Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 41  

Review Article 

Some members of genus Cassia (Senna): Their Ethnobotany, Potency and 

Prospects of Drug discovery 

Salome Osunga1, Omari Amuka2, Alex K. Machocho3, Albert Getabu4, Martin O. Onani5 

From 1 Department of Chemistry, Kisii University, P.O Box 408-40200, Kisii, Kenya. 2 Depatment of Applied Plant Sciences, Maseno 

University, Private Bag, Maseno, Kenya. 3 Department of Chemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box43844-00200, Nairobi, Kenya. 4 

Department of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences, Kisii University, P.O Box 408-40200, Kisii-Kenya. 5 Department of Chemistry, 

University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa. 

Corresponding to: Salome Osunga, Department of Chemistry, Kisii University, P.O Box 408-40200, Kisii, Kenya. Email: 

sosunga@kisiiuniversity.ac.ke 

ABSTRACT 

Plants from Cassia species have been used traditionally all over the world in the treatment of various diseases. Various compounds with 

diverse bioactivities have been isolated from the Cassia species. However, this has not been done exhaustively in all the species. 

Moreover, only a few drugs are associated with cassia species as their origin despite the knowledge that plants are a good source of 

drugs. Further investigations are required to isolate more compounds from these species, verify their bioactivities, conduct clinical and 

toxicological studies and eventually come up with lead drugs. This review relates the ethnobotanical uses of various Cassia species with 

the isolated bioactive compounds. It pinpoints the limited compounds that have been isolated compared to their traditional benefits 

justifying the potential and potency of the species as a drug source. 

Key words: Cassia, Senna, ethnopharmacology, phytochemicals, bioactivity 

edicinal plants are critical to developing novel 

medications [1-3]. 70-90% of the population in 

Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Middle East 

rely on traditional medicine for primary healthcare [3]. The 

global acceptability of popular and efficient species from 

Europe, North America, Africa and Asia is expanding due to 

increased demand for medicinal plants in many countries [4]. 

The percentage of individuals using herbal plants has increased: 

to 40–50% in Germany, 42% in the USA, 48% in Australia, and 

49% in France [3,5]. There is also an ever increase in microbial 

resistance to antibiotics. The trend is causing concern when it 

involves the continuous evolution of new strains that use 

resistance strategies against antimicrobial drugs. It could be 

possible that plant extracts may offer a solution to the 

puzzle.Such disease management methods rely on ethnobotany 

and ethnopharmacology methods used in identifying the plants 

of interest for pharmacological and phytochemical studies [6]. 

Ethnobotany has played and will continue to play a significant 

role in drug discovery [7].  

In addition, traditional medical practices involving plant or 

plant parts are embedded in virtually all community cultures 

[8].During the literature review of Chamaecrista nigricans syn. 

Cassia nigricans, it became clear that there was significant 

documentation; however, there was still room to add more 

knowledge to this already exciting genus Senna (Cassia). 

Cassia genus belongs to the family Fabaceae and comprises 

about 600 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed in 

tropical and subtropical countries, mainly Africa, Asia, and 

South America [9,10].  

The species have been used, anciently in vogue, to treat 

various ailments that include: skin diseases (such as scabies, 

eczema, and ringworm), helminthiasis, impetigo, ulcers, 

pesticide, laxatives, rheumatic diseases, headache, and fever 

[2]. Most of these species are used as anti-inflammatory, 

antimicrobial, antivirals, antimutagenic antioxidants, 

antiplasmodial anticancer, laxative hypoglycaemic, and 

hyperglycaemic [11-13]. Several secondary metabolites have 

been isolated and identified from the Cassia species. They 

include peridine alkaloids, anthraquinones, anthracenes, 

tannins, phenylpropanoids, pentacyclic triterpenoids, essential 

oils, polyphenols, flavonoids, fatty acids, γ-naphthopyrones, 

sterols and polysaccharides [13-16]. Such compounds have 

been proven to be bioactive and found in different parts of 

plants, such as flowers, seeds, fruits, leaves, roots, and bark [11]. 

This article has attempted to give an overview of the 

ethnopharmacology and bioactivity of the phytochemical 

compounds isolated from various species of the genus Cassia 

and their potency and potential as new drug sources. It 

summarises advances in bioactive isolates from this genus and 

the discovery of new therapeutic agents. It is expected to 

emphasize the importance and traditional utilization of the 

genus for novel drug discovery. This effort will incentivize 

more research to isolate bioactive constituents and develop 

M 

mailto:sosunga@kisiiuniversity.ac.ke


Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 42  

drugs from the already bioactive compounds from the genus. 

Virtually all the members of this genus are of economic 

importance as fodder for foraging bees and nitrogen fixers, thus 

increasing soil fertility in essential nutrients [14]. The relevant 

information on the botanical description, ethnopharmacological 

uses, phytochemicals, and the bioactivities of the isolated 

compounds were collected from various search engines, 

including Google Scholar, Google, Springer, Elsevier, 

PubMed, Science Direct, and ResearchGate. Cassia or Senna 

and its associated plant names were employed as keywords to 

find the pertinent information. The chemical structures of the 

compounds were drawn using ChemDraw Ultra 8.0 software. 

PubChem and ChemSpider databases were used to verify the 

IUPAC names of the isolated phytochemicals. The data 

includes species name, habitat distribution, extracted 

phytochemical compounds, and the bioactivities performed on 

the phytochemical compounds. 

Cassia auriculata Linn synonyms are Senna auriculata and 

C.densistipulata (L.) Roxb. It is a fast-growing shrub to a small 

tree used in green manuring, ornamental, soil reclamation, and 

tannin. The plant possesses some cardiac glycosides [15]. It is 

commonly found in Asia [16]. The whole plant treats liver 

ailments [17]. The leaves have been used for ulcers, skin 

diseases, anthelmintics, and leprosy [18]. The bark is an 

astringent [19], while the roots have been used to treat skin 

conditions such as leprosy, tumours, urethroea, and asthma 

[20]. The roots are also used in managing ailments in the 

urinogenital system, fever, constipation, and diabetes [21,22]. 

The flowers cure nocturnal emissions, urinary discharges, 

throat irritation, and diabetes [23]. Flowers are also used as a 

body coolant, treating yellow fever and in blood and liver 

purification [24]. The seeds are used in chylous urine, diabetes, 

ophthalmic, and aphrodisiac complaints [25]. The leaves have 

also been used as hair cleaner and to cure common cold, 

whereas roots also cure diarrhea, abdominal pains, and 

vomiting [26]. The plant is also used generally for intestinal 

problems, female infertility, worms, leprosy, conjunctivitis, 

rheumatism, and diarrhea [27]. 

