals. Am. Midland Nat. 37( 1 ): 223-49. 1947//. Major fluctuations of some Illinois mammal populations. III. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1947, 40:197-204. Moore, J. Percy 1901. The Hirudinea of Illinois. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 5( 12) :479-92 + 6 pis. MulvihiU, Wm. F., and L. D. Cornish 1930. Flood control report: an engineering study of the flood situation in the state of Illinois. Illinois Division of Waterways, Springfield. 402 pp. Mygatt, E. G. 1855. Bark louse of the apple tree. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1853-1854, 1: 514-7. Needham, James G., and Charles A. Hart 1903. The dragon-flies (Odonata) of Illi- nois, with descriptions of the im- mature stages. Part I. Petaluridae, Aeschnidae, and Gomphidae. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 6(1) : 1-94+1 pi. Nelson, E. W. 1876. A partial catalogue of the fishes of Illinois. III. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(1) :33-52. Nevin, James 1898. Artificial propagation versus a close season for the Great Lakes. Am. Fish. Soc. Proc. 27:17-25. O'Donnell, D. John 1935. Annotated list of the fishes of Illi- nois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 20(5) : 473-500. Ordway, O. 1857. Treatise on the advantages to be de- rived from the cultivation of flowers. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856-1857, 2:401-6. Pietsch, Lysle R. 195 V. White-tailed deer populations in Illi- nois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 34. 22 pp. 1957. The beaver in Illinois. III. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1956, 49:193-201. Pillsbury, William L., Corresponding Secre- tary 1892. Sixteenth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1892. 296 pp. 1894. Seventeenth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1894. 338 pp. 1896. Eighteenth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the LTniversity of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1896. 334 pp.+ 20 pis. 1898. Nineteenth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1898. 363 pp. 1901. Twentieth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1900. xix+334 pp. 1902. Twenty-first report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1902. xxii + 383 pp. 1906. Twenty-third report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- nois . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1906. xxv + 498 pp. Powers, Edwin B. 1918. A collecting bottle especially adapted for the quantitative and qualitative determination of dissolved gases, particularly very small quantities of oxygen. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 11(10) :577-8. Pratten, Henry 1855. Catalogue of the birds of Illinois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1853-1854, 1:598-609. Reynolds, John P., Corresponding Secretary 1861. Transactions of the Illinois State Ag- ricultural Society . . . Vol. IV, 1859- 1860. Springfield. 698 + iv pp. 1865. Transactions of the Illinois State Ag- ricultural Society . . . Vol. V, 1861- 1864. Springfield'. 992 + vii pp. [Reynolds, John P.] 1866. Address of the president. III. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1865, 10:7-10. Reynolds, John P., Corresponding Secretary 1868. Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society . . . Vol. VI, 1865-1866. Springfield. xxxv + 666 + XXIV pp. Richardson, Robert E. 1921. The small bottom and shore fauna of the middle and lower Illinois River and its connecting lakes, Chilli- cothe to Grafton: its valuation; its sources of food supply; and its rela- tion to the fishery. HI. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(15) :363-522. 1925fl. Changes in the small bottom fauna of Peoria Lake, 1920 to 1922. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(5) :327-88. 1925/a Illinois River bottom fauna in 1923. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(6) :391- 422. 1928. The bottom fauna of the middle Illi- nois River, 1913-1925: Its distribu- tion, abundance, valuation, and index value in the study of stream pollu- tion. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(12) : 387-475. Ridgway, Robert 1881. A revised catalogue of the birds ascertained to occur in Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1 (4) : 163-208. 1889. The ornithology of Illinois. Part 1. 