Bulletin


STATE OF ILLINOIS
DwiGHT H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION
Frank G. Thompson, Director

NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION
Theodore H. Prison, Chief

Volume 22 BULLETIN Article 6

Survey of the Illinois

Fur Resource

LOUIS G. BROWN
LEE E. YEAGER

Printed by Atitliority of the State of Illinois

URBANA, ILLINOIS

September 1943



STATE OF ILLINOIS
DwiGHT H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION
Frank G. Thompson, Director

BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION
Frank G. Thompson, Chairman

William Trelease, D.Sc, LL.D., Biology Arthur Cutts Willard, D.Eng., LL.D.,

Ezra J. Kraus, Ph.D., D.Sc, Forestry President of the University of Illinois

L. R. HowsoN, B.S.C.E., C.E., Engineering Edson S. Bastin, Ph.D., Geology

Roger Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry

NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION
Urbana, Illinois

Scientific and Technical Staff

Theodore H. Prison, Ph.D., Chief

Section of Economic Entomology

W. P. Flint, B.S., Chief Entomologist

C. C. CoMPTON, Ph.D., Associate Entomol-
ogist

M. D. Farrar, Ph.D., Research Entomolo-

gist

J. H. Bigger, M.S., Associate Entomologist

S. C. Chandler, B.S., Southern Field Ento-

mologist

James W. Apple, M.S., Northern Field

Entomologist

B. G. Berger, M.A., Assistant Entomologist

H. B. Petty, Jr., B.A., Assistant in Ento-

mology Extension

C. J. Weinman, Ph.D., Special Research

Assistant in Entomology

John M. Wright, B.A., Junior Entomolo-
gist {U. S. B. E. P. Q. and Commodity
Credit Corporation, cooperating)

Section of Insect Survey

H. H. Ross, Ph.D., Systematic Entomologist

Carl O. Mohr, Ph.D., Associate Entomolo-
gist, Artist (on leave)

B. D. Burks, Ph.D., Assistant Entomologist
(on leave)

Milton W. Sanderson, Ph.D., Assistant

Entomologist

Kathryn M. Sommerman, M.S., Artist,

Entomological Assistant

Section of Forestry

James E. Davis, M.F., Extension Forester

Lee E. Yeager, Ph.D., Forester

Section of Aquatic Biology

David H. Thompson, Ph.D., Zoologist

George W^. Bennett, Ph.D., Limnologist

D. F. Hansen, Ph.D., Assistant Zoologist

Section of Game Research and Management

R. E. Yeatter, Ph.D., Game Specialist

Section of Wildlife Experimental Areas

Arthur S. Hawkins, M.S., Game Tech-
nician (on leave)

F. C. Bellrose, Jr., B.S., Assistant Game
Technician

J. B. Low, Ph.D., Assistant Game Tech-
nician

W. H. Elder, Ph.D., Assistant Game Tech-

nician

Cooperative Wildlife Restoration Program

(State Department of Conservation and U.

S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Otto W. Tiemeier, M.A., Junior Biologist

Section of Applied Botany and Plant

Pathology

L. R. Tehon, Ph.D., Botanist

D. B. Creager, Ph.D., Research Pathologist

J. C. Carter, Ph.D., Assistant Botanist

G. H. BoEWE, M.S., Field Botanist

Section of Publications

James S. Avars, B.S., Technical Editor

Consultant: Herpetology, Howard K. Gloyd, Ph.D., Director of the Museum, Chicago

Academy of Sciences

These papers are contributionsfrom the Section of Forestry, the Cooperative Wildlife Restoration
Program, and the Section of Insect Survey.

(46266—3M—6-43)



PREF A C

E

THE two studies presented here, Survey

of the Illinois Fur Resource and Illi-

nois Furbearer Distribution and Income,

represent sincere attempts to obtain by dif-

ferent methods a reasonably reliable measure

of the valuable fur resource of Illinois.

Each study has certain inherent strengths

and weaknesses. The oral survey, basis for

the Brown & Yeager report, was intensive

in its technique. The analysis of fur-takers'

reports, basis for the Mohr report, was
extensive. The Brown & Yeager data rep-

resent but 1.7 per cent of the area of the

state, but within the strips actually surveyed

were included all trappers, licensed and un-

licensed, those who reported catches and

those who did not. The Mohr figures repre-

sent every county in the state but they are

selective in that, of necessity, they take into

account only those trappers who reported

their catches; that is, 10 to 23 per cent of

the total number of licensed trappers. The
Brown & Yeager data are based on oral

answers given 15 days to over 14 months

after the end of the trapping season covered

by the questionnaire; no penalty for false

answers was provided. The Mohr data are

based on written answers given not later

than the fifth day of the month next succeed-

ing the month for which each report was

made ;
persons making false answers could

be prosecuted under the law. The Brown
«Sc Yeager report covers two trapping sea-

sons; the Mohr report covers eight.

As must be expected in reports based on

sampling, particularly sampling in which the

human element plays an important part,

calculated figures in these two reports do

not coincide. However, the figures do not

vary abnormally and, in nearly every in-

stance of identical subject matter, a close

correlation or parallel relationship exists

between the two sets of figures.

The closeness of the corresponding figures

and the degree of correlation between the

two sets of figures indicate that, despite the

errors that may have resulted from small

or faulty sampling and despite possible

errors resulting from inexact memory of

persons questioned, the two reports give for

the Illinois fur resource a picture so nearly

accurate that it can serve as a useful guide

in many matters pertaining to the fur-bear-

ing animals of the state.

The two reports agree in placing the value

of the annual fur take of Illinois at over

$1,000,000, and they agree on the relative

values of the various fur-bearing animals.

The species that can profitably be fostered

and those that cannot is clearly indicated

by a study of the two reports.

The fur income of the state is still de-

rived, as in pioneer years, from cropping a

natural resource as it occurs in the wild,

with very little conscious management by

man. Much of the fur harvest is carried on

by low income groups at a time of year in

which other sources of income are scarce.

Both of these facts should be considered

in relation to the conservation or expansion

of the Illinois fur industry and to the fram-

ing of laws regulating it.

The present reports are an outgrowth of

earlier and less comprehensive studies by the

Natural History Survey and its predeces-

sors, some published (Wood 1910, Forbes

1912) and some not (Driver 1930, Ras-

mussen 1931). The fine cooperation of the

State Department of Conservation, Spring-

field, 111., has made possible the present more
conclusive reports; for the Brown & Yeager

study, this department made available spe-

cial research investigation funds adminis-

tered in cooperation with the U. S. Fish and

Wildlife Service under terms of the Federal

Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, commonly
known as the Pittman-Robertson Act, and

for the Mohr report it provided essential

records and information. The Natural His-

tory Survey is most appreciative of this

assistance.

Mr. James S. Ayars, Technical Editor of

the Survey, has contributed much to the

accurate presentation and unification of the

data of the two separate manuscripts in-

volved and their adaptation to the general

Survey format. His services in this connec-

tion are appreciated by all concerned.

T. H. Frison, Chief

Illinois Natural History Survey



List of Illinois Mammals Discussed in Articles 6 and 7

Common Name Scientific Name

Badger Taxidea taxus (Schreber)

Beaver Castor canadensis Kuhl

*Black bear Euarctos americanus (Pallas)

Bobcat, wildcat, bay lynx Lynx rttftis (Schreber)

Coyote, brush wolf, prairie wolf Canis latrans Say

Dog, wild dog Canis fainiliaris Linnaeus

Domestic cat Felis domesticus Linnaeus

*Fisher Maries pennanti (Erxleben)

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Schreber)

Least weasel Alustela rixosa (Bangs)

Long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata (Lichtenstein)

*Lynx, Canada lynx Lynx canadensis Kerr

*Marten Maries americana (Turton)

Mink Musiela vison Schreber

Muskrat Ondatra zibethica (Linnaeus)

Norway rat, house rat Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben)

Opossum, possum Didelphis virginiana Kerr

Otter Lutra canadensis (Schreber)

*Puma, panther, mountain lion Felis concolor True

Raccoon, coon Procyon lotor (Linnaeus)

Red fox Vulpes fulva ( Desmarest)

Skunk Mephitis mephitis (Schreber)

*+Spotted skunk, civet Spilogale ptitorius (Linnaeus)

•Not now present in Illinois.

tPast occurrence in Illinois doubtful.



CONTENTS

Page

Project Administration 436

Acknowledgments 436

Review of Literature 436

Project Objectives 437

Survey Procedure 438

Fur Survey Regions 439

Northwest Hills 439

Western Prairie 441

River Bluffs and Bottoms 441

Northwestern Sand Prairie 441

Glacial Lakes 443

Black Prairie 443

Central Sand Prairie 444

Gray Prairie 444

Sampling Methods 446

The Fur-Taker 449

Illinois Fur Laws 451

Illinois Fur Animals 452

Muskrat
'.

453

Opossum 459

Raccoon 462

Skunk 469

Mink 472

Long-Tailed Weasel 478

Red Fox 481

Gray Fox 485

Badger 487

Coyote 488

Otter 489

Beaver 489

Bobcat 490

House Cat 490

Total Yield and Value 491

Illinois Fur Trade 496

Quality 496

Handling 498

Selling 500

Summary 500

Literature Cited 503



wi^iiWD'Wii"
!

M'

Muskrat houses in three Illinois

habitats: Turner Lake, Chain-o'-

Lakes State Park, Lake County,

Glacial Lakes Region (top) ; Lake
Chautauqua, Chautauqua National

Wildlife Refuge, Mason County,

Central Sand Prairie Region (mid-

dle) ; Waltersburg, Pope County,

Shawnee National Forest, River

Bluffs and Bottoms Region (bot-

tom). Used principally for con-

struction were hardstem bulrush

in the Lake County lodge, marsh
smartweed in the Mason County

lodge and cattail in the Pope
County lodge. In all three cases,

building material was taken from
the immediately surrounding area.

The muskrat, most important Illi-

nois fur animal, shows considerable

adaptability to environment.



Survey of the Illinois

Fur Resource*

LOUIS G, BROWN
LEE E. YEAGER

THE fur trade played an important

part during the era of exploration

and settlement in Illinois. Kaskas-

kia, the site of which is near Chester, 111.,

and Cahokia, now a part of the St. Louis,

Mo., metropolitan area, were important

posts during the Revolutionary War pe-

riod, when considerable quantities of Illi-

nois fur were transported down the Mis-

sissippi River to New Orleans. Because

of its strategic central location and prox-

imity to the more important water routes.

Fort Dearborn, located where part of

Chicago now stands, early in the nine-

teenth century became a leading fur center

of the vast Great Lakes-Mississippi valley

region. The Illinois River became and

long remained the principal avenue of the

fur trade in the state, and most of the

traffic was consigned to Chicago, Detroit

and other Great Lakes centers. By the

close of the Civil War, St. Louis dom-

inated the fur trade in the Central States,

and from that time until the present this

city has received a large portion of Illinois

furs. Many Illinois cities, including Pe-

oria, La Salle, Kankakee, Danville and

Cairo, had their beginnings as local posts

in the fur trade.

The state's remarkably fertile soil and

diversity in its prairie and forest types

made for quality and variety in Illinois

furs. Although the pelts of only a few

fur species were important in the early

trade, the Illinois fur animal fauna ranged

from the lowly southern opossum to the

valuable wilderness-inhabiting marten and

fisher. The beaver, so important as to

serve as a basis of exchange during the era

of exploration in North America, did not

occur in the same great abundance in the

prairie state of Illinois as in the heavily

forested regions farther north.

•Illinois Federal Aid Publication No. 3.

[435]

As settlement progressed in Illinois,

most of the species intolerant of the

changes effected by increasing human ac-

tivities either retreated northward into

the forests or were otherwise extirpated

from the state ; a few persisted in such

small numbers that they are now of no
commercial consideration. The long list

of intolerant species includes the marten,

fisher, timber wolf, panther, black bear,

lynx, otter, beaver and bobcat. Of these,

the marten and fisher were the first to go;

the beaver has been reintroduced ; and the

otter and the bobcat may still occur in

extremely limited numbers.

Common or farmland furbearers, such

as muskrat, mink, raccoon, skunk, foxes,

weasel and opossum, still persist through-

out all or most of the state, though some
in greatly reduced populations. The badg-

er now has a very restricted range in Illi-

nois, and the coyote, said to have been

common during the buffalo or bison era,

was later nearly exterminated, but is now
reappearing in greater numbers. It is

from the farmland species that the annual

fur harvest has continued without inter-

ruption through the full duration of Illi-

nois history. Despite all decimating fac-

tors, necessary and otherwise, affecting fur

animals and their habitats, and despite

the almost total lack of management, the

Illinois fur resource returns an annual in-

come of over $1,000,000 to the people of

the state.

Officials charged with the administra-

tion of Illinois wildlife have come to ap-

preciate the actual and potential values of

the state's wild fur animals. Through
this interest, they proposed the project

on which this report is based. Formally

designated as Project 1-R, "Illinois Fur
Animal Resources Survey," this project

was the first Illinois unit of the Federal



436 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin I'ol. 22, Art. 6

Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act program,

and was approved by the Bureau of Bio-

logical Survey of the U. S. Department

of Agriculture in May, 1*^39, The in-

vestigation was initiated on June 1, 1939,

and completed on June 30, 1940.

PROJECT ADMINISTRATION

Supervision of Project 1-R. which was
of the survey type of research, was assigned

to the Illinois Natural History Survey

by the Illinois State Department of Con-
servation. Dr. T. H. Prison, Chief, rep-

resenting the Natural History Survey, and

Mr. Anton J. Tomasek, representing the

Department of Conservation, directed the

project from the fiscal and administrative

standpoints. Dr. Carl O. Mohr and the

junior author, both of the Natural History

Survey, jointly supervised the field work;
and all project papers, reports and tech-

nical details were handled directly or

under the immediate supervison of the

latter.

The senior author was selected as leader

of the project and served in this capacity

until its termination. He was responsible

for the field survey, a summarization of

data and a preliminary draft of the main
body of the paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers make grateful acknowledg-

ment to the following for assistance.

The Fish and Wildlife Service of the

U. S. Department of the Interior (during

the first part of this study the Bureau of

Biological Survey of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture) gave many helpful

suggestions and much encouragement, of-

ficially extended through Mr. Albert M.
Day and Mr. M. O. Steen.

Several members of the Illinois Natural
History Survey staff aided materially. Dr.
David H. Thompson gave much assistance

with sampling and statistical problems
after having directed two previous studies,

some data from which are included in the

Mohr* report. Dr. Ralph E. Yeatter,

Mr. Arthur S. Hawkins and Mr. Frank
C. Bellrose, Jr., aided in various ways.

Illinois State Department of Conserva-
tion game inspectors gave the project

Throughout this paper, the term Mohr re-port refers to
"Illinois Furbearer Distribution and Income," by Carl O.
Mohr, published with this paper as Article 7.

leader assistance which unquestionably in-

creased the reliability of field data taken.

The following were especially helpful

:

Sam Parr, Willis Spencer, Fred Ireland,

William Pippin, Charles Dewis, Gene
Fullenwider and Robert Graham.

Dr. R. S. Smith of the University of

Illinois College of Agriculture and Agri-

cultural Experiment Station was of great

assistance in making the division of the

state into fur survey regions. Mr. Doug-
las E. Wade, now of Dartmouth College,

offered suggestions on field technique.

Dr. Herbert H. Ross, Dr. George W.
Bennett, Dr. Carl O. Mohr, Mr. Robert
E. Hesselschwerdt and Mr. James S.

Ayars, members of the Illinois Natural
History Survey Staff, took most of the

habitat photographs. Dr. Charles F.

Hottes, Professor of Plant Physiology,

Emeritus, University of Illinois, kindly

permitted use of the photograph represent-

ed by fig. 22.

Several leading fur companies and many
Illinois fur buyers supplied valuable infor-

mation. The writers wish particularly to

thank the F. C. Taylor Fur Company,
Hill Bros. Fur Company and the Abra-
ham Fur Company of St. Louis, Mo., and
Sears, Roebuck and Company of Chicago,

all of which receive a considerable volume
of Illinois raw furs. Mr. V. E. Hazel
of Sears, Roebuck and Company was espe-

cially cooperative.

Finally, the writers' thanks are due to

a great many individual hunters, trappers

and others whose interest and cooperation

have contributed to the completeness of

this report.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There is relatively little published in-

formation on Illinois fur species. Kenni-

cott (1857, 1858, 1859), in accounts of

most fur animals of the state, including

fisher and marten, gave early reports on
the economics of these animals. He recog-

nized the fur value and the rodent-destroy-

ing proclivities of fur animals, but for the

most part his discussion is concerned with

habits and predatory relationships. Cory
(1912) supplied detailed accounts of the

habits and known occurrence of Illinois

mammals, but only a most general account

of their economic importance. Forbes

(1912) recognized that the fur resource



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 437

was significant and cited for 1910 valua-

tions of $6,000 and $14,000 for minks

and muskrats, respectively. The writers

believe these figures are too low, even

for the year involved.

In addition to the list by Cory, several

other state and local lists of Illinois mam-
mals have appeared. The best known are

by Kennicott (1855), Thomas (1861),
Hahn (1907), Wood (1910), Sanborn

(1925), Gregory (1936), Necker & Hat-

field (1941) and Mohr (1941). All ex-

cept Hahn, Necker & Hatfield and Mohr
describe the habits of Illinois fur animals

in more or less detail. Kennicott, Sanborn

and Gregory deal only with the Chicago

area. Wood's studies are limited to Cham-
paign County, but his interesting chapter

on mammal succession is applicable prob-

ably to a much wider region. Necker &
Hatfield and Mohr present the most re-

cent information on the distribution of

mammals throughout Illinois.

The economics of Illinois fur animals

were not studied in the light of present

conditions until Driver (1930) and Ras-

mussen (1931) compiled material on the

yield and value of the fur resource for

the Illinois Natural History Survey; some

figures derived by these investigators were

published in the Blue Book of the State

of Illinois (Prison 1931, 1933). During
the past few years, Mohr (1937, 1939)

published information gathered from his

study of Illinois trappers' reports. The
Section of Fur Resources of the U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture Bureau of Biolog-

ical Survey (1939) and the U. S. Depart-

ment of the Interior Fish and Wildlife

Service (1940) published estimates of the

total Illinois catch for several seasons

which showed a range between 238,311

animals in the 1934-35 season to 996,998

animals in the 1938-39 season. The ma-

terial on which these figures are based

was gathered from several sources, includ-

ing the Illinois State Department of Con-

servation and the Illinois Natural History

Survey. The present study indicates that

many of these figures are low.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES

Fur animals in Illinois, as in perhaps

every other state, are of importance from

viewpoints other than income. In one

form or another there is nearly always

the problem of predator control, which is

brought up most frequently by farmers
and sportsmen decrying real and alleged

inroads of foxes, skunks and other car-

nivores on poultry and game birds. In
Illinois, control is vigorously opposed by
fox-hunting groups and to a lesser extent

by central and southern orchardists, who
appreciate the rodent- and insect-destroy-

ing habits of these animals. Sincere con-

servationists of certain convictions also

oppose control. Illinois has little or no
beaver damage, and no appreciable prob-

lem due to stock-killing coyotes. Wild
dogs, sometimes reported as "wolves," are

many times more destructive to domestic

Illinois livestock than are coyotes. During
recent years, members of coon-hunting*

clubs, especially in the northern half of

the state, have desired more sport and in

some cases have supported movements de-

signed to eliminate the raccoon from the

trappers' list.

