Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice


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impactinged.pitt.edu ISSN 2472-5889 (online) 
Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023) DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 

 

 

 

 

Learning Beyond the Content: 
A Dissertation in Practice on Workforce Skills Development at Community Colleges

William C. Torres  
Tarleton State University 

wtorres@mail.com 

Lesley F. Leach  
Tarleton State University 

leach@tarleton.edu 

Ryan Glaman  
Tarleton State University 

glaman@tarleton.edu 

J. Russell Higham  
Tarleton State University 

higham@tarleton.edu 

ABSTRACT 

In this article, we present an example of a student’s recently completed dissertation in practice (DiP) to 

demonstrate how the DiP can serve as culminating evidence of a student’s successful preparation as a scholar-

practitioner. The purpose of this DiP was to determine to what extent students develop workforce skills while 

completing a community college education and what institutions can do to better prepare students to be 

successful upon graduation. Results from this mixed-method study (N = 77) suggest that graduates perceived 

learning a considerable amount of workforce skills during their time at the institution. However, respondents 

also reported that more hands-on learning would have enhanced their skill development. Through this study, 

the doctoral candidate was able to gain substantive results while addressing key CPED guiding principles. 

 
KEYWORDS 

workforce skills, soft skills, community colleges, experiential learning, teaching and learning 

  

Preparing educators to practice as scholars is at the heart of the 

professional practice doctorate in education as defined by the 

Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED) framework 

(CPED, 2022). One who practices as a scholar (or scholar-

practitioner) works to identify and improve upon complex problems 

through effective collaboration, systematic inquiry, as well as their 

own practical wisdom, skills, and knowledge (CPED, 2022). In 

professional practice doctoral programs, dissertations in practice 

(DiP) often serve as program capstones that provide evidence of 

students’ emergence as scholar practitioners who can apply 

systematic inquiry and professional skills to improve educational 

outcomes (CPED, 2022).  In addition to signaling the successful 

preparation of individual students, successful DiPs also serve as 

clear evidence for professional practice doctoral programs that they 

have successfully developed students to continue their scholarly 

practice in their future roles as educational professionals. 

CPED GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR PROGRAM 
DESIGN 

Although CPED member programs are individually designed to 

fit the specific contexts and constituencies that they serve, they 

ideally align with six guiding principles for program design offered in 

The CPED Framework (CPED, 2022). These principles take shape 

in professional practice educational doctorate programs within a 

combination of both coursework and out-of-course opportunities. 

Broadly conceptualized, these experiences involve guiding students 

in the identification of a complex problem of practice, framing it 

through multiple lenses, and learning how to apply systemic inquiry 

to better understand or improve upon the problem. The DiP then 

serves as the culminating evidence of a students’ successful 

completion and preparation. 

PURPOSE 

In this article, we present an example of a student’s recently 

completed DiP to demonstrate how the DiP can serve as culminating 

evidence of a student’s successful preparation as a scholar-

practitioner. We also demonstrate how the DiP exemplifies many of 

the guiding principles and offer reflection on how the DiP influenced 

the student authors' development as a scholar practitioner. 

The DiP is presented in the following section. It details a study 

regarding the development of workforce skills, a pervasive problem 

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Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 
impactinged.pitt.edu Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023)  DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 33 

 

of practice at all levels of education. The student author’s 

identification of the complex problem of practice began in the first 

semester of coursework, but developed over time as he experienced 

courses on equity, social justice, theory, and research design, 

directly aligning to several of the CPED guiding principles. The 

student author's abilities further developed as the result of a job 

change in which he was introduced to a new context with new 

opportunities for collaborations, demonstrating the key role that 

practitioner wisdom and knowledge plays in the process of improving 

educational outcomes.  

The implementation of the study for the DiP took place in the 

student’s workplace that provided the field-based opportunity to 

study the problem of practice within the local context. Through this 

process, the student author demonstrated his abilities as a scholarly 

practitioner by applying systemic inquiry to better understand this 

particular problem of practice to form improvements that, when 

successfully applied, can positively impact the lives of students, their 

families, and communities. The student author, at the time this study 

was completed, served as a mid-level administrator overseeing 

faculty and staff professional development at a mid-sized community 

college in West Texas. As such, he recognized his privilege in being 

able to access certain resources and sought to be mindful of any 

potential biases that could have impacted the design of the study or 

any conclusions derived from its results. 

DISSERTATION IN PRACTICE 

Student enrollments in higher education are down nationwide. 

According to the National Student Clearinghouse (NSC) Research 

Center (2021) higher education enrollments have been steadily 

declining for the past decade.  The coronavirus disease of 2019 

(COVID-19) pandemic introduced additional barriers and variables 

that have caused overall postsecondary enrollment to continue to 

decline. The closing of businesses and the lack of consistent 

employment has negatively impacted students and their decision to 

enroll in college. Specifically, Black, Latinx, and other minority 

students have indicated the least amount of confidence in being able 

to attend and afford college (MAPS, 2021). This concerning trend 

suggests additional barriers for first generation college students and 

traditionally underserved populations. 

While these declining numbers highlight an industry that is in 

trouble, declining enrollment and challenges caused by the COVID-

19 pandemic are just a few of the many issues currently plaguing 

higher education. As society and the economy continue to evolve 

and innovate, it has become apparent that institutions of higher 

education are no longer fully meeting the needs of employers, 

students, the community, and society as a whole. For instance, one-

third of college presidents believe that higher education is moving in 

the wrong direction, and 57% of Americans do not believe that the 

cost of higher education provides a sufficient return on investment 

(Craig, 2015).  

Furthermore, the Association of American Colleges and 

Universities (AAC&U) has released a series of employer reports that 

reflect a disconnect between the skills recent graduates have 

obtained and the expectations employers have for their new hires 

(Hart Research Associates, 2013, 2015, 2018; Finley, 2021). To 

remain relevant as an industry, higher education institutions need to 

be able to demonstrate that their students are growing in not only 

content knowledge, but also the development of important workforce 

skills (Eddy, 2019). 

Data reported in a recent labor market analysis report by the 

Strada Institute for the Future of Work suggest employers now see 

greater value in soft skills education and the development of people 

skills (Weise et al., 2018). Although advanced technical skills have 

long been a priority of employers when looking for potential new 

employees, these skills are now far more vulnerable to automation. 

An increase in highly technical training, such as coding boot camps 

or employer-sponsored training, has made it even more apparent 

that the soft skills gap can and should be filled by institutions of 

higher education. According to Meeks (2017), soft skills can be 

defined as “competencies that can help an individual better meet the 

needs of a particular job and help an individual advance in his or her 

career” (p. 1). Throughout this article, the terms soft skills and 

workforce skills will be used synonymously and interchangeably. 

The purpose of this study was to explore the problem of 

practice presented in this introduction, a lack of workforce readiness 

of college graduates, and how higher education institutions are 

preparing students to enter the workforce meeting the needs of their 

core constituents. The following research questions (RQs) were 

created to guide the development of this research. 

