indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning lilis lismaya department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: lilislismaya2017@gmail.com apa citation: lismaya, l. (2018). improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(1), 47-52. received: 19-02-2018 accepted: 26-03-2018 published: 01-04-2018 abstract: the purposes of this research are to analyze the improvement of students' naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning, to analyze the difference of result between pretest and posttest on plant morphology learning, and to reveal students’ response to the application of plant morphology learning. the research method used is an experimental research with one-group pretest-posttest design. this study only used one experimental class given treatment to assess the effect of the treatment without comparison with the control class. the instrument used is questions of naturalist intelligence. the results of this research indicated that: 1) there is a difference result between pretest and posttest on student's naturalist intelligence before and after plant morphology learning using outdoor activities; 2) there is an improvement of students' naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities learning; and 3) positive response came from students on the application of outdoor activities learning. keywords: naturalist intelligence; outdoor activities; plant morphology. introduction education is not merely about how to acquire knowledge, but it is an effort to improve students' understanding, attitudes, abilities, skills and self-development. the lack abilities owned by students include their ability in classifying nature hands-on investigation and caring for nature. hence, it needs a way to improve those abilities. this ability or competence is expected to be enhanced through various learning processes at school. one of the learning process that can be used to achieve the above competencies is through outdoor activities. outdoor activities is an approach done by lecturers, where lecturers invite students to study outside the classroom to see field events directly that are used as learning resources (lazear, 2004). the role of lecturers is as a motivator, meaning that lecturers as a guide for students to learn through the experience they get. outdoor activities is one way how we improve students' learning capacity. students can learn more deeply through the objects they face than if they are learning in a classroom that has many limitations. furthermore, studying outside the classroom can help students apply their knowledge. in addition, outdoor activities are more challenging for students and bridge between theories in the book and the reality that is in the field. the quality of learning in real situations will provide increased learning achievement through the learned objects and can build better social and personal skills. outdoor activities can be done anytime in accordance with the draft of program created by the lecturer. method the method used in this research is weak experimental with the one-group pretestlilis lismaya improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning 48 posttest design (fraenkel & wallen, 2007). this present study only used experimental class that is given treatment to assess the effect of the treatment, without comparing it with the control class. the research design is shown below. table 1. the one-group pretest-posttest research design o pretest x treatment o posttest the population in this study is all students of biology education, university of kuningan, amounted to 110 students. the sample used in this research is taken using purposive sampling as much as one class at first level in second semester who are students of biology department in fkip kuningan university with amount of 27 students who are taking course of plant morphology. the instrument used is a written test in form of essays which contains indicators to measure naturalist intelligence. the test is given at the beginning and end of the learning. in addition, questionnaires are used to find out student’s responses on the study of plant morphology through outdoor activities. this study conducted processing and data analysis with statistical tests, and the activities include scoring for pretest and posttest, calculating ngain, and the data analysis by using software statistical package for social science (spss) for windows version 16.0. results and discussion the results of the research are presented in sequence as follows: (1) difference of result between pretest and posttest on plant morphology learning to student's naturalist intelligence, (2) improvement of student's naturalist intelligence through application of outdoor activities, and (3) student's response to the application of outdoor activities. the results of validity and reliability test of the instrument are described in table 2 below. table 2. result of validity and reliability test no statistical test value conclusion 1. validity test 0.677 high 2. reliability test 0.752 high the results of the test analysis that includes the validity test shows the value of 0.677 which means that all questions or items of naturalist intelligence test have high validity. reliability test results show the value of 0.752 meaning that the overall questions of naturalist intelligence test has high category of reliability. based on the results of validity and reliability tests, it can be concluded that the questions of naturalist intelligence can be used as an instrument in further research. difference of result between pretest and posttest on plant morphology learning through outdoor activities to know the application of outdoor activities to naturalist intelligence on plant morphology learning, then it tested the results of pretest and posttest. the following shows the average results of pretest and posttest in