Indiana Law Review Indiana Constitutional Developments: The Wind Shifts Jon Laramore* The modern era in Indiana constitutional law began in 1989, when Chief Justice Shepard published "Second Wind for the Indiana Bill of Rights" in this law review. 1 His invitation to revivify Indiana constitutional law has been taken to heart by the bar and many of the chief justice's judicial colleagues. But progress over the fourteen years since the article was published has not followed the pattern the chiefjustice forecast. New individual rights—beyond those guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution — have not been the primary product ofthe last fifteen years of state constitutional development. 2 Although much litigation has addressed article I of the Indiana Constitution, the portion of the constitution covering individual rights, the Indiana Supreme Court has expanded individual rights beyond the federal standard in only a few cases. Rather, the most significant Indiana constitutional decisions have come from articles III through X, the provisions dealing with separation of powers, the responsibilities of the branches of government, and state institutions and finance. 3 Indiana's appellate courts have brought new attention to the Indiana Constitution, but the largest impact on everyday Hoosiers has not come from decisions applying article I. I. The Fading Promise of New Individual Rights A. The Starting Point In his 1989 article, the chiefjustice reviewed the history of Indiana's Bill of Rights, which was the primary source of individual rights protections before provisions ofthe Federal Constitution were applied to state action. 4 He discussed the earliest history, when Indiana's courts declined to enforce fugitive slave laws. 5 He noted Callender v. State,6 Indiana's adoption ofthe exclusionary rule * Adjunct Professor, Indiana University School ofLaw—Indianapolis; Chief Counsel to the Governor of Indiana; A.B., 1979, Princeton University; J.D., 1983, Harvard Law School. The opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not represent official statements of the State of Indiana or the Governor of Indiana. The author acknowledges helpful comments from Janice E. Kreuscher, Joel Schumm, and Janet McCabe. 1 . Hon. Randall T. Shepard, Second Windfor the Indiana Bill ofRights, 22 IND. L. Rev. 575 (1989). 2. See infra Part I.B-C. 3. See infra notes 246-56 and accompanying text. 4. Shepard, supra note 1, at 576-85. 5. Id. at 576-77 (citing State v. Laselle, 1 Blackf. 60 (Ind. 1820)). More recent scholarship reveals a less savory history between Indiana's legal system and African-Americans. The 1851 constitution contained provisions excluding Negroes from the state altogether, and legislatures in the 1850s created and supported the State Board of Colonization, designed to encourage Negroes to emigrate to Africa. See John Martin Smith, Bondage, Banishment, and Deportation ofIndiana Negroes (paper delivered at 81st Annual Historical Conference of the Indiana Historical Society, 962 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 in criminal cases thirty-nine years before its adoption by the United States Supreme Court. 7 He concluded, however, that active development of federal constitutional law relating to individual rights in the 1 960s and 1 970s reduced the need to rely on state constitutions, resulting in fewer decisions applying the Indiana Constitution. 8 Chief Justice Shepard noted that the Indiana Constitution contains several provisions without federal analogues, including more expansive language relating to free expression and religious freedom. 9 Other unique provisions include "guarantees that all courts shall be open and that every person shall have a remedy," 10 provisions guaranteeing bail, the provision "that the citizens on a criminal jury shall determine for themselves both the facts and the law of the case," 11 and the guarantee of proportional penalties in criminal cases. 12 Chief Justice Shepard said that "[t]hese and other sections clearly provide occasions when a litigant who would lose in federal court may win in state court." 13 He invited lawyers to participate in development ofnew law under the Indiana Constitution by identifying and vigorously arguing state constitutional issues. 14 He closed the article by specifically identifying "horizontal" separation ofpowers under federalism—dividingjudicial power between independent state and federal judiciaries—as a guaranty of personal liberty. 15 He concluded that "[t]he protection ofAmericans against tyranny requires that state supreme courts and state constitutions be strong centers of authority on the rights of the people." 16 B. Subsequent Developments Since the chiefjustice's article, there has been only marginal change—not a revolution—in individual rightsjurisprudence underthe Indiana Constitution. 17 2001). 6. 138 N.E. 817(1923). 7. The exclusionary rule was adopted as a matter of federal constitutional law in Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643(1961). 8. Shepard, supra note 1, at 580. 9. Id. at 580-81 (citing Ind. Const, art. 1, §§ 2-9). 10. Id. at 581. 11. Id. at 582. 12. Id. at 583. 13. Id. 14. Id. at 584-85. 15. Id. at 586. 16. Id. 17. Because this article focuses primarily on cases decided during the past year, the discussion of developments in individual rights litigation under the Indiana Constitution between 1 989 and 200 1 is necessarily brief. For a more developed account, see the relevant materials from those years in the case compilation Indiana Constitutional Law (Jon Laramore & Janice E. Kreuscher, eds. 2003). See also Patrick Baude, Has the Indiana Constitution Found Its Epic?, 69 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 963 The case that ushered in the modern era of individual rights litigation under the Indiana Constitution, Price v. State, set out a bold framework. 18 The decision invalidated the conviction of a woman charged with disorderly conduct for her loud objections to police tactics in arresting her friend, finding that the conviction could not withstand analysis under the Indiana Constitution although it was valid under federal law. 19 "Political speech," the court said, was a "core value" under the Indiana Constitution that could not be diminished. 20 But there has been little further development ofthe "core value" of"political speech," and as ofnow it appears to protect only the right to vehemently protest police action. Developments in other areas of state constitutional law were less bold. In Moran v. State, the court applied article I, section 1 1 , the state search and seizure clause, to a search of garbage that the defendant had placed at the roadside for pickup. 21 Like the United States Supreme Court, the Indiana Supreme Court concluded that a roadside garbage search was not prohibited, although it applied a slightly different standard to reach the same result. 22 Although Brown v. State22 forcefully articulated the warrant requirement under the Indiana Constitution in invalidating a search, the court indicated that the outcome would have been the same under the Fourth Amendment analysis. More recently, in City Chapel Evangelical Free Church, Inc. v. City ofSouth Bend, the court found a right to corporate worship in sections 2 and 3 of article I, but did not break significant new ground in religious freedom.24 The instances in which individuals' freedoms under the Indiana Constitution extend beyond those guaranteed by federal law remain few and far between. For example, none of the provisions of the Indiana Constitution that Chief Justice Shepard identified as having no federal counterpart has been the source of significant new rights.25 Ofthose that have been litigated, the "open courts" and "right to a remedy" provisions in article I, section 12 recently have been held not to prevent legislative abolition of causes of action or to impede application of statutes of limitation and other procedural limitations. 