 RQ1: To what extent do students develop workforce 

skills while completing a community college education? 

 RQ2: From the students' perspective, what can 

community colleges do to enhance the workforce skill 

development of their students? 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 

Workforce Skills Development in Higher Education 

One issue to consider with this underlying problem of practice is 

the disconnect between what employers expect from recent college 

graduates and the skills these graduates are demonstrating in entry-

level positions upon graduation. AAC&U periodically surveys 

employers across the nation to gain knowledge on how they perceive 

the higher education industry and the graduates it produces. Results 

of these studies from over the past decade show an increasingly 

critical perspective from employers with regard to how institutions of 

higher education are preparing their graduates to succeed in the 

workforce (Hart Research Associates, 2013, 2015, 2018; Finley, 

2021). 

In AAC&U’s 2013 study, 40% of the 318 employers surveyed 

reported that higher education institutions are doing a “fair” job 

preparing students for success in today’s economy (Hart Research 

Associates, 2013). Furthermore, employers reported a high priority 

on active teaching and learning strategies with 75% of respondents 

reporting they want colleges to place greater emphasis on teaching 

intellectual and practical skills. Nearly 60% of employers expressed 

less interest in the traditional lecture class format and more interest 

in devoting more class time to discussions and debates, problem-

solving, and collaborative group work as they believed these 

pedagogical practices better prepare students for success outside of 

the classroom once they graduate. 

AAC&U’s study two years later garnered similar results. They 

found employers were concerned about recent graduates having the 

desired range of skills, such as communication and teamwork, to be 

able to perform the functions of a job within their organization (Hart 

Research Associates, 2015). Specifically, fewer than three out of 10 

employers found that recent graduates were prepared in critical 



 Torres et al.  

 

Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 
impactinged.pitt.edu Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023) DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 34 

 

thinking skills and written and oral communication skills, skills that 

are essential to succeeding in professional real-world settings.  

Key findings from AAC&U’s 2018 study revealed colleges and 

universities need to make improvements to how they are preparing 

their graduates to ensure they have the required skills and 

knowledge to succeed in entry-level positions (Hart Research 

Associates, 2018). Consistent with past studies on this subject, the 

results of this study suggested that a preparedness gap exists 

between what skills and knowledge employers desire of recent 

college graduates and the actual skill and knowledge level that exists 

among recent graduates who join their companies in entry-level 

positions.  

AAC&U released its latest report in 2021. Similar to findings in 

past employer reports, a preparedness gap remained between skills 

employers believe are important and the number of college 

graduates who enter their companies who are very well prepared in 

these skills (Finley, 2021). This particular study found the following 

skills as the most important among employers: (a) critical thinking 

skills, (b) the ability to work effectively in teams, (c) the application of 

knowledge and skills in real-world settings, (d) the ability to analyze 

and interpret data, and (e) digital literacy.  

Other studies have been released that further support the 

conclusions of the AAC&U employer reports. A survey conducted by 

the Society Human Resource Management in 2019 found that more 

than half of their members believe that education systems are doing 

very little to address the skills shortage of important skills such as 

problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, and communication 

(Wilkie, 2019). A 2018 survey by the National Association of 

Colleges and Employers (NACE) revealed a significant discrepancy 

between employers who rated recent college graduates proficient in 

a variety of workplace competencies and how the actual college 

graduates rated themselves (Bauer-Wolf, 2018). Almost universally, 

recent graduates rated themselves more proficient than employers 

did in the eight essential competencies necessary to be able to 

succeed in the workplace identified by the NACE. 

The Four States of Competence Model 

Relevant to the results of these studies is a competence model 

that has been used to track learners’ progress through the learning 

process. This model, which is named the Four States of Competence 

model, includes four states of teaching and learning that highlight 

and explain how a learner experiences new information and skills 

(Adams, 2021). The four states of this model include (a) unconscious 

incompetence, (b) conscious incompetence, (c) conscious 

competence, and (d) unconscious competence. 

The first state of the Four States of Competence model is 

unconscious incompetence, which refers to students who know very 

little about a subject but are unaware of their lack of knowledge 

(Broadwell, 1969). The next state is conscious incompetence, which 

is when the learner realizes just how much they do not know. The 

third state is conscious competence, which is when a student 

becomes highly knowledgeable or skilled and is keenly aware of just 

how much they know or how good they are. The final state is 

unconscious incompetence, which is when a student has reached 

such a high mastery of knowledge or skill that they become unaware 

of the reasons why or exactly how they do what they do. Through 

intentional teaching and learning and direct communication, higher 

education institutions are poised to not only teach the skills students 

Figure 1. The Four States of Competence Model (Broadwell, 
1969) 

 

need to be more prepared when they enter the workforce, but also 

help students become more self-aware of the areas where they are 

unconsciously incompetent. 

The Importance of Applied, Active, and Experiential 
Learning 

Research in teaching and learning has continually shown that 

students benefit when faculty apply effective pedagogical practices in 

their instruction and fully engage their students in the course (Brooks 

& Solheim, 2014; Bunce et al. 2010; Freeman et al., 2014; Hyun et al. 

2017; Stalp & Hill, 2019; Yen & Abdous, 2011). This concept is firmly 

rooted in experiential learning theory, which is all about how students 

make sense of their experiences in the learning environment context 

(Kolb, 1976). The premise of experiential learning theory is simple: 

Students will learn best when they are fully immersed in the learning 

experience with opportunities to reflect, interpret, and apply concepts 

to aid in their understanding of the material. Many educational 

experts, including Kolb, posit that experiential learning is the best 

way to not only teach students content knowledge but also prepare 

them for the demands of a complex and ever-changing personal and 

professional life. 

Intentional student engagement efforts by faculty can lead to 

higher final course grades. The researchers of a longitudinal, quasi-

experimental study wanted to know what impact the transformation 

of an instructor’s pedagogical approach had on student success 

(Brooks & Solheim, 2014). The study involved the same instructor, 

teaching in the same active learning classroom (ALC), and teaching 

the same personal finance course one year apart. The difference 

from the first year to the second year was a total transformation of 

the course to one that uses more active and engaging instructional 

and assessment methods. The researchers found that the average 

final course grades from the second-year students were significantly 

higher than the year before. 

The researchers of another study, which included the largest 

and most comprehensive meta-analysis of undergraduate STEM 

education literature to date in 2014 (225 studies on the impact of 

active learning were analyzed), found students in lecture only 

classes were 1.5 times more likely to fail than students in classes 

that incorporated active learning (Freeman et al., 2014). Another 

study conducted by Yen and Abdous (2011) found that the more 

faculty had students interact in a course the more likely those 

students would earn better final course grades. The data from this 

study revealed that the higher the reported faculty engagement, the 

higher the learner satisfaction as well as the predictive relationship 



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Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 
impactinged.pitt.edu Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023)  DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 35 

 

between faculty engagement and students’ final grades. When the 

faculty engagement scores increased, as did the probability of a 

better final course grade.  