230 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Descriptive catalogue. Vol. I. Spring- field, viii + 520 pp. 1895. The ornitholog>- of Illinois. Part 1. Descriptive catalogue. Vol. II. Springfield. 282 pp. 1901. The birds of north and middle Amer- ica: A descriptive catalogue of the higher groups, genera, species, and subspecies of birds known to occur in North America, from the Arctic lands to the Isthmus of Panama, the West Indies and other islands of the Car- ibbean Sea, and the Galapagos Ar- chipelago. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bui. 50. Part I. xxx+ 715 pp. Riley, Charles V. 1866. Entomological notes. Prairie Farmer, U.S., 17(25) :432. Riley, Charles V., Editor 1869 In memoriam. [Brief biography of -70. Benjamin D. Walsh.] Am. Ent. 2(3) : 65-8, Robertson, William B., Jr. 1958. Investigations of ring-necked pheas- ants in Illinois. III. Dept. Cons. Tech. Bul. 1. 138 pp. Roe, R., and Henry Schmidt 1897. Report of the Commissioners. 111. Fish Commrs. Rep. 1894-1896. 21 pp. Ross, Herbert H. 1937. Studies of Nearctic aquatic insects. I. Nearctic alder flies of the genus Sialis (Megaloptera, Sialidae). III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 21(3): 57-78, 98-9. 1944. The caddis flies, or Trichoptera, of Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 23(1) : 1-326. 1947. The mosquitoes of Illinois ( Diptera, Culicidae). III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 24 ( 1 ) : 1-96. 1956. Evolution and classification of the mountain caddisflies. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. 213 pp. Sargent, C. S. 1889. Portions of the journal of Andre Michaux, botanist, written during his travels in the United States and Can- ada, 1785 to 1796. With an intro- duction and explanatory notes. Am. Phil. Soc. Proc. 26(129) :1-145. Schacht, Frederick William 1897. The North American species of Diaptomus. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 5(3) : 97-223. 1898. The North American Centropagidae belonging to the genera Osphranti- cum, Limnocalanus, and Epischiira. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 5(4) :225-70. Schenck, Norman C, and J. C. Carter 1954. A fungistatic substance extracted from vitrain. Science, n.s., 119(3085) : 213-4. Scott, Thomas G. 1943. Some food coactions of the northern plains red fox. Ecol. Monog. 13(4): 427-79. 1947. Comparative analysis of red fox feeding trends on two central Iowa areas. Iowa Ag. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. 353:427-87. 1955. An evaluation of the red fox. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 35. 16 pp. 1957. Legal protection for hawks and owls in Illinois. III. Wildlife 12(2):[3-5]. Scott, Thomas G., and Willard D. Klimstra 1954. Report on a visit to quail manage- ment areas in southeastern United States. III. Wildlife 9(3):5-9. 1955. Red foxes and a declining prey pop- ulation. South. 111. Univ. Monog. Ser. 1. 123 pp. Sharpe, Richard W. 1897. Contribution to a knowledge of the North American fresh-water Ostra- coda included in the families Cythe- ridae and Cyprididae. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 4(15):414-84+10 pis. Shelford, Victor E. 1917. An experimental study of the effects of gas waste upon fishes, with espe- cial reference to stream pollution. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 11 (6) :381-412. 1918a. Equipment for maintaining a flow of oxygen-free water, and for control- ling gas content. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 11(9) :573-5. 1918^. Ways and means of measuring the dangers of pollution to fisheries. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 13(2): 25-42. Shelford, V. E., and W. P. Flint 1943. Populations of the chinch bug in the upper Mississippi valley from 1823 to 1940. Ecology 24(4) :435-55. Shelford, V. E., and R. E. Yeatter 1955. Some suggested relations of prairie chicken abundance to physical fac- tors, especially rainfall and solar radiation. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 19(2) : 233-42. Short, C. W. 1845. Observations on the botany of Illi- nois, more especially in reference to the autumnal flora of the prairies. West. Jour. Med. and Surg., n.s., 3:185-98. [Typed copy made at the University of Illinois from volume borrowed from library of St. Louis Medical Society.] Simmons, Marguerite 1952. Natural History Survey Library, an- nual report, July 1, 19Sl-June 30. 