26 The right of a criminal Ind. L.J. 849 (1994). 18. 622 N.E.2d 954 (Ind. 1993). 19. Compare id. 960-65 (Indiana analysis), with id. at 965-67 (federal analysis). 20. Mat 961-64. 21. 644 N.E.2d 536 (Ind. 1 994). 22. Compare id. at 541 (analyzing only the reasonableness oflaw enforcement conduct) with, e.g., California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988) (analyzing objective reasonableness of expectation of privacy in roadside garbage). 23. 653 N.E.2d 77 (Ind. 1995). 24. 744 N.E.2d 443, 450-51 (Ind. 2001). The subject matter of the dispute in City Chapel was whether the city would violate the church's constitutional rights by taking its downtown property through eminent domain. The only holding in the case, by a 3-2 margin, was that the church was entitled to a trial to show that taking its specific property would harm the "core value" of religious exercise. Id. at 451. 25. Shepard, supra note 1, at 580. 26. See, e.g., Mcintosh v. Melroe Co., 729 N.E.2d 972 (Ind. 2000). 964 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 jury to "determine the law and the facts" under article I, section 19, recently has been interpreted to mean that the jury should follow the judge's instructions27 (although it prohibits certain kinds ofmandatory instructions28). Also, although Indiana's "equal privileges and immunities" language has been held to have a different meaning from the Federal Equal Protection Clause, the linguistic difference has not led to significantly different outcomes, and the Indiana standard may be less restrictive oflegislative classification than the federal rule.29 C. Recent Developments Individual rights decisions under the Indiana Constitution in the most recent year continued the pattern ofonly marginal differences in outcomes under federal and state standards. In two search and seizure cases, the Indiana Supreme Court aligned itself with federal law, in one case with almost eerie prescience. 30 The Indiana Court ofAppeals marginally expanded the reach offree expression rights under the Indiana Constitution. 31 And the reach of Indiana's constitutional double jeopardy protection—which once had the possibility of being significantly broader than its federal analogue—fell into line with the federal rule. 32 The most awaited individual rights decisions ofthe Indiana Supreme Court's last year both presented search-and-seizure issues under article I, section 1 1 . Gerschoffer v. State addressed police roadblocks set up for the purpose of interdicting drunk drivers. Linke v. Northwestern School Corp. addressed mandatory student drug testing in public schools. The supreme court decisions were much anticipated because, in each case, the Indiana Court of Appeals had 27. Fuquay v. State, 583 N.E.2d 1 154 (Ind. Ct. App. 1991). In a law review article, Justice Rucker has taken issue with this interpretation, arguing that the historical evidence supports the view that article I, section 19 permits jury nullification. Hon. Robert D. Rucker, The Right to Ignore the Law: Constitutional Entitlement Versus Judicial Interpretation, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 449 ( 1 999). The Indiana Supreme Court has granted transfer in Meeks v. State, 759 N.E.2d 1 1 26 (Ind. Ct. App. 2001), trans, granted, 11'4 N.E.2d 509 (Ind. 2002), to address this issue. 28. See, e.g., Parker v. State, 698 N.E.2d 737 (Ind. 1998) (permitting jury to decline to find habitual offender status even if it finds all necessary predicate facts); Seay v. State, 698 N.E.2d 732 (Ind. 1998) (same). 29. Collins v. Day, 644 N.E.2d 72, 80 (Ind. 1 994) ("the disparate treatment accorded by the legislation must be reasonably related to inherent characteristics which distinguish the unequally treated classes . . . [and] the preferential treatment must be uniformly applicable and equally available to all persons similarly situated"). No statute has been invalidated under this standard since it was announced in 1994. See, e.g., Lake County Clerk's Office v. Smith, 766 N.E.2d 707 (Ind. 2002) (upholding bail statute against challenge under article I, section 23). 30. Linke v. Northwestern Sch. Corp., 763 N.E.2d 972 (Ind. 2002); State v. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d 960 (Ind. 2002), both discussed infra in Part I.C.I -2. 31. Mishler v. MAC Sys., Inc., 771 N.E.2d 92 (Ind. Ct. App. 2002). 32. Spivey v. State, 761 N.E.2d 831 (Ind. 2002). 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 965 ruled that article I, section 1 1 forbade suspicionless searches. 33 The court of appeals ruled that both kinds of searches—automobile stops and drug tests—could take place only if the authorities had reasonable suspicion that the individual being searched had committed a driving offense or had used illegal drugs. 34 1. Drunk Driving Roadblocks.—In its Gerschoffer opinion, the Indiana Court ofAppeals had broken new ground in analysis under article I, section 1 1 . 35 The court examined a drunk-driving roadblock (also called a "sobriety checkpoint") that appeared to satisfy Fourth Amendment standards because it was set up pursuant to a neutral plan, minimized police discretion in determining which cars to stop, and otherwise hewed to the Fourth Amendment standards set forth in Michigan Department ofState Police v. Sitz. 36 The Indiana Court of Appeals applied article I, section 1 1 to drunk-driving roadblocks using the test enunciated by the Indiana Supreme Court to determine the independent meaning of provisions ofthe Indiana Constitution: "Questions arising under the Indiana Constitution should be resolved by 'examining the language of the text in the context of the history surrounding its drafting and ratification, the purpose and structure of our constitution, and case law interpreting the specific provisions.'" 37 The court concluded that this standard dictated that "the intent ofthe framers is paramount in determining the meaning 33. State v. Gerschoffer, 738 N.E.2d 7 1 3 (Ind. Ct. App. 2000), vacated by 753 N.E.2d 6 (Ind. 2001); Linke v. Northwestern Sch. Corp., 734 N.E.2d 252 (Ind. Ct. App. 2000), vacated by 763 N.E.2d 972 (Ind. 2002). 34. Gerschoffer, 738 N.E.2d at 723; Linke, 734 N.E.2d at 259. 35. 738N.E.2d713. 36. 496 U.S. 444 (1990); see also State v. Garcia, 500 N.E.2d 158 (Ind.), cert, denied, 481 U.S. 1014 (1986) (earlier Fourth Amendment analysis of sobriety checkpoints). 