Stalp and Hill (2019) confirmed student benefits of active 

learning courses with accompanying ALC setups. What the 

researchers found was that because of the format of the classroom 

and the active way the course was taught, students reported an 

increase in their ability to connect with their peers, work 

collaboratively as a group, and their ability to be more open-minded 

and consider varying perspectives. This led to not only an increase in 

learning, but also an increase in the development of skills that are in 

high demand by employers such as teamwork, collaboration, and 

communication, skills that are in high demand by employers (Finley, 

2021).  

Supporting this conclusion, Llorens et al. (2017) conducted a 

study that examined which student engagement strategies led to the 

development of the professional skills desired in the information and 

communications technology (ICT) field. Using a qualitative research 

design which involved querying 17 experts in the ICT sector, the 

researchers found that active learning teaching methods such as 

problem-based and project-based learning, cooperative learning, and 

problem-solving exercises were related to the attainment and 

development of the skills needed to succeed in the ICT field such as 

decisiveness, communication, innovation, and teamwork.  

In two recent AAC&U employer reports, employers surveyed 

believed strongly that applied and project-based learning 

experiences gave students an edge in getting hired and succeeding 

in their chosen careers (Finley, 2021; Hart Research Associates, 

2018). Because active and experiential pedagogy assists in the 

development of these important skills, this presents an even greater 

need to examine exactly how higher education faculty are teaching 

students and promoting the development of these skills in their 

courses. 

METHOD 

In this mixed-method study, graduating students who earned a 

bachelor’s degree, associate’s degree, workforce certificate, or 

occupational skills award in the Spring 2022 semester  at a mid-

sized community college in West Texas were asked to complete a 

questionnaire that included a series of questions about the skills they 

gained as a student at the institution. The relationship between the 

graduating students’ perception of their own workforce skill 

development during their community college education and several 

demographic items including information on the students’ 

background, academic history and performance, and employment 

history were examined in this study. A convergent parallel mixed 

method design (quantitative plus qualitative) was used to conduct the 

study, in which the quantitative and qualitative data were collected 

concurrently and analyzed with equal importance (Creswell & 

Guetterman, 2019).  

Only Spring 2022 graduates were eligible to participate in this 

study. Graduating students were targeted as the purposive sample 

for this study because these students should have been able to 

speak holistically about their experience as a student at the 

institution from start to finish and reflect on what they learned 

throughout the time it took them to complete their program.  

On April 29, 2022, which was within the last two weeks of the 

Spring 2022 semester, an email was sent to graduating students that  

Table 1. 

Credential Earned n Race/Ethnicity n 

Bachelor’s Degree 6 (8%) Hispanic, Latin, or Spanish 31 (40%) 

Associate’s Degree 57 (74%) White 24 (31%) 

Workforce Certificate 9 (12%) Black or African American 7 (9%) 

Occupational Skills Award 5 (6%) Multi-Racial 15 (19%) 

Length to Complete 

Program 
n Age n 

1-2 Semesters 3 (4%) 18-29 49 (64%) 

3-4 Semesters 31 (40%) 30-39 16 (21%) 

5-6 Semesters 26 (34%) 40-49 8 (10%) 

7-8 Semesters 10 (13%) 50+ 1 (< 1%) 

Reported GPA n First-Generation Status n 

3.5 – 4.0 35 (45%) First-Generation Student 40 (52%) 

2.4 – 3.4 37 (48%) Non-First-Generation 

Student 

35 (45%) 

1.5 – 2.4  5 (7%) Unsure 2 (3%) 

Attended a College or 

University in the Past 
n 

Spent Time in the 

Workforce (PT or FT) 
n 

Yes 51 (66%) Yes 49 (64%) 

No 26 (34%) No 28 (36%) 

Major n   

General Studies 29 (38%)   

Business & Org. Mgmt. 14 (18%)   

Nursing 8 (10%)   

Cosmetology 5 (7%)   

Other  21 (27%)   

Note. Other majors represented include Air Conditioning, 
Heating, & Refrigeration, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counseling, 
Automotive & Diesel Technology, Criminal Justice, Education, 
Energy Technology, Health Sciences & Information 
Management, Healthcare, Information Technology & Computer 
Science, and Welding. 

invited them to participate in the study by completing a questionnaire. 

Of the 574 graduates, 541 were reachable. A total of 77 responses 

were received for this study, which reflects a 14% response rate. A 

profile of the respondents can be found in Table 1.  

The instrument used in this study was a questionnaire that 

included quantitative items, qualitative items, as well as a variety of 

demographic items. This questionnaire was developed and sent to 

participants on the Google Forms platform. The main part of the 

questionnaire included 10 rating scale items and three open-ended 

questions. The overall question for the 10 rating scale items asked 

students how much their experience as a student at the institution 

helped them develop certain skills. Each of the rating scale items 

included a skill or grouping of skills to which the students indicated 

how much of that skill their education helped them develop. 

The skills included in the questionnaire were curated from the 

latest employer report from AAC&U because this list is not only 

holistic in terms of range of skills but it also represents the most 

recent list of skills that employers from across the country indicated 

were very important for success in the workforce (Finley, 2021). The 

skill groupings for these 10 rating scale items are listed below. 

1. Working effectively as part of a team 

2. Critical thinking and complex problem-solving 

3. Data analysis and interpretation 



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Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 
impactinged.pitt.edu Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023) DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 36 

 

4. Applying knowledge and skills to real-world situations 

5. Technology and digital literacy 

6. Written and oral communication 

7. Research and data-informed decision making 

8. Creative thinking 

9. Working and communicating with people from different 

backgrounds 

10. Ethical judgment and reasoning 

For each item, respondents indicated whether their experience 

as a student at the institution helped them develop the listed skill (a) 

a great deal, (b) a considerable amount, (c) a moderate amount, (d) 

a slight amount, or (e) none. The wording of the items in this section 

of the questionnaire was adapted from a survey instrument created 

by Meyer (2016). The data collected from these 10 rating scale items 

were used to answer RQ1.  

The questionnaire also asked about demographic items 

including students’ backgrounds, academic history and performance, 

and employment history. Of these items, three key independent 

variables were identified that included (a) higher education history, (b) 

workforce history, and (c) number of semesters to program 

completion. We used these items to determine the relationship 

between these items and the students’ perception of their own 

workforce skill development to further answer RQ1. To further 

analyze this relationship, we ran a series of multivariate analysis of 

variance (MANOVA) statistical tests for each of the three 

independent variables after verifying the assumptions had been met. 

The first open-ended item asked students in what ways their 

experience as a student helped them develop any of the skills listed 

in the previous section. The responses to this question were used to 

help answer RQ1 along with the 10 rating scale items and coded 

using the causation coding method (Saldaña, 2016). The other two 

open-ended items included in this questionnaire were used to 

answer RQ2. The second open-ended item asked students to list 

any skills they were hoping to gain, but did not, during their time as a 

student at the institution. The third and final open-ended item 

included in this questionnaire was also used to answer RQ2. This 

question more directly asked students what the institution can do to 

better help students develop skills that would make them more 

marketable to potential employers. Responses to open-ended items 

two and three were coded using the structural coding method. 