Perhaps the chief need for an impartial,

fact-finding study lay in the necessity for

providing reliable information on which
to base theoretically sound, but still prac-

tical, fur laws. This need is particularly

acute in Illinois due to the great north-

south length of the state and the conse-

quent appreciable variations in the dates

of fur priming. Because of these varia-

tions, the state has wisely been divided

into three zones, namely, northern, central

and southern, fig. 1.

In the past, various regulations have

marked the Illinois trapping season. The
chief variations involve either staggered

opening and closing dates for the three

zones, staggered opening and closing dates

for two or more important fur species, or

both. The practice generally followed,

that of staggering opening and closing

dates for zones, is basically sound, the

chief objection to it being the increased

opportunity for some trappers to work

southward through the three zones, taking

a disproportionate share of the fur crop.

The second variation—staggered opening

and closing dates for species—induces a

situation w^ith which trappers, even those

who most desire to be law abiding, cannot

cope. In laws of this type, the muskrat

season, because of the well-known delayed

*In this paper and the Molir report, the words, coon

and pomim are sometimes used for raccoon and opossum,

respectively. Both popular and literary usage ;eems to

sanction the abbrevijted forms of these words.



438 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

priming phenomenon characteristic of the

species, is often postponed 15 to 30 days

after the opening of the season on other

animals. It likewise often extends the same

length of time heyond the ch)se of the sea-

son on other animals. In theory, the plan

is good, and such a season will result in

the taking of a larger percentage of more

nearly prime muskrat furs. The imprac-

Fig. 1.—Map of Illinois showing the three

zones applicable to the ganne and fish codes of

the state.

tical application comes from the impossi-

bility of keeping muskrats out of mink
sets during the first part of the season and
minks out of muskrat sets during the last

part of the season. Many minks and
muskrats are drowned after being caught,

and drowning is one of the best of all

trapping techniques since it largely elim-

inates the escape of captured animals and
is desirable from the humane standpoint.

When animals are unavoidably taken illeg-

ally during staggered seasons, trappers are

faced with the unfortunate alternatives

of destroying or pelting valuable furs.

Even if such animals are not drowned, and

later escape or are released, they may die

of injuries or, in the event of recovery,

be in a condition too poor to breed.

Prior to the initiation of project 1-R,

it was known that certain fur species in

Illinois, especially raccoons, were reaching

low population levels in many localities.

In view of this situation, there was agita-

tion for a completely closed season, a re-

duced season, bag limits, elimination of all

raccoon trapping and various other meas-

ures, received mainly from sincere and

well-meaning groups or individuals. In

the absence of reliable and scientific infor-

mation, it was impossible to act with full

intelligence on these suggestions or to set

fur trapping and hunting seasons fair both

to the resource and to the appreciable

number of people partly supported by it.

The general objectives of the survey,

restated from the Preliminary Project

Statement for 1-R, included information

on the following points as they pertained

to Illinois:

1. Annual yield of pelts by species.

2. Annual income of fur-takers from
the fur resource.

3. Methods of trapping, hunting and

marketing furs.

4. Percentage of furs taken by trappers

and hunters, respectively.

5. Number of unlicensed fur-takers.

6. Fur animal cycles.

Information derived was to serve as a

basis for recommending sound fur animal

laws and offering suggestions for practical

fur animal management.

SURVEY PROCEDURE

In the attainment of the fur survey's

objectives, limitations of time and person-

nel necessarily affected procedure. Only
one full-time man for a 13-month period

was available for the work. Since it was
desired to include the entire state in the

survey, full coverage, even of sample coun-

ties, was precluded. It became necessary,

therefore, to devise a sampling procedure

that permitted rapid coverage, yet one

yielding reliable data of a quantitative

nature. This involved two general steps:

the division of the state into fur survey



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 439

regions, and the separate sampling of each

regional area.

Fur Survey Regions

A number of factors, rather than soil

alone, were used as criteria in dividing

Illinois into regions suitable to the pur-

poses of this survey. These criteria, in

lift, fig. 3. The northwestern corner is

also unglaciated and is somewhat broken
and rolling. The erosional effects of the

Mississippi River on the west, the Ohio
and Wabash rivers on the south and east,

and the Illinois River, extending south-

westerly from Chicago nearly to St. Louis,

lower the prairie status of the state and
make for an appreciable area of river hot-

Table 1.—Fur survey regions and data on field samples used in Illinois fur animal survey,

1938-39 and 1939-40.

Fur Survey
Region



440 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22, Art. 6

region for this area measuring only 821 boundary along the Mississippi River is of

square miles, fig. 2. The terrain is rolling rugged limestone bluffs. The thick lime-

to broken, figs. 5 and 25. The western stone formation here has impeded the de-

Y// A

ESS
I 1

fZZk

NORTHWEST HILLS

BLACK PRAIRIE

GLACIAL LAKES

NORTHWESTERN SAND PRAIRIE

WESTERN PRAIRIE

CENTRAL SAND PRAIRIE

GRAY PRAIRIE

RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS

Fig. 2.—Map of Illinois showing the eight regions into which the state was divided for the

purpose of making the fur resource survey. The River Bluffs and Bottoms Region is the only

one that is not continuous.



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 441

velopment of extensive bottomlands. Scat-

tered throughout are wooded limestone

outcrops, frequently surrounded by blue-

grass slopes. Although overgrazing is

common, pasture management is fair in

many instances. Cultivation is limited.

Comparatively w^ell vegetated soils release

their waters slowly, giving rise to numer-

ous small, clear streams. Deforestation

has progressed somewhat less rapidly here

than in most other places in Illinois, mak-
ing for relatively good wildlife cover over

much of the region.

Western Prairie.—This is a fertile,

rather low^ prairie area of 3,244 square

miles, fig. 2. The western border is the

Mississippi River, along which there is

local development of bluffs and bottom-

land. Here, the prairie seemingly flows

into the river at many points. Streams are

small, and enough of them are intermit-

tent to impair the quality of otherwise

good muskrat and mink habitats. Woody
cover is generally lacking.

River Bluffs and Bottoms.—-As a

fur animal habitat this survey region, the

only one not continuous, is perhaps the

most interesting in the state, fig. 2. It

contains 11,251 square miles, being ex-

ceeded in size only by the black prairie

and gray prairie areas. This region, figs.

6, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30, deter-

mined largely on the bases of drainage and

topography, contains three main subtypes

characterized, respectively, by (1) three

large rivers, all fluctuating in nature; (2)

broken slopes or bluffs, which may be

forested or partly cleared, and often pas-

tured, leading down to bottomland; and

(3) bottomland, timbered or cleared, often

pastured and, in addition, often leveed.

In all cases the bluffs are of limestone in

varying stages of exposure and weather-

ing. The region extends nearly the full

north-south length of the state along the

Mississippi River and through a number
of counties along the southern half of the

Illinois River. The heaviest population of

raccoons, opossums and gray foxes in the

state occurs in this region, as would be

expected in a forested area. This large

region, as a whole, shows a comparatively

low muskrat yield, although some of the

better muskrat marshes in the state occur

along the middle Illinois River. Deforest-

ation, leveeing, turbid and polluted water,

and severely fluctuating water levels tend

to impair the quality of the river blufifs

and bottoms for fur animal occupancy.

Northwestern Sand Prairie.—This
region is a rolling sand prairie, rather

well interspersed with marsh, fig. 2. The

Fig. 3.—Relief map of Illinois showing main

physical features of the state. (Print courtesy

of the Illinois State Geological Survey.)

area is 4,526 square miles. Numerous
small rivers, creeks and drainage ditches,

many of which run the year around, add

to the quality of the aquatic habitat. Lack

of uniformity in physical features charac-

terizes the region ; areas of fertile black

soil, limestone outcrops, marsh and sand

ridges are the most common formations.

The irregularity is due to deposits left

by different periods of glaciation, and to

sheet wash from melting ice masses. Siz-

able woodlands, chiefly of scrubby oak,

supply some cover for raccoons. The Rock

River, the largest stream within the north-

western part of the state, flows through

the region. The valley of this river and

that of the Green River are the main



442 Illinois Natural History SuR\iiv Hullltin I ol. 22, Art. 6

F>^- ••—Vegetation map of Illinois. The shading, as shown in the key, indicates approxi-
mately the areas that were in forest early in the nineteenth century. (After map by Vestal 1931,
based on map by Telford 1926.)



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 443

Fig. 5.—Northwest Hills habitat type. Forested hills, rolling terrain, permanent streams

and absence of intensive agriculture make this region well adapted to skunks, gray foxes and

badgers. A scene from Jo Daviess County is pictured here.

agricultural areas and in them are located

most of the drainage ditches of the region.

Glacial Lakes.—In size, this is the

second smallest of the eight survey regions,

fig. 2. It contains only 1,638 square miles.

Small glacial or kettle lakes are scattered

rather uniformly over the entire area.

Extensive cattail and bulrush marshes ad-

join many of these lakes, forming excellent

muskrat habitat, figs. 7 and 21. Varying

amounts of emergent and floating vegeta-

tion in the lakes supplement the food sup-

ply. Water levels approach stability. The
winters are usually severe. The topog-

raphy is nearly level to rolling, and the

soil is a heavy sandy loam. Woodland

found in the region is mainly on estates;

farmer-owned woodland is largely pas-

tured.

Black Prairie.—The well-known Illi-

nois black prairie is the most extensive

general soil type in the state, fig. 2. The
fur survey region set up for this soil type

is 16,462 square miles in area. Streams,

valleys and occasional moraines are the

only deviations from its slightly rolling

contour. Drainage ditches, fig. 8, and tile

lines occur throughout the region, and

most of the water from them enters the

Illinois River system.

The ditches and some of the streams

afford fair to good muskrat and mink

Fig. 6.—River Bluffs and liuttoms habitat type. Forest-inhabiting species such as raccoons,

opossums and gray foxes occur in greater density here than in any other region in Illinois. The

combination of aquatic and forest areas makes this region ideal raccoon range. Shown here is

one of several connecting channels between the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, near Grafton.



444 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

Fig. 7.—The Glacial Lakes Region, which is characterized by abundant vegetation and

extensive areas of shallow water, furnishes excellent muskrat range. Muskrat houses are built

in shallower water than that shown in the photograph.

habitats. The original marsh has virtually

disappeared, and most of the bottomland
timber has been cut or so depleted of den

trees as to afford little raccoon cover.

Stripmines are fairly common on the black

prairie. Aluskrats and minks are the chief

species benefited by the new biological

habitat created by the stripping process in

mining coal.

Central Sand Prairie.—With the ex-

ception that it has more upland sand de-

posits, fig. 9, this region, fig. 2, is very
similar to the Northwestern Sand Prairie.

It contains numerous hardwood timber

stands on the sand knolls, which afford

some cover for forest fur animals. The
whole region is somewhat more rolling

and is cut by more small stream valleys

than the Northwestern Sand Prairie. The
lower Sangamon River valley merges into

the Illinois River bottoms characterized

at this point by sizable areas of low, well-

timbered land. The area is 5,697 square

miles. Mixed farming, grazing and cattle

feeding constitute its main agricultural

activities.

Gray Prairie.—This southern Illinois

type constitutes the second largest fur sur-

vey region, 13,026 square miles in area,

fig. 2. The gray color of the soil, chiefly

Fig. 8.—Black Prairie habitat type. Thousands of miles of ditches and ditchlike streanns

bordered by corn fields make for high muskrat yields in the Black Prairie Region.



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 445

•^^

Fig. 9.—Sand Prairie habitat type, typical of several small regions in northern Illinois.

Relatively unproductive soil and a general scarcity of marshes and streams account for the low
fur yield for most species in the Central Sand Prairie Region.

loams and clays, suggests the name. Many
of the larger and most of the smaller

streams are intermittent. Rapid runoff,

due to extensive clearing, a rolling topog-

raphy and tight gumbo subsoils, is largely

responsible for this condition. The larg-

est river in the region, the Embarrass, was
reduced to water holes during the fall of

1940. Much of the land is too poor for

profitable farming, and a percentage un-

usual in Illinois has reverted to unculti-

vated fields and brushland, fig. 10. As

Fig. 10.—(}ray Prairie habitat type. Characterized by good upland cover but a poor water

supply, this type is comparatively low in fur production. Extensive woodland and non-intensive

agriculture here favor most fur animals, but only a few permanent streams offer satisfactory

range to such species as raccoons, minks and muskrats.



446 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin f'ol. 22, Art. 6

a result, the region affords considerable

upland t;anu' cover, but the limited and

undependablc water supply greath impairs

the aquatic habitat. During recent >ears

the Gray Prairie region has been exploited

for coal, and at present it is being appre-

ciably disturbed by an oil boom. Mine
and oil residues are polluting some of the

streams. Woodlots and larger timbered

areas are scattered throughout the region.

Sampling Methods

For each of the fur survey regions one

or two typical counties were selected as

samples. In all, 10 sample counties were

surveyed, fig. 11. The River Bluffs and

Bottoms and the Gray Prairie regions

were represented by two counties each.

Across each county from three to nine

strips, each 1 mile wide, were laid out in

an east-west direction, and every house-

hold in this area was canvassed in gather-

ing the sample data, fig. 12. From 11.23

to 22.48 per cent of the counties made

Fig. 11.—Map showing the counties sampled
in the Illinois fur resource survey. Shown also

are the main rivers and watersheds and di-

vides (broken lines).

Fi^. 12.—Map showing the relation of three

sample strips and county to fur survey region.

The position of Lee County is outlined.

up these samples, representing from 0.67

to 9.68 per cent of the total area of the

regions and 1.70 per cent of the total area

of the state. These data are given in detail

in table 1.

The east-west direction of the strips

tended to strike the streams at right angles,

thus eliminating the error that would have

resulted from following a stream or valley,

comparatively productive of furs, for a

long distance. In every case the strips

extended the full east-west dimension of

the county and insofar as physically possi-

ble were straight. County road maps were

used to good advantage in establishing the

strips and in locating residences or in re-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 447

cording certain pertinent data. The num-
ber of strips per county was governed by

its north-south dimension and the number
of crossings required to give at least a 10

per cent sample. Except in Jo Daviess and

Hancock counties, in which data for both

years were obtained simultaneously in the

spring of 1940, each strip was covered

twice, once for the 1938-39 and once for

the 1939-40 season.

As stated, every household covered by

the strips was contacted, and with very

few exceptions every resident admitting
the taking of furs, or suspected of taking

furs, was interviewed, and a record of his

catch taken for both years of the survey.

ILLINOIS FUR ANIMAL RESOURCE SURVEY

FA-Illlnois, Project 3-D

Individual Report

Season of County
Locatlon_
Urban Rural

Age AddressName
Ma in occupation
Farm or landowner Tenant ; Trapper— Hunter ; Day M ight
Type of area hunted or trapped
Approximate length of trapline miles. Average no. traps used
License: Fur Hunting : Reported 1938-39 catch on trapper annual
form Trapper monthly form Hunter annual form Didn't report
Furs sold out of state In state Locally_ To
Object in taking fur: Hunting Trapping

Record of Catch for 1938-39

Total income



448 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

To contact many such individuals, numer-

ous repeat trips were necessary, and much

of the interviewing was done during even-

ing hours and over week-ends. Every fur-

taker, regardless of age, sex, trapping suc-

cess or observance of laws, was questioned

as adroitly as possible. Following each

interview, all the information obtained

was recorded on a form especially designed

evaluation of the important fur animals,

a point almost always conditioned by the

monetary return ; his opinion on w'hether

these fur animals had increased or de-

creased in numbers since the preceding

season ; his estimate of trapping conditions,

which, together with price, partly explain

the seasonal fluctuation in catch ; and the

use made by the fur-taker of dog and gun

Table 2.—Chronological schedule of fur survey.

County

Champaign

.

Lake
Lee
Mason
Jo Daviess.

Hancock . . .

Jasper

Franklin ...

Union
Calhoun. . .

.

Season- of 1938-39

June 1—June 24, 1939.

June27—Julv 14, 1939.

July 15—Aug. 4, 1939..

Aug. 6—Aug. 21, 1939.

Aug. 23—Sept. 12, 1939

Sept. 13—Sept. 29, 1939.

Sept. 30—Oct. 22, 1939.

Oct. 22—Nov. 14, 1939.

Season of 1939-40

May 31—June 11, 1940

May 15—May 28, 1940

May 6—May 14, 1940

April 24—May 5, 1940

April 12—April 23, 1940

March 28—April 11, 1940

March 15—March 26, 1940

March 3—March 14, 1940

Feb. 16—March 2, 1940

Feb. 1—Feb. 15, 1940

for this purpose, fig. 13. Questionable re-

ports were corrected so far as possible by

talking with neighbors, local fur dealers

and state investigators (game wardens).

In a very few cases, correction was ac-

complished by personal appraisal based on

all information at hand.

Approximately 500 fur-takers, 50 deal-

ers and several hundred other individuals

were interviewed in obtaining data on the

1938-39 catch. With the exception of a

few trappers or fur-hunters who moved on

or ofif the strips between seasons, and the

fur-takers in Jo Daviess and Hancock
Counties, who were interviewed only once,

the same individuals were contacted a

second time when data on the season of

1939-40 were obtained. This duplication

in sampling permitted an opportunity to

evaluate the effects of price, weather and
other seasonal changes on fur yield, refine

sampling technique, and determine the

trend in the fur catch over a 2-year period.

It is probable that some individuals gave

more nearly accurate answers the second

year than the first.

As shown in fig. 13, the form used in

recording field information included space

for the fur-taker's name, address, license

number, county and location of county.

It included, also, space for the fur-taker's

in taking furs. The catch by species,

whether this was the fur-taker's estimate

or actual record, was always obtained and

recorded on the form ; the catch by weeks

was usually estimated and gives only the

general trend. Under "General notes,"

anything considered pertinent to the study

or case at hand was written in by the

questioner. The relationship of sample

strips to one soil type region is illustrated

in fig. 12.

In the two instances in which two coun-

ties represented a region, the data for both

counties were averaged and considered as

representative of the region as a whole.

In these two instances. Union and Cal-

houn counties represented the River Bluffs

and Bottoms Region, and Franklin and

Jasper counties represented the Gray
Prairie Region. In the first case, the

average fur income per square mile during

the 2-year period was $20.43 for Union
County and $18.08 for Calhoun County;

in the second the income during the same

period was $11.71 for Jasper County and

$10.48 for Franklin County, table 18.

This close similarity of fur values for

counties in the same regions indicates a

relative uniformity throughout the regions,

even though such similarity does not ex-

tend to each of the fur species. Since the



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 449

River Bluffs and Bottoms and the Gray
Prairie regions are among the largest and
are the most diverse, it is believed that

those regions represented by only one
county were for most species reliably

sampled.

The chronological summary of sam-
pling, by counties, is shown in table 2.

It is apparent from table 2 that the sur-

vey of some counties required proportion-

ally more time than others. The investi-

gator acquired greater proficiency with

experience. To a considerable degree dif-

ferences in the time required were due

to differences in this proficiency, but they

are also accounted for by differences in

the road systems in the 10 counties, by

differences in the weather and in the sea-

son. In the farm planting and harvesting

seasons, it was comparatively difficult to

obtain information during working hours;

accordingly, many persons were inter-

viewed at night, on Sundays or at other

times that suited the convenience of the

persons questioned.

The desirable and undesirable features

of the sampling method used in Project

1-R are evaluated as follows:

For
1. It is rapid, as compared to a complete

survey or a survey involving a larger

sample.

2. It does not require intensive knowledge

of the sample area on the part of the in-

vestigator.

3. It is adaptable to the convenience of

residents on the sample area.

4. If planned well, it gives relatively pro-

portional sampling of all habitats.

5. It affords opportunity for the investi-

gator to check reports of doubtful nature

by talking to a neighbor or to a local fur-

buyer.