37. Gerschoffer, 738 N.E.2d at 720 (quoting Ind. Gaming Comm'n v. Moseley, 643 N.E.2d 296, 298 (Ind. 1994)). More recently, the Indiana Supreme Court provided an even fuller statement ofthe standard for deriving the independent significance ofprovisions ofthe Indiana Constitution: Our methodology for interpreting and applying provisions of the Indiana Constitution is well established. It requires: a search for the common understanding of both those who framed it and those who ratified it. Furthermore, the intent of the framers of the Constitution is paramount in determining the meaning of a provision. In order to give life to their intended meaning, we examine the language of the text in the context ofthe history surrounding its drafting and ratification, the purpose and structure of our constitution, and case law interpreting the specific provisions. In construing the constitution, we look to the history ofthe times, and examine the state ofthings existing when the constitution or any part thereof was framed and adopted, to ascertain the old law, the mischief, and the remedy. The language of each provision of the Constitution must be treated with particular deference, as though every word had been hammered into place. City Chapel Evangelical Free Church, Inc. v. City of South Bend, 744 N.E.2d 443, 447 (Ind. 2001 ) (quoting Mcintosh v. Melroe Co., 729 N.E.2d 972, 986) (Ind. 2000) (internal quotation marks and indentation omitted). 966 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 of a provision . . . ," 38 The court noted that the Indiana Supreme Court's cases interpreted the populist, Jacksonian roots of the Indiana Constitution to focus search and seizure analysis on the reasonableness of police conduct. 39 With this prelude, the court of appeals concluded that "Section 1 1 requires probable cause or, at a minimum, individualized suspicion of criminal activity before the police may stop a motorist, and that absent either, a stop constitutes an unreasonable seizure as proscribed by the Indiana Constitution." 40 In seeking to differentiate the Indiana Constitution's prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures from its federal analogue, the court emphasized the populist distrust ofgovernment, the importance placed on privacy by the framers and by recent Indiana Supreme Court decisions, and the lack of Indiana constitutional precedent supporting warrantless searches and seizures. 41 The opinion's analysis is animated by skepticism of governmental authority and the importance of individualized determination of responsibility (through probable cause or reasonable suspicion) before police intervention. The opinion concludes, "In Indiana, there is still a presumption that Hoosiers are law-abiding citizens. Under our state constitution, a motorist is free to travel Indiana's public highways without unreasonable interference from the government, and he is treated as a suspect only if his actions justify it." 42 The Indiana Supreme Court's take on the same facts was different. In a unanimous opinion determining the proper constitutional standard, 43 Chief Justice Shepard recited the same standard-of-review language that the court of appeals had used in its opinion. 44 But he rapidly concluded that historical evidence regarding any independent meaning of article I, section 1 1 was lacking. 45 He also noted previous case law holding that "Article 1 , Section 1 1 must be liberally construed to protect Hoosiers from unreasonable police activity in private areas of their lives," leading to the principle that police conduct is judged on its reasonableness. 46 Then, based in part on studies showing that drunk-driving roadblocks can provide significant protection, the court announced an approach that balanced privacy rights under article I, section 1 1 against the importance of roadway safety. "A minimally intrusive roadblock designed and implemented on neutral criteria that safely and effectively targets a serious danger specific to vehicular 38. Gerschoffer, 738 N.E.2d at 720. 39. Id. at 721 (citing Moran v. State, 644 N.E.2d 536, 539 (Ind. 1994)). 40. Id. 41. Id. at 722-26. The court ofappeals relied particularly on Baldwin v. Reagan, 7 1 5 N.E.2d 332 (Ind. 1992), in which the Indiana Supreme Court had stated the necessity of reasonable suspicion before a highway stop would be proper. 42. Id. at 726 (footnote omitted). 43. Justice Dickson dissented in part, but only as to the application of the standard. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d at 971 (Dickson, J., dissenting in part). 44. Wat 965. 45. Id. 46. Id. 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 967 operation is constitutionally reasonable, unlike the random and purely discretionary stops we have disapproved."47 In support of its conclusion, the court also cited Professor Amar's assertion that a broader search may sometimes be fairer and more reasonable than an individual search because the broader approach minimizes the potential for official arbitrariness and discrimination.48 The court thus concluded that drunk-driving roadblocks are not per se forbidden by the Indiana Constitution. The court went on to set forth a framework—which differs in scope and emphasis from the federal standard—by which lower courts may judge the constitutionality ofdrunk-driving roadblocks in future cases. The court's review under the Indiana Constitution focused on the following factors: • The roadblock should occur pursuant to a neutral plan "approved by appropriate officials." 49 • The roadblock should be designed to effectuate its road-safety related purpose, so its timing and location must be keyed to road safety. 50 • Roadblock procedures should be designed to minimize law enforcement discretion, not only as to which cars are stopped but also as to all procedures used once the stops occur. 51 • The roadblocks should minimize the intrusion on motorists' time. Motorists also should have sufficient notice ofthe roadblocks so that they may avoid the roadblocks.52 • Roadblocks should be administered safely. 53 • Roadblocks should be effective as measured by arrests for drunk driving. 54 These factors are to be balanced to determine whether the roadblock meets constitutional standards. The court gave no precise formula to judge whether a particular roadblock meets constitutional standards. The court focused on several of the factors in ruling that the roadblock did not meet constitutional standards. First, the court noted that the roadblock did not seem to be designed especially to deter drunk driving. Rather, both its 47. Id. at 966. The opinion relied upon John H. Lacey et al., Evaluation of Checkpoint Tennessee: Tennessee *s Statewide Sobriety Checkpoint Program, Technical Report Prepared for U.S. Dep't ofTransp., Nat' 1 Highway Traffic Safety Admin. (Jan. 1 999), http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ people/injury/research/ChekTenn/ChkptTN.html. 48. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d at 966 (citing Akhil Reed Amar, Fourth Amendment First Principles, 107 HARV. L. REV. 757 (1994)). 49. Id. at 967. 50. Id. at 967-68. 51. Mat 968-69. 52. Id. at 969. 53. Id. at 970. 54. Id. 968 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 location and its timing appeared to be established for reasons of convenience. 55 Drunk driving had not been a particular problem at the location ofthe roadblock, and the timing appeared more oriented to general traffic flow issues than to expected arrests. 56 Second, although officers' discretion was controlled regarding which cars were to be stopped, there was little control over procedures used once the stops took place. "No standardized instructions were given to ensure that officers addressed drivers in a consistent manner," 57 so motorists were not treated alike once they were stopped. Third, and related to discretion, the court seemed especially troubled by the requirement that each motorist (or at least those motorists asked by officers) be required to produce a license and registration. 