According to Saldaña (2016), structural coding categorizes like 

segments and responses from a dataset, such as an interview or an 

open-ended questionnaire response. Structural coding acts as an 

indexing and labeling device to better assist researchers with 

accessing and analyzing data. 

Establishing a trustworthy study was key in carrying out the 

selected mixed method research design. For the quantitative 

components, we mitigated threats to the study’s internal validity, or 

the extent to which the study design could be expected to result in an 

accurate representation of the phenomenon under investigation 

(American Psychological Association, n.d.), by ensuring the 

measurement validity of the instrument as well as a thorough review 

by faculty members external to the implementation of the study. 

Because the study was designed to investigate the problem of 

practice in a local context, external validity, or the degree to which 

study results could be expected to apply to additional samples 

beyond the local context (American Psychological Association, n.d.), 

was less of a priority, but still applicable for those samples for which 

characteristics could be similar. We mitigated threats to external 

validity by invoking clear criteria for selection of participants and the 

local context, which are both described within this article.  

For the qualitative component, we used several strategies to 

ensure trustworthiness of study results, addressing study credibility, 

transferability, dependability, and confirmability as suggested by 

Lincoln and Guba (1985), Lincoln (1995), Guba (1981), and Shenton 

(2004). The triangulation offered through concurrent examination of 

both quantitative and qualitative data enhanced the credibility of 

findings as well as peer scrutiny of the study design and results. 

Similar to quantitative external validity, transferability of results was 

enhanced through the use of clear criteria for selection of 

participants and the local context. Dependability was strengthened 

through the use of a clear and comprehensive methodological design. 

Finally, confirmability of results was enhanced through triangulation 

of the quantitative and qualitative results as well as knowledge of the 

primary researcher’s position and mitigation of potential biases. 

RESULTS  

To answer RQ1, descriptive statistics were run. See Table 2 for 

a summary of the means and standard deviations for the 10 skills-

based items on the questionnaire. The exact wording of the 10 skills-

based items question in the questionnaire was as follows: “How 

much did your experience as a student [at the institution] help you 

develop the following skills?” The lowest mean was for the skills of 

working effectively as part of a team (M = 2.96, SD = 1.19, N = 77). 

Table 2. Results of Skills-Based Questionnaire Items (N = 77) 

Skills M SD 

Working effectively as part of a team 2.96 1.19 

Critical thinking and complex problem-solving 3.36 .87 

Data analysis and interpretation 3.08 .98 

Applying knowledge and skills to real-world situations 3.26 .94 

Technology and digital literacy 3.12 .99 

Written and oral communication 3.36 .93 

Research and data-informed decision making 3.32 .88 

Creative thinking 3.22 .85 

Working and communicating with people from different 

backgrounds 

3.29 1.09 

Ethical judgement and reasoning 3.36 .96 

Note. Mean based on a 0-4 scale where 0 = none and 4 = a great 
deal. 

The highest mean was a three-way tie between critical thinking and 

complex problem-solving (M = 3.36, SD = .87), written and oral 

communication (M = 3.36, SD = .93), and ethical judgment and 

reasoning (M = 3.36, SD = .96).  

Next, we sought to determine the degree to which some of the 

key independent variables collected in this study were related to how 

the students answered the 10 skills-based items on the 

questionnaire. The first independent variable examined was students’ 

work history. Specifically, this independent variable indicated 

whether or not the students had spent any time in the workforce as a 

full-time or part-time employee. See Table 3 for a summary of these 

results. 

A majority of the respondents reported they had spent time in 

the workforce (n = 49) as compared to not spending any time in the 

workforce (n = 28). The means for the 10 skills-based items were 



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Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 
impactinged.pitt.edu Vol. 8 No. 3 (2023)  DOI 10.5195/ie.2023.363 37 

 

Table 3. Results of Skills-Based Questionnaire Items by Work 
History 

 Had Served in the 

Workforce 

(n = 49) 

Had Not Served in 

the Workforce  

(n = 28) 

Skills M SD M SD 

Teamwork 2.82 1.36 3.21 .74 

Critical thinking & problem-solving 3.33 .94 3.43 .74 

Data analysis & interpretation 3.00 1.10 3.21 .74 

Real-world application 3.22 1.03 3.32 .77 

Technology & digital literacy 2.98 1.05 3.36 .83 

Written & oral communication 3.29 1.00 3.50 .79 

Research-based decision-making 3.22 .96 3.50 .69 

Creative thinking 3.16 .92 3.32 .72 

Cross-cultural communication 3.18 1.22 3.46 .79 

Ethical judgement and reasoning 3.31 1.07 3.46 .74 

Note. Mean based on a 0-4 scale where 0 = none and 4 = a great 
deal. 

consistently higher for the students who had not spent in the 

workforce. The lowest mean was teamwork for both students who 

had served in the workforce (M = 2.82, SD = 1.36) and students who 

had not served in the workforce (M = 3.21, SD = .74). In addition to 

teamwork, data analysis and interpretation tied for the lowest mean 

for students who had not served in the workforce (M = 3.21, SD 

= .74). The highest mean for students who had served in the 

workforce was critical thinking and problem-solving (M = 3.33, SD 

= .94) and a tie between written and oral communication (M = 3.50, 

SD = .79) and research-based decision-making (M = 3.50, SD = .69) 

for students who had not served in the workforce.  

The third independent variable examined was students’ higher 

education history. Specifically, this independent variable indicated 

whether or not the students had attended another college or 

university in the past, before their current time at the institution. See 

Table 4 for a summary of these results.  

A majority of the respondents reported they had attended 

another college or university in the past (n = 51) as compared to 

students who had not attended another college or university in the 

past (n = 26). The means for the 10 skills-based items were  

Table 4. Results of Skills-Based Questionnaire Items by Higher 
Education History 

 Has Attended a 

College or University 

in the Past (n = 51) 

Has Not Attended a 

College or University 

in the Past (n = 26) 

Skills M SD M SD 

Teamwork 3.10 1.12 2.69 1.29 

Critical thinking & problem-solving 3.43 .81 3.23 .99 

Data analysis & interpretation 3.14 .96 2.96 1.04 

Real-world application 3.20 .90 3.38 1.02 

Technology & digital literacy 3.20 .96 2.96 1.04 

Written & oral communication 3.43 .88 3.23 1.03 

Research-based decision-making 3.41 .78 3.15 1.05 

Creative thinking 3.31 .79 3.04 .96 

Cross-cultural communication 3.35 1.09 3.15 1.08 

Ethical judgement and reasoning 3.43 .94 3.23 .99 

Note. Mean based on a 0-4 scale where 0 = none and 4 = a great 
deal. 

consistently higher for the students who had attended another 

college or university in the past, with the exception of one skill, real-

world application, where students who did not attend a college or 

university in the past reported greater skill development (M = 3.38, 

SD = 1.02) than those who had (M = 3.20, SD = .90). The lowest 

mean was data analysis and interpretation for students who had 

attended a college or university in the past (M = 3.14, SD = .96) and 

teamwork for students who did not attend a college or university in 

the past (M = 2.69, SD = 1.29).  