6. It is more nearly representative of the

total fur-taker situation, and less selective,

than a survey based on catch reports of

only licensed fur-takers.

Against

1. Use of roads as strip axes tends to inter-

sect greatest human densities.

2. Sometimes it is impossible to run strips

along a straight east-west or north-south

course, thus interfering with the mechan-

ical nature of the method.

3. Topography and water features of an

area are not always adaptable to strip

sampling.

4. Percentage of area required to give a

true sample is not readily determined.

5. In coverage of a large unit, as a state,

time limitation may make possible only a

small sample, in this case, only 1.7 per cent

of the area of the state.

THE FUR-TAKER

Fur-taker is a term used in this report

to indicate any individual taking furs un-
der natural conditions by his own efforts.

It includes both trappers and hunters,

whether they operated day or night, with
or without dogs.

In table 3, data on the number and
density of Illinois fur-takers are presented

by regions. The density of fur-takers in

the eight regions over the 2-year period

ranges between 0.33 and 0.83 per square

mile, the average for the state being 0.52

in 1938-39 and 0.48 in 1939-40. Fur-
takers numbered 29,431 and 27,021, re-

spectively, for the two seasons, as calcu-

lated from sample data. The importance

of the River Bluffs and Bottoms, Black

Prairie, Glacial Lakes and Gray Prairie

regions are at once apparent, although for

different reasons. The greatest density of

fur-takers was in the Glacial Lakes Re-

gion, where numerous shallow lakes and
marshes occur. The River Bluffs and
Bottoms Region, with 0.72 fur-takers per

square mile in 1938-39 and 0.63 in 1939-

40, ranked second in density. This region,

with 8,101 and 7,088 fur-takers for the

two seasons, also ranked second in total

number ; it is third in size. The Black

Prairie Region was first in total number
of fur-takers, with 8,889 and 7,737, as

well as largest in size. However, this

region showed only 0.54 and 0.47 fur-

takers per square mile.

Fur-hunters were by far the most nu-

merous in the River Bluffs and Bottoms

and the Gray Prairie regions; both con-

tain considerable woodland and therefore

are good raccoon and opossum habitats.

Regions devoid of timber, figs. 2 and 4,

ranked relatively low in the number of

fur-hunters.

The above data disclose a statewide

average of nearly one fur-taker for each

2 square miles.

It will be noted in table 3 that the

summation of all trappers and fur-hunters

exceeds the total given for fur-takers.



450 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22, Art. 6

This is explained by the dual activities of

some fur-takers who both hunted and

trapped. A reduction from the 1938-39

hjiure of approximately 8 per cent in the

total number of trappers and hunters in

1939-40 was due probably to local scarcity

of furs as a result of drought and to

better employment conditions in industry.

the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, the

lower Kaskaslcia River, the Glacial Lakes

Region, and the larger streams and marsh-

es throughout the state. The calculated

average annual income per fur-taker over

the 2-year period w-as $42.58.

The number of fur-takers operating

illegally in the years of the survey was

Table 3.—Number and density of Illinois fur-takers by regions, 1938-39 and 1939-40.



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 451

report required each fur-taker not residing

on the land on which he operated to pur-

chase a license for each unit of 25 traps,

obviously the calculated number of li-

censed fur-takers should have been smaller

than the number of licenses sold. Such
was the case in 1939-40. But in 1938-39

the number of fur-takers, as calculated

from interviews, was greater than the

number of licenses sold.

This discrepancy may be due to ( 1

)

inadequate sampling in the state, wherein

4. Data contained in table 1 of the Mohr
report indicate that 44 per cent of the fur-

takers were licensed in 1938-39 and 61
per cent in 1939-40.

The percentages for 1939-40 from the

present and the Mohr reports must be

considered surprisingly close in view of

differences in methods of investigation.

Despite wide differences in the figures

from the two reports for 1938-39, the

percentages for the two seasons derived

from these reports reinforce each other

Table 4.—Fur-takers' licenses sold by the State Department of Conservation, the total num-
ber of fur-takers (calculated from data gathered from interviews with fur-takers) and the

number of licensed fur-takers (calculated from interviews and from monthly reports to the

Department of Conservation), 1938-39 and 1939-40, in Illinois.



452 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6

tajis. which were supplied by the State

Department of Conservation, and one of

which was required to be attached to each

trap. In the season of 1939-40, even the

trapper exempt from the license regula-

tion was required to tag his traps as speci-

fied above, tags being supplied by the

Department at cost of production.

The trapping season of 1938-39 was
staggered both by zones and by species.

In all zones, and for all protected fur-

bearing species on which an open season

was provided except muskrats and foxes,

it opened Nov. 15, but closed Jan. 15 in

the southern and central zones and Jan.

31 in the northern zone. The muskrat
season opened Nov, 15 in the northern

zone, but not until Dec. 1 in the central

and southern zones. It closed Jan. 31 in

all zones, 16 days later than the season

on most other species in the two more
southern zones. Only in the northern

zone did the muskrat season coincide with
open dates for other protected fur animals.

Foxes, in the northern and central zones,

were unprotected by a closed season ; in

the southern zone they were included in

the open season with most other fur spe-

cies. Certain northern counties paid a

bounty on foxes. No distinction was made
between red and gray foxes. No limits

were placed on the take of any furbearer

on which an open season was declared.

Muskrats could be taken only with traps,

and no trap could be set within 10 feet

of a muskrat house or den. Dog training

was permitted during the period of Aug.
15 to March 31.

In 1939-40, there was no staggering of

seasons by species. The trapping season

began Nov. 15 in the northern and central

zones and closed Jan. 31 in the former and
Jan. 15 in the latter. In the southern
and central zones, the fox season coincided
with that of other fur-bearing animals.

In the northern zone, there was no closed

season on foxes.

The codes applicable to the two seasons

covered by the survey provided for month-
ly catch reports from all persons, licensed

and unlicensed, taking fur animals, but
survey calculations indicated that only
4,105 fur-takers, or 26 per cent of the
calculated 15,820 licensed, made these re-

ports in 1938-39, and only 2,144, or 13
per cent of the calculated 15,982 licensed,

made these reports in 1939-40. In 1939-

40 a difficulty arose in the distribution of

the blank forms, which is believed to ex-

plain the difference for the 2 years.

ILLINOIS FUR ANIMALS

The income from the sale of Illinois

raw furs, estimated to vary between 1 and
2 million dollars annually, is derived with
little direct investment and in the almost

complete absence of management. This
income is distinctive in that it is distrib-

uted to every county in the state, chiefly

among people most in need of additional

funds. The main cost is the time required

to harvest the crop, which is limited

chiefly to the rural and small town popu-
lations. The trapping season fits into the

slack part of the year and provides a time-

ly source of cash during the winter

months, especially the holiday period.

The following discussions of the yield

and value of Illinois furs are presented by

species, and constitute the bulk of this

report. No attempt to include habits or

life histories has been made. With each

specific discussion is included a tabulated

summary of field data, which supplies the

basis for the discussion.

The average fur prices received by fur-

takers were found by averaging a large

series of pelts for each species from each

region. The average prices thus deter-

mined are given in table 5.

At the time of the survey, a number of

Illinois furbearers occurred in such thin

populations or were restricted to so small

a part of the state that the sampling

methods used were inadequate in evaluat-

Table 5.—Average prices received by fur-

takers for Illinois raw furs, 1938-39 and 1939-

40 (to nearest $0.05).

Species



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 453

ing their status. These species are the

badger, coyote, otter, beaver and bobcat.

The house cat, abundant in every com-
munity, is of little importance in the fur

trade. In several instances, especially for

the otter, beaver and bobcat, the survey

was supplemented by special investigation

by the senior author and others.

Muskrat*

The muskrat, taken in all Illinois coun-

ties and common to practically all north-

ern and many southern aquatic habitats

in the state, represented over 68 per cent

of the calculated total fur catch for the

two seasons of the survey, table 20. For
the season of 1938-39, the calculated catch

was 884,395 muskrats, worth $707,456;
and for 1939-40, it was 664,831 muskrats,

worth $664,831, table 6. Muskrat furs,

therefore, represented a sizable business,

centered mainly in the northern half of

Illinois and operated for the most part

by older, experienced trappers. Income

is practically the sole incentive for taking

muskrats, whereas with several other Illi-

nois furbearers sport is partly responsible

for the take. The state's muskrat crop,

although largely unmanaged and indis-

criminately harvested, continues to pro-

vide all or part of the winter livelihood

of 20,000 or more persons, many of whom
are heads of families.

In Illinois, the muskrat has demonstrat-

ed marked ability to withstand trapping

and environmental losses, probably because

of its high reproductive potential. Simple

management practices would undoubtedly

result in a greater return from muskrats.

Popularity.—Among Illinois fur-tak-

ers the muskrat was the third most pop-

ular and sought-for species. In 1938-39,

312 of the trappers questioned desired

more and 7 fewer; in 1939-40, 326 want-

ed more and 2 wanted fewer. Only the

raccoon and mink were more highly re-

garded. A number of reasons account for

the muskrat's popularity, chief of which

are relative abundance, ease of trapping

and handling, and the comparative value

of the fur.

Damage and Control.—The total of

9 fur-takers who opposed an increase in

the muskrat population were motivated by

*The 5cientific names of fur animals mentioned in tliis

paper are listed facing the contents page.

damage done in some instances to corn-
fields, ditches and tiles. Loss from such
damage may be appreciable, especially

where the destruction of dams and plug-
ging of ditches is involved. Errington

( 1938) has shown that income from musk-
rat pelts outweighs the damage done by
the animals to crops, including value of

labor and equipment. An annual fur in-

come of approximately $30 per mile of

ditch was reported (Yeager 1943Z') in

Champaign County; more than 90 per

cent of this was derived from muskrats.

Four farmer-trappers in Champaign Coun-
ty in 1938-39 took 634 muskrats from 8

miles of drainage ditches. The pelts were
worth $507.20, or $63.40 per linear mile.

This income is in excess of the value of

any damage incurred. The ditches in-

volved were better than average as musk-
rat habitat, but crop damage is generally

proportional to muskrat density, and other

ditches would show both a lower degree

of damage and a lower fur income. In

any case, the fur income could be expected

to exceed the value of crop losses.

In the Black Prairie and to a lesser

degree in the Northwestern Sand Prairie,

farmers who trap or lease trapping rights

consider the loss of corn due to muskrat

damage a part of the cost in producing

the fur crop. Farmers who see the loss

in the light of a needless waste make more
or less effective efforts to keep their ditches

free of muskrats.

The control of muskrats under condi-

tions where their presence is definitely

destructive is not well discussed by any

one writer. Dams can be protected by

covering them with galvanized poultry

wire of 1-inch mesh, or, in some cases,

damage can be prevented by building the

dams with slopes so slight that burrowing

is discouraged. A slope of at least 7 or 8

to 1 is necessary to discourage burrowing,

and is, of course, impractical in most

instances. Ditches can be protected by

leaving an uncultivated strip 8 or 10 feet

wide along each side. Planted to shrubs

and unpastured, such strips make excellent

game coverts in addition to being resistant

to caving such as is sometimes caused by

muskrat burrows. Ditches with sides

sloped at the time of construction are

resistant to caving. The writers believe

that the most practical control is trapping

during the open season, the amount of



454 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin FoL 22, Art. 6

u,



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 455

trapping being regulated according to the

degree of control needed. Usually, the

services of skillful trappers can be enlisted.

Populations.—Of 643 trappers ex-

pressing an opinion relative to changes in

muskrat population, for the season of

bearing on muskrat catches, reproduction
and dispersal (Errington \9Zlb, 1939,

1940). For example, the 1938-39 musk-
rat catch in Illinois was, according to

numerous experienced trappers, lower than

that of the preceding year, a drop believed

f^7,"%l-^^'i'''''

z
rig. 14.—A spring-run type of marsh, highly productixe oi niuskrats, \ermilion County.

This marsh, less than 2 acres, annually produces 20 to 40 muskrats.

1938-39, 173 indicated a decrease, 63 no

change and 73 an increase as compared
with the preceding season ; for the season

of 1939-40, 207 trappers reported a de-

crease, 49 no change and 78 an increase

as compared with the preceding season.

Many of the older, experienced trappers

were able to recall fluctuations for the

5-year period preceding this study. Near-

ly all of these individuals agreed that a

general population decline had occurred

;

this decline appeared to be less rapid in

the northern third than in other parts

of the state.

Local muskrat populations were found

to vary widely in density, a condition

making unreliable the use of restricted

observations as criteria for statewide

trends. Weather has a highly important

to have been due in part to heavy floods

at a time destructive to new-born litters.

The decrease in the 1939-40 catch, which

was not experienced in 17 northwestern

counties, is believed to have been due

mainly to drought over most of the state

during the late summer and fall of 1939.

Lack of water forced many animals to

migrate, and consequently exposed them

more than usual to predation. The north-

western corner of the state, in contrast,

experienced normal weather during the

spring, summer and fall, and a moist open

season, conducive to effective trapping. Be-

cause of normal young-rearing and har-

vesting, a normal crop was taken there.

The writers believe that, except for the

possible but unknown effect of cycles, the

following factors are chiefly responsible



456 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin J'ol. 22, Art. 6

for the recent decline in inuskrat num-
bers, which is associated with reduced

range.

1. C)\ertrappinfi, arising from demand
for muskrat furs and resulting in insuffi-

cient breeding stock.

2. Drainage of potential agricultural

land, greatly reducing the aquatic habitat.

3. Shortage of food, due to grazing,

burning and clearing land.

4. Predation, resulting largely from ex-

posure of the animals during enforced nii-

Fifj. 15.—Three entrances to muskrat den in

Hooded stump, exposed by sudden drop in

water level, Illinois River, Calhoun County.
Muskrats may dig new tunnels to correspond
with changes in water level.

gration in search of water, and from a

shortage of food and cover along streams
and ditches.

Habitats.— In Illinois, as elsewhere,
trappers make a distinction between marsh
and bank muskrats. Marsh muskrats, ex-

cept along levees and banks, build houses
of cattails, bulrushes, water smartweed
and similar materials ; bank muskrats sim-
ply tunnel runways, beginning under water
and ending above water. The marsh ani-

mals are found principally in the northern
half of the state, and along the Mississippi

and Illinois rivers, fig. 7 and frontispiece.

Bank muskrats inhabit drainage ditches,

ponds and streams throughout Illinois, fig.

8. In general, it appears that muskrats
build houses if possible. Even in stripmine
areas, where conditions favor bank dens,
muskrats build an occasional house of
cattail ur other vegetation where its occur-
rence is abundant enough and the area of
shallow water large enough for the pur-
pose (Yeager 1942).

In the two seasons covered by this study,

the greatest production of marsh muskrats
came from the Glacial Lakes Region; the

yield in this area averaged about 50 per

square mile. The Northwestern Sand
Prairie produced about 25 per square mile,

the Central Sand Prairie about 18 per

square mile, table 6.

Marsh muskrats occupy an environment
which, under ideal conditions, is favored

by relatively stable water levels and an

abundance of vegetation (Typhia, Scirpus,

Polygonum and Potamogeton) , fig. 14.

Although the bank habitat is generally less

favorable than the marsh habitat, the

total catch of bank muskrats in Illinois

exceeds that of the marsh animals. This
is due to the much larger range inhabited

by bank-dwelling animals, centering in the

Black Prairie where streams and drain-

age ditches afford extensive bank habita-

tions.

Muskrats show excellent adaptability to

the changes and perversities of environ-

ment, fig. 15. Food shortage, drought and
flood occasionally decimate their numbers
or force migration, but seldom extirpate

them from a given stream or pond.

Throughout the Black Prairie, thousands

of shallow-water ditches ofifer, in normal
seasons, habitats w^ith sufficient food, water

and cover, fig. 8. During wet years these

ditches provide excellent range. The catch

varies by years, apparently according to

weather conditions. In 1938-39 the total

muskrat catch in the Black Prairie Re-

gion averaged 28.23 per square mile ; in

1939-40, which was very dry over most

of the region, the catch was only 18.51

per square mile.

Muskrat habitats in the Gray Prairie,

the River Bluffs and Bottoms and the

Western Prairie regions have low carry-

ing capacities. The intermittent character

of the streams and general deficiency of

aquatic vegetation, as well as heavy trap-

ping, explain the comparatively low catch

of about two to five animals per square

mile, table 6.

The quality or type of the habitat has

considerable effect on the more obvious

food habits of muskrats. The utilization

of such items as willow, Cottonwood, fish,

mollusks and crustaceans seems to be more
common among stream than among marsh
muskrats, perhaps because of a shortage

of cattails, bulrushes and similar vegeta-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 457

tion in the streams. During the survej^

this difference in food habits was frequent-

ly commented upon by veteran trappers.

Food, in turn, apparently has a con-
siderable effect on fur quality. Stream
muskrats, probably because of a deficiency

of quality foods, and possibly because of

food shortage, yield pelts known to trap-

pers and to the fur trade as "papery."

1939, limited the taking of muskrats to

spring traps having a jaw spread of not
over 6 inches. The 1937 code did not
limit the size of jaw. The codes put into

effect in both these years specified that

a trap might not be set or placed within
10 feet of any muskrat house or den, but
trapping nearer than this distance was
found to be a common practice. There

Fig. 16.—Grazed ditch with eroding banks, Champaign County. Such waterways produce

little muskrat food ; burrows are often destroyed by stock.

The leather of these pelts is thin, the hair

color is a lighter brown and the fur is

neither so long nor so thick as that of

marsh muskrats. Fur buyers commonly
pay 10 to 20 per cent more for marsh or

ditch-grow'n pelts than for "papery" skins.

Water contaminated with oil sludge or

residues from coal mines destroys plant

life, thus reducing habitat quality. Also,

it is frequently noticed that muskrats may
be scarce along, or absent from, streams

contaminated by mine wastes, and from
both streams and ditches subject to heavy

grazing, fig. 16. Pollution has damaged
to varying degrees the muskrat habitat

along the Rock, Galena and upper Illinois

rivers and around the centers of oil activi-

ty throughout the Gray Prairie Region.

Trapping.—The Illinois Game Code
in effect for the 2 years beginning July 1,

was no limitation of take in any of the

three zones in either year of the survey.

Spearing and shooting of muskrats were
properly illegal, but, as the regulation

respecting these methods of kill is difficult

to enforce, some muskrats were so taken

in both 1938-39 and 1939-40. Because

their numbers could not be ascertained,

they were not considered in the data.

Water sets, unbaited or "blind," are

the standard with Illinois muskrat trap-

pers. Traps are placed in runs at the

entrance of holes, dens or houses, on logs,

stumps or floating chunks, and at feed

beds. Usually some provision is made for

drowning the animals, in order to reduce

the percentage of escapes effected by

wringing off a foot. The staking of traps

in or toward deep water and the use of

large, heavy traps are the most common



458 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22, Art. 6

methods of assuring drowning. Killer

type traps are seldom used in Illinois, even

on open marshes. Under-ice trapping is

common in the Glacial Lakes Region and

in the llliniois River marshes. Many
trappers fa\or ice trapping, since it en-

ables them to define used runs more easily,

and "wring-offs" are practically eliminat-

ed. In under-ice operation, traps are sim-

ply set in musicrat runs through holes

chopped in the ice and staked by driving a

willow or buttonwood branch through the

ring at the end of the trap chain. The
traps are seldom weighted or covered.

Similar sets are used in trapping bank

muskrats, except for the "run" method

employed in the marshes, which is impossi-

ble under bank conditions.