1952. 5 pp. [Not published, but available in University of Illinois Library, Urbana.] Smith, Frank 1895a. A preliminary account of two new Oligochaeta from Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 4(5) :138-48. 1895/'. Notes on species of North American Oligochaeta. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 4(8):285-97. 1896. Notes on species of North American December, 1958 Literature Cited 231 Oligochaeta. II. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 4(14) :396-413+4 pis. 1900a. Notes on species of North American Oligochaeta. III. List of species found in Illinois, and descriptions of Illinois Tubificidae. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 5(10) :441-58 + 2 pis. 1900^. Notes on species of North American Oligochaeta. IV. On a new lum- briculid genus from Florida, with additional notes on the nephridial and circulatory systems of Mesoporo- drilus asymmetriciis Smith. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 5( 11) :459-78 + l pi. 1901. State natural history surveys. Science, n.s., 13(328) :566-8. 1905. Notes on species of North American Oligochaeta. V. The systematic re- lationship of Lumbriculus {T/iino- drilus) inconstans (Smith). 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 7(5) : 45-51. 1915. Two new varieties of earthworms with a key to described species in Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 10(8) :551-9+ l pi. 1918. A new North American oligochaete of the genus Haplotaxis. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(3):43-8+l pi. 1928. An account of changes in the earth- worm fauna of Illinois and a de- scription of one new species. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(10) : 347-62. 1930. Records of spring migration of birds at Urbana, Illinois, 1903-1922. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 19(2) : 105-17. Smith, George W. 1927. History of Illinois and her people. Vol. 2. The American Historical Society, Inc., Chicago and New York. 496 pp. Smith, Lloyd L., Jr. 1949. Cooperative fishery survey of the upper Mississippi River. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1946, 76:279-82. Spooner, Charles S., Jr., and Lee E. Yeager 1942. Potential wildlife habitat on the Illi- nois prairie and some problems of restoration. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 6(1) :44-54. Stannard, Lewis J., Jr. 1957. The phylogeny and classification of the North American genera of the suborder Tubulifera (Thysanop- tera). III. Biol. Monog. 25. 200 pp. Starrett, William C, and Paul G. Barnickol 1955. Efficiency and selectivity of commer- cial fishing devices used on the Mis- sissippi River. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 26(4):325-66. Starrett, William C, and Perl L. McNeil, Jr. 1952. Sport fishing at Lake Chautauqua, near Havana, Illinois, in 1950 and 1951. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 30. 31 pp. Stessel, G. J., and Bert M. Zuckerman 1953. The perithecial stage of Chalara querc'tna in nature. Phytopathology 43(2):65-70. Stoddard, Herbert L. 1931. The bobwhite quail: its habits, pres- ervation and increase. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, New York, xxix+559 pp. Stout, G. L. 1930. New fungi found on the Indian corn plant in Illinois. Mycologia 22(6) : 271-87. Surber, Eugene W. 1931. Sodium arsenite for controlling sub- merged vegetation in fish ponds. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1931, 61:143-7. Swingle, H. S., and E. V. Smith 1939. Increasing fish production in ponds. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 4: 332-8. 1942. Management of farm fish ponds. Ala. Polytech. Inst. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bui. 254. 23 pp. Swingle, Roger U. 1942. Phloem necrosis: a virus disease of the American elm. U. S. Dept. Ag. Circ. 640. 8 pp. Tehon, Leo Roy 1924. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- nois. Mycologia 16(4) :13S-42. 1925. Three alfalfa diseases new to Illi- nois. 111. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1925, 18:203-5. 1928. Methods and principles for interpret- ing the phenology of crop pests. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(9) :321-46. 1933. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- nois. Mycologia 25 (4) :237-S7. 