




































Indian Journal of Finance and Banking 

 Vol. 8, No. 1; 2021 

                                       ISSN 2574-6081   E-ISSN 2574-609X 

Published by CRIBFB, USA 

 

13 

AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT OF ADOPTION AND INNOVATION 

OF THE PORTABLE BANKING TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA 
 

 

Eltigani M. A. Ahmed 

PhD Candidate 

School of Leadership, Business & Technology 

Pan Africa Christian University  

Nairobi, Kenya 
E-mail: eltigani.ali@students.pacuniversity.ac.ke 

 

 
Received: August 29, 2021     Accepted: September 17, 2021     Online Published: September 23, 2021  

 

DOI: 10.46281/ijfb.v8i1.1351            URL: https://doi.org/10.46281/ijfb.v8i1.1351  

 

 
ABSTRACT 

The study investigated the appropriateness of innovation diffusion in understanding and explaining the 

adoption rate and acceptability of portable bank technology in Kenya through the assessment of the 

factors that influence the adoption of portable banking technology. The study employed a sample of 115 

portable bank technology adopters based on a purposive sampling technique and tested the five 

attributes of innovations, namely relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and 

observability. The study found that relative advantage, compatibility, Trialability, and observability 

positively impact adoption. Trialability and complexity were found to have a lesser significant effect on 

adoption. Complexity hurts adoption. More specifically, the regression model revealed that 

compatibility is the most significant determinant of adopting portable bank technology with t=4.21 and 

p ≤ 0.001. Trialability has a significant positive impact on adoption with t= 4.27 and p ≤ 0.001. 

Observability has a high explanatory value with t = 4.45 and p ≤ 0.001. Relative advantage has returned 

a positive explanatory coefficient at t=4.50 and p ≤ 0.001. Finally, Complexity had no significant impact 

on the adoption of portable banking technology. The study has uncovered useful trends in portable bank 

technology adoption in Kenya. The study recommended that future research should focus on broader 

variables and carry out comparative studies on both homogeneous and heterogeneous settings to gauge 

the net effect of technical attributes on technology adoption. 

 

Keywords: Innovation Adoption, Portable Banking, Technology, Kenya. 

 

JEL Classification Codes: D14, G21, G23, O13, O14, Q55.  

 

INTRODUCTION 

Technology-driven innovation in banking services is generally perceived as the one of the most critical 

forms of alteration that occurred in the banking industry in the last two decades(Rogers, 2003). One of 

the most recent changes that have completed the origination-diffusion-adoption lifecycle is the 

implementation of portable banking technology, which, in its purest forms, represents the use of I&CT, 

to carry out banking and financial transactions (Puschel, Mazzon, & Hernandez, 2010). Technological 

advancements in telecommunications have drastically changed the way banking and financial 

transactions are carried out. Nowadays, people queue less often at bank tellers to withdraw or deposit 

mailto:eltigani.ali@students.pacuniversity.ac.ke
https://doi.org/10.46281/ijfb.v8i1.1351


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money or make the mundane payments for utility bills and purchase of assets for home use. This 

revolutionary change, which started with the advent of smartphones (Laukkanen, 2017), has swept the 

banking industry in many countries and found semi-unanimous acceptability within a relatively brief 

time. This rate of diffusion and adoption deserved a closer investigation to understand its theoretical and 

empirical underpinnings. This phenomenon has been extensively researched in the last few years, with 

most studies relate the adoption rate to the five innovation attributes promoted by Rogers (2003): relative 

advantage, compatibility, complexity, Trialability, and observability. 

Within the African context, many countries have achieved pioneering positions in portable 

banking technology. In East Africa in particular, Kenya is primarily viewed as a leading country in the 

adoption of portable bank technology, thanks to the prominent role of the country's telecommunication 

industry led by Safaricom, which successfully deployed the Mpesa platform as a pilot scheme in 2003 

and later the mainstream mobile banking technology or M-bank, as popularly known in Kenya (Mbiti 

& Weil, 2015). The provision of portable bank technology has spread rapidly and found increasing 

acceptability from both the regulated banks and the public to the extent that the convenience provided 

using mobile phones in carrying out banking and financial transactions is perceived as an irreversible 

adoption so far as there are no significant setbacks in the system. 

According to Pousttchi and Schurig (2004), electronic banking and finance are now part of most 

business-to-business, business-to-customer, and business-to-public applications. Electronic banking is a 

generic term used for mainstream online financial dealings. Online financial dealing has multiple facets 

and is not just limited to handset-based portable bank technology. It includes the use of physical and 

virtual teller machines (Wan, Luk, & Chow, 2005) and the use of internet banking as well (Barnes & 

Corbitt, 2003; Black, Lockett, Ennew, Winklhofer, & McKechnie, 2002; Jabri & Sohail, 2012). In the 

Kenyan context, the advancement in telecommunication technology, coupled with positive consumer 

behavior and general public awareness, has contributed to the rapid expansion of handsets in financial 

transactions (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). 

This study is motivated by the rate of adoption of portable bank technology, and it aims to test 

the technical attributes of innovation diffusion and adoption and its likely impact on the use of portable 

bank technology in Kenya. Kenya is a developing nation with a rising middle-income, free economy, 

and reasonably developed public and private sector institutions, which provide a healthy environment 

for the proliferation of innovative ideas. This study investigates the factors that either inhibit or promote 

the proliferation of innovation within the Kenyan context. The study will relate the technical attributes 

that inhibit or promote the diffusion and adoption of innovation, namely the relative advantage, 

compatibility, complexity, Trialability, and observability, to the mainstream idea that a conducive 

environment is needed to accelerate the adoption rate of innovative ideas. 