Some compounds that have been isolated from the species 

include 4-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2,3,4,5,6,7-hexahydro-7-(2-

ethoxyphenyl)benzo[h][1,4,7]triazecin-8(1H)-one (1), an 

anticancer compound, isolated from ethanolic leaves extracts of 

the plant. This compound has been confirmed to inhibit the 

growth of human colon cancer cells [28].  Oleanolic acid. (2) 

isolated from methanolic leaf extracts has antimicrobial activity 

against Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia 

coli, and Salmonella typhi [29]. Methanol and chloroform crude 

extracts showed potent inhibitory activity against the above 

microbes [30]. Ayurvedic hydro-alcoholic seed extracts of C. 

auriculata have been reported to possess antidiabetic activity 

[31]. Antidiabetic compounds: 1,3,8-trihydroxyanthraquinone 

(emodin) (3) and quercetin (4) have been isolated from n-

butanol seeds extracts, while gallic acid (5), quercetin-3-O-

rutinoside (6), caffeic acid (7), ferulic acid (8), and ellagic acid 

(9) were isolated from methanol: water (1:1)seeds extract [32]. 

5-O-methylquercetin-7-O-glucoside (10) has been isolated 

from the plant's 50% acetone flower extracts and has anti-

inflammatory activity [33]. Furthermore, α-Tocopherol-β-D-

mannoside (11) is also an anti-inflammatory compound isolated 

from the plant's methanolic leaf extracts [34]. Refluxed dried 

powdered leaves concentrates in 1N NaOH solution contain 

Luteolin (12), Quercetin (4), Kaempferol (13), and 

Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-rutionoside (14). These compounds 

inhibit the aluminium corrosion activity without harming living 

organisms, unlike chemical inhibitors, which are quite toxic 

and expensive, harmful to bio-organisms and non-

biodegradable [35,36]. 

Cassia glauca (Lam) synonym is Senna sulfurea (Collad.) 

H.S.Irwin & Barneby A shrub usually with yellow flowers and 

is used as an ornamental. It is found in Tropical Asia, India, 

Australia, South America, Malaysia, Pakistan, and China 

[37,38]. The leaves have been used to manage blennorrhagia 

[39,40]. The seeds treat skin diseases and leucoderma, whereas 

the bark and leaves treat gonorrhea and diabetes [37]. The plant 

has been used for common cold, as an antimalarial, central 

depressant, purgative, and diuretic [41]. A compound of 

biological interest that has been isolated is: Kaempferol 3-O-β-

D-rutinoside (14) from the methanolic leaves extracts and has 

been reported to harbour in vitro cytotoxic effects against 

human liver carcinoma (HepG-2) and human breast 

adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cell lines [42]. Moreover, it can be 

combined with other chemotherapeutic drugs to boost their 

cytotoxic activity and guard against their side effects, 

suggesting that Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-rutinoside can be a potent 

anticancer agent [38]. 

Cassia angustifolia Vahl synonyms are Senna alexandrina 

Mill, C.acutifolia Delile, C.lanceolata Forssk, C.senna L., 

Senna acutifolia (Delile) Batka and .S.angustifolia (Saheed S.A 

& Illoh H.C). The plant is also referred to as Indian Senna. It is 

found in India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Egypt, Somalia, Arabia, 

and Yemen [43,44]. The leaves have been used to manage 

hepatomegaly, anemia, constipation, malaria, loss of appetite, 

indigestion, jaundice, ringworm, splenomegaly, and to increase 

peristaltic movement of the colon [9,43]. The leaves and pods 

are used for splenic enlargements, cholera, antipyretic in 

typhoid, anthelminthic, and laxative [44]. Dry tubers have been 

used as an aphrodisiac, general debility tonic, and rheumatism 

[45]. Various isolates from parts of the plant, including 

Quercimeritrin (15), scutellarein (16), and rutin (17), have been 

isolated from methanol, ethyl acetate, and ethanol seed 

powdered extracts. All these extracts possess anticancer and 

antioxidant activities. In addition, the mentioned three 

compounds have antimicrobial activity; they inhibit the 

microbial growth of E. cloacae, P. aeruginosa, S. mercescens, 

and S. typhi [44]. The leaves and the pods of this species have 

been reported to contain dianthone glucosides, sennosides A 

(18) and B (19), commonly used as laxatives [46-49]. 

http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/about/#synonym
http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-29621
http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-29621


Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 43  

N

N

O

N
H

Cl

O

1

H3C CH3

COOHH3CCH3

HO

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2  

OH

HO

OHO

O

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3 4 5

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OOH

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12 13
 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 44  

O

OOH

HO O

OH

O

OH

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

CH3

14

 

 Other compounds also isolated from methanolic leaves 

extracts of C.angustifolia and known to display various 

activities, including antimicrobial compounds such as 2, 5-

dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2h)- furanone (20), 4a-acetoxy-5,5,8a,-

trimethyloctahydrobenzo[b] pyran (21) and 1-ethynyl-4-fluoro-

benzene (22); anti-inflammatory compounds such as 

caryophyllene(23), estragole(24) and 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4- 

hexenyl)-4-methylbenzene (25); antihyperglycemic compound 

such as anethole (26); antioxidant compounds such as 2-

methylene-(3ß,5α)-5-cholestan-3-ol (27), 2-Methoxy-4-

vinylphenol (28); anticancer compounds such as 5-

Hydroxymethylfurfural (29), ß-curcumene (30) as well as 

antiviral compound such as 2-[6-(2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-

enyl)-4-methyhexa-1,3,5-trienyl]cyclohexanal (31) [46]. 

Cassia fistula L synonyms are: Bactyrilobium fistula (L.) Willd; 

C.bonplandiana DC; C. excels Kunth; C.fistuloides Collad; 

C.Rhombifolia Roxb; Cathartocarpus excelsus G. Don; 

Cathartocarpus fistula (L.) Pers; Cathartocarpus fistuloides 

(Collad) G. Don; and Cathartocarpusr hombifolius  (Roxb) G. 

Don.The medicinal use of the species date from ancient times 

and has been the main factor in its spread. It is called 

"Aragvadha," a word that can be translated as "elimination of 

diseases" in Sanskrit. The plant must have originated from the 

Indian Subcontinent. It is widespread in East Africa and several 

of the Indian Ocean Islands [48]. The roots, bark, leaves, 

flowers, and seeds are all used for therapeutic purposes. The 

leaves have been used as a purgative against ringworms [49]. 