experimental class. table 3. average result of multiple intelligences pretest and posttest class student total naturalist intelligence average of pretest average of posttest experimental class 27 70.52 74.88 table 3 shows the average of pretest score of the experimental class is 70.52. after the outdoor activities learning is conducted, the students are given a posttest to see the student's naturalist intelligence. posttest results showed that students’ posttest score indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 achieved 74.88 with a maximum value is 80. the results of the student's naturalist intelligence analysis based on the average value of pretest and posttest can also be seen in figure 1. figure 1. average of pretest and posttest from the results of statistical tests, the data obtained is normally distributed and homogeneous so the hypothesis testing is done by parametric statistical t-test sample independent test. the t-test was conducted to determine the level of significance of experimental class differences compared to the minimum criteria of mastery learning (kkm) of plant morphology course. the results of the test with the t-test of naturalist intelligence can be seen in table 4. table 4. t-test analysis result of naturalist intelligence data source class average value significance α conclusion posttest experimental 73 0.000 0.05 difference found kkm 70 from the table, it can be seen that the result of t-test shows the significance of 0.00 <α (α = 0.05), so it can be concluded that there is a significant difference of naturalist intelligence of experimental class compared to kkm of plant morphology course. based on the result of analysis of experimental class as a whole on t-test shows that there is a significant difference of naturalist intelligence compared to kkm of plant morphology course. both of them show that there is an influence of the application of outdoor activities on plant morphology learning toward students’ naturalist intelligence on leaf material and plant branching patterns. the improvement of naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities to know the improvement of naturalist intelligence result in experimental class as a whole based on pre-test and post-test results, then it is calculated by using gain formula and then classified. recapitulation of gain value calculation results are described in table 5 below. table 5. result of n-gain test class value category experimental 0.4 medium from table 5 above, it can be clearly seen that the value of gain value obtained in the experimental class as a whole is 0.4 in the medium category, meaning that the application of outdoor activities on the plant morphology learning can increase students’ naturalist intelligence. next is the test of normality and homogeneity to gain value of students' naturalist intelligence. normality and lilis lismaya improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning 50 homogeneity tests are used as a prerequisite for subsequent statistical tests. the calculation result of the gain value normality test of problem solving in experimental class is overall shown in table 6. table 6. result of gain value normality test data naturalist intelligence test p-value α conclusion gain value 0.30 0.05 normal the test result of data normality with kolmogorov-smirnov obtained result of gain value in experimental class gain from normal distributed population with p-value 0.30 bigger than α = 0.05. the result of levene's homogeneity test of students’ naturalist intelligence used α significance level = 0.05 and obtained p-value as presented in table 7. table 7. result of gain value homogeneity test data n naturalist intelligence p-value α conclusion gain value 27 0.45 0.05 homogenous based on table 7, it is known that the student's naturalist intelligence gain value at the significance level α = 0.05 meets the criteria p-value ≥ α = 0.05, this means that the variance of the data is homogeneous. from the results of statistical tests, the data obtained is normally distributed and homogeneous so the hypothesis test is done by parametric statistical t-test sample independent test. the t-test was conducted to find out the level of significance of the students' naturalist intelligence improvement, the result of t-test shows the significance of 0.00 <α (α = 0.05), so it can be concluded that there is an increase of students’ naturalist intelligence after the application of outdoor activities on leaf material in morphology learning. this naturalist intelligence includes several indicators, including: a) classifying nature; b) hands-on investigation; c) nature simulations; d) caring for nature; e) sensitive to natural phenomena (natural patterns) (lazear, 2004). based on the results of the researcher's analysis through the learning of outdoor activities, it is seen that the students' ability in classifying nature, especially the leaf types in bungkirit city forest has increased, it can be seen from students’ posttest and lkm they use during the learning. similarly, the ability of students in investigating both individual and group seems increasing, they look more enthusiastic in doing investigation in the open space. observation sheets are also used by the researcher in this naturalist intelligence assessment instrument. based on the researcher's observation, it is seen that the students also look more care and sensitive to nature, because through this outdoor activities students are trained to love nature, not to destroy nature. they are also more excited about planning environmental conservation activities. naturalist intelligence is the intelligence possessed by individuals to the plants, animals and the surrounding natural environment. individuals who have high naturalist intelligence will have a high interest and love for plants and animals of the universe. they will not carelessly cut down