Fluctuating water levels are the bane of

both marsh and stream trappers. A change

of only a few inches in the level, either

up or down, may throw an entire trapline

out of order. The increased diversion of

water, December, 1940, from Lake Mich-

igan into the Illinois River was followed

by numerous complaints by trappers whose

traps in some instances were so deeply

covered that catches were impossible.

Traps replaced were later left on dry

ground. In meeting the problem of fluctu-

ating water in streams, some trappers

anchor logs, boards or other floating

debris with wire in such manner that

these rise and fall with the water. Traps
set thereon, unless rendered inoperative

by freezing, are always in working order

and are in excellent locations.

A very large percentage of the annual

muskrat catch is taken during the first

few weeks of the season. As much as 50
to 85 per cent may be caught during the

first 15 nights. It is well known that

muskrat furs are not prime until Decem-
ber 1 or after, and that the best skins are

taken in January and February. The
facts that the muskrat is by far the most
important species and that a large portion

of the catch is made during the first part

of the season furnish good arguments in

favor of a trapping season opening on
Dec. 1.

The value of the muskrat resource is

such that the annual harvest of furs is

taking on an organized form, wherein the

leasing of grounds or trapping rights has

become common. During the years of the

survey, this leasing system prevailed along

the large river marshes, the glacial lakes

marshes and the hundreds of drainage

ditches throughout the Black Prairie Re-
gion. Some of the best ditches in this

region were leased at $20 per linear mile.

In some cases, the rental was 50 per cent

of the catch, the trapper furnishing all

necessary supplies and labor. In the south-

ern half of the state leasing of grounds
was found to be less common.
A point of interest noted during the

survey was the abundance of Norway or

barn rats, Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben),

reported taken in muskrat sets. In 1938-

39, a Lee County trapper, using 30 traps,

claimed to have taken 100 muskrats and
53 barn rats; another trapper in Lee
County, using 25 traps, claimed to have

caught 50 muskrats and 20 barn rats.

Water sets were used exclusively in these

instances, indicating that, if these claims

are valid, barn rats are not reluctant to

swim or wade in water up to depths of

several inches. General complaints of barn

rat abundance were received from trappers

in Lee, Jasper and Champaign counties.

In 1939-40 the same trappers reported

fewer barn rat catches. Experienced trap-

pers are of the opinion that these rats

compete keenly with muskrats for food

and territory, and that they are potential

if not actual predators on muskrat young.

It may be that some of the animals re-

ported by trappers as barn rats were
actually kit muskrats.

Management.—On the basis of the

information at hand, the writers believe

that the following steps would be eflfective

in checking further depletion in muskrat

range and numbers, thereby placing the

species in a more secure position in Illi-

nois.

1. Enact and enforce more effective

laws against oil and mine pollution of

water habitats.

2. Enact seasons opening Dec. 1 and

closing Jan. 31 in all zones. This step

would insure a higher average quality in

muskrat fur and aid in preventing over-

trapping during mild November weather.

If prices are high, trappers will operate

during the adverse weather of December
and January.

3. Allow traps to be placed 3 feet in-

stead of 10 feet from houses and dens.

Trapping closer than 10 feet is a statewide

practice; enforcement of the 10-foot regu-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 459

lation provided under the law in force at

the time of the survey is practically im-

possible.

4. Enforce more effectively regulations

against spearing and shooting of muskrats.

Opossum

The opossum, fig. 17, is taken in every

Illinois county, but occurs in compara-

tively small numbers in the northern part

of the state. For the season of 1938-39

the calculated catch was 244,242 pelts,

worth $48,848.40; and in 1939-40 the

catch was 171,590 pelts, worth $34,-

318.00, table 7. The catch figures do not

represent the total numbers of opossums
taken because very low prices for opossum
furs in both seasons caused an unknown
percentage to be thrown away by fur-

takers. Another, and perhaps appreciable,

part of the total take was used for food,

especially by people of foreign extraction

in the southern Illinois coal region, and

undoubtedly pelts of many of the animals

so used were not sold. The actual take

may easily have been 50 per cent greater

than the figures given.

Popularity.—Fur-takers showed com-
paratively little enthusiasm concerning the

opossum.. Of the fur-takers questioned in

1938-39, 234 desired more and 44 fewer

opossums; of those questioned in 1939-40,

316 wanted more and 43 wanted fewer,

table 7. Coming directly from trappers

and hunters, these figures reflect distinct

lack of appreciation. Not even the skunk

ranked so low in popularity among fur-

takers. Only gray fox, red fox and weasel

showed lower popularity percentages, but

none of these ranked among the most im-

portant Illinois fur animals. Some fur-

takers objecting to a further increase of

opossums were motivated by the nuisance

caused by this species, as when getting

into traps set for more valuable animals.

Others resented opossum depredation on

poultry. A few night hunters were inter-

ested in coon hunting only, and thus found

the abundance of opossums objectionable.

The principal reason for the opossum's

position in public esteem is the low value

of its fur; a higher value would register

an immediate and positive change in atti-

tude. Among non-fur-takers over the

state, this species probably ranks next to

foxes and weasels in unpopularity, a posi-

Fig. 17.—Female opossum with nine young

in pouch. The young of this species are born

in an immature condition and remain in the

pouch for several weelcs.

tion undoubtedly due to its reputed de-

structiveness to domestic fowls.

Damage and Control.—The objec-

tionable characteristics of the opossum, ex-

cept for the alleged destructiveness to

small game, has been sufficiently indicated

in the preceding paragraphs. In situations

in which opossums are known to be caus-

ing damage, the writers recommend trap-

ping as a means of control. This is a

simple remedy since opossums are easily

taken in any sort of baited set. Or they

may be readily taken with dogs.

Populations.— In general, fur-takers

interviewed reported a steady increase in

opossum numbers from 1936 to 1939,

when populations seemed to level off or

decrease. For the two seasons covered by

the survey, the actual decrease, if any.

was probably less than the 30 per cent

reduction indicated by the catch. The
1939.40 catch is known to have been lim-

ited by low prices and very dry weather



460 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

S

o



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 461

during the hunting season. Of 283 fur-

takers expressing an opinion on population
change for 1938-39 in comparison with
the preceding season, 211 reported an in-

crease, 46 no change and 26 a decrease;

for 1939-40 in comparison with the pre-

ceding season, 199 trappers reported an
increase, 68 no change and 41 a decrease,

table 7. Best explaining the increase be-

ginning about 1936 are low prices and
mild winters; the possible effect of cycles

was not determined.

The opossum catch ranged from 0.65

per square mile in the Black Prairie Re-
gion in 1939-40 to 12.14 per square mile

in the River Bluffs and Bottoms Region
in 1938-39, table 7. The more heavily

wooded parts of the state are the impor-
tant opossum-producing localities. The
River Bluffs and Bottoms Region leads

the other fur survey regions in the acreage

of wooded areas. Next to this region in

opossum catch for 1938-39 were the Gray
Prairie with 4.36 per square mile and the

Western Prairie with 4.13 per square

mile, both of which contain considerable

woodland. The Central Sand Prairie with

a catch of 2.08 per square mile, the North-
western Sand Prairie with 1.64 and the

Northwest Hills with 1.62 were next in

rank in 1938-39. The Glacial Lakes with

1.55 and the Black Prairie with 0.87

ranked seventh and eighth, respectively.

There was some variation by regions in

rank for the season of 1939-40, and the

catch density per square mile was gener-

ally lower, table 7.

Habitats.—The high quality of the

River Bluffs and Bottoms as a habitat

for opossums is at once apparent when, in

addition to forest cover, the region is

known to abound in bluffs and to be

dotted by small irregular fields in the

valleys or on the slopes. A comparatively

heavy population of woodchucks provides

thousands of ground dens, which, with

countless tree cavities, sinkholes and small

caves, supply retreats in abundance. The
food supply in this region is ample and of

excellent quality, with mulberries, wild

grapes, brambles (Rubus spp.), pokeber-

ries, persimmons and pecans generally

abundant. Animal foods, including car-

rion, are also available in quantity. This

region is less subject to fire and over-

grazing than any other region except the

Northwest Hills; nevertheless these two

destructive practices are all too common.
Habitat conditions in the Gray Prairie,

the Central Sand Prairie, the Western
Prairie and the Northwestern Sand Prai-
rie regions are similar in that the wood-
land is largely cut over. Forest cover in

these four regions is most abundant in

the Gray Prairie, but the water supply in

this region is not dependable because of

the large proportion of streams that are

intermittent. The Northwest Hills Re-
gion generally has ample cover and water,
but winters may be relatively severe. In
the Glacial Lakes Region there is con-

siderable cover in the form of wooded
stream bottoms and marshy lake shores.

The Black Prairie, with the lowest

acreage of woodland cover per square

mile, was lowest in production of opossum
furs per square mile. In this region, tree

cavities are very scarce, forcing a large

part of the opossum population to den
underground or in debris of various sorts.

Because of the level terrain and poor sub-

surface drainage, ground dens are easily

flooded and may result in some mortality

through drowning. The fact that the

mother opossum carries her young in the

pouch for some time after birth would
seem to exclude the possibility of a very

high mortality by drowning in young ani-

mals. Opossums denning in drainage tiles

may suffer some drowning loss. Ground
dens along ditch banks and old woodchuck
holes along stream valleys and fencerows

and in stripmine areas provide most of the

shelter in the Black Prairie district. Nat-

ural food, which for this omnivorous spe-

cies may be practically any sort of meat

or fruit, is ample.

There is some evidence that opossums

make use of old muskrat houses and thick

growths of bulrushes and cattails along

marsh areas in the northern half of the

state. Wooden nest boxes erected for

wood ducks are accepted as dens in both

bottoms and upland areas.

Trapping and Hunting.—In Illinois,

in the two survey seasons, about one-third

of the annual opossum catch was taken b>'

trappers and about two-thirds by hunters,

table 7. Hunting was particularly preva-

lent in the Central Sand Prairie, the River

Bluffs and Bottoms and the Western Prai-

rie regions. It was least common in the

Glacial Lakes, the Black Prairie and the

Northwestern Sand Prairie. Over one-



462 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin /'o/. 22, Art. 6

half of the trappers and over two-thirds

of the hunters annually took opossums.

It is apparent that opossum and raccoon

huntinji can be closely correlated by re-

tiions, tables 7 and 8.

The sport of possum hunting is well

known and is perhaps as popular and as

widely practiced in southern Illinois as in

the southern states. Unusuall) dry weath-

er during the fall of 1939 over most of Illi-

nois, followed by unusual cold, probably

explains the reduction in catch for that

season in all regions except the Western
Prairie and the Northwestern Sand Prai-

rie, where more favorable hunting condi-

tions during the first part of the season

may partly explain the slight increase in

catch over that of the preceding year.

In all regions of the state, but especially

in the River Bluffs and Bottoms, Gray
Prairie and Western Prairie, opossum
hunters can feel reasonably certain of some
sport on almost any good autumn night.

In the river type region and locally in the

other two regions named, it is not uncom-
mon for a hunter or group of hunters with

dogs to take a dozen or more opossums
in one evening. The procedure is simple.

The dog or dogs are turned loose, and the

hunters wait until the "tree bark" is

heard, which is usually at some small tree,

but ma\- be at a sink hole, old woodchuck
den or hollow log. Dogs sometimes bay
opossums on the ground, and such opos-

sums are usually killed and sometimes
destroyed by the dogs before the hunter
can come upon the scene. Fur-hunters,

especially during the days of high prices

for opossum pelts, usually attempt to bag
the catch before extensive damage is done.

Opossums in trees are usually taken by
shooting the animals or chopping the trees

down, but sometimes simply by shaking
the trees until the animals drop to the

ground. Those "treed" in the ground are

commonly abandoned. A persimmon grove
is a favored place for taking opossums
at night. In the chopping of trees, night
hunters cause a loss that is fairly common
in southern Illinois.

Trapping opossums, at least during the

era of low prices, is chiefly incidental to
the trapping of minks, raccoons, skunks
and foxes. Many trappers resent even in-

cidental capture, and some trappers throw
away opossums so taken. Sets, when made
for opossums, are placed at the entrance

of dens, on logs or at waterholes. They
are usually baited, since these animals take

readily almost any sort of meat foods.

Management.—Perhaps the greatest

value of the opossum is the bufifer effect

it has on raccoon hunting. Night hunters

in practicalh' all parts of the state can de-

pend on this species for a certain amount
of sport, whereas raccoons are decidedly

scarce except in the riverbottoms and for-

ested parts of the Western Prairie, North-

west Hills and the Central Sand Prairie

regions. Some sportsmen, interested chief-

ly or only in raccoon hunting, object to

the abundance of opossums since it inter-

feres with their sport.

In view of current market conditions,

it is certain that the opossum is in little

danger of greatly reduced numbers. Its

prolificness, adaptability and omnivorous

food habits enable it to withstand any

likely hunting or trapping pressure. The
present laws are satisfactory.

Raccoon

The raccoon is the most characteristic

forest fur animal in Illinois. It is common
to fairly abundant in all extensively wood-
ed regions of the state and scarce else-

where. The catch per square mile in the

River Bluffs and Bottoms, the largest

wooded region, was 1.93 raccoons in 1938-

39 and 1.55 in 1939-40, while the catch

per square mile in the Black Prairie Re-

gion, with the smallest acreage of forest

cover per unit of area, was only 0.09 and

0.07 raccoon for the two seasons of the

survey, table 8.

For the season of 1938-39, the total

calculated catch was 42,412 raccoons,

worth $84,824; and in 1939-40, 34,577

raccoons, worth $69,154, table 8. Dur-
ing these two years, the value of raccoon

fur was low, the average price per pelt

being only about $2, table 5. An average

value of $4 or $5 per pelt is a more nearly

normal price. The annual income from

this species for the two seasons of the

survey was only about 61/ per cent of the

total annual worth of the fur resource in

Illinois, table 20.

Popularity.—Without doubt the rac-

coon has wider appeal to the American
public than any other furbearer, with the

possible exception of the beaver. It can

properly be considered the best "all



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 463

around" fur animal, since it produces in-

come, affords sport and food, and ranks
high in aesthetic appeal. Of the Illinois

fur-takers contacted concerning their opin-

ion of the raccoon, 356 in 1938-39 and
387 in 1939-40, only 1 in each year de-

sired fewer of these animals. Depreda-
tions by raccoons on corn and poultry are

overlooked far more readily by farmers,

fur-takers and non-fur-takers alike than
similar activities on the part of opossums,
skunks, weasels and foxes.

The sport value of raccoons, especially

during an era of low prices, is probably
the greatest worth of these animals in Illi-

nois. The income value, considerably less

than $100,000 annually at the time of the

survey, is probably exceeded by the yearly

turnover involved in the care, training and
sale of coon dogs. At price levels current
when the survey was made, it is difficult

for a coon hunter to take enough raccoon
furs to cover the annual upkeep of his

dogs. This is certainly true in cases where
vaccinations, registration fees and other

kennel expenses are figured in the cost.

Damage and Control.—Raccoon
damage is very minor except in cornfields

bordering woodlands holding sizable rac-

coon populations. A foray on poultry is

occasionally reported, and a very few cases

of injury to cultivated fruits and brambles
are on record. Injury of this sort is con-

sidered too insignificant to justify control,

but in instances in which it is required the

writers recommend trapping, in season if

possible ; if not in season, the liberation of

captured animals at points removed from
the scene of the damage. Before trapping

is attempted, Illinois State Department of

Conservation investigators should be con-

sulted and, if necessary, their aid in cap-

ture and liberation of the animals enlisted.

Populations.—On the basis of avail-

able records, and the opinion of hundreds
of fur-takers, no Illinois fur animal has

shown a sharper decline in numbers dur-

ing recent years than the raccoon. Of
253 fur-takers expressing an opinion for

the season of 1938-39 in comparison with

the preceding season, 179 indicated a de-

crease, 41 no change and 33 an increase;

for the season of 1939-40 in comparison

with the preceding season, 183 trappers

reported a decrease, 58 no change and 58

an increase, table 8. In addition, many
experienced fur-takers were positive in

their opinions that the decrease had been
steady and rapid during the preceding 5
or 10 years.

Of fur-takers reporting an increase,

about 25 per cent were from the upland
communities of Calhoun County, only a

few miles removed from extensive bottom-
land clearing made in conjunction with
channel improvement along the Mississippi
and Illinois rivers. Such clearing forced
raccoons into the nearby timbered bluffs,

thus aff'ording there a year or two of in-

creased populations and good hunting.
The catch in this county in 1938-39 was
very high, with 2.66 raccoons per square
mile. The annual catch, according to un-
verified but general belief among experi-

enced hunters in this region, represented

about one-half of the total population. A
density of five raccoons per square mile

was thus indicated for the county as a

whole, the population being, of course, of

even greater density on actually inhabited

areas. This was the heaviest raccoon pop-

ulation encountered during the study.

Following completion of the survey we
had numerous and apparently reliable re-

ports of increases in raccoon numbers,
noticeable particularly in 1941 and 1942.

These increases are believed to have re-

sulted from three factors that had tended

to reduce the raccoon catch : low prices on

raccoon furs, good agricultural crops and

prices, and increased employment in in-

dustry. The additional breeding stock

built up by these conditions may indeed

have resulted in somewhat larger popula-

tions, despite accelerated depletion of the

raccoon habitat. Such gains may be only

temporary and may be easily lost during

periods of good fur prices and greater than

normal take.

Habitats.— It is natural that a raccoon

population as high as that found in Cal-

houn County should occur in an excellent

habitat. An abundance of heavy timber

and bluff's afforded plenty of cover and

dens; the water supply, consisting of large

rivers, lakes, swamps, marshes and spring

runs, was excellent; and extensive and

widely scattered areas of brush, cultivated

fields and thousands of food-producing

forest trees, such as pecan and persimmon,

offered ample food. Despite heavy hunt-

ing, a breeding reserve of raccoons was left

because of the difficulty in removing

"treed" animals from the hundreds of



464 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin To/. 22, Art. 6

b<
o



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 465

caves and sinkholes in the bluffs. As
stated, recent clearing in Calhoun County
disturbed the raccoon population there and
seems to have resulted in a total larger

catch, as well as a reduction in habitable

range (Yeager & Rennels 1943). The

raccoon, figs. 6, 18, and 22. Among possi-

ble den sites, tree cavities rank highest
with this species. Rock or ground cavities

maj' be used, but where timber is present
they are generally passed up except as

escape cover. The opossum readily dens in

Fig. 18.—Big Slough, Pere Marquette Wildlife Area, Calhoun County. The riverbottom

type shown here is probably optimum for raccoons.

river bluffs and bottomland habitat, gen-

erally, is now gradually being depleted

b\' timber cutting, overgrazing, fire and
erosion.

In table 9 an attempt is made to eval-

uate the influence of forest cover, grazing

and water on the several types of raccoon

habitats in the state, as reflected in the

catch per square mile.

It is apparent that there is some corre-

lation between raccoon numbers and the

proportion of woodland in given regions,

but the influence of woodland may be

affected by various other factors. Water
is believed to be the most important of

these. Grazing, fire, maturity of wood-
land and other conditions have some effect,

undetermined in this study.

The raccoon does not possess to the

same degree the opossum's adaptability to

a wide variety of habitats. Forest cover

and a plentiful water supply appear to be

more or less inflexible requirements of the

the ground, even in the vicinity of tree

cavities (Yeager 1936).

The Northwest Hills Region affords

excellent raccoon cover, both forest and
bluff, but much of the wooded area is

too far from water to be of high attrac-

tiveness. Water, except along the Missis-

sippi River, is in the form of small, steep-

banked streams. There are few heavily

wooded swamps or large riverbottoms,

which appear to furnish the best type of

raccoon habitat. Pelts froin this region

are dark and well furred, a high percent-

age of them grading as "collar" raccoon.