The whole plant treats anorexia, skin diseases, rheumatism, 

jaundice, and inflammatory diseases [50]. The roots also cure 

heart diseases, dysentery, joint pain, retained excretions, chest 

pain, fever, and migraine [51].  

Ayurvedic medicines recognize the use of the plant for skin 

diseases, tubercular glands, adenopathy, burning sensations, 

syphilis, and leprosy [52]. The fruit, seeds, flowers, and pulps 

are all used for skin diseases; the pulp is also used to treat gout 

and rheumatism, while the leaves have been used as a laxative 

[53]. In addition, flowers, leaves, bark, root, and pulp have been 

used in wound healing, liver protection, and as an antimycotic 

[54]. The whole plant also treats ulcers, purgative, impetigo, 

and helminthiasis, although the leaves and the seeds act as a 

liver tonic, cardiotonic, laxative, antihelmintic, ophthalmic, 

antiperiodic expectorant as well as in treating constipation and 

bronchitis [55]. The species' seeds have been used in treating 

swollen throats, oral sores, jaundice, and biliousness [56]. The 

plant is also used as a hair cleanser and in the treatment of 

venereal diseases, diarrhea, toothache, muscle pain, cold, 

inflammation, reducing body heat, vomiting as well as diabetes 

[26,48]. 

Phytochemical elucidation of Cassia fistula has led to 

isolating compounds with therapeutic values.:4-hydroxy 

benzoic acid hydrate (32) (from the ethyl acetate extracts of the 

flower) was confirmed to possess antifungal activity against 

Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Epidermophyton floccosum 

[57]. Rhein (1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone-3carboxylic acid) 

(33) has also been isolated from ethyl acetate extract of C. 

fistula flower and showed inhibition against fungi such as 

Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton simii, 

Trichophyton rubrum, and Epidermophyton floccosum [58]. 

Benzyl 2-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxybenzoate (34) and dibenzyl-

-׳tetramethoxy-biphenyl-1,1-״6,״dihydroxy-3,6,3-׳2,2

dicarboxylate (35) isolated from methanol extracts of seed 

showed antifungal activity against Cladosporium 

cladosporioides and Cladosporium sphaerospermum [59]. 

Phytol (36), lutein (37), and di-lineolylgalactopyranosyl-

glycerol (DLGG) (38) are antiplasmodial compounds that have 

been isolated from chloroform leaf extract of the plant. Di-

lineolylgalactopyranosyl-glycerol portrayed weak toxicity 

against cytotoxicity test carried out using the Chinese Hamster 

Ovarian (CHO) cell line, while phytol and lutein were nontoxic 

[60]. Rhein (33), 2(3H)-furanone (39), thymol (40), and oleic 

acid (41) have been isolated from ethyl acetate extract of seeds 

and pulp of C. fistula [61]. Butanol extracts of the seed yielded 

inositol (42) and palmitic acid (43), whereas the butanol extract 

of the pulp yielded inositol (42) and 2-pyrrolidone (44). All 

these compounds were reported to inhibit breast cancer (MCF-

7) and human cervical cancer (SiHa) cell growth, and they also 

induced cell death [61]. Cassia alata L synonyms are Senna 

alata L and Herpetica alata. It is distributed in Africa, South 

and North America, and India [62,63]. The plant leaves treat 

ulcers, scabies, ringworm, and skin diseases such as eczema, 

itching, and pruritis [62]. The leaves and stem bark are used to 

treat burns, diarrhea, jaundice, gastroenteritis, and hepatitis, 

whereas the immature leaves are effective against food 

poisoning and constipation [64]. This plant is good against 

insect bites, worms, goiter, fever, blemishes, sexually 

transmitted diseases, and fungal skin infections [65-67]. The 

leaves also cure asthma and bronchitis [67]. The roots are used 

for uterus disorder [68,69].  

Some compounds of interest have been isolated from this 

species. Cannabinoid alkaloids, 4-butylamine-10- methyl-6-

hydroxy cannabinoid dronabinol (45), have been isolated from 

the ethanolic seed extracts of the plant and is known to possess 

bioactivities against microbes such as Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 45  

Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Aspergillus 

niger [70]. Luteolin (12), kaempferol (13), and aloe-emodin 

(46) have been isolated from methanolic leaf extracts, and they 

all showed antibacterial activity against Vibrio cholerae and 

Shigellaflexneri., with aloe-emodin showing the highest 

activity [71]. Kaempferol (13) and ω-hydroxyemodin (47) have 

been isolated from the acetone leaves extracts ω-

hydroxyemodin showed antibacterial activity against 

methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus. aureus (MRSA) and 

kaempferol posses antioxidant activity [72]. 

OO

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

OHO

OH

O

OH

OH

O

O

HO

HO

OH

HO OHO

OH

OH

O

HO

15 16

O
O O

HO

OH

OH

OHHO

OH

17  

O

O

O OH

COOH

COOH

OHO
O

O

OH

HO
HO OH

HO
HO

OH

OH

H H

O

O

O OH

COOH

COOH

OHO
O

O

OH

HO
HO OH

HO
HO

OH

OH

H

H

18 19
 

O

O

HO

20
O

O

O

21
F

22 23

O

24

25

O

26
HO

27

O

OH

28

OO

OH

29
30

O

31

 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 46  

Cassia tora L synonyms are Senna obtusifolia (L.) 

H.S.Irwin & Barneby,Cassia numilis Collad, C. obtusifolia 

(L.), C.toroides Raf., Diallobus uniflorus Raf and Senna 

toroides Roxb. It is found in Africa, Fiji, Southeast Asia, 

Northern Australia, and Latin America [73,74]. The species has 

been used in Folklore medicine in that the leaves of the plant 

are used for the treatment of jaundice, eczema, ringworm, 

intestinal impetigo, and helminthiasis; the decoction of leaves 

and flowers are used against asthma and bronchitis; and the 

seeds are used to treat leprosy, psoriasis, earache, itching, eye 

diseases, liver problems while pods are used against dysentery 

and in eye diseases [75]. Its fermented leaves have purgative 

properties [72]. Traditionally, the plant has been widely 

employed in managing hemorrhoids, vitiated tridosha, 

hepatitis, skin diseases, dandruff, cough constipation, and fever 

[74]. The leaves and seeds possess cardiotonic, ophthalmic, 

antimicrobial, and liver tonic properties [76].  