58 The court emphasized that drunk-driving roadblocks are permissible only as they relate to the particular dangers of drunk driving, so matters not directly related to drunk driving, such as lack of registration or unlicensed operation, could not be the target of a suspicionless search such as the roadblock at issue in this case. 59 "[T]he thought that an American can be compelled to 'show his papers' before exercising his right to walk the streets, drive the highways or board the trains is repugnant to American institutions and ideals." 60 Fourth, and also related to the previously listed factor, the number of arrests undermined the constitutionality of the roadblock. The seventy stops that took place at the roadblock resulted in fourteen arrests and thirty-four warnings, but only two of the citations were for operating under the influence. 61 The court concluded that this record undermined the assertion that the roadblock was appropriately targeted to get drunk drivers off the road and was instead "more like a generalized dragnet . . . ," 62 Fifth, the court also noted that the average four-minute detention time appeared unduly long, making the roadblock appear unduly intrusive. 63 Because it was applying a balancing test, the court did not explain which of these factors led to the roadblock's invalidity, resting its decision on the totality of circumstances. The result in Gerschoffer is that, contrary to the court of appeals' view, drunk driving roadblocks are valid under the Indiana Constitutionjust as they are under the Federal Constitution. The standards by which the roadblocks are judged, however, are somewhat different under the two constitutions, with Indiana applying a stricter standard. 64 The Indiana Supreme Court's decision in Gerschoffer applies the 55. Mat 968. 56. Id. 57. Id. 58. Mat 968. 59. Id. 60. Id. (quoting State v. Kirk, 493 A.2d 1271, 1285 (N.J. Super. Ct. App. Div. 1985)). 61 . Id. at 970; see also IND. CODE § 9-30-5-2(1 ) (operating while intoxicated). 62. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d at 968. 63. Id. at 969. 64. See id. at 963-65 (discussing federal roadblock jurisprudence). 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 969 constitutional standard ofreview more loosely than the court ofappeals' opinion in the same case. The court ofappeals rooted its decision in Indiana's historical antipathy to police discretion; its historic strict adherence to the warrant requirement; and the lack of case law departing from probable cause and reasonable suspicion standards. 65 Its opinion rested firmly on the portions ofthe standard ofreview relating to the historic roots ofthe constitutional provision at issue and cases interpreting the provision. The supreme court's opinion eschewed the historical approach because of the dearth of specific information about the intent of Indiana's framers when enacting article I, section ll.66 It relied more heavily on federal case law, other states' cases, and statistical studies about roadblocks. 67 Moreover, the roadblock standards set in the supreme court's opinion also rely heavily on cases from other states and the federal system. 68 The supreme court's approach may suggest leeway in applying the standard ofreview in future cases. 2. Random Drug Tests by Schools.—The Indiana Supreme Court's other foray into search-and-seizurejurisprudence produced similar results, but this time by a narrow 3-2 margin. In Linke v. Northwestern School Corp., 69 the court analyzed a "random drug testing program" for high school students. The drug testing program applied to all students in grades seven through twelve who participated in specified extra-curricular and co-curricular activities as well as students wishing to park their cars on campus. 70 The activities included athletics, academic teams, student government, musical performances, drama, Future Farmers of America, National Honor Society, and Students Against Drunk Driving. 71 Students in those activities, and those wishing to park on campus, had to execute forms (also signed by parents) consenting to random drug tests. 72 If a student who had consented to testing was selected at random by a computer program, she was escorted across the school parking lot to a trailer, where a contractor operated the testing program. 73 The student was required to produce a urine sample in a private setting inside the trailer, and each specimen was tested by a private company for the substances banned by the school's policy. Any positive result was automatically re-tested. If the re-test also was positive, the result was communicated to school authorities. Students testing positive were required to meet with school authorities, and at that time could provide information that would explain the positive result, such as use of a 65. State v. Gerschoffer, 738 N.E.2d 713, 720-24 (Ind. Ct. App. 2000). 66. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d at 965. 67. Id. at 964 (discussing federal cases); id. at 966 n.7 (discussing other states); id. at 966 (discussing statistical study). 68. Id. at 966-70. 69. 763 N.E.2d 972 (Ind. 2002). 70. Id. at 975. 71. Id. 72. Id. 73. The program is described in full at id. at 975-76. 970 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 prescription drug. 74 Absent a satisfactory explanation, a student testing positive could be banned from participating in the school activity covered by the drug policy for up to 365 days, although "the consequences vary based upon the activity and the substance." 75 Under some circumstances, a student could return to the activity after a negative re-test. At no time were test results made available to law enforcement authorities. The court ofappeals' opinion in Linke had provided a lengthy explication of federal cases that addressed school drug testing programs. 76 The court then quoted Indiana Supreme Court case law to the effect that article I, section 1 1 provides more protection than the Fourth Amendment, based in part on the framers' fear of"abuses ofpolice power similar to those experienced in colonial times." 77 Motivated by historical fears ofpolice power, the court concluded that precedents required individualized suspicion before a search, and found "no reason to depart from requiring individualized suspicion to protect against the abuses associated with blanket suspicionless searches of school children." 78 The Indiana Supreme Court, in a majority opinion by Justice Sullivan, began its analysis with the proposition that drug testing is a search, and as such must be "reasonable" to satisfy article I, section ll. 79 The court then rejected the court of appeals' view that the drug test had to be based on individualized reasonable suspicion. 80 The court rejected analogies linking the schools' conduct to law enforcement conduct because ofthe difference between police functions and the role of schools. 81 Because the drug tests were not made available to law enforcement and were used solely for internal school purposes, the court concluded that the rationale for individualized suspicion is weaker than in a law enforcement setting, where criminal penalties could be at issue. 82 Noting that reasonableness in the context of article I, section 1 1 often depends upon "the totality of [the] circumstances," the court proposed not to apply a strict "reasonable suspicion" test, but instead to balance various factors to determine whether the drug tests are permitted by the Indiana Constitution. 