The Western Prairie, Central Sand

Prairie, Northwestern Sand Prairie and

the Glacial Lakes regions are alike in that

water is generally available. This con-

sists of streams, marshes and sizable lakes,

and along the Illinois River a very limited

amount of wooded swamp. The degree

of grazing varies widely, being especially

heavv in the Northwestern Sand Prairie,



466 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22. Art. 6

the Glacial Lakes and the \Vestern Prairie

regions. Many of the shallow, marsh-

bordered lakes in the Glacial Lakes Re-

gion are some distance from forest cover,

a fact which may partially explain the

low raccoon population there. In all of

these regions, the woodland has largely

tent nature of many of the streams and
ditches. Food, as in all other regions,

is probably ample, although it falls far

short of the variety and, except in corn,

of the quantity found in riverbottoms.

The severe shortage of dens throughout

the prairie districts is indicated by the use

Table 9.—Effect of forest cover, grazing and water on Illinois raccoon habitats, as reflected

in the calculated raccoon catch per square mile.

Fur Survey Region



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 467

Fig. 19.—Raccoons accept artificial dens if

the dimensions and location are satisfactory.

The best locations are probably near water.

The raccoon shown here is at the bottom of a

den box placed in the Urbana Township Wild-
life Area, Champaign County.

Coon hunting is a night sport too well

publicized to require lengthy discussion

here. The writers desire only to mention
that a sizable business is represented in

the coon dog breeding and training indus-

try, and that coon hunters in general

pursue the sport more for the pleasure it

affords than hope of pecuniary reward.

This was true especially during the era

of low prices in which the survey was
made. Hunters, in order to perpetuate

their sport, to say nothing of the resource,

should refrain from cutting den trees or

timber of any sort ; there seems to be a

growing sentiment to this effect. Very
cold or very dry weather tends to make
poor coon hunting; the severe drought

followed by cold weather and deep snow
in 193*^-40 may account in part for the

reduced raccoon catch for that season.

The scarcity of raccoons has caused

numerous coon-hunting clubs, especially

in the northern part of Illinois, to demand
restocking by the state. In response, the

Illinois State Department of Conservation

in 1939, at its game farm near Mount
Vernon, began artificial propagation of

this species.

Raccoons are trapped in both baited and
nonbaited or "blind" sets, usually in

water. Fish, rabbit and similar meat at-

tractors are commonly used. Traps set

on logs, particularly in the vicinity of

water, are usually productive. Den sets

are not common, due to their inaccessibil-

ity. A strong trap, such as the No. 2, is

needed because the raccoon possesses great

strength and makes a courageous fight for

freedom. Confirmed coon hunters are apt

to look upon trapping as unsportsmanlike,

and feel that trappers encroach upon their

sport. In Illinois, especially in the south-

ern half of the state, there is considerable

dissention between coon hunters and trap-

pers.

Management.—The most obvious
need in restoring raccoon population is an
improved habitat. This, when it involves

the production of tree cavities, becomes a

long-time program. Very desirable steps

in restoring forest cover are being taken

by the Illinois State Division of Forestry,

the U. S. Forest Service and the U. S.

Soil Conservation Service. To be most
valuable to raccoons, plantings should be

of hardwoods and located in the vicinity

of water.

Cutting of den trees should be stopped.

In localities where bluffs do not occur,

and the topography is too flat and the

soil too poorly drained to permit satis-

factory ground denning, there is no prac-

tice more destructive to present and future

raccoon populations than den-tree cutting.

It should be remembered that 40 to 60

years are required to grow a den tree, even

on good sites and with rapidly growing

species such as soft maple. Conditions un-

suitable to ground denning exist through-

out the prairie regions, including most of

the stream bottoms.

The utility of artificial dens has not

been adequately studied, but the writers

feel that they may have an important

place in management, fig. 19. For exam-

ple, if a practical and satisfactory den

box can be developed, young timber stands

that are in the vicinity of water but that

lack natural cavities could be turned into

productive habitats. Acceptable boxes

should have minimum inside dimensions

of 12 by 15 inches. The entrance hole

should be 6 inches in diameter and the

cavity at least 3 feet deep. Such boxes

made in quantity from No. 1 cypress



468 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22, Art. 6

lumber would cost probably $2 each; if

constructed from state-owned timber they

could be made at a lower cost. Good
cypress den boxes, with some maintenance,

would last at least 10 years, giving an

annual cost of 20 cents each, plus upkeep

expense. Artificial dens should be erected

well off roads, substantially fastened in or

above the first crotch of the largest trees

available, and probably they should be

placed near water. A box design bringing

the entrance hole close to the tree trunk

permits easy access.

Boxes similar to the raccoon den just de-

scribed are known to be readily used by

opossums, squirrels and certain cavity-

nesting birds. Such boxes on the Urbana
Township Wildlife Area are being used

by raccoons ; the closest timber is about

2 miles away. Honeybees and other in-

sects also make appreciable use of these

boxes. Work necessitated by pre-emption

of these forms would be a major item of

the maintenance cost. If this and similar

work could be done by sportsmen's clubs,

upkeep cost would be low.

Raccoon laws, in view of the conflicting

interests of hunters and trappers, are diffi-

cult to formulate. The writers believe

that, as a principle, the enactment of laws

favoring either of the groups at the ex-

pense of the other would be unwise, and

that both groups have rights that should

be considered in laws regulating capture

of this popular species. Trappers, in gen-

eral, take the animals as a means of live-

lihood ; hunters, in general, take them as

a means of sport. Since it is obviously im-

possible to satisfy completely both groups,

we recommend a uniform trapping and
fur-hunting season on all species, opening

Dec. 1 and closing Jan. 31. It is realized

that the raccoon season opening Dec. 1

would operate against both hunters and
trappers, because raccoons hibernate dur-

ing cold weather which often comes, espe-

cially in northern Illinois, during Decem-
ber. However, the present low raccoon

population justifies a reduced catch, and in

time this season would benefit both groups.

The summer training of coon dogs is

another delicate, but rather important,

point in the making of raccoon regulations.

The writers are of the opinion that any
disturbance of raccoons, such as that caused

by summer training, is undesirable if only

the welfare of the species is considered.

However, coon dog breeders and trainers

have a considerable investment, and the

business provides a livelihood, wholly or

in part, for several hundred people in

the state. Just laws should take these

facts into consideration. The 1941-42 law
permitted the hunting of raccoons for the

purpose of dog training from Aug. 15

through March 31. We believe that, for

the best interests of all concerned, these

dates should be changed to Sept. 15 and

Jan. 31, since the first date would permit

young raccoons to attain greater size and
maturity, and the second would largely

prevent interference with breeding, as is

possible under the March 31 closing law.

Even the law as proposed has one bad
feature, that of tempting hunters to take

illegally more or less prime furs from the

first of November until the season opens.

An alternative is to close this period to

dog training.

Raccoons are commonly taken in traps

set for almost any Illinois furbearer, a

condition that precludes practical trapping

laws favoring this species, even if such

laws were fair and desirable. It would, of

course, be possible to close the entire state

or given parts thereof to all coon hunting

and trapping for a year or two, with pro-

visions for releasing raccoons unavoidably

taken in traps. Such a law would involve

complications in law enforcement, in the

release of severely injured animals, and

in the utilization or waste of raccoons

drowned after being taken in traps. At
best this law is in the category of "last

resort." It would be far more desirable

to institute a vigorous campaign of habitat

restoration involving protection of den

trees, erection of artificial dens, develop-

ment of water resources, protection of

areas against fire and overgrazing and,

where needed, liberation of a moderate

number of artificially reared raccoons.

These provisions, plus the shortened trap-

ping and dog training seasons proposed,

should offer a slow but effective means
of restoring naturally both the population

and the habitat.

The effectiveness of complete protec-

tion of raccoons on given areas as a restora-

tion measure should not go unmentioned.

The writers know of three areas in which

little management other than complete

protection has resulted in the building up

of very high raccoon populations. These



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 469

areas are the Chautauqua National Wild-
life Refuge in Mason County, the Horse-
shoe Lake Game Refuge in Alexander
County and the U. S. Army Proving
Grounds in Carroll County. AH are riv-

erbottom types in proximity to water.

Protection in these areas has extended over

a period of 10 years or more, and on all

there is now need for the removal of a part

of the raccoon population in order to pre-

vent overcrowding.

Skunk

The taxonomic status of skunks in Illi-

nois has never been satisfactorily deter-

mined (Anthony 1928, Hall 1936, Greg-
ory 1936, and iS'ecker & Hatfield 1941).
Whatever their systematic position, for

purposes of this survey striped skunks
have been grouped under Mephitis inephit-

is. The spotted skunk, Spilogale, apparent-

ly does not occur in the state.

Striped skunks are rather generally dis-

tributed throughout Illinois. For the sea-

son of 1938-39, the total calculated catch

was 49,640, worth $37,230; and in 1939-

40 the calculated catch was 36,681, worth
$36,681, table 10. During the two seasons

covered by the study, skunk prices were
low, the average being 75 cents for the

first year and $1 for the second, table 5.

The normal value is nearly twice as much.
In catch value, skunks ranked fifth among
Illinois fur animals, with slightly more
than 3 per cent of the total, table 20. The
true value of the species, however, is de-

termined only by evaluating its insect-eat-

ing proclivities and adding this value to

fur income worth.

Popularity.—In Illinois only the red

fox appears to have a position more vari-

able in public esteem than the skunk. One
farmer may consider a family of barn-

dwelling skunks good insurance against

rats and mice ; and his neighbor may con-

demn them because of actual or assumed

injury to poultry. Many orchardists in

southern and southwestern Illinois protect

skunks because of their services as mousers

and insect eaters, while sportsmen in the

same regions demand control of these

animals in the interest of game birds. Of
604 answers received as to fur-takers'

opinions of skunks, 35 favored fewer of

the animals, table 10. Only the opossum

ranked lower in favor as a fur species, and

onl\- the weasel had a lower rating in gen-
eral public opinion.

Damage and Control.—Skunks are

objectionable more from the standpoint of

nuisance than actual damage to property.

Their nuisance quotient probably reaches
its zenith when they den under dwellings
or farm outbuildings, which they not in-

frequently do. Farm dogs inevitably run
afoul of farmstead skunks, and the results

can be detected from afar. Most such
skunks, with some justification, are not
reserved until the winter fur harvest.

Damage by skunks to beehives, lawns
and pastures, all in quest of insect food,

is commonly reported. Although damage
to beehives represents an actual loss, the

digging of grubs and other insects almost
certainly prevents greater injury to grass

and field crops. Occasional to habitual

destruction of poultry is perhaps the worst
offense of which skunks are guilty. Ha-
bitual depredation is usually confined to

individual animals, the elimination of

which affords ample control. Because
skunks are poor climbers, their injury to

nests and eggs is confined to ground-fre-

quenting birds.

Skunk control has recently been well dis-

cussed by Green & Mills (1941). Where
practicable, trapping with No. 1 or No.

lyz traps during the fur season is the

most desirable control, since the animals

can then be made to yield a cash income.

Skunks are easily trapped in trails, coop

entrances, passageways through fences or

at baited sets in the vicinity of their dens.

They are also easily taken in box traps,

in which they may be drowned before

being removed. In tight box traps or sim-

ilar containers they may be killed quickly,

and without unpleasantness to the killer,

with carbon bisulphide, ether or chloro-

form. Shooting with a small ritle is prob-

ably the most practical way to kill trapped

skunks, but this method does not insure

against "scenting." We consider wide-

scale control of skunks in the interest of

upland game or for similar purposes to be

inadvisable at any time.

Populations.—In the two seasons of

the survey, the annual skunk catch showed
more change by regions than that of any

other important fur animal. The state as

a whole showed a decrease in catch for

the second year of about 26 per cent, table

10, despite a 33^4 per cent increase in



470 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6

o



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 47;

market price of the fur, table 5. This con-

dition strongly suggests a substantial de-

crease in the population. Four regions

showed a decline in catch. The Black
Prairie, with a catch decreasing from
19,425 to 6,420, absorbed most of the loss.

This is a decline of nearly 70 per cent.

The Glacial Lakes Region showed a de-

cline of about 50 per cent, and the Gray
Prairie a decline of less than 25 per cent.

An increase over the 1938-39 catch oc-

curred in four regions; the increase was
most pronounced in the Northwestern
Sand Prairie, where it amounted to over

75 per cent. Thus, losses occurred in the

northeastern, central, and southern parts

of Illinois, and gains in the central west
and northwest. We are unable to explain

these population trends and changes.

Quantitatively, the catch varied from a

2-year average of 0.45 skunk per square

mile in the Central Sand Prairie and 0.47

per square mile in the Gray Prairie to

1.19 per square mile in the River Bluffs

and Bottoms and 1.23 per square mile in

the Northwest Hills. The average catch

for the state was 0.88 per square mile in

1938-39 and 0.65 per square mile in

1939-40, table 10.

Fur-takers' opinion of population fluc-

tuation was divided. In 1938-39, 88 of

the persons questioned believed there had
been an increase over the previous year,

63 no change and 72 a decrease; in 1939-

40, 108 reported an increase over the pre-

vious year, 55 no change and 112 a de-

crease. Many experienced trappers re-

ported that the skunk population in the

Black Prairie belt a year or two prior to

1938 had dropped to a very low level. If

this report is true, a quick build-up neces-

sarily had occurred to make possible a

catch of 1.18 per square mile for the

season of 1938-39. The fact that the

catch dropped to 0.39 per square mile the

following season, despite higher prices, in-

dicates that sudden and violent fluctua-

tions in density may occur in this species.

Disease seems to be the only available

explanation of such great changes in skunk

numbers, but what disease and how it

works is unknown. The fluctuation is

strongly suggestive of cyclic behavior. In

several sample counties, trappers reported

the finding of dead or paralyzed skunks

in the field. Of three skunks examined

by the writers, one had died of injuries

inflicted by an automobile, and one from
the combined effects of exposure and in-

fection due to the loss of a front foot,

probably in a trap; the third, taken in

a barn lot, was rabid. A partial explana-
tion of the fluctuation may lie in extensive
woodchuck gassing campaigns and the

depredations of hundreds of free-ranging
dogs, especially in the southern half of

Illinois. Neither factor, nor the combina-
tion of the two, can account for the sud-

denness and the degree of downward fluc-

tuation apparent on the Black Prairie

where gassing was most common. Even
if they could account for the decrease,

their absence could scarcely be responsible

for the almost equally well-marked build-

up in the population noted in 1939-40 in

the Northwestern Sand Prairie. Disease,

or the operation of a cycle, remains as the

most logical explanation.

Habitats.—Scarcity of suitable cover,

range and denning sites constitutes the

chief shortcomings of Illinois skunk hab-

itats. A shortage of water may be an

additional problem in the Gray Prairie

and Black Prairie regions. Food in the

form of insects, mice, amphibians and
carrion is undoubtedly ample in all re-

gions ; and the food problem is further

reduced because of hibernation during

severe weather when most of the above

foods are difficult to obtain.

The characteristics of a good skunk

habitation are not precisely known, but

since the largest Illinois catches are made
in rolling or bluff country, in which mixed

farming is practiced, figs. 5 and 25, and

where there is a considerable area of tim-

ber and pasture land with good water

resources, it can be assumed that these

localities offer the best habitats in the

state. The Gray Prairie Region, which

showed one of the lowest yields, has some

of the same characteristics ; but water is

scarce there and undependable, bluffs are

lacking, and more of the region is subject

to burning. The function of bluffs may
be important, since skunks living or hiding

in them are protected against den destruc-

tion (now illegal); such protection, per-

haps, results in a larger breeding reserve.

The use of woodchuck holes, especially

for hibernating, is very common among
skunks. Occasionally hollow trees or

stumps are so utilized, fig. 20. The Gray

Prairie Region, as well as the Northwest



472 h.i.iNois Natlrai. HrsTORv Sirvkv Bui.i.htin To/. 22, Art. 6

Hills, contains many loggcd-ovcr and un-

cultivated areas devoted to ^razintJ or

orcharding!; which afford fair skunk ranjie.

Topographic and soil conditions in the

Hlack Prairie Region are particularly un-

tavorahle for ground dens. Of this region,

probably less than 5 per cent, chiefly in

the form of stream banks, satisfactoriK

meets the requirements of drainage and

concealment for ground-denning mammals

such as woodchucks and skunks. Heavy

rains during the spring of l'^J3Q and 1^43

may have resulted in some skunk mortal-

ity, especially of >()ung. througii drowning,

'fhroughout the Black Prairie, skunks den

along ditch banks, tile drains, or under

woodpiles or farm buildings. The various

sand and other prairie regions of the state

are rolling enough to afford good ground-

denning sites.

Trapping and Hunting.— Its slow

movements and characteristic defense dis-

qualify the skunk as a sporting species.

Most of the skunks taken by hunters are

captured incidentall> to raccoon, opossum

and mink hunting. About 20 per cent of

the total catch is taken by hunters, and

only about one out of five hunters is for-

tunate—or unfortunate—enough to cap-

ture them even incidentally. A very few

hunters who specialize in skunks were en-

countered during the survey, chiefly in the

Western Prairie and the River Bluffs and

Bottoms regions. Practically- no skunk

hunting is done in the Glacial Lakes or

Black Prairie regions.

Trappers, always strongly influenced by

prices, were comparatively indififerent to-

ward skunks. A large part of the catch

was taken in connection with raccoon, fox

and mink trapping. However, where

skunks were numerous, and especially

when a series of dens was located, trap-

pers made deliberate efforts to take them.

Serious skunk trapping is most common
in the Northwest Hills, where the first

weeks of the season are devoted to musk-

rats and minks ; after the formation of ice,

traps are moved to the uplands for skunks

and foxes. Even in this region, trappers

whose regular business calls for meeting

the public avoid skunks and quickly dis-

pose of those taken in sets made f(jr other

animals.

Management.—In view of the gen-

eral though thin distribution of skunks in

Illinois, the problems imposed by the

Fig. 20.—Skunk (ieii in base ot overmature

white elm, Pere Martjuette Wildlife Area,

(^aihouii County.

c_\clic-like behavior of the species and the

ease with which the animals are taken in

any sort of upland set, we have no specific

recommendations for management. It ap-

pears most practical to continue to list

skunks with other fur animals and to sub-

ject them to the same open season. The
public, farmers and sportsmen especially,

should realize that the skunk is one of

the most valuable rodent and insect con-

trols. We are opposed to large-scale con-

trol of this species in the interest of game
or poultry. We endorse land use leading

tow-ard the reforestation and protection of

stream banks and other areas not suited

to cultivation. Such a policy should ulti-

mately result in more wildlife habitats,

from which skunks would benefit.

Mink

Two subspecies of minks occur in Illi-

nois, the common mink and Mississippi

valley mink (Necker k Hatfield 1941).

The ranges of the two overlap, but the

former has the more southerly distribu-

tion. The common mink is slightly smaller

and darker than the other subspecies.

Minks, like skunks, are generally dis-

tributed over Illinois; the density of popu-

lation appears to parallel muskrat num-
bers and the amount of permanent water.

For the season of 1938-39 the total calcu-

lated catch was 53,723, worth $376,061 ;

and in 1939-40, 45,254, worth $271,524,

table 11. The take of the second year

shows a decline of about 16 per cent from

that of the first. The decline in value was
somewhat more, since the average price



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 473

per pelt dropped from $7 for 1938-39 to

$6 for 1939-40, table 5. Even after the

drop in price, the mink remains, per pelt,

the most valuable fur animal now occur-

ring in the state. These prices may be

considered low, in view of a value of near-

1\ twice as much during a part of the

previous decade. Minks, with about 4 per

cent of the total number of fur animals

pelted, ranked third in the catch for the

two seasons of the survey, table 20.