Emodin(3), aurantio-obtusin (48), chryso-obtusin-2-O-β-D-

glucoside (49), and obtusifolin (50) have been isolated from 

ethyl acetate soluble extracts of the seeds of C. tora. They are 

known to inhibit diabetic complications (advanced glycation 

end products (AGEs)) and cataract formation (rat lens aldose 

reductase (RLAR)) [77]. Ononitol monohydrate (6-

methoxycyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5-pentaol hydrate) (51) occurred 

in the leaves of ethyl acetate extracts and was found to exhibit 

in vivo hepatoprotective activity [78] Aurantio-obtusin (48), 

chrysophanol (52), and chryso-obtusin (53) have been isolated 

from dichloromethane fraction of methanolic seed extracts, and 

the compounds showed significant antimugenic activity [79].  

Additionally, friedelin (54), a triterpene, is a compound that 

was isolated from ethanolic leaves extract of the plant and 

found to possess anticancer activity against human cancer cell 

lines; HeLa (cervical carcinoma) and HSC-1 (squamous 

carcinoma) [73]. Two phenolic triglucosides: toralactone 9-O-

[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-

O-β-D- glucopyranoside] (55) and torachrysone 8-O-[β-D-

glucopyranosyl(1→3)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→6)- O-β-D-

glucopyranoside] (56) occurred in 70% ethanol extracts of the 

seeds and was found to possess estrogenic activity [80]. 

O

O

O

OH

OH OH

O

HO

OH

H

O

32

33

H

34O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

MeO

O

O

O

MeO

OH

OMe

OMe

35  

HO

HO

OH

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

36

37

38
 

O

O

HO O

OH

39 40
41

HO

HO OH

OH

OHHO

O

HO N
H

O

42

43

44

 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 47  

O

CH3

OH

N
H

CH3

H

O

O

OH OH

OH45
46

O

O

OH OH

47

HO

 

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

H3CO

HO

OCH3

OH

CH3

OCH3

HO

H3CO

OCH3

O

CH3

O

OH

OH

OH

OH OCH3

OH

CH3

HO OH

OH

OHHO

O H

OH

48 49

50

51  

HHH

O

O

OOH OH

CH3

O

OOCH3

H3CO

H3CO

OCH3

OH

CH3
52 53

54

 

CH3

CH3

OH

H3CO

O O

O

O O

OH
HO
HO

O

HO
O

OH

OH
HO

HO
OH

OH

OH

H3CO

O
O

O O

OH
HO

HO

O
HO

O
OH

OH

HO
HO

OH

OH

O

CH3

O

56
55

 Advanced chemical studies and elucidation of ethyl acetate 

soluble seed extract yielded Emodin (3), rhein (33), aloe-

emodin (46), torachrysone (57) and toralactone (58), which 

possess significant antibacterial activity against methicillin-

resistant staphylococcus aureus [81]. 

 Cassia abbreviata Oliv synonyms are Cassia afrofistula 

Brenan, Cassia beareana Holmes and Cassia kassneri Bak. It 

is a medium-sized tree widely distributed in the tropics of Asia 

and other tropical Worlds [82] and used as medicine. The roots 

treat malaria, fever, impotence, abdominal pain, wounds, 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 48  

dysentery, syphilis, snake bite, body weakness, and hernia [83-

[84]85]. The plant is used to treat cancer [86]. Its root bark 

manages vaginal candidiasis [87]. The leaves, roots, and bark 

have been used to treat cough, epilepsy, diarrhea, fever, 

convulsion, vomiting, abortion, infertility, earache bilharzia, 

syphilis, hemorrhoids, gonorrhea, jaundice hernia, and stomach 

ache [88]. The bark and the roots cure dysentery, bloody 

vomiting, and menstrual cycle problems [89]. Fruits are used 

against eye infections and malaria [82]. The bark is also used in 

treating toothache and sexually transmitted diseases [90]. The 

roots are also used as an aphrodisiac [91].  

 Further, advanced studies in chemistry identified 

compounds that could enhance drug discovery. Such 

compounds are Trimmericproanthocyanidins; 3,7,4'-

trihydroxyflavan-(4β→8)-3,5,7,4'-tetrahydroxyflavan-(3'→6)-

3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxyflavan (cassinidin A) (59) and 3,7,2',4'-

tetrahydroxyflavan-(4α→8)-3,5,7,4'-tetra-hydroxyflavan-

(4α→6)-3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxy- flavan (cassinidin B) (60) 

which were isolated from methanol root bark extracts and they 

exhibited antibacterial activities on Escherichia coli, Bacillus 

subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida mycoderma [92]. 

2,3-dihydro-5-hydroxy-8-methoxy- 2-(4-

methoxyphenyl)chromen-4-one (61) and 3,4-dihydro-2-(4- 

hydroxy-phenyl)-4-methoxy-2H-chromen-7-ol (62) have been 

isolated from methanol root extracts and found to have 

antiplasmodial activities on both chloroquine-resistant and 

chloroquine-sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum [93]. 

 Cassiabrevone (63), guibourtinidol-(4α→8)-

epiafzelechin (64), taxifolin(65), oleanolic acid (66), 

piceatannol(67), and palmitic acid (43) were isolated from 

ethanolic bark and root extracts and posses anti-HIV-1 activity 

[94,95]. Cassia nigricans Vahl synonym is Chamaecrista 

nigricans Vahl The roots and leaves are vermifuge and 

antiperiodic [80]. The leaves also treat fever, sore throat, 

rheumatoid pains, gastrointestinal disorders, and family 

planning [12, 96,97]. The plant treats skin diseases, ulcers, 

diarrhea, and gastrointestinal disorders [98,99]. Various 

compounds have been isolated from this species, justifying its 

continued use in folklore medicine. It was reported that 1,3,8- 

trihydroxy-6-methyl-9,10-anthracenedione (Emodin) (3) 

isolated from methanol extract of the whole plant showed in 

vitro antiplasmodial activities against Plasmodium 

falciparum[100]. Emodin has also been isolated from the ethyl 

acetate leaf extract and found to be highly cytotoxic despite 

having antimicrobial activity [101]. Emodin (3), luteolin(12|), 

citreorosein (68), and emodic acid (69) have been isolated from 

n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol combined extracts. 

Emodin, citreorosein, and emodic acid showed larvicidal 

activity on Anopheles gambiae larvae [102]. Steroidal ester and 

hydroxyestranic acid ethyl ester (70) have been isolated from 

methanol leaves extracts and showed antimicrobial activities on 

Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, 

Corynebacterium pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, 

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, 

Neisseria gonorrhea and Klebsiella pneumoniae [103]. 