83 The court explicitly "adopt[ed] the analytical approach of Vernonia School District 475 v. Acton?™ an earlier U.S. Supreme Court case that analyzed student drug testing, which required weighing "the nature of the privacy interest upon which the search intrudes, the character of the intrusion that is complained of, 74. Mat 976. 75. Id. (the court provided no further explanation of how the consequences "vary"). 76. Linke v. Northwestern Sch. Corp., 734 N.E.2d 252, 254-58 (Ind. Ct. App. 2000). 77. Id. at 259. 78. Id. 79. Linke, 763 N.E.2d at 977. 80. Id. at 978. 81. Id. 82. Mat 978-79. 83. Id at 978 (quoting Brown v. State, 653 N.E.2d 77, 79-80 (Ind. 1995)). 84. Id. at 979 (adopting Vernonia Sch. Dist. 475 v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995). 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 971 and the nature and immediacy ofthe governmental concern to determine whether the Policy is reasonable under the totality of these circumstances." 85 The court looked first at the privacy interest, determining that students have a lesser interest than adults because they are minors and the schools stand in a quasi-parental relationship to the students. 86 The court also found that the students' (and their parents') consent vitiated their privacy interest. 87 To reach this conclusion, the court found that the consent was voluntary despite arguments that "it is necessary to participate in extracurricular activities to be successful in today's world." 88 Because the activities triggering the drug tests were voluntary in this case and did not affect students' grades, the court concluded that the consents were essentially voluntary although "at least some adverse consequences may attach to the inability to . . . participate" in the activities.89 The court also found that the fact that athletics already are a highly regulated activity, and students volunteering for athletics do so knowing that they will be subject to regulation, reduced the privacy interest of athletes subject to the drug testing policy. 90 Next, the court looked at the character ofthe intrusion. The court minimized the intrusive aspect of the testing procedure, noting that students are selected randomly, permitted to provide urine samples in private, and their identities are shielded from all participants in the testing process save a few top school administrators. 91 The court also put considerable weight on the manner in which the tests were used. No punitive consequences befell students who tested positive other than exclusion from relevant school activities. Students were neither turned over to police (the court noted that earlier decisions used section 1 1 to protect Hoosiers only from "unreasonablepolice activity" 92 ) nor subjected to school discipline as a result of the tests. 93 The court therefore characterized the tests as "preventative and rehabilitative" rather than "punitive." 94 Finally, the court looked at the school's interest in drug testing. The court stated that the school's concern stemmed from increased drug usage in the middle and high schools ofNorthwestern School Corporation in the mid-1990s, when one student died of a drug overdose.95 The court concluded that "[d]eterring drug abuse by children in school is an important and legitimate 85. Id. 86. Id. at 979-80. 87. Id. at 980. 88. Id. (quoting Trinidad Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Lopez, 963 P.2d 1095, 1 109 (Colo. 1998)). 89. Id. 90. Id. at 981. 91. Id at 981-82. 92. Id. at 982 (quoting Moran v. State, 644 N.E.2d 536, 540 (Ind. 1994)) (emphasis supplied). 93. Id. 94. Id. 95. Mat 983. 972 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:96 1 concern for our schools." 96 It found the school's interest increased by the fact that all activities triggering the drug-testing policy had off-campus components, such as athletic contests, performances, or other competitions. 97 The school legitimately could be concerned about physical injury to students during these off-campus forays, especially athletic events. 98 The court also noted that the school's interest would be increased ifthe students at issue were role models for other students, but the school did not make that argument.99 After reviewing these interests, the court concluded that "[i]n light of the totality of the circumstances, the Policy does not violate Section ll." 100 In support of this conclusion, the court cited students' decreased privacy interest; the schools' "custodial and protective interest"; parental involvement in creating the program; existence ofa comprehensive drug interdiction effort at the school, of which drug testing is only one part; and higher-than-average drug use at the school. It approved the program using a balancing approach derived from the federal standard in Vernonia. In a brief discussion, the court then dismissed the argument that the policy violated article I, section 23, Indiana's Equal Privileges and Immunities Clause. 101 Section 23 requires that "privileges or immunities" granted "to any citizen, or class of citizens," must "upon the same terms, . . . equally belong to all citizens." 102 To satisfy this constitutional provision, "the disparate treatment accorded . . . must be reasonably related to inherent characteristics which distinguish the unequally treated classes .... [and] the preferential treatment must be uniformly applicable and equally available to all persons similarly situated." 103 The court said that the party attacking the classification must negate every reasonable basis for it, and in this case the Linkes failed to meet that standard because those subject to drug testing represent the school outside normal school hours and away from the campus. Thus, the class of students tested is inherently different from the class not tested. 104 Justice Boehm dissented in an opinion joined by Justice Rucker. The dissenters first analyzed the majority's decision to adopt the Vernonia framework. They concluded that the circumstances relied upon by the U.S. Supreme Court to permit drug testing in Vernonia—under the "special needs" doctrine announced in New Jersey v. T.L.O105—were absent in this case. Vernonia analyzed a program ofdrug testing for athletes under circumstances in 96. Mat 983. 97. Id at 984. 98. Id at 984. 99. Id at 984-85. 100. Mat 985. 101. Mat 985-86. 102. Ind. Const, art I, § 23. 103. Collins v. Day, 644 N.E.2d 72, 80 (Ind. 1994). 1 04. Linke, 763 N.E.2d at 986. 105. 469 U.S. 325(1985). 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 973 which a school's drug crisis was instigated by athletes. 106 In Linke, in contrast, the school's drug problem was not as severe and had not been linked in any way to the group targeted for testing. 107 Nor were any other circumstances present in this case to justify invoking the "special needs" analysis created by the U.S. Supreme Court. 108 After rejecting the Vernonia approach, the dissenters nevertheless analyzed the factors set forth in that opinion, arriving at a different balance than the Linke majority. The dissenters found that students' decreased privacy interest could justify intrusions when matters of discipline or conduct were at issue, but would not justify suspicionless searches conducted as a matter of routine. 109 The dissenters also rejected the notion that the students "consented" to the tests. They found that participation in extracurricular activities (as well as co-curricular activities relating to for-credit classes) are important, and declining to participate in drug testing could have serious consequences relating to grades and college admissions. 