1935. A monographic rearrangement of Lophodermiiim. 111. Biol. Monog. 13(4) :231-381. 1937-benzoquinones. Science, n.s., 114(2973) :663-4. Tehon, Leo R., Translator 1952fl. True nature, causes, and sad effects 232 Illinois Natural History Survf.y Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 of the rust, the bunt, the smut, and other maladies of wheat, and of oats in the field. Part V of Aiimurgia or Means of rendering less serious the dearths: proposed for the relief of the poor. Translated from the Ital- ian of Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti. Phytopathological Classics 9. xxiv + 139 pp. Tehon, Leo Roy 1952/*. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi. Part 3. Fluori- nated anisoles, benzyls, benzoic acids, biphenyls, and toluenes. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(3). 46 pp. Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patter- son Air Force Base, Ohio. 1954. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi. Part 4. Fluori- nated phenols, benzyl alcohol, and biphenyls. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(4). 38 pp. Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Tehon, L. R., and G. H. Boewe 1939. Charcoal rot in Illinois. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. 23(19) :312-21. Tehon, L. R., and Eve Daniels 1925. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- nois—II. Mycologia 17(6) :240-9. Tehon, L. R., and E. Y. Daniels 1927. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- nois—Ill. Mycologia 19(3) : 110-29. Tehon, Leo R., and Hubert A. Harris 1941. A chytrid inhabiting xylem in the Moline elm. Mycologia 33(1) :118- 29. Tehon, Leo R., and W. R. Jacks 1933. Smooth patch, a bark lesion of white oak. Jour. Forestry 31(4):430-3. Tehon, L. R., C. C. Morrill, and Robert Graham 1946. Illinois plants poisonous to livestock. III. Ag. Exp. Sta. Circ. 599. 103 pp. Tehon, L. R., and G. L. Stout 1928. An ascomycetous leaf spot of cow- pea. Phytopathology 18(8) :701-4. 1929. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- nois— IV. Mycologia 21 (4) : 180-96. Tehon, Leo R., and Sylvia Wolcyrz 1952rt. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi. Part 1. Fluori- nated quinones and phenols. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(1). 62 pp. Wright Air Development Center, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. 1952/;. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi. Part 2. Fluori- nated phenols, nitrobenzenes, and anilines. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(2). 58 pp. Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Telford, Clarence J. 1923. CJrowth studies of certain bottom- land species in southern Illinois. III. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1923, 16:210-3. 1926. Third report on a forest survey of Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 16(1) :1-102. Thomas, Cyrus 1857. Natural history of Illinois. 111. Teacher 3(12) :424-5. 1859a. The study of natural history. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:665- 70. 1859/a Orthoptera of Illinois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:682-5. 1861fl. Notes on Illinois insects. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:631-49. 1861/^. Mammals of Illinois. Catalogue. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:651- 61. 1861r. Plan for a natural history survey. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:663-5. 1865. Insects injurious to vegetation in Illi- nois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1861- 1864, 5:401-68. 1876. A list of the Orthoptera of Illinois. III. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bui. l(l):59-69. [1878.] A list of the species of the tribe Aphidini, family Aphidae, found in the United States, which have been heretofore named, with descriptions of some new species. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(2):3-16. 1880. Temperature and rainfall as affect- ing the chinch bug— periodicity in its increase. Am. Ent., n.s., l(10):240-2. 1881. Tenth report of the State Entomolo- gist ... on the noxious and beneficial insects of the state of Illinois. III. Ent. Rep. 10. 238+ vi pp. Thompson, David H. 1925. Some observations on the oxygen re- quirements of fishes in the Illinois River. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(7) :423-37. 