 Cassia sieberiana D.C. This species is a medium-sized 

tree widely distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal to 

East Africa [104]. The root bark and rootlets treat toothache, 

abdominal pains, skin diseases, hemorrhoids, helminths, and 

leprosy [105]. The roots also treat hemorrhoids and skin 

irritation and manage indigestion, stomach pains, and gastric 

ulcer [106,107]. The seeds have been used in weight reduction, 

clearing of acne, detoxification, and driving out internal heat 

[108].  The folklore uses of C. sieberiana have led to the 

isolation of such compounds as quercetin (4), cassiberianol A 

(71), and piceatannol (72) from methanol extracts of the roots. 

They all had inhibitory activity on 15-lipoxygenase, while 

piceatannol and quercetin also showed acetylcholinesterase 

inhibitory activity [109]. 

 Flavanoids, epiafzelechin (73), have been isolated from 

ethanol extracts of the plant's stem bark and possess antioxidant 

activity [110]. Moreover, cassiphenol (74), spectaline (75), and 

iso-6-cassine (76) are also compounds that have been isolated 

from ethanol extracts of the stem bark. Cassiphenol has weak 

antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 

Providencia stuartii, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Klebsiella 

pneumoniae. Spectaline and iso-6-cassine were the only 

compounds that portrayed antioxidant activity [111,112]. 

Cassia absus L. Synonym is Chamaecrista absus H.S.Irwin & 

Barneby It is a small hairy herb, a native of Africa; however, a 

common monsoon weed in South East Asia [113]. In folklore 

medicine, the seeds have been used to treat syphilitic ulcers, 

skin infections, leukoderma, ophthalmia and as a cathartic 

[114]. The leaves are used for nasal diseases, cough, and as an 

astringent to the bowel [115]. The leaves are used in curing 

tumours, while the roots are used against constipation [116].  

CH3

CH3

OHOH

H3CO

O

O

OHOH

H3CO

O

CH3

57 58
 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 49  

OHO

OH

OH

OH

HO OH

O
HO

OH

OH

OHO

OH

OH

OHO

OH

OH

OH

OH

O
HO

OH

OH

OHO

OH

OH

HO

HO

59 60

 

O

OCH3

OCH3

OH O

O

OH

OCH3

HO

61

62

 

O

O

O

O

HO

OH

HO

OH

OH
H

H

H O O

O

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

OH

H
HO

H COOH

H HO

OH

OH

OH

63
64

65

66
67

 

O
O

H

H

H

H

70CH3H3C

OH

O

OOH

HO

OH

OH

O

OOH

HO

OH

OH

O
68

69
 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 50  

HO

OH

HO

OH

H3CO

OH

OCH3

OH

OH

71
72

 

HO

O

O
H3C

N

HO

H3C
H

CH3

N

HO

H3C
H

CH3

O O

74

75 76

HO

OH

O

OH

OH

73

From this Ethnobotanical information, guided chemical 

profiling has been done, and the following noble compounds 

like Aloe-emodin (46), chrysophanol (52), and chaksine (77) 

have been isolated from the ethanol root extracts [117, 118]. 

The ethnomedicinal use of the roots is associated with the 

presence of chrysophanol and aloe-emodin and has also been 

verified by the bioactivity of these compounds from this genus. 

It has been reported that chaksine has antidepressant activity, 

anesthetic activity, and antibacterial activity against 

Streptococcus hemolyticus [113]. 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-8,3′-

dimethoxyflavone-5-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-7-O-β-D-

xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-D-galacto-pyranoside (78) is a 

compound that has been isolated from methanolic seeds of the 

plant. Reports indicate that the isolates possess antimicrobial 

activity on Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 

Penicillium digitatum, and Fusarium oxysporum [119]. Senna 

septemtrionalis H.S.Irwin & Barneby synonyms are Cassia 

aurata Roxb., C. elegans Kunth, C. Floribunda Kunth C. 

laevigata Willd, C. quadrangularis, C. septemtrionalis Viv and 

C. vernicosa Clos. A shrub to a  

sub-shrub native to America now spreads in the tropic and 

subtropics up to India and South Africa [120]. The roots treat 

malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, intestinal worms, and blood 

cleansing [120,90]. The leaves are used as a vermifuge 

[121,122]. It is also used in treating stomach aches, wounds, 

fever, gastroenteritis, snakebites, burns, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, 

anxiety, and as a laxative, fungicide agent, antidiuretic as well 

as expectorant [123]. This plant has also been used as a 

medication for rabies, cold, alopecia, earache, bile diseases, 

pain, inflammation, and cholera [124,125]. Its chemical 

elucidation yielded two compounds. Physcion (79) has been 

isolated from this plant and possesses bioactivities against 

Chlorella fusa and Bacillus megaterium [126]. Rutin (80) and 

Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside (14) hexoside are also compounds 

isolated from this plant, posing both anti-inflammatory and 

antinociceptive activities [125]. Senna petersiana (Bolle) Lock 

synonym is Cassia petersiana (Bolle) Lock This small tree is 

generally found in Tropical and sub-Tropical Africa and can 

grow to 12 m [127]. The root extracts treat infertility, malaria 

and are also used as inhalers and for deworming [128-130]. The 

leaves cure skin diseases, backaches, stomach aches, and 

febrifuge [127,130]. The plant is used to treat arthritis and 

management of diabetes [131]. The roots also treat a loss of 

appetite [132]. The plant also cures cholera, cold, and fever 

[133]. The plant's roots, leaves, and stems have been used for 

convulsion and relieving pain in the bones [134].  