 

Statement of Problem 

The Central Bank of Kenya financial inclusion survey (CBK, 2018) estimates that 11.5 million persons 

use handset devices for financial transactions compared to 5.4 million persons who use physical banks 

regularly. The report indicates that the use of portable handsets in financial services more than doubled 

from 28% in 2009 to 62% in 2013 (CBK, 2018). The report further highlights that the use of portable 

bank technology has had a significant impact on traditional domestic remittance methods such as 

sending money physically via public transportation system or through post office.  In 2006, over half 

(57%) of money transfers within Kenya were through family/friends, while in 2013 it dropped to a third 

because people opted to use portable bank technology instead of physical transfers (Odera, 2013).  



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Table 1.  Kenya Banking Land-scape 

 

   

Provider   Number    
 

Banking platform  5,430,644 22% 

SACCOs 1,695,827 7% 

Micro Finance  651,873 3% 

Mobile phone financial services  11,465,438 47% 

Informal Groups 5,161,573 21%  
24,405,355 100% 

Source. CBK (2018)  

 

In 2018, the active portable bank accounts are estimated at 371 million users who carry out 1.2 

billion operations per annum with an estimated 2.9 trillion Kenya shillings in monetary terms (CBK, 

2018). From 2014 until 2018, the total volume of transactions carried out using mobile technology 

reached six billion transactions and 15 trillion Kenya shillings Error! Reference source not found. 

highlights annual growth in the mobile payment system in Kenya.  

 

 Table 2. Annual Mobile Payment Method Growth 

 

Year Agents Accounts 

(millions) 

Transactions  

(millions) 

Value  

(KSh billions) 

2014 1,445,664 311 911 2,372 

2015 1,607,424 321 1,114 2,816 

2016 1,943,637 385 1,331 3,355 

2017 1,989,624 418 1,543 3,638 

2018 1,783,829 371 1,275 2,930 

Source. CBK (2018)  

 

The CBK report further highlights an important aspect related to the use of portable bank 

technology. By the end of 2013, 84% of urban citizens and 62% of rural citizens adopt portable bank 

technology. This high acceptability rate has been made possible by the adequacy of the requisite 

infrastructure as 65% of the population are able to access the internet from the comfort of their portable 

handsets (CBK, 2018) as highlighted in  

Table 3.   

 

Table 3. Access to and Use of Internet 

 

Mode of Access Percentage 

On Mobile Phone 65% 

At Home/computer 11% 

At Internet Café 16% 

At Office computer  7% 

on a friend's computer  1% 

Source. CBK (2018)  

 

Research has established that diffusion and adoption of portable bank technology proliferate 

faster and receives greater acceptability than the traditional banking platform (Laukkanen, 2017). While 

literature has established this as a reality, the causation mechanism is still a work in progress. It appears 



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that the rate of adoption of new ideas depends on a complex set of cultural, social and psychological 

factors besides the technical attributes suggested by Rogers (2003). This study represents a continuation 

in this direction and aims to provide further evidence on the application of innovation adoption and 

diffusion theory into portable bank technology.  

Most commercial banks in Nairobi enjoy niche customers with a specific clientele base, 

including public and private sector employees, self-employed persons, and expatriates in addition to 

public and commercial entities such as hotels, hospitals, and private corporations (Ongore & Kusa, 

2013). The banks are generally keen to increase service convenience offered to their customers to sustain 

their operations, achieve acceptable growth rates, and increase value for their stakeholders (Ongore & 

Kusa, 2013). This research will provide evidence-based insight into customer satisfaction by analyzing 

customer needs and will enable the banks to serve their customers better. This research will determine 

the optimal strategies and actions that commercial banks managers should adopt to improve service 

delivery and achieve customer satisfaction. 

The Kenyan banking industry has achieved tremendous strides toward automated and 

sophisticated banking service delivery based on information and communication technology. Kenya is 

considered the hub of the East African financial sector (Ongore & Kusa, 2013). Most local banks in 

Kenya fully adopted portable bank technology, and some banks are ahead of the queue regarding 

technology adoption (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). However, while this technology has been adopted 

seamlessly, it is unclear whether the adoption rate is driven by deliberate policies based on valid 

theoretical evidence or just adopted for convenience and in response to competitive pressure. This study 

will provide evidence-based reasoning and a clear roadmap toward creating adequate penetration and 

adoption strategy. 

 

Objectives of the Study  

The study aimed at achieving two sets of objectives: main objectives and specific objectives. The 

primary objective is to assess the factors influencing the adoption of portable bank technology by a 

sample of regular customers of local commercial banks who own and transaction on the online platform 

on a regular basis. The specific objectives are two-fold. First, to identify the depth of portable bank 

technology offered by some local commercial banks; and second, to establish factors influencing 

adoption of portable bank technology among commercial bank customers. The study draws a large 

sample from Trade and Development Bank and Kenya Commercial Bank Mililani Branch. The findings 

will help the two banks design policies that promote clientele and increase the volumes of their 

operations.   