1933rt. The migration of Illinois fishes. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 1. 25 pp. Mimeo. 1933/-'. The finding of very joung Polyodon. Copeia 1933(1 ) :31-3. 1941. The fish production of inland streams and lakes. Pp. 206-17 in A sympo- sium on hydrobiology. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, ix + 405 pp. Thompson, David H., and George W. Bennett 1939rt. Lake management reports. 2. Fork Lake near Mount Zion, Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 9. 14 pp. 1939/*. Lake management reports. 3. Lincoln Lakes near Lincoln, Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 11. 24 pp. 1939r. Fish management in small artificial De 1958 Literature Cited 233 lakes. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 4:311-7. Thompson, David H., and Francis D. Hunt 1930. The fishes of Champaign County: a study of the distribution and abun- dance of fishes in small streams. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 19(1):5-101. Thomson, G. H. 1913. Protection of the undersized fish. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1912, 42:171-3. Trumbower, John A. 1934. Control of elm leaf spots in nurseries. Phytopathoiog>' 24(1): 62-73. Turner, J. B. 1859. Microscopic insects. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:644-50. UlflFers, H. A. 1855. Mollusca of southern Illinois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1853-1854, 1:610-2. Underwood, Lucien M. 1886. List of the described species of fresh water Crustacea from America, north of Mexico. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 2(5):323-86. Van Cleave, Harley J. 1919. Acanthocephala from the Illinois River, with descriptions of species and a synopsis of the family Neoechi- norhvnchidae. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. '13(8) :225-57 + 7 pis. 1930. Stephen Alfred Forbes as a scientist. Pp. 24-8 in Memorial of the funeral services for Stephen Alfred Forbes, Ph.D., LLD. University of Illinois Press, [Urbana]. 40 pp. 1947. A history of the Department of Zool- ogy in the University of Illinois. Bios 18(2) :75-97. Vasey, George 1859. Mosses of Illinois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:676-9. 1861. Additions to the flora of Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Soc. Trans. 2nd ed. Ser. 1, 1:139-43. Vasey, George, Editor of Botanical Depart- ment 1870rt. New plants. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2(9):288. 1870/'. Maritime plants of the Great Lakes and the interior. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2(ll):342-4. Vestal, Arthur G. 1913. An associational study of Illinois sand prairie. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 10(1) :l-96+ 5 pis. Vohs, Paul A., Jr. 1957. A combination salad for wildlife. III. Wildlife 13(1) :3-5. Walsh, Benj. D. 1861. Insects injurious to vegetation in Illi- nois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859- 1860, 4:335-72. 1863. List of the Pseudoneuroptera of Illi- nois contained in the cabinet of the writer, with descriptions of over forty new species, and notes on their structural affinities. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. for 1862:361-402. 1864rt. Notes by Benj. D. Walsh. Ent. Soc. Phila. Proc. for 1863-1864, 2(3):182- 272. 1864Z'. On the pupa of the ephemerinous genus Bactisca Walsh. Ent. Soc. Phila. Proc. 3:200-6. [Walsh, Benj. D.] 1866. The new potato bug. Pract. Ent. 2(2):13-6. Walsh, Benj. D. 1868fl. An address to Southern Illinois Fruit Growers' Association. III. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1867, n.s., 1:143-4. 1868Z'. First annual report of the Acting State Entomologist. Append, to III. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1867. 103 pp. + 2 pis. Walsh, Benj. D., and Charles V. Riley, Editors 1868«. Salutatory. Am. Ent. l(l):l-3. 1868^. Hogs vs. bugs. Am. Ent. l(l):3-6. 1869. The asparagus beetle. Am. Ent. 1(6) :114-5. Walters, C. S., B. M. Zuckerman, and W. L. Meek 1955. The effect of oak wilt on the cold- soak treatability of oak fence posts. Jour. Forestry 53(5) :356-8. Wandell, Willet N. 1948. Agricultural and wildlife values of habitat improvement plantings on the Illinois black prairie. N. Am. Wild- life Conf. Trans. 13:256-69. Ward, Henry B. 1930. Stephen Alfred Forbes—a tribute. Science, n.s., 71 ( 1841) :378-81. Weed, Clarence M. 1890. A descriptive catalogue of the Pha- langiinae of Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 3(5):79-97. 