trees, they will not slaughter and torture animals, and they will also tend to keep the environment they are standing in. they will love plants, animals and the environment as they love themselves. this is a high naturalist intelligence (lazear, 2004). student’s responses to the application of outdoor activities at the end of leaf material learning and plant branching patterns, the students of the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 51 experimental class as a whole were given questionnaires to find out their responses to the application of outdoor activities on plant morphology learning. the questionnaire made included six indicators which then was developed into several questions. the recapitulation of the result percentage of student responses to the application of outdoor activities on plant morphology learning is shown in figure 2. figure 2. result of students’ response to outdoor activities based on figure 2, it can be seen that almost all indicators show a positive response from students. for the indicator of interest in learning, it is seen that 83% of students answered yes and 17% answered no, meaning that most students feel interested in the application of outdoor activities on plant morphology learning. for indicators of helping students in improving interest in learning, 90% of students stated that the application of outdoor activities can help improve their learning interest. for indicators of improving naturalist intelligence, it is showed that 95% of students stated that the application of outdoor activities on plant morphology learning can improve their naturalist intelligence. while for indicators of increasing naturalist intelligence showed 65% of students stated that outdoor learning activities can improve their naturalist intelligence. further, technical indicators of outdoor learning activities in the plant morphology course showed that 75% of students stated that the technical of outdoor learning activitiesis easy to understand. therefore, from the overall students’ response, it can be concluded that almost all students give a positive response to the application of outdoor learning activities on plant morphology learning. conclusion based on the result of the research, there are some conclusions: 1) there is a difference of result between initial or pretest and posttest on students’ naturalist intelligence before and after plant morphology learning through outdor activities. this is indicated by the average calculation result of students’ pretest, posttest and gain index. thus, it is clearly seen that there is a significant difference between pretest and posttest results. similarly, when the result of posttest compared to kkm or minimum criteria of mastery learning, it was bigger than kkm; 2) there is an increase in students’ naturalist intelligence, especially naturalist intelligence through outdoor learning activities on plant morphology learning; and 3) students give positive responses on the application of outdoor learning activites on plant morphology course to the improvement of students' naturalist intelligence. based on the findings of the research, the researcher presents the following suggestions: 1) at the time of learning, it requires good time management between each stage in outdoor learning activities and at the end of activities, it needs to strengthen the concept and principles of activities in outdoor activities and naturalist intelligence; 2) when determining the place for learning, it should be accustomed to the learning materials that will be discussed lilis lismaya improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning 52 in order to be right on target; 3) students’ positive response to outdoor learning activities on the leaf concept and the plant branching pattern provides an opportunity for the use of outdoor learning activities in other biological learning concepts; and 4) some research conducted by other researchers is needed as input in this research since the possibility of differences in knowledge, how to teach and experience will affect the results of research. references anderson, l. w., & krathwohl, d. r. (2001). kerangka landasan untuk pembelajaran, pengajaran dan asesmen agung prihantoro. yogyakarta. pustaka pelajar. arends, r. i. (2008). learning to teach (7th ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill companies. arikunto, s. (2007). dasar-dasar evaluasi pendidikan. jakarta: bumi aksara. aunurrahman. (2009). belajar dan pembelajaran. bandung. alfabeta. brookhart, s. (2010). how to assess higher-order thingking skills in your classroom. alexandria, virginia. usa: ascd. dahar r. w. (1996). teori-teori belajar. jakarta: erlangga. fraenkel, j. r., & wallen, n. e. (2007). how to design and evaluate research in education. san francisco: mcgraw-hill higher education. gangadevi, r. ((2014). multiple intelligence based curriculum to enhance inclusive education to bring out human potential. international journal of advance research, 2(8), 619-626. hamzah, a. (2009). teori multiple intelligences dan implikasinya terhadap pengelolaan pembelajaran. jurnal tarbiyah aqidah usymuni sumenep, 4(2), 253-260. hernandez, j. v. (2010). multiple intelligences as a new paradigm in the education of mexico. international journal of education, 2(1), 5-16. lazear, d. (2004). higher-order thinking (the multiple intelligences way). usa: zephyr press. maftoon, s. (2012). the realization of gardner’s multiple intelligences theory in second language acquisition. journal of languange teaching and research, 3(6), 1233-1241. mousavi, s. s., & ahmadi, f. (2013). education effect based on gardner multiple intelligence hypotheses in students mathematics education progress of high school second grade in garmsar city. international journal of social science (ijss), 3(1), 25-30. rahmat, a. (2011). petunjuk praktikum morfologi tumbuhan. bandung: pendidikan biologi fpmipa ikip bandung. sugiyono. (2010). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. tjitrosoepomo, g. (1988). morfologi tumbuhan. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. trianto. (2007). model-model pembelajaran inovatif berorientasi konstruktivistik. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 improving multiplication learning outcomes by using quantum learning model muhamad awaludin primary school teacher education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan e-mail: muhamadawaludin99@gmail.com yeyen suryani economic education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan e-mail: yeyensuryani2707@gmail.com mohamad riyadi mathematic education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan e-mail: mohamad.riyadi@uniku.ac.id apa citation: awaludin, m., suryani, y., & riyadi, m. (2018). improving multiplication learning outcomes by using quantum learning model. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 47-52. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1683. received: 18-12-2018 accepted: 21-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: mathematics, as one of the compulsory subjects in elementary school level, is often regarded as a difficult subject to learn. yet, in fact, mathematics learning process is still not fully effective which results in low mathematics learning outcomes. thus, this study aims to improve mathematics learning outcomes by using quantum learning model on multiplication material in class iii b sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan. this study was a classroom action research (car) by using kemmis and mc. taggart model consisting of 2 cycles in which each cycle was carried out in four main activities, namely planning, implementing, observing and reflecting. the results of the study indicated an increase in students’ mathematics learning outcomes. in cycle i, the completeness percentage of students’ learning outcomes was 68% and the average of students’ learning outcomes was 70.2. whereas, in cycle ii, the completeness percentage of students’ learning outcomes increased to 92% and the average of students’ learning outcomes increased to 83.3. therefore, it can be concluded that quantum learning model can improve students’ mathematics learning outcomes in class iii b sdn 1 purwawinangun, especially in multiplication material. keywords: action research; mathematics; multiplication material; students’ learning outcomes; quantum learning model. introduction mathematics is one of the subjects included in the subjects group of science and technology as appeared in the 2006 curriculum (depdiknas, 2006, p. 4). mathematics is a subject that has a very important role in daily lives. therefore, mathematics becomes one of the most important subjects to learn since elementary school students are essentially related to mathematical terms in their daily lives. yet, in factual condition, mathematics learning process still needs to be improved by the teacher because the learning process in the classroom is still not fully effective which results in low mathematics learning outcomes. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1683 muhamad awaludin, yeyen suryani, & mohamad riyadi the efforts to increase multiplication learning outcomes with quantum learning model 48 several factors affecting the low mathematics learning outcomes in class iii b sdn 1 purwawinangun are: 1) class condition when learning mathematics is less fun and difficult to be conditioned; 2) students’ factors, namely: most students are less confidence, passive, hyper active, and there are also some students who think that mathematics is the most difficult and boring subject. besides, the multiplication material is considered difficult since the students do not understand the concept of multiplication so that they often make mistakes in working on multiplication; 3) teachers’ factors, including the use of conventional learning methods in which teachers are more instrumental in learning and they often limit student activities; and 4) external factors, namely the lack of supporting mathematics learning media at the school. thus, it is necessary for the teachers to overcome those factors immediately. here, the writers tried to use quantum learning model as an effort to improve students’ mathematics learning outcomes. learning model is the main requirement in the learning process that was designed and chosen by the teacher. learning model is a technique or teacher’s effort in the learning process that aims to create pleasant and meaningful teaching and learning process. there are many types of learning models, including cooperative learning, collaborative learning, problem solving learning model, and quantum learning model. quantum learning model is considered appropriate to apply in an effort to improve mathematics learning outcomes as well as create a pleasant learning process. it is in line with supramono (2016, p. 369) who explains that quantum learning model is a learning model that involves all aspects supporting the achievement of learning objectives so that the learning process becomes more enjoyable and meaningful for educators and students. quantum learning model can be viewed as one of the ideal learning models. this is in accordance with sholikhah (2017, p. 2) who states that “the learning model of quantum teaching learning can be viewed as an ideal learning model, because it emphasizes the cooperation between learners and teachers to achieve common goals.” the main purposes of quantum learning model, according to sa'ud (2010, p. 130), are to increase students’ participation through composing conditions, to increase motivation and interest in learning, to improve memory and increase a sense of togetherness, to increase hearing power, and to increase behaviour gentleness. whereas, the principle of quantum learning model