Popularity.—Among trappers the

mink is even more popular than the musk-
rat, although the difference is slight.

These two species constituted over 72 per

cent of the annual catch and over 84 per

cent of the annual value of all Illinois raw
furs for the seasons of the survey, table 20.

As would be expected, the popularity of

minks among non-fur-takers is not so high,

since by many farmers and sportsmen the

species is considered in the light of its oc-

casional depredation on poultry and game
birds. Out of a total of 718 answers from
fur-takers in regard to opinion of minks,

only 8 favored fewer of these animals,

and it is probably significant that 7 of

the 8 answers were from the Black Prai-

rie and Glacial Lakes regions, in parts

of which poultry raising and hunting

pressure are maximum for the state. It

is safe to say that minks rank higher than

opossums, weasels and skunks in general

public esteem.

Damage and Control.—The chief

damage caused by minks has been indi-

cated. Individual minks may indeed be

destructive; we have a number of recent

reports to this effect. Individual minks

have been known to kill a dozen or more
chickens in one night. Perhaps the great-

est economic loss caused by the species is

to muskrats. Dearborn (1932) found

that in southern Michigan about one-

fourth of the winter food of minks con-

sisted of muskrats, which are also part of

the summer diet, but the proportion is

probably lower because of the greater

availability in summer of other warm-
blooded prey. A number of trappers along

the Illinois River, and one manager of a

2,600-acre duck club and muskrat ranch,

reported that they killed minks at every

opportunity throughout the year. This

club manager reported hnding 13 freshly

killed muskrats, 2 mallards and a coot

in one mink den. The muskrats were sold

for $1.90 each and the mink pelt for

$12.50 (Yeager 1943fl).

Trapping is recommended as the best

means of mink control. Minks, quite

properly considered intelligent mammals,
are rather easily taken in both trail and
baited sets. Because of the high value of

the furs, we strongly recommend that,

where possible, control be postponed until

the winter months. In the event that con-

trol at other seasons is necessary, release

of trapped animals at points where dam-
age is not likely to occur may well result

in a future income of several dollars per

mink.

Populations.—The annual mink catch

for the period covered by the survey indi-

cates considerable variation in population

density by regions. Ihe take of 0.95 mink
per square mile in 1938-39 and 0.80 per

square mile in 1939-40 represents a reduc-

tion of about 16 per cent; for muskrats
the reduction in take during the same pe-

riod was about 25 per cent ; for opossums.

30 per cent; raccoons, 19 per cent; and
skunks, 26 per cent. The reduction of 14

per cent in the value of mink pelts in

1939-40, table 5, does not explain the

reduction in catch, since any animal worth
an average of $6 each, and which is as

small and as easily handled as the mink,

is captured by fur-takers at every oppor-

tunity. Practically all experienced trap-

pers interviewed were of the opinion that

a steady decline in mink populations had

been in progress for several years. Of the

trappers expressing an opinion on the catch

for 1938-39 as compared with that for the

previous year, 55 reported an increase, 64

no change and 112 a decrease; for the

season of 1939-40, 55 reported an in-

crease, 64 no change and 156 a decline,

table 11.

The Glacial Lakes Region, with 2.69

and 2.76 pelts per square mile for the two

seasons of the survey, showed by far the

heaviest mink catches. The River Bluffs

and Bottoms Region was second, with

catches of 1.70 and 1.20 minks per square

mile. The Western Prairie (0.92 and

1.22), Northwest Hills (0.87 and 0.91),

the Gray Prairie (0.99 and 0.78), North-

western Sand Prairie (0.71 and 0.97),

Black Prairie (0.52 and 0.36) and the

Central Sand Prairie (0.32 and 0.36)

followed in this order, table 11. In the

second season as compared with the first,



474 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

8j Sh :—

b.

o ^



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 475

the catch showed reduced populations in

the River Bluffs and Bottoms, the Black
Prairie and Gray Prairie regions. All

other regions showed an increased catch.

Drought during the fall of 1939 may be

advanced as a reason for the decline in the

Black Prairie and Gray Prairie regions.

The cause or causes for the appreciable

decline in the River Bluffs and Bottoms
Region are not known, but they may be

suggested by certain social and economic
factors peculiar to the region. It is certain

that this area bears a heavy trapping and
fur hunting pressure. Reasons for in-

creased catches in the northern and north-

western parts of the state are likewise

unknown.
Habitats.— Illinois mink habitats are

so variable that they range from glacial

marshes in the northeastern part of the

state to cypress swamps in the southern

tip, figs. 21 and 22. It is doubtful which
type of habitat offers the better range ; the

yield for Lake County averaged 2.73

minks per square mile for the two seasons

of the survey, and Union County, just

north of the cypress swamps, averaged

1.79 during the same period. The cypress

swamps themselves would probably have

show^n a greater density in catch.

The Lake County habitat is character-

ized by marshes, shallow lakes of glacial

origin, little timberland and large muskrat

populations ; Union County, by much
heavy timber, numerous small creeks and

springs, steep bluffs and a low muskrat

population. The cypress swamps are even

more heavily forested, but without bluffs

and muskrats, and with but few springs.

Comparable populations in such widely

diverse habitats, in addition to general

distribution in every county in Illinois,

indicate great adaptability in minks and

suggest that the species may long remain

one of the more important fur animals of

the state.

Ability to make use of almost any sort

of cover in the vicinity of water gives the

mink a great advantage over larger and

more intolerant animals, such as the rac-

coon, figs. 23 and 24. The shore lines

of streams, fig. 23, lakes, ponds and marsh-

es ; small runs and ravines, fig. 24; drifts,

windfalls, brush, timberland and slasliings:

all afford mink cover. In the Glacial

Lakes Region, marshy shore lines, stream

banks and muskrat houses provide cover

and denning areas. In the Gray Prairie
Region, cattail-bordered mine ponds and
small lakes, bogs and springs make up for

the intermittent nature of the many small
streams. In the vicinity of many of the

ponds and springs there are thick slash-

ings, the result of hasty logging of mine
props, where a combination of brush,

stump sprouts and second growth offers

excellent mink cover. The Northwest
Hills provide good forest cover and the

Northwestern Sand Prairie contains con-

siderable marsh area. Both regions have
numerous small, permanent waterways

;

drainage ditches partly replace streams in

the latter region. In the Black Prairie and
Central Sand Prairie regions, lack of water
is the greatest shortcoming; most of the

streams and ditches, especially in dry years,

are intermittent. During the fall of 1939
the water shortage in these two regions

was serious, and probably accounts in part

for the reduced mink yield.

Along the Illinois River, many minks
live on or near wooded islands, isolated

by marsh and shallow water. They den
chiefly in hollow tree bases, especially

willows, or in the ground, and in some
cases muskrat trappers here are not aware
of their presence, often in comparatively

large numbers.
Trapping and Hunting.—Approxi-

mately 87 per cent of the Illinois mink
catch was taken in traps during the two
seasons of the survey. Many minks, espe-

cially along the Illinois and Mississippi

rivers and in the Glacial Lakes Region,

were taken in connection with muskrat
trapping. Nearly all such minks were
caught without the use of bait, trappers

taking advantage of the mink's habit of

traveling muskrat runs and entering musk-
rat houses and dens. Most bait sets were
in shallow water and therefore operative

only during nonfreezing weather. Other
sets were made on logs, in narrow ditches

and runs, and at points along waterways

where minks were likely to step. Nearly

all of the catch in the Glacial Lakes,

Northwest Hills, Black Prairie and the

Northwestern Sand Prairie regions was
made by trappers.

About 13 per cent of the Illinois mink
catch for the two seasons of the survey

was by hunters. In the Central Sand

Prairie in 1939-40, hunters accounted for

58 per cent of the catch. In no other



476 li.i.iNois Natl'rai, History Survey Bulletin J'ol. 22, Art. 6

Fig. 21.—Minks are adaptable to habitats ranging from tamarack bogs in extreme northern

Illinois to . . .

'. i H^V t

' mwm
Fig. 22.- swamps of cypress and tupelo gum in the southern tip of the state.



Septcinhcr, 1943 Brown & Yeac.er: Survey of Fur Resource 477

Fig. 23.

—

Saline River, Gallatin County. This forest-bordered stream illustrates one type

of mink habitat common in the southern and southeastern parts of Illinois.

region did the hunter catch exceed 35 simple to dig the animal out, a practice

per cent. Both day and night hunting was now specifically prohibited by law. When
practiced, the former being the favored sighted, such minks were usually shot with

method during tracking snows. Once the a small rifle or pistol, or were chased out

den was located, it was comparatively to be caught by dogs. Occasionally, a good

Fig. 24.—Gibbon's Creek, Pope County. Rock-bottomed creeks such as this offer suitable

mink range in southern Illinois.



478 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

dog would actually tree a mink and hold

it long enough to be shot. More common-

ly, however, minks were "treed" in holes,

windfalls, hollow snags or logs, or in piles

of debris, and were taken by unstinted use

of ax or spade. For the state as a whole,

during the two survey seasons, about one-

half of the trappers and one-fourth of the

hunters were successful in taking minks,

table 11.

Management.—A trapping season

Nov. 15 to Jan. 15, or Dec. 1 to Jan. 31,

is considered satisfactory for this species.

Destruction of mink dens should be

stopped, although the loss of ground dens

is obviously less detrimental to minks than

the cutting of den trees is to raccoons. A
general program of habitat restoration fea-

tured by reforestation, erosion control, wa-

tershed protection and protection against

fire and overgrazing would greatly benefit

mink as well as other wildlife populations.

Close pasturing of stream and ditch banks

is very destructive to both mink and musk-

rat range. Drifts, debris, windfalls and

brushy growths, where land use permits,

provide very acceptable mink cover.

Wide-scale mink control over large re-

gions, in the interests of poultry or game,

is inadvisable.

Long-Tailed Weasel

Two kinds of weasels are listed by

Necker & Hatfield (1941) as occurring

in Illinois. These are forms of the long-

tailed and least weasel. The latter, of

little or no importance in the fur trade,

occurs in only a few of the northeastern

counties, with one record from Lee Coun-

Unlike species of more general distribu-

tion over the state, such as the skunk and
mink, the long-tailed weasel is concen-

trated principally in the more northern

counties. It occurs, however, in every re-

gion, and in all is one of the less important

fur animals. In 1938-39, the total calcu-

lated catch was 8,889, worth $3,111.15;

in 1939-40, it was 8,796, worth $3,078.60,

table 12. The decline in the second season

was only about 6 per cent ; all other spe-

cies except the gray fox, which gained

slightly in the second season, showed a

greater catch decline than the weasel.

No long-tailed weasels appeared in the

catch data from the Western Prairie in

1938-39. and the same was true of the

Gray Prairie in 1939-40. While we are

certain that the catch in these regions wms
very low, we are equally certain that .a

few of these animals were taken in the

areas during the years for which there are

blanks, table 12. These blanks suggest

inaccuracies in the data, which a larger

sample might have eliminated. In the

Western Prairie Region, the calculated

catch for the season in which the weasel

was represented was only 0.04 per square

mile, and in the Gray Prairie Region only

0.03 per square mile. The error therefore

is small. The average pelt value of 35

cents, table 5, is only about one-third the

price received for weasel skins at times

during the previous decade.

Popularity.—The long-tailed weasel

is usually considered one of the most un-

desired fur animals in Illinois. Trappers

show little enthusiasm for weasels because

their fur is of little worth and they may
spoil sets made for foxes, minks and other

more valuable species. Farmers and sports-

men consider them the worst mammalian
enemies of poultry and game. Of a total

of 124 answers concerning weasel popu-

larity, 25 favored fewer weasels. Coming
directly from fur-takers, these answers

represent a positive indictment. Several

years ago, when trappers commonly aver-

aged $1 for long-tailed weasel pelts, they

were an appreciated item. As determined

in the survey, unpopularity was general,

but most pronounced in the southern part

of the state.

Damage and Control.—There is lit-

tle question concerning the destructive-

ness of individual weasels. As a species,

the long-tailed weasel may be considered

bloodthirsty, and its reputation for ruth-

lessness in killing is well founded. It

should be remembered, however, that this

trait is exercised as readily and as vigor-

ously on meadow mice as on chickens or

ducks. Weasels kill thousands of rats and

mice, and in some situations are good

friends of the farmer. We recommend
that destructive w^easels be killed as

promptly as possible and, in view of the

low pelt value, without regard to season.

Trapping is probably the most effective

control, and traps set around a fresh kill

are almost certain to make a catch.

Populations.—Nowhere in Illinois

can the long-tailed weasel population be



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 479

considered dense. The heaviest catch for

the two seasons of the survey was in the

Glacial Lakes Region, where the yield

averaged 0.82 weasel per square mile per

3ear, table 12. The next heaviest catch

was in the Northwestern Sand Prairie

Region, with takes of 0.41 and 0.89 pelt

be situated in the vicinity of farm out-
buildings. Haystacks, brush piles and
windfalls are also preferred units of the
habitat, the animals probably being at-

tracted to such places because of the abun-
dance of mice. In the River Bluffs and
Bottoms Region, weasels frequent the

^•iiiii^,«jifit
-

Fig. 25.—Rolling terrain and comparatively limited agricultural use of the land character-

ize the Northwest Hills Region. This and other northern Illinois regions produce most of the

long-tailed weasels taken in the state.

per square mile in the two years. The
Black Prairie yield was 0.23 and 0.15 pelt

per square mile, mainly from the northern

half of this region. In all other regions

the catch was very low.

The writers have no explanation for the

apparent regional fluctuation in the catch.

Few trappers expressed an opinion on the

changes in long-tailed weasel population.

Of those who did for the season of 1938-

39 as compared with the previous season,

28 reported an increase, 28 no change and

8 a decrease, table 12. With a continued

poor demand for w'easel furs and with

normal populations of rodents and rabbits,

it is reasonable to expect some increase in

weasel numbers.

Habitats.—The long-tailed weasel is

an upland furbearer. Rolling farms, pas-

tures and brushland apparently provide

the best Illinois habitats, figs. 5 and 25.

Fencerows of shrubs or stone provide typi-

cal farmland den sites ; dens may often

steeper hillsides as well as the farmed and
pastured areas. In all regions, dense cover

adjacent to fields or grassland provides

favored range.

Trapping.—Long-tailed weasel trap-

ping is very simple and in Illinois is prob-

ably not deliberately practiced outside of

the northern counties. A large part of

the catch is incidental, especially in con-

nection with skunk trapping. Weasels are

readily attracted by fresh, bloody meat

bait. Traps of small size, such as No. 1,

are usually placed along fencerows, stone

fences and piles, wood lots, brushy areas,

ditches and creek banks. Very little, if

any, of the catch is taken by hunting.

In the two-season survey, white weasels

amounted to approximately 28 per cent of

the calculated catch ; a small percentage

of the pelts were mixed, and by far the

largest percentage were brown. Lake

County, with 36 per cent, showed the

largest percentage of white pelts. The



480 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6

O



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 481

proportion decreased progressively south-

ward, white weasels being rare in central

Illinois.

Management.—A season opening Dec.
1 and closing Jan. 31 is satisfactory for

maintaining the present long-tailed weasel
population.

Red Fox

According to Bailey (1936), two varie-

ties of the red fox occur in Illinois. These
are the northern plains red fox, Vulpes
fulva regalis Merriam, and the eastern

red fox, Vulpes fulva fulva (Desmarest).
The range of the two subspecies overlaps,

particularly in the northern part of the

state. Necker & Hatfield (1941) list only

Vulpes fulva Desmarest.

The red fox occurs throughout the

state. In the seasons of the survey it

ranked seventh in number of pelts and
sixth in value, table 20. In 1938-39, the

calculated catch was 10,674 pelts, worth
$32,022; in 1939-40 it was 6,688 pelts,

worth $18,392, table 13. These numbers
represent only 0.76 per cent of the total

fur catch over the 2-year period, table 20.

During the first year, red fox pelts aver-

aged about $3.00 each, and during the

second, about $2.75 each, table 5, or about

one-fourth of the 1924-29 value.

Popularity.—In Illinois, the red fox

is one of the most controversial fur ani-

mals. Here, as elsewhere, it commands
a great deal of public interest. In many
southern Illinois localities, it is regarded

highly as a sporting animal, and in many
northern parts of the state it is vigorously

condemned as a pest. Because of its mice-

and rabbit-destroying tendencies, it is

looked upon with favor by orchardists

in the southern zone, where it has had
the legal status of most other fur animals.

In the northern zone, it was unprotected

in both years of the survey and might be

hunted and killed at any time. Several

counties in the northern zone recently

offered bounties of $2 for adults and $1
for pups. In the central zone, the red

fox w^as protected in 1939-40 but not in

1938-39. Due to increasing numbers, red

foxes are in many parts of the state grow-
ing in popularity with day hunters who
may "walk them up" or hunt them with

dogs.

Farmers and upland game hunters dis-

like the red fox because of its actual and
alleged depredations on poultry, quails
and pheasants. On the other hand, in cer-

tain southern localities, the activities of

fox-hunting clubs over a period of many
years have instilled in the public mind a

respect for the species. In such localities,

persons of differing opinion act and ex-

press themselves privately ; and trappers in

such communities do not readily report

their fox catches.

Of the answers received from fur-takers

contacted in the two seasons of the survey,

a total of 239 favored more and 78 favored
fewer red foxes. Non-fur-takers are

known to be emphatic in their opposition

to more red foxes. In comparison with the

attitude toward the mink and muskrat, this

degree of unpopularity may be considered

an indictment against the species. Most
fur-takers and all trappers valued the red

fox in terms of income and desired to see

it protected during months of the year in

which its fur is of no value. It is apparent

that the species suffers through lack of

accurate, widespread knowledge concern-

ing its food habits. Under present con-

ditions it happens too often that the harm
foxes do lives on, while their beneficial

traits go unnoticed and unknown.
Damage and Control.—Complaints

concerning the loss to foxes of small pigs,

as well as poultry and game birds, are

frequently heard. During the survey,

many complaints involving fox depreda-

tions on chickens were received. It was,

however, difficult to obtain specific cases

of extensive damage. Some farmers and

many sportsmen advised that they killed

foxes at every opportunity ; other farmers

thought highly of fox-hunting clubs in

the belief that they kept the foxes off their

property.

In appraising actual damage, it seems

safe to state that foxes take poultry, and

to a lesser degree pigs, rather generally

over the state, but only in a very few cases

are the animals a serious menace to poul-

try or stock raising. The predation of

foxes on game birds has been studied only

locally, and is subject to so many variables

that no statewide evaluation of this con-

troversial issue can be made. In one

Michigan locality. Dearborn (1932)

found that mammals, chiefly rabbits and

mice, made up over 40 per cent of the

summer food of red foxes in 1930 and



482 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 483

over 90 per cent in 1931. Other workers
have reported similar findings. Predation
on game is probably rather general, but,

except perhaps locally, it is doubtful if

foxes ever threaten game populations with
extermination. Foxes are most destructive

during the spring months when foraging
for their young; at all seasons availability

of prey largely determines the kind of

food and the degree to which it may be

taken (Errington 1937a). One of the

best ways of protecting poultry, therefore,

is to keep it out of the fields and woods.
Trapping and hunting are recommend-

ed as the best means of controlling red

foxes ; a well-trained dog will keep all

foxes at a distance. The use of poison and
gas, now illegal against fur animals in

Illinois, is not recommended at any time.