The highest mean for students who had attended a college or 

university in the past was a three-way tie between critical thinking 

and problem-solving (M = 3.43, SD = .81), written and oral 

communication (M = 3.43, SD = .88), and ethical judgment and 

reasoning (M = 3.43, SD = .94). The highest mean for students who 

did not attend a college or university in the past was real-world 

application (M = 3.38, SD = 1.02).  

The third independent variable examined was the number of 

semesters it took students to complete their respective program. See 

Table 5 for a summary of these results. A vast majority of the 

respondents reported they took 3-4 semesters (n = 31) and 5-6 

semesters (n = 26) to complete their program as compared to 7+ 

semesters (n = 17) and 1-2 semester (n = 3). The means for the 10 

skills-based items were consistently lowest for students who took 8+ 

semesters to complete their program and fairly consistently highest 

for students who took 5-6 semesters to complete their program. The 

lowest mean out of all of the groups was teamwork for students who 

took 8+ semesters to complete their program (M = 2.00, SD = 1.41). 

The highest mean out of all of the groups was ethical judgment and 

reasoning for students who took 5-6 semesters to complete their 

program (M = 3.65, SD = .49).  

To further analyze the relationship between the key 

independent variables and how students responded to the 10 skills-

based items on the questionnaire, we ran a series of MANOVA 

statistical tests for each of the three independent variables. 

According to Salkind and Frey (2019), MANOVAs should be used 

when there is more than one dependent variable. The data for the 

current study includes 10 dependent variables (one for each of the 

10 skills-based items), therefore, the MANOVA was selected as the 

method to test statistical significance. MANOVA tests were 

conducted using Bonferroni adjusted alpha levels of .01 per test, 

based on the standard alpha level divided by five (.05/5). Overall, 

MANOVA results indicated that none of the key independent 

variables had statistically significant differences in terms of the 

amount of skills the graduates reported gaining during their time as a 

student. A summary of the MANOVA results can be found in Table 6. 

Next, we analyzed the first open-ended item to further answer 

RQ1. This item was worded as follows on the questionnaire: “In what 

ways did you experience as a student help you develop any of the 

skills listed in the previous section? Explain.” This response was 

optional on the questionnaire and not all respondents provided an 

answer. To analyze the responses, we utilized the causation method 

of coding qualitative data. According to Saldaña (2016), the 

causation coding method involves extracting attributions (i.e., causal 

beliefs) from participant responses to determine what caused the 

outcome as well as the reasons why the cause led to the specified 

outcomes.  

Multiple sources indicate that the process of causation coding 

involves three aspects to identify. The method was based on the 

recommendation of Munton et al. (1999) who specifies that three 



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                         Table 5. Results of Skills-Based Questionnaire Items by Number of Semesters to Program Completion 

 1-2 

Semesters  

(n = 3) 

3-4 

Semesters  

(n = 31) 

5-6 

Semesters  

(n = 26) 

7-8 

Semesters  

(n = 10) 

8+  

Semesters  

(n = 7) 

Skills M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD 

Teamwork 3.00 1.00 2.97 1.20 3.27 1.08 2.80 1.14 2.00 1.41 

Critical thinking & problem-solving 3.33 1.16 3.42 .89 3.58 .58 3.10 1.10 2.71 1.11 

Data analysis & interpretation 3.33 1.16 3.13 .96 3.31 .79 2.90 1.10 2.14 1.22 

Real-world application 3.33 1.16 3.45 .93 3.42 .70 2.80 1.03 2.43 1.13 

Technology & digital literacy 3.33 1.16 3.16 1.10 3.23 .86 3.10 .74 2.43 1.13 

Written & oral communication 3.33 1.16 3.42 1.03 3.54 .58 3.20 1.03 2.71 1.25 

Research-based decision-making 3.33 1.16 3.35 .95 3.50 .71 3.10 .88 2.86 1.07 

Creative thinking 3.33 1.16 3.19 .91 3.46 .71 2.90 .74 2.86 1.07 

Cross-cultural communication 3.33 1.16 3.45 .96 3.50 .81 3.00 1.33 2.14 1.57 

Ethical judgment and reasoning 3.33 1.16 3.45 1.00 3.65 .49 3.20 .79 2.14 1.46 

Note. Mean based on a 0-4 scale where 0 = none and 4 = a great deal. 

Table 6. Results of MANOVA Analysis of Skill-Based Item 
Question Responses by the Independent Variables 

 Wilks’  

Λ 
F df 

Error  

df 
p 

Partial 

η2 

History in the Workforce  .92 .580a 10 66 .82 .08 

Higher Education History .87 .974a 10 66 .47 .13 

Number of Semesters to 

Program Completion 

.62 .813 40 240.74 .78 .11 

Table 7. Causes That Contributed to Reported Level of Skill 
Development 

Primary Themes 

Frequency 

of Primary 

Themes 

Sub-Themes 
Frequency of  

Sub-Themes 

Assignments, 

Activities, and 

Exercises 

28 

Hands-on / experiential 

learning 
7 

In-class presentations 6 

Class projects 2 

  

General responses highlighting 

assignments, activities, and 

exercises 
13 

    

Interactive 

Course 

Components 

27 

In-class discussions 7 

Group projects 4 

Generally working with others 16 

    

Instructional 

Support 15 

The instructors themselves 12 

Academic support services 3 

    

General 

Experiences as 

College Students 

9 

The structure of online classes 2 

Course lectures 1 

Participation in Student Govt. 

Association 
1 

General responses highlighting 

the benefit of attending college 

and completing courses 

5 

Note. Themes and sub-themes determined through the 
causation coding process of qualitative data analysis. 

elements of the attributions found in the coding process should be 

identified. These three elements include (a) the cause, (b) the 

outcome, and (c) the link between the cause and the outcome 

(Saldaña, 2016).  

The cause is the first element of the attribution and answers the 

following question: What were the components reported by students 

that led to the skill development or lack of skill development? For the 

cause element, the first author coded 58 responses that reflected 

generally positive student comments regarding the skills they 

developed and their learning experience while at the institution.  

The result of this analysis process was 79 codes that the first 

author synthesized and categorized into four themes. An example 

response that was coded as both instructional support (the 

instructors themselves) and interactive course components 

(generally working with others) is as follows: “The teachers taught on 

an understanding level and really made me feel like it was easier 

than it was. Also the other students around me helped when we were 

able to collaborate.” A summary of these themes, including the 

frequency of the codes found in the themes and sub-themes found in 

the responses, can be found in Table 7. 

The outcome is the next element of the attribution and helps to 

answer the question: What outcomes did the students report they 

experienced as a result of the causes they identified? For the 

outcome element, the first author coded 40 responses that reflected 

generally positive student comments regarding the skills they 

developed and their learning experience while at the institution.  