 
Research Questions  

Two specific questions guide the research. First, what is the breadth and depth of portable bank 

technology offered by local commercial banks, and second, what are the factors driving the adoption of 

portable bank technology by local commercial banks?  

 

Significance of the Study  

Most commercial banks in Nairobi enjoy niche customers with specific clientele base including public 

and private sector employees, self-employed persons and expatriates in addition to public and 

commercial entities such as hotels, hospitals, and private corporations (Ongore & Kusa, 2013). The 

banks are generally keen to increase service convenience offered to their customers to sustain their 

operations and achieve acceptable growth rates and increase value for their stakeholders (Ongore & 

Kusa, 2013). This research will provide an evidence-based insight into customer satisfaction by 

analysing customer needs and will enable the banks to serve their customers better. This research will 

determine the optimal strategies and actions that commercial banks managers should adopt to improve 

service delivery and achieve customer satisfaction.  

The Kenyan banking industry has achieved tremendous strides towards the accomplishment of 

automated and sophisticated banking service delivery based on information and communication 



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technology. Kenya is considered the hub of the East African financial sector (Ongore & Kusa, 2013). 

Most local banks in Kenya fully adopted portable bank technology and some banks, such as Equity, 

Coop bank, and Bank of Africa and Kenya Commercial Bank are ahead of the queue regarding 

technology adoption (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). However, while this technology has been adopted 

seamlessly, it is not clear whether the adoption rate is driven by deliberate policies based on valid 

theoretical evidence or whether it is just adopted for convenience and in response to competitive 

pressure. This study will provide the evidence-based reasoning and clear roadmap towards the creation 

of adequate penetration and adoption strategy.   

 

LITERATURE REVIEW 
The best way to analyze innovation and change is to conceptualize the whole idea within a dynamic 

frame where a transition from one stage of change into another takes a lifecycle format. The complete 

cycle of change is either gradual and aggregative or revolutionary (Velu, 2016). The gradual and 

aggregative change may be expressed in the following mathematical formulas: 

 

(1) Gradual change: 

 
(2) Aggregative Change: t2 = t1 + t0 

Where t2, t1 and t0 denote a change in time2, time1 and time0, respectively. 

 

On the other hand, revolutionary change has no precedent, and therefore it is a non-cumulative 

change (Velu, 2016). Innovation is synonymous with newness (Rogers, 2003). Any innovative idea, 

product, or service is unknown before. However, an unknown idea does not mean that it has not existed 

before (Galavan, Murray, & Markides, 2008). Newness is, therefore, a context-based and perception-

based phenomenon, and therefore, what is new in a specific setting or culture may have been already 

known in another setting or culture. Newness may be relative to the same setting or culture, and therefore 

it is not an absolute creation (Rogers, 2003). New ideas develop within the cultural and social context, 

flourish within the period, and are adopted or resisted by a specific group of receptors (Rogers, 2003). 

These three elements of innovation represent the lifecycle of change. The innovation theory highlights 

four critical stages of change lifecycle: innovation, diffusion, adoption, and social context. 

 Rogers (2003) defines innovation as "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an 

individual or another unit of adoption" (p. 49). Based on this definition, it is critical to highlight two 

aspects. First, innovation is "perceived"; second, it is "adopted by people." These two aspects form the 

foundations of innovation and explain two critical tenets of innovation: the relative importance of early 

adopters compared to late adopters and the technical attributes of innovation adoption (Rogers, 2003). 

Technical attributes include relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, Trialability, and 

observability. Technical attributes form one aspect of innovation that determines the speed of diffusions 

and the rate of adoption. Other aspects include how innovation is initiated, channels through which 

innovation is communicated, and social, organizational, and cultural settings. Given the scope, the study 

shall be limited to the technical aspects, introduced in detail in the following section. 

Relative advantage measures the extent to which innovation is perceived to be superior to other 

available and comparative solutions. This is based on adopters' tastes and preferences and points to the 

importance of the demand side as adopters are the ultimate beneficiary of any product or service that is 

released into the market. Adopters' tastes and preferences determine the rate of adoption and whether 

the adopted product will sustain or disappear. Any organization that intends to develop a product or 

t1 ≥ t0,  

t2 = t1 + t0 



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service must model adopters' behavior because failure to do so will result in a high rate of adoption 

failure (Rogers, 2003). 

Compatibility relates to product and service conformity with the adopters' cultures, social values, 

and ethical norms. Rogers (2003) notes that compatible innovations are adopted with relative ease while 

incompatible innovations are resisted or adopted slower. Incompatible innovations may require a change 

of social norms to make them compatible with the innovation (Rogers, 2003). The question is, in the 

event of a conflict between cultural norms and innovation, which one will prevail? This indeed depends 

on the relative importance of the innovation. If the adopters perceive innovation as critical, they may 

consider changing their pre-innovation norms to be compatible with the innovation (Rogers, 2003). 

Otherwise, the norms will remain, and the innovation will not be adopted (Christensen, 2013). One 

example that highlights this fact is what Rogers (2003) mentions the success rate of the HIV campaign 

in St. Lucia in the Caribbean. The campaign motto "after pleasure comes the pain" (p. 457) resonated 

well with the audience and accelerated the adoption rate by enforcing a change of cultures and attitudes. 