The payment of bounties and the killing

of animals when the pelts are valueless

invariably result in waste of money and
valuable furs. It should not be forgotten

that one or more prime fox pelts per year

may cover, or more than cover, predation

losses on the average farm. In the neces-

sity of reducing fox populations over siz-

able areas, more intensive hunting and
trapping are suggested during the winter

months when the fur is prime. During the

trapping season local trappers often gladly

aid in control.

Populations.—In the opinion of nu-

merous experienced trappers, an increase

in the red fox population became apparent

about 1931, and a peak was reached in

1934-35. Since that time the population

seems to have remained relatively stable

except for minor or local fluctuations.

The high 1938-39 catch probably does

not represent a peak year in either value

or number of pelts, for the following

reasons : low fur price, better employ-

ment than during the depression years

and the generally prosperous condition of

agriculture, especially in the corn belt. In

1939-40, the decreased catch of about 37

per cent below that of the preceding year

may indicate a cyclic reduction in num-
bers. Of a total of 165 expressions of

opinion from fur-takers, 119 indicated a

recent increase in red fox numbers, 23 no

change and 23 a decrease.

Every region was represented in the

catch during the survey, but the Glacial

Lakes catch was extremely low, only 0.01

red fox per square mile in 1939-40. Red

foxes were not represented in the data
for this region the preceding year. The
heaviest catch, 0.29 and 0.30 pelt per
square mile, was taken in the River Bluffs
and Bottoms Region. Thus, in no region
did the catch average as much as one red
fox per 3 square miles. The red fox and
the weasel have lower averages for the

state as a whole than any other fur ani-

mals except the gray fox and other species

that do not have state-wide distribution.

Habitats.—Catch figures indicate that

the best red fox habitat in Illinois is of-

fered by the River Bluffs and Bottoms
Region, and the second best by the Black
Prairie. The cover of the first region,

with its timber, brushland, bluffs and
steep narrow ravines, irregularly inter-

spersed with fields and pastures, should
be expected to provide good habitat, fig.

26. Cover on the Black Prairie is fur-

nished chiefly by timbered bottomland,

woodlots and waste areas such as strip-

mines and abandoned gravel pits. Strip-

mines in Fulton and Vermilion counties

are known to hold comparatively large

numbers of red foxes. Hunters, on snow,

often jump foxes in daytime in open fields.

The intermittent nature of streams in the

Gray Prairie, Central Sand Prairie and

many parts of the Black Prairie lowers

the general quality of the habitat in these

regions. As reflected in the catch, the

Glacial Lakes offers the poorest red fox

range, but this indication is hard to recon-

cile with the known cover, water and food

resources of the region. So far as the

writers are aware, red foxes here are not

accorded special protection by fox clubs

or other organizations. It seems probable

that the method of trapping, wherein a

great majority of the sets are made for

muskrats and minks, precludes the taking

of many foxes. Because of low price, little

deliberate fox trapping was done any-

where in the state during the survey years.

Trapping and Hunting.—Approxi-

mately one-half of the Illinois red fox

catch was made by trappers and one-half

by hunters, as determined in the survey,

table 13. The degree of both trapping

and hunting, however, varied widely by

regions. Trapping predominated in the

Gray Prairie and Glacial Lakes regions;

hunting was the more common method

of capture in the Northwestern Sand Prai-

rie, the Central Sand Prairie and the



484 Ii.i.iNois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

Fig. 26.—Good red fox range in the Ozark foothills, Hardin County, Shawnee National

Forest. This is in the River Bluffs and Bottoms Region.

Northwest Hills regions. In other regions

both methods were employed about equal-

ly, but with wide variations by jears. For
example, in the Black Prairie, trappers

took only 14 per cent of the red foxes in

1938-3Q, but 80 per cent the next year. A
somewhat similar situation was noted in

the River Bluffs and Bottoms Region.

No attempt will be made here to give

an account of fox hunting in Illinois. Its

devotees are fully as enthusiastic as those

who pursue the coon, and the chase itself

is probably even more of a social event.

Fox hunters are typically "crony" groups,

often rivals in other walks of life but able

to find common ground in baying dogs,

camp fires, stimulants and stories. Fox
hunting is one of the great American tra-

ditions, and a diversion in which the recre-

ational returns far outweigh any monetary
value of the furs. Farmers and business

men, rural and urban dwellers, make up
the membership of practically all fox-

hunting clubs. Vox hunts or fox drives,

staged in da> time, are becoming very com-
mon in the Black Prairie Region.

Fox trapping is probably the best exam-
ple of the trapper's art. Few species are

credited with more intelligence than foxes

in avoiding traps, and years of experience
seem to be necessary before a trapper ac-

quires the status of a fox expert. Success-
ful trappers use both baited and nonbaited

sets. Traps placed in trails, gaps in woven
wire fences, on mounds overlooking some
natural food or lure are often successful.

When bait is employed, it is commonly
buried around a stump or rock and traps

placed in the freshly excavated soil. Many
successful sets are made on or around old

straw stacks.

Fox hunters often strenuously oppose

the use of traps for foxes, as well as other

animals, because of the possibility of

catching dogs.

Management.—A few foxes "go a

long way." In farm communities there is

more danger of red foxes becoming too

numerous than of probably any other fur

species. Since the population trend in Illi-

nois during recent years has been upward,

there is no need of protection beyond that

normally accorded to other fur animals in

this state. Indeed, it may become desirable

to reduce local red fox populations, and

increased hunting and trapping in season

is the method recommended. We feel that

bounties are not eff^ective in control and

that they may encourage bootlegging of

fox furs and other undesirable practices.

The destruction of adult foxes and pups

during the summer months results in

waste and should be discouraged except

in cases where animals of known guilt are

involved.

For most years, an open season coincid-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 485

ing with that for all other fur animals,

with control based on more intensive

hunting and trapping in season, offers the

simplest plan of management, and one
fair to hunters and trappers alike. An
unprotected status of the species in the

northern and central zones may be justi-

fied in periods of a decidedly upward trend

in red fox populations. The period for dog
training should coincide with that recom-
mended for coon dogs, Sept. 15 through

Jan. 31, and for the same reason.

Gray Fox

The gray fox is essentially a timberland

species, and in Illinois in the two seasons

of the survey was found in greatest density

in the River Bluffs and Bottoms Region,

fig. 27. Here the calculated catch aver-

aged 0.35 pelt per square mile in 1938-39

and 0.42 per square mile in 1939-40, table

14. The Northwest Hills ranked second

in catch density, with an average of 0.29

and 0.20 pelt per square mile in 1938-39

and 1939-40, respectively. The North-
western Sand Prairie and the Glacial

Lakes, with trace yields averaging 0.03

and 0.01 pelt per square mile, respective-

ly, were represented only in 1938-39. The
survey indicated that the species appeared
in the catch only in these four regions.

In 1938-39, the calculated catch of gray
foxes was 4,328, worth $7,574.00; in

1939-40, 4,889, worth $8,555.75, table

14. Gray foxes ranked eighth in the catch
for these two seasons, table 20. The aver-
age price for these years of $1.75 per pelt,

table 5, may be considered lower than
normal.

Popularity.—The gray fox is gener-
ally unpopular. It lacks the sporting qual-

ities of the red fox, and in the public mind
it is a serious predator on pcjultry and
game. Fur-takers are indifferent because

of the low pelt value. Of the total of 142
opinions expressed by trappers and hunt-
ers, 92 favored more and 50 fewer ani-

mals. Thus, the gray fox, along with the

opossum and coyote, ranks very low in the

estimation of Illinois fur-takers.

Damage and Control.—^The remarks
made under this heading for the red fox

are generally applicable to the gray fox.

Some persons regard the gray fox more
destructive to game, particularly forest

game, than the red fox.

Populations.—The data at hand indi-

Mf-^'SuL'n^' -ilt^

Fig. 27.—The gray fox is typically a forest-inhabiting species. The foothill and river bluff

types of Union County offer excellent range for this fox.



486 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6

u.



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 487

cate a slight increase in the gray fox pop-
ulation in 1939-40 over that of the pre-

ceding year; thus, this species was the

only one to show an increase during the

period covered by the study. In the River
Bluf¥s and Bottoms, gray foxes appear to

be more numerous than red foxes and in

favored localities may show a ratio of two
to one over the reds. In the regions from
which catches were recorded, the gray fox

showed an average catch for the survey
period of about 0.26 pelt per square mile

as compared with slightly less than 0.16

for the red fox, but for the state as a

whole the red fox catch was approximate-
ly twice as heavy, being almost 0.16 per

square mile compared with about 0.08 per

square mile for the gray fox, tables 13

and 14.

In the Northwest Hills and River
Bluffs and Bottoms regions, the only two
in which the gray fox was plentiful, there

was comparatively little variation in the

population as indicated solely by catch in

the two survey seasons. Red fox catches

in four regions indicated great differences

in numbers between the two seasons, table

13. It may be that the gray fox is less

cyclic, but on the basis of data at hand
such a statement represents little more
than speculation. Higher fur prices would
undoubtedly have resulted in larger catch-

es, and for this reason it is impossible to

estimate population on catch alone. It is

certain that the gray fox occurs over a

larger area and in greater numbers than

indicated by survey data.

Habitats.—The gray fox range in Illi-

nois is not decreasing as rapidly as former-

ly, because of the fact that many brush

areas, refuges and forest preserves now
occupy lands once farmed or subject to

lumbering operations. The best gray fox

habitat in Illinois is in the River Bluffs

and Bottoms Region, which is character-

ized by heavy timber stands, underbrush,

rock outcrops and deep, shady ravines,

fig. 26. The Northwest Hills and the

Northwestern Sand Prairie offer similar

habitats. The Glacial Lakes Region is

more parklike and lacks rock outcrops.

Why no gray foxes were reported in the

catch from the comparatively well-wood-

ed Gray Prairie Region is not known.
Distribution of the gray fox, as indicated

by the survey, is principally over the north-

ern half of the state, except for the River

Bluffs and Bottoms Region. This fox, to

a greater degree than the red fox. is intol-

erant of man and cultivation.

Food for the gray fox in all its habitats
is probably ample, consisting of rabbits,

mice, birds, insects and fruits. The per-
simmon is said to be important in regions
where it occurs.

Trapping and Hunting.— Over
three-fourths of the Illinois gray foxes
were taken by trappers and less than one-
fourth by hunters in the years of the sur-

vey. There is little deliberate attempt in

this state to take them in traps; most are
incidentally captured in sets made for red
foxes, skunks and other land species. Trap-
pers specifically trying for them employ
methods similar to those used for the red
fox.

Gray fox hunting offers little of the ex-

citement characteristic of red fox hunt-
ing. Chases seldom last more than 30 min-
utes and often not long enough to allow
the hunter to make a stand. Gray foxes

are sometimes treed in bushy or inclined

trees, from which they are easily shot.

Management. — Suggestions given
under this heading for the red fox are

generally suitable for the gray fox.

Badger

Badgers occurred in low numbers over
the Northwest Hills and the Northwest-
ern Sand Prairie Regions in 1938-39 and
1939-40. Probably at no point in the state

could they be considered common. Al-
tliough the Illinois game codes of 1937
and 1939 appear to have provided full

protection for badgers, a common inter-

pretation of the statutes was such that

these animals were hunted and trapped

through at least the season of 1938-39.

The survey indicated that 116 were taken

in 1938-39, but only 8 in 1939-40. Al-

though these data are not considered re-

liable, the reduction in 1939-40 suggests

that the correct interpretation of the law,

and an appreciable measure of protection,

began about this time. The game code

put into effect in 1941 clarified the pro-

vision that accorded to badgers a year-

around closed season.

The low price of badger fur, averaging

only about 75 cents per pelt for several

years prior to 1941, restricted the catch,

and probably was important in prevent-



488 li.i.iNois Natlrai. History Slrvf.y Bum-KTix lol. 22, J ft. 6

injj complete extirpation of tlic species ainonji horses and tattle. In some locali-

from the state. tifs. Ji'id in certain years, control measures

Haiijiers are {i;enerally considered a in the form of ^assinji and poisoned bait,

nuisance, and little appreciation accrues now illejial. undoubtedly resulted in some

#11^1

Fig. 28.—Horseshoe Lake, Alexander County. This and other oxbow lakes along the Mis-

sissippi. Illinois and Ohio rivers, supplying food, water and relative seclusion, offer potential

if not actual otter range.

from their rodent-destroying value. Their

dens constitute a hazard to livestock, and

their ability to fight when cornered re-

sults in the crippling of dogs. Trappers

in this state found them hard to hold,

tough to skin and unprofitable, because

most Illinois badgers have the coarse,

"hair-badger" type of pelt. For these rea-

sons there was little deliberate effort to

trap them even in the years when badger

trapping was legal, and hunters sought to

avoid badgers because of the resultant

fights and maiming of their dogs. Most of

the badgers were taken incidentally to

trapping for other animals. Still-hunters

accounted for a part of the take. Traps

set at the entrance of dens, mistaken by

trappers for those of skunks, were most

productive and a large part of the badger

catch was so made.

The most suitable badger habitat in Il-

linois appears to be rolling, sandy grass-

land prairie. Here the animals dig in-

numerable dens and holes, partly in pur-

suit of rodents. Such activities may de-

stroy some pasture area, in addition to

being the cause of occasional broken legs

decrease in the badger population as well

as that of skunk, woodchuck and other

mammal species.

In view of the scarcity of the badger,

the writers believe it to be worthy of

full protection except under such circum-

stances as make control imperative.

Coyote

The coyote, according to Gregory

(1936), was once plentiful in the Chi-

cago region, later practically extirpated,

"and only recently beginning to appear

occasionally." Its present population in

the state is very low, and, as determined

by the survey, it appeared in the fur catch

only in the Northwestern Sand Prairie.

It is, however, known to occur in other

regions of the state. The tendency of the

coyote to cross with dogs complicates its

status considerably and partly accounts

for the frequent reports of its occurrence.

In man\ instances where such reports

have been checked it was found that the

animal involved was a police dog, or

occasionally some other kind. A number



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 489

of records of recent date are given in the

Mohr report.

In its present numbers, coyotes in them-
selves constitute little or no problem in

Illinois, and many of the complaints

popularly associated with them are in re-

ality associated with wild or free-ranging

dogs. In the event that coyotes become
numerous, control measures may of course

become necessary ; any contemplated stat-

utes and action relative to control of

coyotes should include wild dogs.

The catch of 91 coyotes calculated for

1938-39 is believed to be based on too few
data to be reliable. A catch of 25 per

year is considered much more likely.

Otter

The otter, if not actually extirpated

from Illinois, is present only in straggling

numbers. The most recent records for the

state are given in the Mohr report. This
species has probably been of no appreci-

able importance in the Illinois fur trade

since about 1900.

In view of the several large rivers in

and bounding the state, and particularly

the large backwaters along the Illinois

and Mississippi rivers that have formed
behind navigation dams, there is undoubt-
edly some suitable otter range in the state,

fig. 28. Numerous deep, wooded, clear-

water sloughs making up part of such
backwaters offer ample food, water and
seclusion. With continued protection,

w'hich fortunately has been given this spe-

cies since 1929, it would not be surpris-

ing to see otters regain a part of their

former Illinois range. It is not considered

likely, however, that they will appear in

sufficient numbers, at least in the near

future, to justify an open season.

Beaver

I he beaver has been of no appreciable

importance in the Illinois fur trade since

about 1850. This species was complete-

ly extirpated in the state some time after

Forbes (1912) had reported on the native

animal resources of Illinois. It was re-

introduced in 1935, and now appears to

be established in Pope and Union coun-

ties. An account of beaver restocking,

increase and spread is given in the Mohr
report.

Except in certain southern Illinois lo-

Fig. 29.—Beaver lodge at Wolf Lake, Union County, 1939. This boUomlan.i Maud of soft

maple, cottonwood and willow was flooded in 1938.



490 Ilunois Nam r.m. History Survey Bui.i.etin lot. 22, Art. 6

calities, because of :io;ricultural interests

there is little potential beaver ran^e in

the state. In the more heavily forested

counties, however, particularly where

small streams or lakes, and cottonwood,

willow, soft maple and other hardwood

stands occur, the beaver would find a

bobcats may still occur in very low num-
bers or, in the e\ent of suitable protection,

the\ ma\ appear there in the future. Sev-

eral bobcats were reported taken in Alex-

ander and Jackson counties in 1942, from
the forest-bluffs habitat alonjj the Missis-

sippi River. In view of the general ab-

"'^

i^^^IL

Fig. 30.—An example of Illinois terrain, Pope County, suitable for bobcat range. Semi-

wilderness forests and broken terrain offer territory attractive to this species.

limited amount of permanent habitat.

One well-used beaver habitat was cre-

ated in Union County by flooding a small

hardwood timbered bottom, fig. 29. It is

not improbable that cottonwood- and Avil-

low-bordered stripmine lakes would sup-

port beavers. There is, of course, no like-

lihood of this species regaining its former
importance in the state.

Bobcat

The bobcat, or wildcat, is another Illi-

nois mammal now found in very low num-
bers. Decimation was rapid after 1910
because bobcats offer exciting sport, are

condemned as destructive predators by
farmers and many sportsmen, and require

a semiwilderness habitat. The logging of

cypress swamps in the southern tip of

the state probably destroyed the last good
bobcat range in Illinois. In several south-

ern Illinois counties where sizable areas

of forests and bluffs are found, fig. 30,

sence of suitable range, it is likely that

bobcats will never regain their former

status, even in the more heavily timbered

parts of the state. Other recent records

of bobcat occurrence in Illinois are given

in the Mohr report.

Bobcats, because of the very low value

of the fur, have never been of any appre-

ciable importance in the fur trade, Illinois

or elsewhere.

H( Cat

The house cat is now one of the most

abundant carnivores in Illinois, as in many
other states. Its ecological influence has

never been adequately studied, but that it

is an important predator in farm regions

can hardly be doubted. No close estimate

of the Illinois house cat population is made
here, but one per household, rural and

urban, is not an exaggeration. This would
amount to over 1,500,000 cats, of which

at least half are free to range over game-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 491

producing areas. It is certain that a very

large number of rodents are destroyed

by these cats, and equally certain that

thousands of song and game birds and
rabbits are also destroyed. The fur, while

salable for a few cents per pelt, is of prac-

tically no importance in the trade. This
circumstance further disqualifies the spe-

cies as a worthy member of the fauna.

The writers recommend strongly a

material reduction of the free-ranging

liouse cat population and suggest shooting

and trapping by conservation officials,

sportsmen and trappers as the best method

of effecting such reduction.

TOTAL YIELD AND VALUE

The foregoing sections have given in

some detail the yield and value of each

important Illinois fur animal during the

two seasons covered by the survey. The
discussion is continued in the following

paragraphs, but with all species grouped
and the state considered as a unit. For
convenience and brevity, much of this in-

formation is presented in tables.

Any consideration of the yield and
value of the total fur resource of Illinois

should be prefaced by a discussion of fur

prices. The average prices of the seven

most important Illinois raw furs, 1909
through 1942, is shown in fig. 31. With
the exception of those for minks, prices

during the seasons of 1938-39 and 1939-

40 were about equal to, or at least not far

above, those prevailing during the worst

years of the recent depression. Based on
the opinions of hundreds of Illinois fur-

takers, the fur catch has steadily declined

O in

RED FOX
MINK

RACCOON
SKUNK --

GRAY FOX
MUSKRAT
OPOSSUM

SEASONS
Fig. 31.—Average raw fur prices, Central States, for seven important species, 1909-10

through 19+1-42. Sources of data: 1909-35, St. Louis Globe-Democrat, as adapted from Bennitt

& Nagel (1937) ;
1935-42, Fur-Flsh-Game raw fur market averages for iNo. 1 medium pelts.