As a result of its use in traditional medicine, several natural 

compounds have been isolated from its various parts. Luteolin 

(12) isolated from ethanol extracts of the seed possesses 

bioactivities against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus pumilus, Serratia 

marcescence, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus 

aureus [135]. Four compounds: 7-acetonyl-5-hydroxy-2-

methylchromone (petersinone A) (81), 5-hydroxyl-2-methyl-7-

(propan-2β- ol)-chromone (petersinone B) (82), glyceryl-1-

hexacosanoate (83) and stigmastosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside 

(84) were isolated from CH2Cl2-MeOH (1:1) leaves extract of 

this plant. Stigmastosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside showed the 

highest anti-inflammatory antitumor, antioxidant, macrophage 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 51  

proliferation, and immune proliferative activities [127]. Senna 

singueana Del Lock synonyms are  S. goratensis Fresen, Cassia 

zanzibarensis Vatke, C. singueana Delile, and C. tettensis 

Bolle. The species is a medium-sized tree used as ornamental 

and, like most family members, can fix gaseous nitrogen into 

the soil, thus enriching it with an essential nutrient. It is widely 

distributed in East and West Africa [136]. Various parts of the 

plant have been used in traditional medicine in different parts 

of the world [137]. The leaves and bark have been used to treat 

skin cancer [138]. The stem, bark, leaves, and roots treat a 

sprain, stomach pain, and tooth infection [139]. The leaves cure 

hepatitis, vomiting, and loss of appetite, and the stem bark 

prevents stillbirth [140]. The roots treat epilepsy and agitation 

[141]. The flowers are used as an anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, 

antispasmodic agent and in treating respiratory tract infections, 

malaria, and typhoid [142] ). The root bark is also used for 

abdominal pain, bilharziosis, mental disorder, women's 

infertility, constipation, convulsion, painful uterus, swollen 

breast, fever, menstruation, gonorrhea, anti-emetic, hernia, and 

in managing snakebites [143,144]. Some beneficial compounds 

that have been isolated from the plant through phytochemistry 

include 3β-O-acetyl betulinic acid (85) isolated from the ethyl 

acetate bark of this plant. It inhibited α-glucosidase and α-

amylase activity, thus delaying carbohydrates digestion and 

glucose assimilation, eventually restraining postprandial 

hyperglycemia, thus treating type 2 diabetes (T2D) [145]. 

Lupeol (Lup-20(29)-en- triterpene) (86), Eugenol (4-allyl-2-

methoxyphenol) (87) and 8-11-Octadecadienoic acid methyl 

ester (Methyl-8, 11-octadecadienoate) (88) are compounds 

which have been isolated from its methanolic root extracts. 

Eugenol showed antioxidant activity and a broad spectrum of 

antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, 

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus 

pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lupeol and 

Methyl- 8,11-octadecadienoate also possessed certain 

antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity levels against S. 

aureus [146].  

Senna didymobotyra (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin and Barneby 

synonyms are Cassia didymobotrya Fresen, C. nairobiensis H. 

Bailey, C.verdickii De Wild and Chamaesenna didymobotrya 

Sunarno. It is an invasive shrub that forms a dense growth that 

hinders the development of other plant species in a given area 

[147]. It is distributed in North, West, East, Southern Africa, 

and Madagascar [148]. This plant's leaves, stem, and roots have 

been used in treating sickle cell anaemia, backache, fibroids, 

inflammation of fallopian tubes, and hemorrhoids [149]. The 

bark is an antihaemorrhagic [150]. The plant has been used in 

treating skin disease, jaundice, purgative, malaria, sexually 

transmitted diseases, intestinal worms, and as an appetizer and 

antibiotic [148,151,152]. The leaves are used in curing 

dysentery, diarrhoea, and as an emetic and diuretic, while the 

root is used to treat ringworm, malaria, intestinal worm, fever, 

and jaundice [151]. Through natural product chemistry, some 

compounds have been isolated from this species; they include: 

Chrysophanol (52), physcion (76), 3β-sitosterol {17-(4-Ethyl-

1,5-dimethyl-hexyl)-10,13,dimethyl-2,3,4,7,8,9,-

10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17-tetradecahydro-1H 

cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-ol} (89) and stigmasterol 

{(3S,9S,10R,13R,14S,17R)-17-[E,2R,5S)-5-ethyl-6-

methylhept-3en-2-yl]-10,13-dimethyl-2,3,4,7,8,911,12,14,-

15,17-dodecahydro-1-H-cylopentanal[a]-3-ol (90) were 

compounds isolated from the hexane and DCM root bark 

extracts of this plant. The specific activity of the individual 

compounds was not reported; however, the crude extracts 

showed antimicrobial activities on Staphylococcus aureus, 

Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Candida albicans[153].  

HN

N

O

NH

NH2

N

O O

O

NH2

H3C

H3C

H

H

77

O

OCH3

OH

OCH3

O

O O

O
HO

O
HO

HO

HO HO

OH

O

O

H3C
HO

HO
OH

78

 

O

O

O

OH OH

79

O

O

HO

OH

O

O

O
HO

OH
OH

O

H3C
HO

HO
OH

80

 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 52  

O

O

OH

O

O

O

OH

OH

O

O-

OH

OH
H

HH

H

OO

HO OH

OH

HO

81 82

83

84  

O

H

COOH

O

H

H

H

85

HO

H

H

86

H

HH

H

HHO

OCH3 87

O

O

88

 

HO
HO

89

90

  Senna bicapsularis (L) Roxb synonyms are Cassia 

bicapsularis L., C.emarginata L, C. berterii Colla, Adipera 

bicapsularis (L.), Adipera spiciflora Pittier, Cathartocarpus 

bicapsularis (L.) Ham Isandrina emarginata (L.) Britt. & Rose 

ex Britt. & Wilson, Chamaefistula inflate G.Don and Isandrina 

arborescens Raf. It is distributed in South America and tropical 

countries [154]  The species is cultivated in many parts of the 

world; however, it has escaped being naturalized and has an 

unpleasant odor [155]. Roots and leaves are used for stomach 

aches [156]. The leaves have been used in treating skin ailments 

[157]. The flowers have been used as an abortifacient and 

contraception agent for both males and females [158]. The plant 

has been used to treat pain as well as a muscle relaxant and 

purgative [159]. Due to its aromatic nature, several compounds 



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 53  

like Emodin (3), rhein (33), chrysophanol (52), physcion (76), 

and stigmasterol (90) have been isolated from it with biological 

activities including sedative effect, anti-inflammatory, 

analgesic effect and muscle relaxing effect [159]. 

  Cassia spectabilis (D.C.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Synonyms: 

Cathartocarpus humboldtianus Loudon; Cathartocarpus 

speciosus (D.C.) G.Don;  Cathartocarpus trinitatis (D.C.) 