Complexity refers to the ease or difficulty in the adoption process. Complexity may relate positively or 

negatively to the degree of adoption, depending on the adopters' perception and attitudes toward risk 

(Rogers, 2003). Some adopters prefer to try harder and more complex experiences, particularly in 

technology. The steep learning curve that comes with adopting innovation may create a form of 

psychological excitement to some adopters and make them feel socially elevated or distinguished 

compared to other social groups. However, the mainstream reaction is that the more innovation is 

perceived as complex, the less appealing it becomes (Rogers, 2003). 

Trialability and observability are risk-mitigating aspects of adoption, and both relate to gradual 

adoption based on own assessment, as in the case of Trialability, or third-party assessment, as in the case 

of observability. Some innovations may not be compatible with Trialability, such as products and 

services that do not provide a sampling experience. However, most innovations are tried and tested by 

specialized parties before adoption (Rogers, 2003). Innovation's technical attributes have been 

extensively researched and applied in various disciplines, including technology, consumer products, 

education, the medical field, weaponry, and more. The theory has established a generalized causational 

direction between the technical attributes and the rate and speed of adoption. 

Portable banking technology, or mobile banking, refers to accessing traditional banking and 

financial services on portable phones. The software used to access the services is third-party 

applications, developed either as the propriety of the specific banks and financial institutions or by 

independent developers (Laukkanen, 2017). The range of services accessed on the portable devices 

varies per the services available in the host institutions. The standard services include balance checks, 

credit and loans, mortgage, payment of utility bills, money transfer, online shopping, gaming, stock and 

security transactions, and tax payment (Puschel et al., 2010). In most countries, the services are delivered 

through a partnership between financial institutions and telecommunication service carriers. In Kenya, 

for instance, the major telecom service providers, including Safaricom, Airtel, and Orange, have 

partnered with local commercial banks to provide portable bank services to a broad spectrum of 

customers (Wamai & Kandiri, 2015). The portable bank technology in Kenya is mainly dominated by 

Safaricom's M-PESA service (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). 

 

GLOBAL CONTEXT OF PORTABLE BANK TECHNOLOGY 

The portable device technology adoption is considered one of the fastest adoption rates in the history of 

technology, particularly value-added and internet-based services in general. The most conservative 

estimates suggest that the use of portable devices for internet-based applications will increase at a rate 

of 200 to 300 times each year. Data from the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) suggests 

that global mobile data traffic is projected to increase by at least seven times between 2018 and 2021. 

The ITU statistics show that by January 2018, an estimated 3.7 million active users of portable device 

technology worldwide, 50% of whom use portable devices for internet access. Kenya is estimated to 

have the highest portable device-based internet traffic rate, followed by Nigeria, India, Singapore, 

Ghana, and Indonesia. On the other hand, the highest broadband subscription rates are recorded in 



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Europe and North America, representing 78.2 percent and 76.6 percent, respectively. Previous Studies 

within the Kenyan context 

Kenya is considered one of the most advanced countries in East Africa regarding digitized 

banking and payment systems (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). Therefore, the Kenyan experience has received an 

elevated level of interest from all over the world. Since the introduction of the portable banking payment 

system in early 2003, several studies have been carried out to assess the rate of adoption and the influence 

of several theoretical and empirical factors in accelerating both the rate and magnitude of adoption 

(Mutindi, 2018). Given the scope of this study, a literature scan has been carried out to assess the 

commonality in research projects and findings of the Kenyan experience with diffusion and adoption. 

Most of the studies adopted the technical attributes and technology acceptance, consumer preferences, 

and institutional settings as independent variables, while the rate of adoption, acceptability and monetary 

impact were selected as dependent variables. Summary of the most recent studies is reported in . Some 

of the studies are reported in Table 4 

 

Previous Studies within the Kenyan Context  

Kenya is, by all means, viewed to be one of the most advanced countries in East Africa in terms of 

digitized banking and payment systems (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). Therefore, the Kenyan experience has 

received an elevated level of interest from all over the world. Since the introduction of the digital banking 

payment system in early 2003, several studies have been carried out to assess the rate of adoption and 

the influence of several theoretical and empirical factors in accelerating both the rate and magnitude of 

adoption (Mutindi, 2018). Most of the studies adopted quantitative methods with technical attributes, 

technology acceptance, consumer preferences, and institutional settings as independent variables while 

the rate of adoption, acceptability, and monetary impact were selected as dependent variables. Some of 

the studies are reported in Table 4 

 

Table 4. Summary of Recent Relevant Studies on Digital banking Technology 

Author/Authors  

and Date  

Title Concept Findings 

Jahan and Khan 

(2018) 

Factors Influencing the 

Mobile Banking Adoption 

in Bangladesh 

Exploring the 

relation between 

technical attributes 

of adoption and 

mobile banking 

adoption in the 

context of mobile 

banking service in 

Bangladesh 

Trialability, observability, 

relative advantage, 

perceived risk, complexity, 

and compatibility have 

statistically 

significant relationships 

with mobile banking 

adoption 

Mutindi (2018)  Factors influencing the 

adoption of mobile banking 

technology by bank 

customers in Machakos 

town 

 

Identifying factors 

influencing 

customers decision 

to 

use mobile banking 

in Kenya with 

interest in 

Machakos town 

The influence of bank 

factors, individual customer 

characteristics, and the 

availability of infrastructure 

have a significant positive 

impact on 

adoption of mobile banking 

technology 



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Compiled by Author 

 

METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN 

The section below describes the research methodology and covers research design, conceptual 

framework, population space, and sampling techniques used in the paper. The research was conducted 

Wamai and 

Kandiri (2015) 

Determinants of Mobile 

Banking Adoption by 

Customers of Microfinance 

Institutions in Nairobi 

County in Kenya 

To investigate the 

effects of important 

factors that affect 

the adoption of 

mobile banking 

technology by 

customers of 

Microfinance 

Institutions in 

Nairobi County 

The 

the study found that both 

perceived usefulness and 

perceived ease of use 

positively correlate and 

affects the adoption of 

mobile banking 

technology positively 

Addai, Ameyaw, 

Ashalley, and 

Quaye (2015) 

Digital Banking and 

Customer Satisfaction: 

Empirical Evidence 

from Ghana 

 

To determine a set 

of attributes that 

influence the 

adoption of mobile 

banking innovation 

among university 

students in Ghana 

Relative advantage, 

compatibility, observability, 

complexity, perceived 

risk, trialability and service 

satisfaction as critical factors 

influencing the adoption of 

mobile banking in Ghana 

Yunus (2014) Diffusion of Innovation, 

Consumer Attitudes, and 

Intentions to use 

Mobile Banking 

Discusses the effect 

of diffusion of 

innovation (relative 

advantage, 

compatibility, and 

trial-ability) 

toward the intention 

to use mobile 

banking through 

consumer attitudes 

The results found that 

relative advantage, 

compatibility, and trial-

ability directly had a 

significant effect on 

consumer attitudes in a 

positive way 

Mbiti and Weil 

(2015) 

Mobile banking: The 

Impact of Mpesa in Kenya  

The impact of the 

proliferation of 

Mpesa on the rate of 

technology 

adoption  

A positive correlation 

between technology 

acceptance and the rate of 

adoption.  

Gikandi and Bloor 

(2010) 

Adoption and effectiveness 

of digital banking in Kenya 

 

To establish the 

factors affecting the 

adoption of mobile 

banking services 

among 

bank customers in 

the Kenyan banking 

industry 

Positive and robust 

correlation between 

technical attributes and 

adoption rate  

Ngugi, Pelowski, 

and Ogembo 

(2010) 

Case Study of Early 

Adopters’ Role in the Rapid 

Adoption of Mobile 

Banking in Kenya  

An exploratory and 

empirical study of 

Early Adopters  

A statistically significant 

impact of early adoption rate 

and technical attributes  



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using a quantitative method and was designed as a descriptive cross-sectional study in which information 

was gathered from a sample of respondents who adopted portable bank technology. The data was 

gathered through an interviewer-administered questionnaire. 

The research aimed to apply technical attributes of adoption to assess portable bank adoption 

rates in various locations within Nairobi. The explanatory variables are Relative Advantage, 

Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, and observability. The dependent variable is the adoption of 

portable bank technology. The conceptual framework that maps the causational space between the 

explanatory variables and the dependent variable is depicted in Error! Reference source not found. 

The target population is defined as customers of local commercial banks which offer mobile 

banking services. The customer base includes regular account holders and customers who do not have 

an account with local banks. Because of the integrated account management system, not all customers 

visiting local commercial banks hold physical accounts with those banks because of the integrated 

account. Some customers hold banking accounts in various branches within Nairobi and across the 

country, while others use the convenience of online banking, which does not require users to travel to 

specific branches to carry out banking and financial transactions. Respondents included businesspeople, 

personal account holders, and corporate customers. 

According to Bernard (2017), a random sampling technique that satisfies up to 25% of the base 

population is considered adequate for social science research. Creswell and Creswell (2017) suggest that 

a 20% selection rate could still give unbiased results. The study chose respondents based on open and 

purposive sampling. The population parameters were unknown as the sample was picked from various 

locations. 

 

DATA ANALYSIS 

Data was entered for completeness, comprehensibility, and reliability before coding. Data was entered 

and analyzed on the SPSS platform, and the data analysis used frequencies and proportions for the 

descriptive statistics. A regression method was used where the explanatory variables were regressed on 

the dependent variable. The regressors were Relative Advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, 

Trialability, and Observability, while the dependent variable was the adoption of portable bank 

technology. The response rate is considered critical in determining the statistical significance of the 

study, and a higher response rate is better as it provides more robust explanatory power and dilutes data 

bias (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Out of the 130 questionnaires distributed, 115 were returned filled, 

representing a response rate of 88.46%. This response rate was deemed sufficient to provide reliable 

statistics. 

 

Respondents' Background 

Respondent's background is essential in research findings as it provides critical information about the 

relevance of the population to the study. In the adoption of innovation, the background of the sample 

informs whether adequate and subject-specific responses and results will be obtained or not. The 

background covered the respondents' gender, age, education level, social status, income, and 

professional status. 

Out of the total sample size of 115, people who responded that they were male were 70 (61%) 

while those who said they were female were 45 (39%). While the dominance of male percentage might 

not have a significant impact, it might inform broader gender aspects concerning the sample and study 

field that may warrant further investigation using a larger cross-section. However, this is out of the scope 

of this study. 