1 10 The dissenters also rejected the "role model"justification for drug testing, arguing that the need to set a good example cannot outweigh interests under article I, section 1 1. 111 The dissenters also rejected the notion that the tests were less intrusive because they were performed by school officials rather than police. Both teachers and police officers are agents ofthe state, and they are equally bound by article I, section ll. 112 They also concluded that the "preventive" or "rehabilitative" purpose ofthe program found by the majority lacked support. 113 The cases relying on those purposes to justify testing involved much more serious drug problems that interfered with the daily operation of schools 114 and—unlike the program in Linke—targeted portions of the student population directly linked to the drug problem. 115 The dissenters argued that the even ifthe drug problem in Linke was serious enough to support testing (a fact they did not concede), the school had failed to show a connection between the drug problem and the students being tested, thus failing to satisfy article I, section 1 1 , 116 The dissenters also noted that not only was suspicion-based testing feasible in this 106. Linke, 763 N.E.2d at 988 (citing Vernonia Sch. Dist. 475 v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646, 663 (1995)). 107. Id. at 989. 108. Id. (discussing Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 305 (1997) (rejecting "special needs" argument for drug testing political candidates)). 109. Id. at 990 (citing T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 336). 110. Mat 991. 111. Mat 992. 1 12. Id. at 992-93. The dissenters stated clearly that the language in the majority opinion should not be read to support stronger article I, section 1 1 restrictions on police as compared to other government agents. 113. Mat 993. 114. Mat 994. 115. Id. 116. Mat 995. 974 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 case, but suspicion-based testing was actually a part of the program already in place at the school. 117 The program thus was further undermined both because the school could test based on suspicion and because the group ofstudents tested was not connected to the drug problem. 118 The dissenters also found that the program failed the test of article I, section 23. The dissenters found that although there were "inherent" differences between the group tested and the group not tested, those differences were not linked to the drug problem because there was no showing that the tested group was more likely to be involved with drugs. 119 Thus, there was no "reasonable relation" between the group's characteristics and the testing program. Just a few weeks after the Indiana Supreme Court's decision in Linke, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Board of Education of District Number 92 v. Earls^adopting an analysis almost identical to the majority's analysis in Linke. The U.S. Supreme Court examined a "voluntary" random drug testing scheme similar to that in Linke and adopted a three-part balancing test similar to Linkers majority test, weighing the privacy interest, the degree of intrusion, and the school's interest. 121 Like the Linke majority, the majority in Earls upheld the drug testing program against a Fourth Amendment attack. The dissenting opinion, written by Justice Ginsburg andjoined by three otherjustices, included reasoning similar to the Linke dissent. 122 3. DoubleJeopardy.—The Indiana Supreme Court also clarified the analysis required by article I, section 14, Indiana's Double Jeopardy Clause, for multiple punishments. Again, the court's decision brought the outcome under the Indiana Constitution closer to that under federal law. In 1999, in its decision in Richardson v. State, 123 the Indiana Supreme Court sought to bring order to the chaos that had existed under the state's double- jeopardy provision. Richardson sought to harmonize decades of seemingly inconsistent caselaw, reducing Indiana's double-jeopardy test to a two-pronged inquiry that provided more protection than the Federal Double Jeopardy Clause. 124 The court concluded that Indiana's Double Jeopardy Clause is "intended to prevent the State from being able to proceed against a person twice for the same criminal transgression." 125 The court held that "two or more offenses are the 'same offense' in violation ofarticle I, Section 14 ofthe Indiana Constitution, if, with respect to either the statutory elements of the challenged crimes or the actual evidence used to convict, the essential elements of one challenged offense also establish the essential elements of another challenged 117. Id 118. Id. at 995-96. 119. Id. at 996-97. 120. 122S. Ct. 2559(2002). 121. Id. at 2565-69. 122. Id. at 2571 (Ginsburg, J., dissenting) 123. 717N.E.2d32(Ind. 1999). 124. Id. at 49-50. 125. Id. at 49. 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 975 offense." 126 Thus, a defendant could not be convicted of two crimes if the two crimes had the "same elements" (the same analysis as the federal Blockburger121 test) or if the "same evidence" was used to convict of both crimes. After applying Richardson for a period of time, lower courts remained confused about the "same evidence" prong ofthe Indiana test. Some defendants claimed that they could not be convicted of two crimes if any evidentiary fact was common to the two charges. 128 The State's position, however, was that article I, section 14 did not prevent a conviction so long as there was at least one evidentiary fact supporting each conviction that did not support the other conviction. In Spivey v. State, the Indiana Supreme Court resolved this issue, accepting the view proffered by the State. The court concluded that "the Indiana Double Jeopardy Clause is not violated when the evidentiary facts establishing the essential elements ofone offense also establish only one or even several, but not all, of the essential elements of a second offense." 129 The specific question in Spivey was whether the defendant could be convicted ofboth felony murder (based on the underlying crime ofburglary) and conspiracy to commit a felony. 13° The defendant admitted the conspiracy and the burglary, but he denied any connection to the death that occurred during the burglary. 131 The court analyzed the article I, section 14 question as follows: the evidentiary facts used to establish that the defendant committed conspiracy included proofofthe breaking and entering and intent to commit a felony. They did not include evidence of the killing that occurred during the burglary. The evidentiary facts used to establish that the defendant committed felony murder "established that [the victim] was killed in the course of the defendant's commission ofburglary." 132 These facts did not include any proofofconspiracy. "Thus, although the evidence proving each offense also proved some elements ofa second offense, in neither case did the same evidentiary facts establish all of the essential elements ofboth offenses." 133 The two convictions therefore did not violate the "same evidence" prong of Indiana's Double Jeopardy Clause. 134 126. Id. (emphasis in original). 127. Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299 (1932). 128. Spivey v. State, 761 N.E.2d 831, 832 (Ind. 2002). 129. Id. at 833. 130. Mat 833-34. 