1891. Sixth contribution to a knowledge of the life history of certain little-known Aphididae. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 3(12) :207-14. Weed, Clarence M., and Ned Dearborn 1903. Birds in their relations to man. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, viii + 380 pp. Weiss, Harry B. 1936. The pioneer century of American entomology. Published by the au- thor. New Brunswick, N. J. 320 pp. Mimeo. Wells, Morris M. 1918. The reactions and resistance of fishes to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. HI. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 11(8) :557-71. West, James A. 1910. A study of the food of moles in Illi- nois. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 9(2): 14-22. 2.U Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Wickliff, E. L. 1933. A summary of fisheries research. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1933, 63:257-64. Wiebe, A. H. 1929. The effects of various fertilizers on plankton production. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1929, 59:94-101. Wilber, C. D., Secretary 1861a. Transactions of the Illinois Natural History Society for the year 1860. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:533- 675. Wilber, C. D. 1861Z'. Mastodon giganteus. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:587-92. 1861f. Museum of the Illinois State Natural History Society. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans. for 1859-1860, 4:673-5. Wilber, C. D., Secretary \%(>\d. Transactions of the Illinois Natural History Society. 2nd ed.. Vol. I, Ser. I. Springfield. 194 pp. Wolf, John, and Elihu Hall 1878. A list of the mosses, liverworts and lichens of Illinois. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(2): 18-35. Wood, Frank Elmer 1910a. A study of the mammals of Cham- paign County, Illinois. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 8(5) : 501-613 + 3 pis. 1910^. On the common shrew-mole, Scalo- pus aquattcus machrinus (Rafi- nesque), in Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 9(1):1-13. Woodworth, Charles W. 1887. Jassidae of Illinois. Part I. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 3(2):9-37+ 3 pis. Yeager, Lee E. 1941a. A contribution toward a bibliogra- phy on North American fur animals. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 16. 209 pp. Mimeo. 1941^. Wildlife management on coal stripped land. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 5:348-53. 1942. Coal-stripped land as a mammal habitat, with special reference to fur animals. Am. Midland Nat. 27(3): 613-3 5. 1943. Fur production and management of Illinois drainage system. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 8:294-301. 1945. Capacity of Illinois land types to produce furs. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 10:79-86. 1949. Effect of permanent flooding in a river-bottom timber area. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 25(2) :33-65. Yeager, Lee E., and Harry G. Anderson 1944. Some effects of flooding and water- fowl concentration on mammals of a refuge area in central Illinois. Am. Midland Nat. 31(1) :159-78. Yeager, Lee E., and William H. Elder 1945. Pre- and post-hunting season foods of raccoons on an Illinois goose ref- uge. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 9(l):48-56. Yeager, Lee E., and R. G. Rennels 1943. Fur yield and autumn foods of the raccoon in Illinois River bottom lands. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 7(1) :45- 60. Yeatter, Ralph E. 1943. The prairie chicken in Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 22(4) : 377-416. 1948. Bird dogs in sport and conservation. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ. 42. 64 pp. 1950. Effects of different preincubation temperatures on the hatchability of pheasant eggs. Science, n.s., 112 (2914) : 529-30. 1957. Is the prairie chicken doomed? 111. Wildlife 12(2) :8-9. Yeatter, Ralph E., and David H. Thompson 1952. Tularemia, weather, and rabbit pop- ulations. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 25(6) :35 1-82. Zuckerman, Bert M., and E. A. Curl 1953. Proof that the fungus pads on oak wilt-killed trees are a growth form of Endoconidiophora fagacearum. Phytopathology 43(5):287-8. Zuckerman, Bert M., and P. F. Hoffman 1953. C" as a tool for the study of the oak wilt fungus. Phytopathology 43(9): 490. Some Recent Publications of tfie Illinois Natural History Survey BULLETIN Volume 26, Article 1.