The result of this analysis process was 53 codes that the first 

author synthesized and categorized into six themes. An example 

response that was coded as enhanced communication skills and 

enhanced personal development (confidence) is as follows: 

“Communication skills, I was able to gain confidence to speak in front 

of a class room and make new friends.” A summary of these themes, 

including the frequency of the codes found in the themes and 

relevant sub-themes found in the responses, can be found in Table 8. 

The link is the final element in the causation coding process 

and helps to answer the question: How can connections between the 

causes and the outcomes be explained? For the link element, the 



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Table 8. Outcomes That Indicate How Students Were Affected 
by The Skill-Development Causes 

Primary Themes 

Frequency 

of Primary 

Themes 

Sub-Themes 

Frequency 

of Sub-

Themes 

Enhanced 

Communication Skills 
17 - - 

    

Enhanced Personal 

Development 
11 

Enhanced confidence 8 

Enhanced self-reflection 

and awareness 

3 

    

Enhanced Personal 

Responsibility 
10 

Enhanced time 

management skills 

4 

Enhanced independence 6 

    

Enhanced Critical, 

Analytical, and Logical 

Thinking Skills 

7 - - 

    

Enhanced Teamwork 

Skills 
4 - - 

    

Other 4 

Enhanced technology skills 2 

Enhanced creativity 1 

Enhanced understanding of 

diversity and inclusion 

1 

Note. Themes and sub-themes determined through the 
causation coding process of qualitative data analysis. 

first author coded 41 responses that reflected generally positive 

student comments regarding the skills they developed and their 

learning experience while at the institution. The result of this analysis 

process was 46 codes that the first author synthesized and 

categorized into five themes. An example of a respondent’s answer 

that was coded as because the professor was helpful, caring, and 

supportive is as follows: “The excellent teachings of my professors 

helped me to learn, understand new and different skills to help me be 

successful.” A summary of these themes, including the frequency of 

the codes found in each theme, can be found in Table 9. 

Table 9. Links That Explain the Connection Between the Causes 
and the Outcomes Identified by Students 

Themes Frequency 

Because the professor was helpful, caring, and supportive 13 

Because of the interaction with classmates 13 

Because the assignments, activities, and exercises were relevant 

and applicable 

11 

Because the learning experiences provided new and challenging 

opportunities 

5 

Because the courses provided opportunities to practice and explore 

technology 

4 

Note. Themes determined through the causation coding 
process of qualitative data analysis. 

Results from the second and third open-ended items 

contributed to answering RQ2. The exact wording of the second 

open-ended item in the questionnaire was as follows: “Were there 

any skills you were hoping to gain, but didn’t, during your time as a 

student [at the institution] (beyond learning the content of each 

course)? Explain.” The exact wording of the third open-ended item in 

the questionnaire was as follows: “What can [the institution] do to 

better help students develop skills that would make them more 

marketable to employers?” 

The first author analyzed these open-ended items using the 

structural coding method of analyzing qualitative data Saldaña 

(2016). Because of the nature of the data set for both open-ended 

items two and three, the responses to both of these items were 

combined into a single dataset and analyzed together. When 

analyzing the second and third open-ended items, the first author 

coded 58 total responses; 23 for the second open-ended item and 35 

for the third open-ended item that contributed to answering RQ2. Not 

all students provided usable responses for these open-ended items, 

and some students provided responses that contributed to multiple 

codes for this qualitative analysis. The result of this analysis process 

was 70 codes that the researcher synthesized and categorized into 

eight themes that directly answered RQ2. One respondent’s answer 

was coded as both hands-on learning and general skill development: 

“Teaching more skills-based and less centered around assignments 

and essays. While I know writing is important, it is not as important 

as actual hands on job skills.” A summary of these themes, including 

examples and frequencies, can be found in Table 10. 

Table 10. Themes That Represent Gaps in Skill Development or 
Recommended Institutional Improvements 

Themes Theme Definition & Examples Frequency 

Hands-On, 

Experiential, & 

Collaborative 

Learning 

Responses in this theme indicated a desire for more 

experiential learning in their courses including 

internship opportunities, increased collaboration with 

others, and more hands-on assignments and 

exercises. 

11 

Effective Use 

of Current 

Technology 

Responses in this theme highlighted students’ desire 

to learn more technology skills, the need for the 

institution to maintain current technology on campus, 

and the need for instructors to more effectively utilize 

technology to enhance their instruction. 

9 

Critical 

Thinking and 

Problem-

Solving 

Responses in this theme represented students’ need 

for more opportunities to learn the process of 

effective and critical thinking, how to critically analyze 

data, and how to apply complex problem-solving to 

their respective field of study. 

5 

Career 

Readiness 

Reponses in this theme reflected a desire for more 

networking opportunities to enhance communication 

skills, more opportunities for developing résumé 

writing and interviewing skills, and more assistance 

from the college to help make students more 

marketable to employers. 

5 

Applicability to 

the Real-

World 

Responses in this theme indicated a lack of learning 

opportunities for students to apply what they had 

learned to actual real-world situations that are 

relevant to their field of study or industry. 

4 

General Skill-

Development 

Responses in this theme highlighted students’ desire 

for more skill development across the board, without 

highlighting any specific skills. 

3 

Other Skills 

Responses in this theme highlighted skills mentioned 

in student responses that did not fit into any other 

theme. These skills include personal finance, creative 

thinking, and the fundamentals of learning. 

3 

Nothing 

These responses indicated that students were 

pleased with the skills they had learned and did not 

have any recommendations for the institution for 

improvement in this area.  

12 

Note. Themes determined through the structural coding 
process of qualitative data analysis. 



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DISCUSSION 

The results of this study suggest that, on average, students 

reported learning a considerable amount of all 10 skills included in 

the questionnaire. The highest overall mean for the 10 skills-based 

items was 3.36 (SD = .93, N = 77) and the lowest mean was 2.96 

(SD = 1.19, N = 77), using a scale where zero represents no skill 

development and four represents a great deal of skill development. 

This suggests students reported learning about the same amount of 

each of the 10 skills.  

However, students reported gaining less teamwork skills during 

their time as a student at the institution than any of the other nine 

skills listed on the questionnaire. This was true for the general mean 

across all respondents as well as for most of the key independent 

variable analyses. A possible reason for this could be the increase of 

online courses and decrease of in-person courses during this cohort 

of students’ tenure at the institution (Li & Lalani, 2020). In fact, one 

respondent reported that the reason they did not gain as many skills 

as they would have liked is because they took mostly online courses 

to complete their program. 

Most students who participated in this study experienced 

significant disruptions during their college experience due to the 

COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent shutdowns (Zerbino, 2021). 