131. Id. 132. /mY/2,766N.E.2dat714. 229. 644 N.E.2d 72, 80 (Ind. 1994). 230. Smith, 766 N.E.2d at 714. 986 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 fact bail agents were probably treated more favorably under the law because a defendant posting his own bail and failing to appear often lost the entire amount, while bail agents lost only a percentage. 231 The court then concluded that any disparate treatment was properly based on the fact that bail agents act for profit, and they must have financial incentives to ensure the appearance of defendants, while the defendants themselves have other incentives to appear, including both the potential loss of their own money and potential arrest.232 These differences justified the disparate treatment. This outcome was identical to the result obtained by the court from analysis under the Federal Equal Protection Clause. 233 II. Trends in Indiana Constitutional Law The individual rights provisions of article I have thus far been a source of few new rights for citizens of Indiana. Analysis of topics such as speech about police, corporate worship, and double jeopardy reveal that citizens of Indiana enjoy slightly greater protections under the state constitution than under the Federal Constitution. But as a general matter, these differences are not substantial. Of course, future developments remain to be seen. An irony in this development resides in the standard ofreview prescribed for questions arising under the Indiana Constitution, which points to text, history, structure and function, and case law as guideposts to determine "common understanding of both those who framed it and those who ratified it," a jurisprudence oforiginal intent. 234 Thus, when matters are not resolved based on the language ofthe Indiana Constitution alone, the analysis is largely historical. The standard looks at the history of the Constitutional Convention, using its transcripts. 235 It also looks at case law interpreting the provision over the years, especially in the time period before provisions ofthe United States Constitution were incorporated against the states. 236 This approach undergirded the Indiana Supreme Court's initial forays into independent state constitutional jurisprudence, such as Price v. State, which relied extensively on the historical context of the times of statehood and the Constitutional Convention to support the importance of speech on issues of public importance. 237 Gerschoffer, Linke, and Spivey, however, followed the standard of review less meticulously and reached results more in keeping with the federal standards 231. Id at 713-14. 232. Mat 714. 233. Mat 712-13. 234. See supra note 37. 235. Kg, Ind. Gaming Comm'n v. Moseley, 643 N.E.2d 296, 298 (Ind. 1994). 236. Kg, Richardson v. State, 717 N.E.2d 32 (Ind. 1999); City Chapel Evangelical Free v. City of South Bend, 744 N.E.2d 443 (Ind. 2001). 237. Price v. State, 622 N.E.2d 954 (Ind. 1993). In Price, the Indiana Supreme Court majority relied on historical background information, such as the natural law frame of reference and Jacksonianism of the framers of the 1851 Constitution. Id. at 958-59. 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 987 under the Fourth and Seventh Amendments, respectively. 238 Neither the Search and Seizure Clause nor the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Indiana Constitution is associated with any specific or unique discussion in the debates of the Constitutional Convention. There is no unique Indiana history of these provisions. The Indiana Supreme Court (unlike the court of appeals in Gerschoffer and Linke) therefore determined not to base its decisions on the general historical background of Jacksonianism and wariness of state authority. Rather, the court looked to other sources, including decisions from the courts of other states and the United States, as primary guidance. 239 In Jordan v. Deery, moreover, the Indiana Supreme Court for the first time explicitly stated that it would depart from its oft-stated standard, disregarding the '"constitutional talismans' or guideposts" when they are not "instructive."240 In Jordan, the supreme court majority relied explicitly on a few otherjurisdictions that had interpreted constitutional provisions similar to Indiana's. 241 They did so although most jurisdictions, including the federal courts interpreting nearly identical constitutional language, had adopted a contrary rule. 242 IfJordan is the explicit end ofthe standard ofreview that the Indiana Supreme Court has applied to new questions of law under the Indiana Constitution since at least 1991,243 it may be that the standard was implicitly jettisoned in earlier cases such as Gerschoffer. As the Indiana Supreme Court has moved away from the standard it used throughout the last decade, its decisions have come to more closely resemble those of other states and the federal system. The irony in this development is that the standard of review, which because of its historical focus would appear to dictate traditionalist results, in fact led to the more groundbreaking decisions in Indiana constitutional jurisprudence. The Indiana Court of Appeals' attempt to follow that standard in Gerschoffer and Linke dictated results more restrictive of governmental conduct (based on traditional antipathy by Indiana citizens toward law enforcement discretion) and out of line with federal jurisprudence. Indiana's courts have had a freer hand to apply the standard ofreview outside 238. Linke v. Northwestern Sch. Corp., 763 N.E.2d 972 (Ind. 2002); State v. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d 960 (Ind. 2001); Spivey v. State, 761 N.E.2d 831 (Ind. 2002). 239. Gerschoffer, 763 N.E.2d at 966; Linke, 736 N.E.2d 972, 976. 240. 778 N.E.2d 1264, 1268 (Ind. 2002). 241. Id. at 1270-71. 242. Id. at 1273-75 (Boehm, J., dissenting). 243. See Bayh v. Sonnenburg, 573 N.E.2d 398, 412 (Ind. 1991) ("'[I]n placing a construction upon a constitution or any clause or part thereof, a court should look to the history ofthe times, and examine the state of things existing when the constitution or any part thereof was framed and adopted, to ascertain the old law, the mischief, and the remedy.'") (quoting State v. Gibson, 36 Ind. 389, 391 (1871); see also Ind. Gaming Comm'n v. Moseley, 643 N.E.2d 296, 298 (Ind. 1994) ("This Court analyzes questions arising under the Indiana Constitution by examining the language of the text in the context of the history surrounding its drafting and ratification, the purpose and structure of our constitution, and case law interpreting the specific provisions."). The most complete statement of the standard is quoted supra note 37. 988 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 the area of individual rights, which already has been the subject of extensive litigation in the federal arena. 244 These constitutional provisions outside the individual rights area, including Indiana's strict separation of powers provision and other terms governing the operation of state government, have been the primary source of significant developments since the Second Wind article.245 The greatest impact of the Indiana Constitution on Indiana citizens has actually occurred by decisions applying later articles, particularly articles III through X, provisions governing the operation of government and its branches. Undoubtedly, the most immediately significant case for everyday citizens outside article I is the case now known as Town of St. John v. Department of Local Government Finance?