 



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Table 5. Sample Demographics: Gender 
 

Gender Frequencies Percent 

Male 70 61% 

Female 45 39% 

Total 115 100% 

 

Regarding the age question, although all respondents responded positively to the age question, 

it is challenging to verify the accuracy of responses since age is generally perceived as part of a person's 

privacy and personal data, and some respondents may not be freely willing to provide the accurate 

response, particularly with the female gender. Nonetheless, age is an important characteristic as it relates 

to maturity, experience, and consumer preferences. The age categorization was reported as follows: 30 

respondents (26%) aged 18-24 years, 42 respondents (37%) aged 25-34, 35 respondents (30%) aged 35-

44, and 8 respondents (7%) aged above 45. 

 

 Table 6. Sample Demographics: Age 
 

Age Frequencies Percent 

18-24 30 26% 

25-34 42 37% 

35-44 35 30% 

Above 45 8 7% 

Total 115 100% 

 

Education level is a critical factor in both the response rate and technology adoption level 

because educated persons are easier to convince to provide questionnaire responses. Educated persons 

are also able to express themselves and their inclinations freely without fear. Of the 115 respondents, 

the majority were a university and tertiary-educated, representing 60 (52%) and 38 (33%), respectively, 

while 17 (15%) were secondary education. The primary education category returned zero responses. 

 

Table 7. Sample Demographics: Education 
 

Education Level Frequencies Percent  

Primary 0 0% 

Secondary 17 15% 

Tertiary 38 33% 

University 60 52% 

Total  115 100% 

 

Social status was another critical factor added to the questionnaire based on the perception that 

married persons and single mums have higher societal responsivities and are more likely to use portable 

bank technology to carry out various household-related transactions. The study sample included 21 

(18%) single, 71 (62%) married, and 23 (20%) divorced. Again, while the questions were quickly 

answered, it was challenging to ascertain the veracity of responses as some people tend to conceal their 

social identity, marital status, and age due to the sensitivity of the responses. 

 



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Table 8. Sample Demographics: Social Status 

 

Table 9. Sample Demographics: Income Level 

 

In terms of income level, the majority, 51%, fall within the income bracket of kshs. 50,000 – 

kshs. 249,000, which corresponds to the middle-income class. Further, 20% of respondents earn above 

kshs. 250,000 and below kshs. 500,000 while only 11% earn above kshs. 500,000. 

Finally, employment status or professional status is another crucial factor because it relates to 

financial status, income level, and the possibility of owning a smartphone and transacting on a bank 

platform. Out of the 115 respondents issued with questionnaires and interviewed, 62 (54%) were 

employed, 30 (26%) were self-employed, 13 (11%) were not employed, and 10 (9%) were students. 

 

Table 10. Sample Demographics: Professional Status 
 

Professional Status  Frequencies Percent 

Employed 62 54% 

Self-employed 30 26% 

Not employed 13 11% 

Others (student) 10 9% 

Total  115 100% 

 

BREADTH AND DEPTH OF PORTABLE BANK TECHNOLOGY 

The study's first objective was to assess the breadth and depth of portable bank technology adopted by 

customers of local commercial banks. This was measured by several variables, including smartphone 

ownership, adoption of the portable bank, adoption frequency or frequency of use, services enjoyed from 

the smartphone, reasons for using the portable bank, and reasons for not using the portable bank. The 

first and second questions are the structural questions expected to auto-correlate with the remaining three 

questions. The study did not use techniques to deal with autocorrelation as it was limited to simple 

descriptive statistics. 

Out of the total respondents, 97% had smartphones, 95%% had subscribed to Portable Bank, 

60% never frequently used Portable Bank, 25.3% used Portable Bank for balance inquiry, 34.0% used 

Portable Bank because it provided cashless convenience, and 34.2% did not use Portable Bank because 

of fear of loss. Despite the limited scope and sample, these statistics tell underlying stories related to 

Income Level per Month Frequencies Percent 

Under Kshs 50,000 20 17% 

Kshs. 50,000-99,999 32 28% 

Kshs. 100,000-249,000 27 23% 

Kshs. 250,000-499,000 23 20% 

Over Kshs.500,000 13 11% 

Total  115 100% 

Social Status  Frequencies Percent 

Single  21 18% 

Married 71 62% 

Divorced  23 20% 

Total  115 100% 



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people's perception of dealing with cash and portable bank. The motives could be broader than what has 

been captured in this limited questionnaire, and therefore, broader research may be worthwhile to 

understand the underlying motives of people dealing with cash or cashless systems in Kenya. The 

following were the findings of the study 

 

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF ADOPTION OF MOBILE BANKING SERVICES 

 

Table 11. Smartphone Ownership  

 

Table 12. Adopted Portable Bank 

  
Frequencies Percent 

Subscribed 109 95% 

Unsubscribed 6 5% 

Total 115 100% 

 

Table 13. Adoption Frequency 

  
Frequencies Percent 

Never 6 5% 

Rarely 3 3% 

Sometimes 18 16% 

Often 21 18% 

Very Often 67 58% 

Total 115 100% 

 

Table 14. Services Used on Portable Bank 

  
Frequencies Per cent 

Balance Check 109 19% 

Money Transfer 88 16% 

Loans 18 3% 

Bill Payment 109 19% 

Airtime Purchase 42 7% 

Cash Withdrawal 109 19% 

Cash Deposit 91 16% 

Total 566* 100% 

 

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ADOPTION OF PORTABLE BANK TECHNOLOGY 

The study's second objective was to investigate factors influencing the adoption of portable bank 

technology among commercial bank customers. This was measured by looking at 5 (t5 variables). The 

 
Frequencies Percent 

Have a Smartphone 112 97% 

No Smartphone 3 3% 

Total 115 100% 



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questions were spread on a Likert scale from 1 to 5, with one denoting strongly disagree, two disagree, 

three neutral, four agree, and five strongly agree. The mean was used to analyze the questions and 

identify the rank of each technical attribute. 