—The Mayflies, or Ephem- eroptera, of Illinois. By B. D. Burks. May, 1953. 216 pp., frontis., 395 figs., bibliog. $1.25. Volume 26, Article 2.—Largemouth Bass in Ridge Lake, Coles County, Illinois. By George W. Bennett. November, 1954. 60 pp., frontis., 15 figs., bibliog. Volume 26, Article 3.—Natural Availabili^ of Oak Wilt Inocula. By £. A. Curl. June, 1955. 48 pp., frontis., 22 figs., bibliog. Volume 26, Article 4.—Efficiency and Selec- tivity of Commercial Fishing Devices Used on the Mississippi River. By William C. Starrett and Paul G. Barnickol. July, 1953. 42 pp., frontis., 17 figs., bibliog. Volume 26, Article 5,—Hill Prairies of Illi- nois. By Robert A. Evers. August, 1955. 80 pp., frontis., 28 figs., bibliog. Volume 26, Article 6.—Fusarium Disease of Gladiolus: Its Causal Agent. By Junius L. Forsberg. September, 1955. 57 pp., frontis., 22 figs., bibliog. Volume 27, Article 1.—Ecological Life History of the VVarmouth. By R. Weldon Lariraore. August, 1957. 84 pp., color frontis., 27 figs., bibliog. CIRCULAR 32.—Pleasure With Plants. By L. R. Tehon. July, 1958. (Fifth printing, with revisions.) 32 pp., frontis., 8 figs. 42.—Bird Dogs in Sport and Conservation. By Ralph E. Yeatter. December, 1948. 64 pp., frontis., 40 figs. 45.—Housing for Wood Ducks. By Frank C. Bellrose. February, 1955. (Second print- ing, with revisions.) 47 pp., illus., bibliog. 46.—Illinois Trees: Their Diseases. By J. Cedric Carter. August, 1955. 99 pp., frontis., 93 figs. Single copies free to Illi* nois residents; 25 cents to others. 47.—Illinois Trees and Shrubs: Their Insect Enemies. By L. L. English. May, 1958. 92 pp., frontis., 59 figs., index. Single copies free to Illinois residents; 25 cents to others. BIOLOGICAL NOTES 29.—An Inventory of the Fishes of Jordan Creek, Vermilion County, Illinois. By R. Weldon Larimore, Quentin H. Pickering and Leonard Durham. August, 1952. 26 pp., 25 figs., bibliog. 30.-—Sport Fishing at Lake Chautauqua, near Havana, Illinois, in 1950 and 1951. By William C. Starrett and Perl L. McNeil, Jr. August, 1952. 31 pp., 22 figs., bibliog. 31.—Some Conservation Problems of the Great Lakes. By Harlow B. Mills. Octo- ber, 1953. (Second printing.) 14 pp., illus., bibliog. 33.—A New Technique in CoDtrol of the House Fly. By Willis N. Bruce. Decem- ber, 1953. 8 pp., 5 figs. 34.—White-Tailed Deer Populations in Illi- nois. By Lysle R. Pietsch. June, 1954. 24 pp., 17 figs., bibliog. 35.—An Evaluation of the Red Fox. By Thomas G. Scott. July, 1955. (Second printing.) 16 pp., illus., bibliog. 36.—A Spectacular Waterfowl Migration Through Central North America. By Frank C. Bellrose. April, 1957. 24 pp., 9 figs. 37.—Continuous Mass Rearing of the Euro- pean Corn Borer in the Laboratory. By Paul Surany. May, 1957. 12 pp., 7 figs., bibliog. 38.—Ectoparasites of the Cottontail Rabbit in Lee County, Northern Illinois. By Lewis J. Stannard, Jr., and Lysle R. Pietsch. June, 1958. 20 pp., 14 figs., bibliog. 39.—A Guide to Aging of Pheasant Embrjros. By Ronald F. Labisky and James F. Opsabl. 4 pp., illus., bibliog. MANUAL 3.—Fieldbook of Native Illinois Shrubs. By Leo R. Tehon. December, 1942. 307 pp., 4 color pis., 72 figs., glossary, index. $1.75. 4.—Fieldbook of Illinois Mammals. By Donald F. Hoffmeister and Carl O. Mohr. June, 1957. 233 pp., color frontis., 119 figs., glos- sary, bibliog., index. $1.75. LUt of availabt* puhlieationM ntailmd on r»qttm*t. Single copies of Illinois Natural History Survey publications for which no price is listed will be furnished free of charge to individuals until the supply becomes low, after which a nominal charge may be made. More than one copy of any free publication may be obtained without cost by educational institutions and official organizations within the State of Illinois; prices to others on quantity orders of these publications will be quoted upon request. Address orders and correspondence to the Chief Illinois Natural History Survey Natural Resources Building, Urbana, Illinois Pa)rraent in the form of money order or check made out to State Treasurer of Illinois, Springfield, Illinois, must accompany requests for those publications on which a price is set.