Students who would have otherwise preferred in-person courses 

were forced to take online courses, and therefore, were likely unable 

to work with and collaborate with their instructors and classmates as 

much as they would have been able to if the classes were taught in-

person. It has long been noted that creating a sense of community in 

online classrooms, though important, is more difficult to accomplish 

than in face-to-face classrooms (Bejerano, 2008; Ouzts, 2006). This 

could explain why students reported lower levels of teamwork skill 

development, because they simply had fewer opportunities for 

meaningful collaboration and interaction. A major theme found in the 

qualitative analysis supports this conclusion. The qualitative analysis 

revealed that students who reported low levels of skill development 

would have liked more hands-on and collaborative learning in the 

courses they took to complete their program. 

The skills students reported learning the most across all 

respondents were critical thinking and problem-solving, effective 

written and oral communication, and ethical judgment and reasoning. 

When analyzing the skill development through the lens of the key 

independent variables, these three skills were fairly consistently the 

skills students reported learning the most. Due to the pervasive 

educational focus on infusing critical thinking and problem-solving 

skills into the curriculum for students of all ages for the past several 

decades, it is no surprise that it has emerged as a top skill in this 

study (Murawski, 2014). One student reported opportunities to 

practice critical thinking prepared them for their entire chosen career: 

“As a nursing student critical thinking and judgment plays an 

important role in the healthcare field. I feel that [the institution] has 

help me prepare for my chosen field.” 

Effective written and oral communication, arguably the easiest 

skill on the list to interpret and apply, likely emerged atop the earned 

skills list because writing assignments and oral presentations are two 

of the most common assignments in higher education (Graves, 

2017). One student commented on how their program provided 

opportunities to develop and practice critical thinking and 

communication skills: “The respiratory care program is all about 

critical thinking skills. We learn to think fast and outside of the box. 

We also did many presentations throughout the program and 

eventually presented an educational PowerPoint on vaping to 300 

students.” 

The high rating of ethical judgment and reasoning can likely be 

attributed to the major theme of helpful, caring, and supportive 

instructors as the character of these individual instructors has the 

potential to influence the students’ reported ethical judgment and 

reasoning skill development. This conclusion is supported by Yen 

and Abdous (2011) and Hyun et al. (2017) who found a predictive 

relationship between positive interaction with the students and the 

students’ overall satisfaction with their learning experience. One 

respondent was very pleased with their experience at the institution, 

in particular their instructors: “Everything about this college is to like. 

Professors are so nice and actually care about your education.” 

Overall, students mostly attributed the skills they learned to (a) 

engaging, relevant, and interactive assignments, activities, and 

discussions, (b) the opportunities they had to work with and interact 

with their peers, and (c) caring, helpful, and supportive instructors. 

However, there was not a definitive variable that predicted the 

amount of skills students reported learning during their time 

completing their program at the West Texas community college. 

While the key independent variables had no statistically significant 

impact on reported skill development, students who had not spent 

time in the workforce as a full-time or part-time employee reported 

consistently higher levels of skill development across all 10 skills 

when compared to those students who had spent time in the 

workforce. This was also true when analyzing the independent 

variable of higher education history. With the exception of one skill 

(real-world application), students who had attended a college or 

university in the past reported consistently higher levels of skill 

development across all 10 skills than those students who were 

attending college for the first time. This was also true for analyzing 

the independent variable of number of semesters to program 

completion. Students who took six or fewer semesters to complete 

their program reported consistently higher levels of skill development 

across all 10 skills when compared to students who took seven or 

more semesters to complete their program. 

Based on the Four States of Competence model, students who 

are more experienced learners (e.g., students who have attended 

another college or university in the past), should be much more 

aware of the skills and knowledge they have learned and how to best 

apply those skills and knowledge (Broadwell, 1969). Students who 

attend college and drop out or do not complete, with the exception of 

those who did so because of extenuating life circumstances, likely 

entered state two of this model, which can be overwhelming and 

demotivating. On average, the students who had attended another 

college or university in the past in this study did so about seven 

years ago. In their renewed attempt to finish college, these students 

likely advanced to state three during the time they completed their 

program. This would place these students in a state where they fully 

know what they learned and why it is important, and therefore, why 

they reported higher levels of skill development on this questionnaire.  

Perhaps the students who took seven or more semesters to 

complete their program, given their extended tenure at the institution, 

entered state four of the model which would make them more 

unaware of what they have learned and what they are good at 

because the knowledge and skills exist unconsciously (Broadwell, 

1969). In this state, students have a more difficult time articulating 

why they do what they do, or how they learned what they learned. 



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This could explain why the students who took the longest to 

complete their program reported the lowest level of skill development, 

not because they did not develop the skills, but because their 

unconsciously competent state makes it difficult for them to articulate 

those learnings. 

It is generally understood that learning about something and 

actually doing it are two completely different processes. This claim is 

supported by employer reports which indicate a disconnect between 

how students and employers perceive recent graduates’ skill levels 

(Bauer-Wolf, 2018; Hart Research Associates, 2015). Students who 

have not spent time in the work force and whose only experience is 

at institutions of learning may not be as aware of the skills they have 

yet to learn and master and may also have a false sense of their own 

skill level. This would place them in state one, unconscious 

incompetence (Broadwell, 1969). Therefore, they may perceive to 

have learned or even mastered certain skills, but until they actually 

have the opportunity to apply them in a work setting in the real world, 

they may not be able to progress to the rest of the states in the 

competence model. This would explain why students who had not 

spent time in the workforce reported consistently higher levels of skill 

development than students who had spent time in the workforce. 

While the majority of students reported positive skill gains and 

were generally pleased with the skills they learned, some students 

reported skills they were hoping to gain during their time as students, 

but did not, such as critical thinking and problem-solving, general 

career readiness skills, and overall more applicable skills across the 

board. For example, one graduate reported the following: “I was 

hoping to learn how to use data to think critically.” Another 

respondent reported wanting more from their time at the institution: 

“Push boundaries a bit more, get students outside of their learning 

comfort zones. Students need to learn more about how to think. 

Remembering and reciting can only carry one so far.” 

Furthermore, students reported that an increase of hands-on, 

experiential, and collaborative learning, as well as more effective use 

of up-to-date technology by their instructors, would have helped 

them develop even more skills. One respondent reported wanting a 

greater variety of instructional strategies and assignments to help 

them develop more skills: “I would have hoped to gain more 

knowledge as far as new styles and techniques and not do the same 

activities every other week.” Another graduate reported wanting 

more opportunities to connect what they learned to the real world: 

“Add things to our courses that concern real life situations or lessons.” 

These findings are supported by literature that indicates these 

practices can lead to an increase in workforce skill development 

(Finley, 2021; Hart Research Associates, 2013; Kolb, 1976; Stalp & 

Hill, 2019). 

The contradictory nature of some of the student responses 

reflect the complexity of the student learning experience. The 

amount of skill development students experience can largely depend 

on a variety of factors and variables, including the key independent 

variables analyzed in this study, but also factors such as the 

individual instructors that taught their courses and the teaching style 

of those instructors.  