492 Ii.i.iNuis Natural History Survey Bulletin rot. 22, Art. 6



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 493

Table 17.—Composition of calculated Illinois fur catch, expressed for each region and each
important species as per cent of total catch for 1938-39 and 1939-40.



494 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

Per

Cent

OF
Average

Annual Value



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 495

some increase in populations, but their net

effect on these populations is difficult to

evaluate. Studies of extended duration

on representative areas are necessary be-

fore the full effect of prices and various

other economic and social factors can be

determined.

Of the factors other than price that

may affect the fur catch, the most im-

portant are weather, employment and the

degree of prosperity among rural people

generally. The effect of both employment
and rural prosperity is apparent; during

industrial booms, especially in mining and
lumbering, or during eras of good farm
prices, potential trappers are not inclined

to follow the uncertain recourse of fur-

taking for a livelihood. This reference to

farmer-trappers chiefly concerns tenants,

share-croppers and small farm owners in

southern or southwestern Illinois. Few
landowners in the more prosperous farm
regions give any time or thought to the

fur crop, since it is insignificant in com-

parison with their main farm activities.

As discussed previously, there has been

a pronounced decline in farm-boy trapping

in Illinois. The skill of older professional

trappers offers discouraging competition

to boys, who are now concerned with

school and related activities.

The effect of weather on the catch

is highly important. Mild weather and

open water usually result in increased

catches, since traps placed on logs, in

trails or at the edge of lakes and streams

do not freeze down, and every night is

a "catching" night. Extreme drought, re-

sulting in dried-up water courses, serves

to concentrate muskrats, minks, and prob-

ably other species, on areas where water

is available. Under such conditions the

bulk of the catch may be made by rela-

tively few trappers, while fur-takers with-

out trapping water often hang up their

traps for the season or until heavy rains

fall. Dry conditions also make for poor

trailing and consequently low night

catches of raccoons, opossums, foxes and

other fur animals. Very deep snow, sleet

and floods are also detrimental to good

catches. Cold weather induces hiberna-

tion in raccoons and skunks, and reduced

activity in certain other species. On the

other hand, warm weather probably re-

sults in maximum travel on the part of

fur animals and therefore increased chance

of being taken in traps. Unseasonably
warm weather may result in some spoil-

age of pelts. Under certain conditions,

especially in the Glacial Lakes Region and
on the Illinois River marshes, ice a few
inches thick is conducive to good muskrat
trapping.

In tables 15 and 16, respectively, the
calculated total and average per-square-
mile catch of Illinois furs is given by
species and regions for both years covered
by the survey. In table 17, these data are

expressed in per cent for both species and
regions, and for the state as a whole. In
table 18, the calculated income value of

the fur resource per square mile in sample
counties is summarized; and, in table 19,

the value is expressed in dollars for both

species and regions, and in per cent for

regions. Table 20, comparing catch with

value, shows wide variation between total

value and the total number of pelts for

the various fur animal species. Similarity

in percentages relating to catch and value

for the same regions, tables 15 and 19, is

due to compensating factors between num-
ber and average pelt value of species. The
data in tables 16 and 19 are taken directly

from the preceding tables dealing with

specific animals.

The value of the fur resource in Illi-

nois as given in table 19 for 1938-39 and

1939-40 is probably lower than the aver-

age annual income. How much lower it

was than the average for the previous 20

years is not known. The total income for

1938-39 was $1,297,126.55, as calculated

from sample data; for 1939-40, $1,106,-

534.35, derived in the same manner.

These data represent an average income

of $1,201,830.45 per season.

As stated in a previous section of this

paper, the raw fur income is derived

practically without investment or man-

agement, and at no harvesting expense ex-

cept time and the cost of trappers' sup-

plies. The investment, capitalized at 4

per cent, required to yield a comparable

annual income may be calculated by using

the standard formula:

^ . ,
$1,201,830.45

Capital = Q-Q4 ,

or $30,045,761.25

When the lower-than-average incomes

of 1938-39 and 1939-40 are taken into



496 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 22. Art. 6

Table 20.—Calculated catch and value of Illinois furs for two seasons, 1938-39 and 1939-40.



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 497

aged furs amounted to 7, 13 and 14 per

cent for the northern, central and south-

ern zones, respectively. Damage was prob-

ably most often caused by dogs, and was
common among pelts taken by night hunt-

ers. The percentage of damaged furs

showed a correlation by zones with the

amount of night hunting. Other causes of

damage were carelessness in skinning and

stretching, wherein pelts were cut or torn

;

fighting by the animals before or after

they were taken in traps; and spoilage.

Damage from fighting, which in some

species shortly precedes mating activity,

was common late in the season. Minor
types of damage, from the standpoint of

volume, were "curling," "singeing," "rub-

bing" and "fading," all usually a result

of wear or mechanical injury and not

apparent until late in the season. Musk-

Fig. 32.—Location of major fur companies

and local fur buyers interviewed in determin-

ing quality of Illinois furs and practices em-

ployed in the state's fur trade. One major

company in Chicago and four in St. Louis,

Mo., are represented.

rats showed by far the largest volume of

damaged fur. Opossums showed the high-

est percentage. This was due probably
to the large volume of opossum furs taken

with dogs and to carelessness in skinning

and stretching these low-priced pelts.

Other species such as raccoons and red

foxes were occasionally damaged at the

time of capture or in handling. A large

part of damage in all species is prevent-

able.

In Illinois minks, an inferior grade

known as "cotton" is found. "Cotton"
minks are usually detected by blowing into

the fur side of the pelt, which discloses the

grayish color of the under fur ; some skins

are so white that the defect is discernible

from a distance. There appeared to be a

distinct increase in the per cent of "cot-

ton" minks for 1939-40 over the preceding

season. Dealers reported that in the north-

ern zone 3.9 per cent, in the central zone

4 per cent and in the southern zone 0.3

per cent of the pelts were of "cotton"

quality. The greatest number was re-

ported from the central Illinois River

valley, particularly from the vicinity of

Havana. Here, one dealer stated that

"cotton" minks made up 20 per cent of

the catch, but this estimate may be too

high. A large fur company, which re-

ceives a great deal of Illinois fur, reported

that of this state's mink catch 1.46 per

cent in 1938-39 and 5.5 per cent in 1939-

40 were "cotton" skins. The cause of the

defect and the reasons for its increase in

1939-40 are not known. Reduction in

value varies with the amount of white,

but averages about 50 per cent.

Illinois skunks, which prime early,

grade largely to No. I's and No. 2's; they

are further classified according to the

length and width of the two white dorsal

stripes. These classifications are given in

table 21. Pelts containing the smallest

amount of white are the most valuable.

As shown in table 21, the highest per-

centage of dark skunks in Illinois came

from the southern zone, although by far

the largest skunk catches were made in

the northwestern regions of the state.

The northern zone produced the highest

percentage of broad and narrow stripe

pelts.

Mange was observed on red fox, rac-

coon, opossum and skunk pelts. It prob-

ably occurred on others. The infestation



498 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin J'ol. 22. Art. 6

for all species ran less than 1 per cent. A
few trappers reported takinp lice-infested

minks, which were thinh furred and of

poor quality. Some of the mink pelts

sht)wed wounds, evidently the result of

chewing: or scratchinjj irritated spots.

Some account was taken of unusual

skins observed in various fur-receiving and

storage rooms, or reported by dealers.

Such pelts usually bring less than furs of

muskrats at the rapid rate of 60 per hour.

In Illinois, most trappers visit their

traps daily, usually as early in the morn-
ing as possible. Unlike north-woods trap-

pers, few have lines so long as to require

more than a half day to cover them. Lines

run early in the day result in fewer es-

capes, less damaged fur, less theft and. of

course, much less suffering on the part of

captured animals. Furbearers still alive

Table 21.

—

Percentages of raw skunk furs of five different qualities, judged on the basis of

color alone, from the three Illinois trapping zones, 1938-39 and 1939-40. Figures furnished by

fur dealers.

Zone



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 499

Drying or curing is highly important in

preparing raw furs for the market. A cool,

airy, dry room or attic is the best type

of drying place. Muskrats require only

two or three days to dry sufficiently for

shipping ; foxes may require a week or

more. Raw furs should never be dried in

the sun, before a fire or stove, or treated

with salt or other curing preparations.

Trappers operating on a large scale

sometimes market their catch unskinned.

This is convenient and allows more time

for trapping. The catch of the average

trapper in Illinois, however, does not war-

rant such practice. Prompt skinning is

necessary since animals left to freeze and

thaw quickly deteriorate, thereby greatly

reducing fur quality.

Too much emphasis cannot be placed

on the need for proper handling of furs.

Dealers and large fur companies have
emphasized the need for care in skinning,

stretching and fleshing, and have pro-

moted such care by awarding daily and
weekly cash prizes for the best handled

pelts of all important species. Most large

companies provide detailed handling in-

structions, free for the asking.

Very little use is now made of the

skinned carcasses of fur animals, although

efforts are being made to develop markets

for Illinois muskrat meat. Such develop-

ment would provide annually about

1,000,000 pounds of food now almost en-

tirely wasted. Fox farmers in northern

Illinois find limited use for skinned ani-

mals in the preparation of feed. 1 here is

a slight demand, especially in southern

Illinois, for opossum and raccoon meat at

low prices. Most of the carcasses are fed

Fig. 33.—An early season catch of well-handled muskrat skins from

The freshly skinned pelts have been stretched and are being dried on wire

Vermilion

frames.

County.



500 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22, Art. 6

to hogs or are buried or burned. Large

fur companies usually save the fatty resi-

dues from pelts in fleshing operations.

Selling

During the seasons of the survey, ap-

pr().\imatel_\ 40 per cent of the annual

Illinois fur catch was shipped directly to

large fur houses, 50 per cent taken to local

dealers and 10 per cent picked up at trap-

pers' camps or residences by traveling buy-

ers or representatives of local dealers.

Most local dealers finally disposed of their

collections to the larger auction houses.

On the basis of the best estimates avail-

able, about 75 per cent of the total Illinois

catch ultimately went to St. Louis and

Chicago and the remainder to eastern fur

centers.

After the opening date of the Illinois

fur season there is a rapid turnover of the

catch, beginning with the trapper who
disposes of his skins to traveling buyers,

local dealers, or the large fur houses, and

terminating when the furs have been

graded and sorted into large uniform lots

for auction to manufacturers. Auctions

are usually held on the floors of the large

fur companies.

Some local dealers prefer to handle

freshly skinned but unstretched pelts, or

even unskinned animals, brought in daily

by trappers and hunters or collected daily

by traveling representatives of the dealers.

Dealers buying unskinned animals employ
one or more skinners to handle the pelts.

This practice results in greater uniformity

in handling and somewhat better sales

prices. Of the 43 local dealers contacted,

28 preferred to buy stretched and dried

pelts, 1 1 preferred freshly skinned but un-

stretched pelts, 2 preferred to do their own
skinning and 2 had no preference.

No special attempt will be made here

to discuss the illegal phases of fur-taking

and marketing. The chief evil appears to

be before- and after-season trapping. Pre-

season furs are held until after the sea-

son opens, and, other than being more
unprime than legal furs, they can scarcely

be detected when sold. That early trap-

ping is common was clearly determined
during the survey, and it appeared to be

especially prevalent in certain parts of

southern Illinois. It was apparent that

some local buyers encouraged the practice

and in this manner attempted to corner

the local trade.

Some furs taken after the season closes,

in the 10-day postseason interval during

which furs may be legally held, are harder

to dispose of than preseason furs. A com-
mon practice seems to be to carry them
into a bordering state having a later sea-

son, where they are sold as local furs. The
large fur companies in St. Louis and Chi-

cago earnestly encourage legal trapping,

but have no practical means of determin-

ing the legality of furs purchased either

by shipment or in over-the-counter trans-

actions.

SUMMARY
1. The Illinois wild fur resource was

studied intensively in the field from June
1, 1939, to June 30, 1940. This paper,

prepared subsequently, is the final project

report.

2. In the previous literature on Illi-

nois fur animals, which deals mainly with

their habits and predator relationships, es-

timates of the value of the fur resource,

prior to about 1930, Avere lower than the

actual value is believed to have been.

3. The main objective of the survey

was the determination of facts on which

to base biologically sound trapping laws

and other regulations pertaining to Illi-

nois fur animals. Such facts involved

the habitat requirements of the fur ani-

mals, the annual yield and income by

species and localities, the portion of furs

taken by trappers and by hunters, the

number of licensed and unlicensed fur-

takers, methods of trapping, hunting and
marketing furs, and fur animal cycles.

4. For convenience in sampling, Illi-

nois was divided into eight survey regions,

division being on the basis of soil, forest

cover, drainage, topography and similar

features. Representative sample counties

were selected in each region, and survey

strips one mile wide were run in an east-

west direction at uniform intervals across

each. Approximately 1 1 per cent or more
of each sample county was included in

the strips. In the eight regions the sample

varied from 0.67 per cent to over 9 per

cent of the total area. For the state it

amounted to 1.7 per cent of the total area.

Each household on the sample strips was
visited, and information pertaining to fur-



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 501

taking on the part of all residents was
uniformlj' recorded. Return trips and
much night and week-end work were
necessary in order to obtain all records.

5. In 1938-39, the calculated number
of Illinois fur-takers, defined as individuals

taking furs by their own efforts, was
29,431; in 1939-40, the total was 27,021.

About 9,500 individuals each year took

furs by hunting; all other fur-takers were
trappers.

6. Fur-taker density in the eight re-

gions varied from 0.33 to 0.83 per square

mile, the greatest density being in the

Glacial Lakes Region north and west

of Chicago. The lowest density was in

the west-central part of the state, be-

tween the Illinois River and the Black

Prairie. For the state as a whole, density

was about one fur-taker per 2 square

miles.

7. Illinois trapping laws in 1938-39

were staggered both by zones and species;

in 1939-40, they were staggered only by

zones. The basic season was from Nov.
15 to Jan. 15 or 31. In 1938-39, 15,472

licenses were sold; 18,277 were sold in

1939-40. Slightly more than one-half of

the Illinois fur-takers in the two seasons

were licensed. Unlicensed fur-takers were
mainly legal operators on their own or

rented land, where they were exempt from
the license requirement. The number of

fur-takers operating illegally was difficult

to determine, but apparently varied by

localities from almost none to 10 per cent

or more of the total number.

8. Average raw fur prices for the two

seasons, determined by averaging amounts

received for a large series of pelts of

each species from each zone, were low.

9. A summary of the catch, value,

population fluctuation, popularity and

other pertinent data relating to Illinois

fur animals for 1938-39 and 1939-40 is

given in table 22.

10. Badgers and coyotes occurred in

such small numbers that the sampling

methods used did not give reliable data.

Otters, beavers and badgers w^ere accorded

full protection. Beavers, reintroduced in

southern Illinois in 1935, were found to

be increasing in numbers. Otters and bob-

cats occurred in very low numbers, if at

all. House cat numbers were estimated

at 1,500,000, at least one-half of which

were free to hunt out of doors the year

around. This species, perhaps the most
common predator in the state, was of

practically no value in the fur trade.

11. Individual animals of any of the

Illinois fur species may be more injurious

than beneficial to man, but no species

could be classed as wholly destructive.

Foxes and weasels, under conditions pres-

ent at the time of the survey, were prob-
ably the most destructive fur animal spe-

cies in the state. Control of destructive

individuals, if necessary involving killing

at any time of year, is advocated but,

when possible, trapping and hunting in

season are recommended as control meth-
ods. Usually the services of experienced

trappers can be enlisted.

12. Habitats for most Illinois fur

animals appeared to be deteriorating more
or less steadily at the time of the survey.

The most noticeable example was the rac-

coon habitat, which was being subjected

to heavy lumbering. Drainage of low-

lands was reducing the area of muskrat
and mink range, but the use made of

ditches by these two species partly com-
pensated for this loss. Minks had been

sharply reduced in numbers during the

preceding decade because of the continued

high prices of the fur. Opossums and

foxes seemed well adapted to conditions

existing at the time of the survey, and

their numbers, due partly to low fur

prices, were stationary or were increasing.

13. Methods of taking furs varied by

species and regions. More than three-

fourths of the annual fur take was by

trappers ; the remainder by hunters, oper-

ating day or night, with or without dogs.

Night hunting was commonest in forested

regions, because raccoons and opossums,

the two species taken most by night

hunters, were most abundant in this habi-

tat. Farm-boy trapping showed a material

decline in Illinois; a large part of the

fur catch was by experienced trappers Avho

averaged 33 years old. The volume of the

catch was found to be greatly influenced

by weather, fur prices and industrial con-

ditions.

14. The average annual value of the

Illinois fur resource in 1938-39 and 1939-

40, summarized in tables 15 to 20, in-

clusive, was over $1,200,000, which repre-

sents a capital value of over $30,000,000

at 4 per cent interest. The fur income

for the two seasons reported on was un-



502 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Fol. 22. Art. 6



September, 1943 Brown & Yeager: Survey of Fur Resource 503

doubtedly below average, because of low
raw fur prices.

15. Fur quality, fundamentally in-

fluenced by food, injury, age and season,

was studied in some detail during the sur-

vey, which revealed that about 1 1 per cent

of Illinois furs were damaged, mainly
by dogs and improper handling. Kits, of

little value in the fur trade, constituted,

for muskrat, 8.5 per cent; opossum, 15

per cent; raccoon, 10 per cent; skunk,

4 per cent ; and mink, 2.5 per cent. The
species showing the highest percentage

of No. 1 furs were, in descending order,

weasel, mink, skunk, raccoon, gray fox,

muskrat, red fox and opossum. Foxes were
damaged mainly by dogs, and opossums by

both dogs and carelessness in handling

this low-priced fur. From 0.3 to 4.0 per

cent of the mink pelts had white or "cot-

ton" underfur, and such pelts, size for

size, averaged only about one-half the

value of normal-colored pelts. Less than

10 per cent of Illinois skunks graded

"black" and "star," the most valuable

classifications, while about two-thirds

graded "narrow stripe" and "broad

stripe," the least valuable classifications.

Mange was observed on red fox, raccoon,

opossum and skunk pelts, and lice infesta-

tions were reported in those of mink, but

in all cases much less than 1 per cent

of the skins or animals were involved.

16. Skill in skinning and stretching

pelts was directly proportional to trappers'

experience. The best handled pelts came
from professional and the poorest handled

from inexperienced and boy trappers. The
loss due to poor handling is unknown.

but probably amounted to at least 10 per
cent of the total annual fur income. No
adequate market has been developed for
fur-animal meat or other by-products.

17. About 40 per cent of the annual
fur catch was shipped directly to large
fur houses, 50 per cent was sold to local
dealers and 10 per cent was picked up
at trappers' residences by traveling buy-
ers. The ultimate selling destination of
Illinois furs was St. Louis, Chicago and
eastern fur centers. Of 43 dealers inter-

viewed, about 65 per cent preferred to buy
dried pelts, 25 per cent freshly skinned
but unstretched pelts and the remainder
preferred unskinned animals or had no
preference. Raw furs were found to be
always readily salable. It was found that

pelts taken illegally, whether before or

after the open season, were usually dis-

posed of; those taken before the season by
being held until after the season opened,
and those taken after the season by being
sold in Illinois before the end of the 10-day
period during which raw furs might be

legally held, or by being transported to

and sold in a neighboring state having
a season with a later closing date.

18. The average annual income of

over $1,200,000 yielded by the fur re-

source in Illinois was found to be derived

practically without management and with
no investment except time for harvesting

the crop and the small cost of trappers'

and hunters' supplies. Practical manage-
ment measures, correlated with agricul-

tural and other land use, would undoubt-

edly result in a material increase in the

annual income.

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