 

Table 15. Factors Influencing Adoption of Mobile Banking 
 

Factor ID  No of Item Mean  STD ALPHA 

Compatibility 5 4.25 1.46 0.833 

Trialability 5 4.19 1.33 0.839 

Observability 5 4.03 1.21 0.783 

Relative Advantage 5 4.03 1.89 0.908 

Complexity 5 3.97 1.34 0.843 

 

As expected and in conformity with the theory, compatibility was ranked as the highest factor 

influencing the adoption of portable bank technology, followed by Trialability, observability, and 

relative advantage, while complexity had the least explanatory power. The means of four and above 

correspond to the answers obtained based on the Likert scale, where four denotes "agree," as explained 

above. A simple regression analysis was carried out to understand the explanatory power and the 

direction of causation, and the results are reported in the following table. 

 

Table 16. The Regression Model 
 

Independent Variable B S.E T P-VALUE 
Collinearity Statistics 

Tolerance VIF 

Compatibility 0.24 0.051 4.21 0 0.54 1.701 

Trialability 0.28 0.056 4.27 0 0.551 1.705 

Observability 0.31 0.06 4.45 0 0.509 1.964 

Relative Advantage 0.32 0.064 4.5 0 0.513 1.968 

Complexity -0.141 0.043 -3.333 0.001 0.71 1.408 

 

The above results indicate that compatibility is the most significant determinant of adopting 

portable bank technology (t=4.21, p ≤ 0.001) is similar to findings of previous studies (Koenig-Lewis, 

Palmer, & Moll, 2010; Odera, 2013). Both studies found that compatibility has a robust positive 

influence on the adoption rate of portable bank technology. Rogers (2003) asserts that "Compatibility is 

the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past 

experiences, and needs of potential adopters" (p. 52). Compatibility, therefore, represents the degree of 

familiarity and acceptance by the adapters, and the more innovation is perceived to be compatible with 

adopters' beliefs, convenience, and ways of life, the faster the innovation is adopted. In portable bank 

technology, most respondents perceive it as compatible with their way of life and help them conveniently 

conduct their various businesses. Hence, the variable provided a robust and higher explanation. The 

regression results have also shown that Trialability has a significant positive impact on adoption with t= 

4.27, p ≤ 0.001. This is as expected and is supported by the theoretical foundation. According to Rogers 

(2003), Trialability represents an inherent possibility of trying the innovation on a sample basis. The 

reasoning behind the positive impact of Trialability on the adoption rate is that innovation that offers 

adopters the chance to try it on a small-scale basis will generate confidence and accelerate the adoption 

rate. Innovation is always risky because it represents an untested change and tends to drag adopters away 

from their traditional comfort zones (Norman & Verganti, 2014). Hence, a gradual change is always 

preferred over revolutionary change because the former allows for reversal. The regression has also 

found that observability has a high explanatory value with t = 4.45, p ≤ 0.001. This conforms with the 



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theoretical foundation because observability is similar to Trialability. After all, it allows late adopters to 

observe the success of innovation by observing the experience with the early adopters. This provides 

both comfort and confidence and therefore accelerates the rate of adoption by late adopters. Relative 

advantage has returned a positive explanatory coefficient at t=4.50, p ≤ 0.001. Again, this result 

conforms to the theoretical foundation. Relative or comparative advantage accelerates the adoption rate 

because it reflects consumer preference over other available competing products (Bessant, 2003). 

Finally, Complexity harms mobile banking adoption. This contradicts earlier findings by Jahangir and 

Begum (2008), who assert that complexity makes innovation appealing, and adopters tend to try 

challenging experiences. However, the finding is consistent with other studies (Jabri & Sohail, 2012; 

Odera, 2013; Wang, Wang, Lin, & Tang, 2003). The finding in this study suggests low significance of 

complexity on the adoption rate. 

 

CONCLUSION 

This study concluded that the technical attributes represent statistically significant explanatory variables 

of portable bank technology adoption rate in the Kenyan contexts. The findings also align with the 

causational relations stipulated in the adoption theory (Rogers, 2003). This is also broadly in conformity 

with several other previous studies in the Kenyan context (Gikandi & Bloor, 2010; Mbiti & Weil, 2015; 

Mutindi, 2018; Ngugi et al., 2010; Wamai & Kandiri, 2015). It could be observed that people adopt 

portable banking mainly because of the convenience it provides them in terms of time-saving and 

reduction in transitional costs. For instance, the mobile banking charges are considered minimal 

compared to the convenience it provides to the users (Mbiti & Weil, 2015). Before the diffusion and 

adoption of mobile banking services, people used traditional means of dealing with money and 

conducting business, resulting in higher transaction costs and longer delays in transaction conclusion. It 

is evident that the portable bank service offered in Kenya is mostly in line with clientele expectations 

and conforms to the social and cultural inclinations of the adopters. The reliability of the core banking 

technology and the absence of significant incidents and setbacks such as large-scale fraud and non-

honoring of payment obligations contributed to the speedy adoption of portable bank technology (Odera, 

2013). 