G.Don; Cassia trinitatis Rchb.ex D.C. Cassia carnaval Speg, 

Pseudocassia spectabilis (DC.) Britton & Rose, Senna speciosa 

Roxb, Senna surattensis (Burm. f.) Irwin & Barneby. Cassia 

amazonica Ducke and Senna spectabilis (D.C.) Irwin & 

Barneby. The species is a native of South America, Brazil, and 

coastal Ecuador and has migrated throughout Central America, 

the West Indies, the tropics, and sub-tropic parts of the world 

[160-162]. The leaves are used in throat inflammation and 

diarrhoea [162]. The plant is used to cure headaches, malaria, 

and dysentery, while the leaves treat anxiety,  epilepsy, 

insomnia, constipation, and anxiety [163]. The species has also 

been used in treating ringworm, skin disease, flu, cold, 

whooping cough, menstrual cramps, and diabetes 

[160,164,165]. Natural products that have been isolated from 

this plant are: (-)-spectaline (72), (+)-2-Methyl-3-feruloyl-6-

(dodecyl-11′-one) piperidine ((+)-3-O-feruloylcassine) (91) 

and (-)-3- O-acetylspectaline (92), isolated from methanol 

extract of green fruits of this plant and they showed moderate 

antioxidant activities [162]. Iso-6-spectaline (14-[(2R, 3R, 6R)- 

3-hydroxy-2-methylpiperidine]-tetradecan-13-one) (93) was 

isolated from ethanol leaf extracts and showed central nervous 

system (CNS) depressant and anticonvulsant activities [166]. 

Piperidine alkaloids; (–)-3-O-acetylspectaline (92) and iso-6- 

spectaline (93), have also been isolated from the flowers and 

fruits of the plant, and they possessed DNA damaging activities 

in Saccharomyces cerevisiae  [162,167]. (−)-Cassine (94) has 

been isolated from the leaves, flowers, and fruits of this plant 

and possesses anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities 

[160].  

Additionally, alkaloids; (−)-spectaline (75) and (−)-cassine 

(94) were isolated from ethanol extracts of the flower of Senna 

spectabilis, and they showed antiproliferative activity on 

HepG2 cells and antitumor activity against hepatocellular 

carcinoma cells [168]. (−)-spectaline (75) and (−)-cassine ((+)-

3-O-feruloylcassine) (91) have also been reported to possess 

schistosomicidal activity against adult worms and cercaricidal 

activity [169]. Several anthraquinones have been isolated from 

this plant, including physcion (76) and 1,3,8-trihydroxy-2-

methylanthraquinone (95), which were isolated from methanol 

leaf extracts of Senna spectabilis and showed antimicrobial 

activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Bacillus subtilis, 

Sarcina lutea, Staphylococcus albus, and Staphylococcus 

aureus. Chrysophanol (52) and physcion (76) isolated from the 

plant possessed hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and anticancer 

activities [161]. 

N

H

94

HO

CH3

O

92N

O

O

93N

HO

O

N

H

O

CH3

O

O

HO

H3CO

91

H

H

 

O

O OH

HO

OH

95

O

O

O OH

O O

O

HO

98

N

O

HO

96

N

O

O

O

O

97



Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 54  

Cassia siamea Lam synonyms are Senna siamea Lam.; 

Senna sumatrana Roxb, Cassia florida Vahl, Cassia 

arayatensis Naves, Cassia sumatrana Roxb, Cassia arborea 

Macfad, Cassia gigantea DC., and Sciacassia siamea Lam. It 

is widely spread in South Africa, East Africa, Brazil, Mexico, 

China, West Indies, and Asia [170]. The fruits prevent 

convulsion and expel intestinal worms [171,172]. The plant 

treats asthma and microbial infections [170]. Leaves treat 

stomach pains, malaria, constipation, sleeplessness, liver 

disorder, hypertension, cough, and toothache; the roots are used 

for diabetes mellitus, malaria, and snake bite; flowers and seeds 

are used to cure convulsion, typhoid fever, snake and scorpion 

bites while the stem is used against herpes, scabies, rhinitis, 

urogenital diseases, diabetes and as a laxative [173,174]. The 

plant is also used to reduce blood sugar levels and to treat 

abdominal pain, fever, typhoid, menstrual pain, and jaundice 

[175]. Compounds isolated from this plant include: cassiarin A 

(96) and cassiarin B (97), isolated from the methanol leaf 

extracts, and these compounds showed moderate in vitro 

antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum [176]. 

Chrobisiamone A (98) has also been isolated from methanolic 

leaf extracts and possesses antiplasmodial activity [177].  

Cassiarin A (96) and barakol (99) also showed vasorelaxant 

activity [178,179]. Barakol (99), isolated from this plant's 

ethanol flower extracts, also showed antioxidant activity 

[180,181]. Chrysophanol (52), physcion (76), betulinic acid 

(85), lupeol (86), and lupenone (100) are some of the 

compounds that have been elucidated from the methanol stem 

bark and showed anti-polio virus activity with lupeol 

possessing the most significant activity [182]. Cassia 

mimosoides L synonymns are Chamaecrista mimosoides L., 

Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench, Cassia aeschynomene 

D.C,Cassia aspera Muhl. ex Ell., Cassia multipinnata Pollard, 

Cassia procumbens Stickman, and Cassia nictitans Sickmann. 

It is native to China but has spread to different countries [183]. 

The leaves cure swelling of the legs during pregnancy; [184], 

facilitate urination, and act as an anti-inflammatory agent [183]. 

Roots treat colic pain, stomach spasms, and diarrhoea [185]. 

The plant also cures chronic hepatitis and other liver diseases, 

including liver cirrhosis and fibrosis [186]. Phytochemicals 

such as Emodin (3), Luteolin (12), Oleanolic Acid (66), β-

Sitosterol (101), α-L-Rhamnose (102), and Carotene (103) have 

been isolated from this species, and showed anti-HMG-CoA 

reductase activity, with Emodin and luteolin showing the 

highest activity; an indication that the plant has potential in 

treating liver diseases. 

Chrysophanol(52), an essential bioactive component of the 

plant, possesses blood lipid regulation, antidiabetic, anti-

inflammatory, and anticancer activities, as well as alleviating 

metabolic disorders and obesity properties [187]. Cassia 

occidentalis L synonyms are Senna occidentalis (L.) Roxb, 

Cassia caroliniana Walter, Cassia obliquifolia Schrank, Cassia 

ciliata Raf, Cassia planisiliqua L, Cassia falcate L, Cassia 

macradenia, Cassia torosa Cav, and Ditrimexa occidentalis 

(L.) Britt & Rose. It is distributed in Asia, South America, 

Australia, and Africa [188]. The plant treats diarrhoea and 

dysentery [189]. The leaves are used for throat infections, 

itching, and bone fractures. It also manages fever, anaemia, 

leprosy, tuberculosis, menstrual, and liver problems [190]. 

Moreover, the leaves and seeds are used for skin disorders such 

as eczemas and mycoses [191]. Additionally, the plant is used 

to treat cancer, eye inflammation, and venereal diseases [192]. 