For example, when asked what helped students develop the 

skills they reported learning, one of the top answers students 

provided was because of their helping, caring, and supportive 

instructors. As indicated by past studies, the role the instructor plays 

in the course including how it is structured, how they communicate 

with students, and how they overall facilitate learning can have a 

positive effect on not only how much the student learns but also how 

satisfied the student is with their overall learning experience (Hyun et 

al., 2017; Yen & Abdous, 2011). Furthermore, effective and 

supportive instructors understand the importance of building 

community among their students to enhance their learning 

experience (Bejerano, 2008; McKinney et al., 2006; Ouzts, 2006). 

This conclusion further underscores the importance of attentive, 

caring, and helpful instructors who know how to adequately facilitate 

learning that enhances the student experience. 

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE 

There are strategies that institutions can implement to place a 

greater widespread focus on workforce skill development. Faculty 

need strategies, resources, and training to transform their curriculum 

to place a more intentional focus on teaching workforce skills. The 

New World of Work (NWOW) curriculum from the state community 

college system in California could offer a template from which to start 

for this type of major transformation (Nelson, 2016). Regardless of 

the actual intervention, there would need to be prescribed curriculum 

changes, not just general training and recommendations.  

For a workforce skill development initiative to be successful, 

there must also be a focus on meta-cognition and reflection for 

students regarding their own skill development, what they are 

learning, and how it can be applied. Directing students to participate 

in these reflective practices and calling attention to the “why” of the 

skills being learned are valuable strategies to help ensure the 

learning sticks and the students see the importance and value of 

what they have learned (Finley, 2021; Stefano et al., 2016). 

Engaging in these practices also helps the students advance through 

the Four States of Competence model (Broadwell, 1969). 

Lastly, innovative strategies have been implemented in higher 

education in an effort to help improve workforce skill development 

among graduates. These include workforce skill development 

transcript designations or specialized workforce skill certificates 

(Chen, 2018; Parker, 2019), co-teaching approaches to separate out 

the presentation of the content and the ways in which the content 

can be practically applied in the workforce (Durden, 2020), and the 

incorporation of ePortfolios to highlight students’ collection of work to 

demonstrate the skills and abilities they have developed (Farrell, 

2020). 

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 

There were a few limitations within this study. First, the overall 

sample size for this study was lower than desired. Of the 541 

graduates asked to participate in the study, 77 completed the 

questionnaire which represents a 14% response rate. A more 

appropriate sample size for this study would have been closer to 120 

respondents, which would reflect a 20% rate and approximately +/- 8% 

margin of error. In addition, some of the group sizes for the 

MANOVA analyses were very small, which represents another 

limitation associated with the sample size. 

Another limitation is that this study only represented self-

reported student responses. This one-sided perspective does not 

holistically represent the entire reality of what was actually learned, 

experienced, or mastered. Gaining perspectives from the faculty as 

well as local employers would have supplemented the results nicely.  



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A third limitation of this study was the gaps in information that 

existed when analyzing and interpreting the results. For example, 

when interpreting the low teamwork result, assumptions were made 

about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the increase in 

online course offerings. Including questions related to COVID-19 in 

the questionnaire would have aided in the analysis and interpretation 

of the results. 

This study prompts considerations for future research on this 

topic. As previously mentioned, this study only represented the 

perspectives of the students. Surveying employers about the skills 

the institution’s graduates exhibit and what skills they value from 

graduates in this region would provide valuable insight into how the 

institution can best prepare their students based on what the 

employers want. Similarly, surveying faculty about the skills students 

exhibit and the strategies they find help students develop these skills 

would add a valuable perspective in this discussion.  

Beyond survey studies, an experimental investigation of 

instructional strategies that are aimed at helping students develop 

key workforce skills would contribute greatly to literature on this topic. 

The results of this type of study could provide important information 

regarding the effectiveness of particular strategies compared to 

others. Lastly, as previously mentioned, there were gaps in 

knowledge when analyzing and interpreting the results. Studies that 

include focus groups of students and/or faculty would allow 

researchers to ask clarifying and probing questions to fully explore 

this topic with much more specificity than a survey study allows. 

Another consideration for future research is the role that 

artificial intelligence (AI) plays in not only the ways faculty teach 

critical thinking and problem-solving skills in their courses, but also 

how students are learning these skills. According to Chan (2023), 

critical thinking has become an even more essential skill with the 

rapid rise of AI technology. Students need to be able to evaluate the 

outputs and decisions made by AI applications to determine whether 

or not what is being produced is in alignment with the goals and 

values of the entity it represents. Simply using AI chatbots, such as 

ChatGPT, without applying critical thinking to what it produces, can 

potentially eliminate the necessity for students to think through 

complex problems on their own. Therefore, a study that investigates 

how higher education institutions are integrating AI while still 

promoting the development of critical thinking and problem-solving 

skills would be prudent for this topic. 

CONCLUSION 

As indicated by past literature on this topic, the public’s 

perception of higher education has changed (Craig, 2015; Hart 

Research Associates, 2018; Wilkie, 2019). Not only is the general 

public questioning the return on investment for a college degree, 

employers are finding themselves wanting more from the recent 

graduates who get jobs at their companies (Bauer-Wolf, 2018; Finley 

2021; Hart Research Associates, 2013, 2015, 2018). With the higher 

education industry struggling, academic leaders must consider 

alternatives to business as usual for the sustainability of the industry 

(Eddy, 2019).  

The results of this study, along with the outcomes of past 

studies on this topic, suggest that the higher education industry 

should focus more on workforce skill development among their 

students across all disciplines and programs. This is important not 

only to enhance student learning outcomes, but also for the future of 

the higher education industry. While some skill development occurs 

by the very nature of how higher education courses are structured 

and taught, what is being done is not enough. Employers and society 

expect more. To be able to give them what they want, academic 

leaders must consider widespread changes across the curriculum to 

make workforce skill development a key part of the student learning 

experience in order to maintain higher education’s relevance to 

society. 

REFLECTION ON THE INQUIRY PROCESS 

Completion of this DiP offered the student author the 

opportunity to demonstrate the knowledge and skills acquired 

through successful completion of a CPED member program. The 

program, designed to directly align with the guiding principles for 

program design (CPED, 2022), offered opportunities to 

conceptualize and refine the problem of practice by applying varying 

lenses to the problem through the progression of coursework that 

included topics such as educational equity, theory, research design, 

and methods. The student author is now well prepared to continue to 

serve as a scholar-practitioner, applying a systematic process of 

inquiry to study and improve upon problems of practice that emerge 

in their ongoing practice as an educational leader. 

In addition to the student author’s development as a scholar-

practitioner, we recognize that the DiP inquiry process yielded 

interesting, informative, and substantive results, from which the local 

community college can craft informed action. The process also 

yielded results that will be useful to the larger community of scholar 

practitioners, who like the student author who conducted the study, 

have a vested interest in improving the lives of students by improving 

the postsecondary instruction they receive.  Therefore, this study fit 

well within the role of scholarly practitioners who seek to identify and 

address relevant problems of practice to make positive changes 

across the higher education industry. 

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