Despite the findings of this study and similar studies conducted previously that indicate robust 

predictive power of technical attributes over the rate of technology adoption, Kenyan portable bank 

technology is still relatively nascent and may be far from being considered mature and established 

practice. It may require several years of uninterruptible performance to gauge the effectiveness of the 

system. Additionally, it is an oversimplification to assume that adoption is solely explained by the 

technical attributes as many other structural, social, cultural, and geopolitical assumptions need to be 

considered to arrive at a more realistic and broader explanation. It is also expected that expanding the 

variable base allows for more complex and natural relations to be modeled. 

Another shortcoming of the findings, besides the limited population and the sample size, is that 

it does not differentiate between the impact of the adoption rate in early adopters and late adoptions. 

According to Rogers (2003), part of the adoption velocity in late adopters may be explained by the 

success rate achieved by early adopters. This explains the acceleration rate in late adoption. In a practical 

sense, people tend to follow a copy-and-paste attitude, and they generally feel more comfortable with a 

technology that has been tested by a neighbor, a friend, or a relative. As they say, good messages tend 

to spread through word of mouth and increase adoption rate at an increasing rate. 

Kenya is an emerging market and a middle-income economy. Kenya also hosts several 

international organizations and is the only UN office in East Africa. The country is therefore poised to 

play a critical role in the African economic and financial landscape. The success of deploying portable 

banking technology in Kenya has already been copied in all the East African countries (Hellstrom & 

Troften, 2010). This cross-border adoption represents a positive promotion for portable bank technology. 

However, it appears that the East African Community is yet to produce effective legislation to pave the 

way for financial integration, particularly concerning online banking technology (Hellstrom & Troften, 



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2010). Currently, the integration is limited to cross-border branches of commercial banks that have a 

presence in other countries. 

The study has uncovered useful trends in portable bank technology adoption in Kenya. The 

questionnaire feedback and the findings could be used as a basis for policy design and implementation 

by local banks and financial institutions and invest more resources in attracting more transaction traffic 

into the online platform. The benefit of online banking is that it is a one-time investment by the banks 

and will continue to accrue net revenues at relatively low operating expenses. 

Future research should focus on broader variables and carry out comparative studies on both 

homogeneous and heterogeneous settings to gauge the net effect of technical attributes on technology 

adoption. The relationship between complexity and adoption is one area that needs further investigation 

to assess whether this is only specific to digital technology or may apply to all forms of innovation. One 

might expect that complex innovation considered superior in the social ladder may be adopted at a higher 

pace by middle and high-income nations while lower classes adopt simple innovations at a higher pace 

and complex innovations at a slower pace. 

 

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APPENDICES 

Appendix: Questionnaire 

Use of Mobile Banking Technology 

Dear Participant 

This short questionnaire is intended to collect ANONYMOUS data about access to banking services 

on mobile devices. This questionnaire is for research purposes and is not designed to inform or affect 

any policy that may negatively impact the consumers. 

I would appreciate it if you could take ONLY five minutes of your time to fill this questionnaire with 

accurate information to the best of your knowledge. 

 

1. Are you Male or Female? 

 

Male Female  

   

 

2. What is your age Bracket? 

 

 

3. What is your education level? 

 

Primary Secondary Tertiary University 

   

 

 

 

4. What is your social status? 
 

Single 

 

Married 

 

 

 

18-24 25-34 35-44 Above 45 

    

Divorced  



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5. Where do you place your income category? 
 

Under 50,000 

 

50,000-99,999 

 

100,000 249,000 
 

250,000-499,000 Above 500,000 

 

 

    

 

6. What is your professional status? 

 

Employed 

 

Self-employed 

 

Not employed 
 

Others (student) 

 

    

 

 

7. Do you have a Smartphone? 

 

8. Are you subscribed to any form of mobile banking? 

 

Subscribed 

 

Unsubscribed 

 

 

  

 

9. How often do you use this service? 

 

Yes No 

  

 

 
1 

 

2 3 4 5 

Balance Check      

Money Transfer       

Loans       

Bill payment       

Airtime purchase       

Cash withdrawal       

Cash deposit       



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10. Which of the following factors you think have influenced your decision to use portable bank 

service? 

 
 

1 2 3 4 5 

Convenience       

Tested and reliable       

Security       

Better than going to the bank       

Comfort       

Knowledge       

 1q2`1 A     

 

11. Which of the following factors you think might influence your decision not to use the portable 

bank service? 

 
 

1 2 3 4 5 

Costly       

Reliability       

It can get lost       

Difficult to use       

Restrictive       

 

12. Do you think portable bank services are better than going to the bank? 

 

 

13. Do you find the service expensive compared to other services? 

 

 

14. Do you find any technical challenges dealing with this service? 

 

 

15. Do you think that buying a smartphone is a nightmare? 

 

 

16. Would you recommend this service to others? 

 

 

17. Do you have any security concerns using the services? 

 

 

 

Copyrights 

Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. 

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) 

Yes No  

Yes No  

Yes No  

Yes No  

Yes No  

Yes No  