The roots cure diabetes, elephantiasis, epilepsy, and convulsion 

[193,194]. 

The C. occidentalis isolates include 1, 3,8-trihydroxy-6-

methyl-anthraquinone (Emodin) (3) and 4, 5-dihydroxy-9, 10-

dioxo-4a, 9, 9a, 10- tetrahydro-anthracene-2-carboxylic acid ( 

rhein) (33); isolated from alcoholic extracts (R-spirit) and found 

to possess antimicrobial activity on β-Lactum resistant strains 

of Aspergillus niger, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus 

clavatus, Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus 

pyogenus, and Staphylococcus aureus [195]. Chrysophanol 

(52) was isolated from the leaf extracts and showed wound 

healing activities [192]. Cassia italica Mill synonyms are 

Senna italica Mill, Cassia obovata Collad, and Cassia aschrek 

Fors., Its origin is in the equatorial region and surrounding areas 

[196]. The plant treats venereal diseases [197]. The roots are 

used for dysmenorrhoea, nausea, and liver problems, whereas 

the pods and the leaves are used for burns, skin diseases, and 

ulcers [198]. Leaves are used as hair conditioners, while roots 

are used to cure diarrhoea [199]. The whole plant is used as a 

urinary tract purifier and laxative, while its leaves, seeds, and 

pods are used as a purgative and also to treat elephantiasis and 

eye diseases [200]. Compounds isolated from the species is 2-

methoxy-emodin-6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (104), which was 

isolated from DCM/MeOH (1:1) extract of aerial parts of the 

plant and possessed mild anticancer activity against 

hepatocellular carcinoma (HePG-2) and mammary gland breast 

cancer (MCF-7) [201].  

Cassia afrofistula Brenan synonyms are Cassia beareana 

Holmes and Cassia kassneri Bak. F. It is distributed in 

Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya [202]. The 

roots treat hernia and body weaknesses, while the stem is used 

for kidney diseases and liver pains [83]. The bark is used as an 

aphrodisiac and laxative. The bark also cures pneumonia, fever, 

stomach aches, backache, and blood pressure [203]. It is also 

used to manage uterine complaints, fever, malaria, syphilis, 

gonorrhea, pneumonia, and snakebites [203]. No bioactive 

compounds have been reported from this species. Cassia 

falcinella Oliv synonym is Chamaecrista afalcinella Oliv. It is 

found in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Namibia, Zambia, 

Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, and DR Congo [202]. The 

roots are used as an aphrodisiac and in treating gonorrhea [204]. 

Its leaves are used to cure broken bones and rheumatism, while 

the roots are also used to treat diarrhoea [202]. Bioactive 

compounds have not Cassia kirkii Oliv synonym is 

Chamaecrista kirkii Oliv. It is widely spread in tropical and 

https://www.gbif.org/species/2949769
https://www.gbif.org/species/2949769


Osunga et al.                                                                    Their Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery 

Vol 2 | Issue 2 | Apr – Jun 2023                                                                                    Indian J Pharm Drug Studies  | 55  

subtropical Africa [205]. Leaves are used for upsetting pains 

[206]. The plant is used for skin diseases and fertility [207]. 

Bioactive compounds have not been isolated from this species. 

Cassia leptocarpa Benth. Synonyms are Senna hirsuta  

L, Cassia caracasana Jacq, Cassia hirsuta L, Cassia tomentosa 

L, Cassia. longisiliqua Blanco, Cassia. venenifer Rodsch. ex 

G.Mey, Cassia neglect Vogel var. acuminata Benth, Cassia 

pubescens Jacq, and Cassia gooddingii A. Nelson. It is 

distributed in North, Central, South America, and tropical 

regions [208,209]. It is used to treat liver diseases, malaria, high 

blood pressure, diarrhoea, typhoid fever, and skin rashes and to 

reduce cholesterol levels [9,210]. Various compounds have 

been isolated from this plant; however, there is no literature 

report on their bioactivities. 

HO

H

HH

H

101

O
HO

OHHO

OH

102

103

 

O

O

H3C CH3

OH 99

OH

HO 100

 

 

O O

OH

HO OH

HO
O

OOH OH

OCH3

CH3

104

 
CONCLUSION 

The genus Cassia has been widely used in Chinese, Ayurveda, 

African, and South American folklore medicines to manage 

various ailments. Various studies have been done on their crude 

extracts, and isolated phytochemicals from different plant parts 

of individual species of this genus have been accomplished. It 

has been established that several species have a wide range of 

bioactivities: antimalarial, larvicidal, antimicrobial, wound 

healing, laxative, antiasthmatic, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, 

antiparasitic, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and 

anticancer. This makes the genus a hive under pharmacological 

research. Despite the genus portraying a lot of bioactivities, 

most of the compounds responsible for these bioactivities have 

not been entirely isolated and their activities verified. 

Additionally, studies on synergistic effects, toxicology, in vivo 

activities, and clinical trials on isolated compounds with 

biological potency have not been done effectively. 

Unfortunately, this has been a setback in discovering new drugs 

that could have solved drug resistance issues and side effects.  

Regardless of all these challenges, some countries use 

dosage forms of Cassia, including Senna, under different brand 

names [12]. Some compounds isolated from Cassia species, 

such as sennosides, are currently being used as allopathic 

laxative medicine with a prescribed dosage, while others, such 

as ononitol monohydrate and chrysophanol, are still under 

clinical assessment as hepatoprotective agents. This indicates 



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the potential of the isolated compounds as leads for new drug 

discovery as most conventional drugs are currently 

unaffordable; hence, the genus Cassia species continues to 

serve communities as a cheap drug source. They are assumed 

to be safe even though many side effects have been reported 

from herbs, including interactions with allopathic medicines 

and herbs, preparations, contaminations, allergic reactions, 

transformed food consumption, distorted body and organ 

weights [211,212]. Hence, further toxicological studies, dosage 

determination, and regimes are imperative to avoid side effects 

and complicated conditions in these herbal preparations. It is 

expected that this review will stimulate more research for the 

elucidation and isolation of bioactive compounds from the 

genus leading to more new drug discoveries for the sake of 

humanity. 

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How to cite this article: Salome Osunga, Omari Amuka, 

Alex K. Machocho, Albert Getabu, Martin O. Onani. 
Some members of genus Cassia (Senna): Their 

Ethnobotany, Potency and Prospects of Drug discovery. 

Indian J Pharm Drug Studies. 2023: 2(2) 41-62. 

Funding: None                 Conflict of Interest: None Stated