* 6 litigation that has led to a revolution in Indiana's property tax administration. The Indiana Supreme Court declared in Town of St. John that Indiana's method for measuring property values for taxation purposes, a method that had been used for decades, violated the requirements of uniformity and equality in article X. 247 This decision led to adoption of entirely new rules for assessing property. 248 Those rules are now being applied to revalue all ofthe three million parcels of real estate subject to property taxation in Indiana, likely leading to significant redistribution of the property tax burden. 249 Fears about the effects of the application of the new valuation rules led the 244. The portions of article I that lack federal analogues, including the "open courts" and remedies provisions and article I, section 19, have also not been the source of extensive rights beyond those found in the Federal Constitution. Thus, it may be that the mere fact that there is no analogous federal provision is insufficient in itself to be outcome determinative. Analysis of this question is beyond the scope of this article. 245. See Shepard, supra note 1. 246. State Bd. of Tax Comm'rs v. Town of St. John, 751 N.E.2d 657 (Ind. 2001) (limited to question of attorneys' fees); Town of St. John v. State Bd. ofTax Comm'rs, 729 N.E.2d 242 (Ind. Tax Ct. 2000); State Bd. ofTax Comm'rs v. Town of St. John, 702 N.E.2d 1034; Town of St. John v. State Bd. of Tax Comm'rs, 695 N.E.2d 123 (Ind. 1998); Town of St. John v. State Bd. of Tax Comm'rs, 698 N.E.2d 399 (Ind. Tax Ct. 1998); Town of St. John v. State Bd. ofTax Comm'rs, 691 N.E.2d 1387 (Ind. Tax Ct. 1998); Town of St. John v. State Bd. ofTax Comm'rs, 690 N.E.2d 370 (Ind. Tax Ct. 1997); Boehm v. Town of St. John, 675 N.E.2d 318 (Ind. 1996); Town of St. John v. State Bd. ofTax Comm'rs, 665 N.E.2d 965 (Ind. Tax Ct.. 1996); Bielski v. Zorn, 627 N.E.2d 880 (Ind. Tax Ct. 1994). 247. Town ofSt. John, 702 N.E.2d at 1038-43. 248. Compare Ind. Admin. Code tit. 50, art. 4.2 (2001) (repealed rules), with Ind. Admin. Code tit. 50, art. 4.3 (2002) (new rules). 249. Editorial, Tax and Revenue Bills Vital to Indiana, SOUTH BEND TRIB., Jan. 1 1 , 2002, at A6. The Fair Market Value Study cited by the Indiana Supreme Court showed that different classes of property were valued at vastly different levels in relation to their market values. Town ofSt. John, 702 N.E.2d at 1042 (showing residential property valued at 62% ofmarket; industrial at 72%; agricultural at 54%; and commercial at 8 1 %). Valuing each type ofproperty at the same proportion of market value will redistribute the tax burden significantly. 2003] CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 989 General Assembly to restructure Indiana's entire tax system in 2002. 25° The resulting system raises less revenue from property taxes and more from the sales tax. 251 Because tax restructuring was, in major part, an outgrowth of the Town ofSt. John decision, the decision and its implications should be considered the most important development in state constitutional law in 2002. Town ofSt. John is not the only case dealing with the structure and function of Indiana government that has had major significance for citizens over the past few years. Over the past decade, much important law also has been made under the Indiana Constitution outside the realm of individual rights. The Indiana Supreme Court has decided important cases regarding the scope of legislative power, 252 governmental duties to provide certain services, 253 legislative authority over the judicial branch, 254 and the Indiana Court of Appeals has decided an important case regarding the Governor's authority. 255 In the upcoming months, the Indiana Supreme Court has on its docket other cases concerning the structural provisions of the Indiana Constitution, including cases addressing special laws and the Uniform and Equal Taxation Clause. 256 Conclusion Contrary to the tone set by the chief justice's article in 1989, the Indiana Constitution has not been the source of significant individual rights protections in the intervening years. Rather, the Indiana Supreme Court has developed some different modes of analysis, but citizens' rights under the Indiana Constitution remain only marginally different than their rights under the Federal Constitution. 257 There remains, of course, significant unexplored territory in 250. Elizabeth Garvin, Indiana Lawmakers Restructure, Increase Taxes to Take Heat Off Homeowners, THE BOND BUYER, June 25, 2002, at 4. 25 1 . Pub. L. No. 192-2002 (Special Session). 252. See State v. Hoovler, 668 N.E.2d 1 229 (Ind. 1 996); Pence v. State, 652 N.E.2d 486 (Ind. 1995) Ind. Gaming Comm'n v. Moseley, 643 N.E.2d 296 (Ind. 1994). 253. Ratliff v. Cohn, 693 N.E.2d 530 (Ind. 1998). See also Y.A. by Fleener v. Bayh, 657 N.E.2d 410 (Ind. Ct. App. 1995) (court of appeals decision on similar issue). 254. State v. Monfort, 723 N.E.2d 407 (Ind. 2000). 255. Nass v. State ex rel. Unity Team, 718 N.E.2d 757 (Ind. Ct. App. 1999). 256. City of South Bend v. Kimsey, 781 N.E.2d 683 (Ind. 2003); Dep't of Local Gov't Fin. v. Griffin, 748 N.E.2d 448 (Ind. 2003). Discussion of these cases is beyond the scope of this Article because the cases were decided after the Article was drafted, but before it went to press. 257. Although outcomes under article I resemble those under the Federal Constitution, the analytical frameworks to reach those results sometimes differ. In the search and seizure area, for example, Indiana looks only at reasonableness of police conduct while federal courts analyze reasonable expectations ofprivacy. Compare Linke v. Northwestern Sch. Corp., 763 N.E.2d at 978 (examining reasonableness ofpolice conduct), with United States v. Knights, 534 U.S. 1 12, 1 18-19 (2001) (examining reasonable expectation of privacy). As Chief Justice Shepard has suggested, these alternative analytical frameworks also protect rights. Should either approach erode as case law develops, the other remains as independent protection of the right. See generally Randall T. 990 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 36:961 article I of the Indiana Constitution, 258 and the future of individual rights under article I remains to be seen. In contrast, Indiana courts have not been reticent to use the constitutional principles governing the functioning of state government to break new and important ground. Town ofSt. John also excellently illustrates the principle that Indiana citizens' daily lives are appreciably affected by decisions applying the Indiana Constitution even when those decisions do not apply the provisions of article I. The taxation sections of article X only regulate governmental conduct, not individual behavior, yet Town of St. John had a direct affect on every citizen's daily life, whether as a property taxpayer, sales taxpayer, or consumer of the myriad of services from education to highways that were affected by tax restructuring. Similarly, the other structural cases decided by the courts over the past decade, including the important cases on taxation and legislative power now before the supreme court, have a crucial affect on the daily lives of Indiana's citizens. Shepard, The Maturing Nature ofState Constitutional Jurisprudence, 30 VAL. U. L. REV. 421 , 456 (1996). 258. For example, the religion sections and the free expression section remain largely undeveloped.