according to deporter, et al. (2001) in wena (2016, p. 161) is quantum learning relies on a concept, namely “bring the students’ world to the teachers’ world, and bring the teachers’ world to the students’ world.” precisely, wena (2016, p. 161) lists the principles of this model which include; a) everything speaks, b) everything is aimed, c) experience before naming, d) acknowledging every effort, and e) if it is worth learning then well worth celebrating. basically, all learning models have their own characteristics and learning stages (syntax). in the same way, quantum learning model takes into account the stages of learning which are referred to by the tandur. according to deporter & nourie (2001) in wena (2016, p. 164), the learning framework of quantum learning model are; 1) growing, 2) experiencing, 3) naming, 4) demonstrating, 5) repeating, and 5) celebrating. based on the description, the problem raised in this study was formulated into the following research question; can quantum learning model improve mathematics learning outcomes on multiplication material in class iii b at sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan? therefore, as an effort to achieve the purpose of this study, namely to improve mathematics learning outcomes, the writers conducted a indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 classroom action research entitled "improving multiplication learning outcomes by using quantum learning model" (a classroom action research in mathematics subject of class iii b at sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan). method this study was a classroom action research (car) which aims to imrpove students’ learning outcomes. the subjects of this study were 25 third grade students of class b at sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan in academic year 2017-2018. the subjects consisted of 10 male students and 15 female students. this action research was carried out in 2 cycles in which each cycle consisted of two meetings. then, each cycle consisted of 4 stages, as proposed by kemmis and mc. taggart, namely: (1) action planning, (2) implementation, (3) observation, and (4) reflection (arikunto, 2013, p. 137). the stages of activities in cycle i are; 1) action planning which consisted of arranging syllabus and lesson plan, preparing the media that will be used, arranging observation sheets, and compiling evaluation questions; 2) the implementation activity is to implement each plan that has been prepared and carry out the learning phase in accordance with the syntax (learning framework) of quantum learning model abbreviated as tandur; 3) observation activities are carried out towards students’ learning activities that apply quantum learning model by using observation sheets; and 4) reflection activities are carried out by describing each of the shortcomings and constraints of the learning process in cycle i and will be corrected in the next cycle. in cycle ii, the stages of activities carried out are generally the same as those in cycle i, namely planning, implementing actions, observation and reflection. the instruments used to collect the data were test and observation sheets of students’ learning activities. then, the data were analyzed by using quantitative descriptive. the indicators of success in this study is “this research is said to have been successful when the overall average of students’ learning outcomes increase from the kkm (minimum completeness criteria / ≥ 70) per cycle, and reach an average percentage higher than 80%. results and discussion pre-cycle the data of students’ learning outcomes and activities on pre-cycle showed that students’ learning outcomes are still very low. it can be seen that from the number of 25 students in class iii b of sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan, there were only 11 students who reached the kkm and the rest 14 students had not yet reached the kkm. therefore, this problem affects the other things, such as low students’ learning activities that only reached 39% which was in the low category. based on the data, it can be concluded that the level of learning outcomes of class iii b in sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan in mathematics is still below average or low where most of the students got less than the kkm of ≥70. table 1 shows the data on students’ learning outcomes in multiplication material at pre-cycle. table 1. students’ learning outcomes in class iii b on multiplication at pre-cycle total students pre-cycle completeness percentage 25 c ic c ic 11 14 44% 56% students’ total score 1520 students’ average score 60.8 from the table, it can be seen that the number of students who complete is lower than students who have not yet completed. from 25 students, only 11 students managed to reach the kkm, while the rest 14 students did not reach the kkm. thus, the muhamad awaludin, yeyen suryani, & mohamad riyadi the efforts to increase multiplication learning outcomes with quantum learning model 50 completeness percentage obtained was 44% and the average score obtained by was 60.8 so that they have not yet reached the specified kkm. cycle i the learning activities in cycle i are carried out by applying quantum learning model with the tandur learning stages. the learning process took place meaningfully and pleasantly, but students’ learning outcomes are still not maximal. student learning outcomes in cycle i can be seen from the results of the final evaluation of cycle i as shown in table 2. table 2. students’ learning outcomes in class iii b on multiplication at cycle i total students cycle i completeness percentage 25 c ic c ic 17 8 68% 32% students’ total score 1780 students’ average score 71.2 based on table 2, it can be concluded that there are still many students who have not been completed. from 25 students, those who managed to reach the kkm were 17 students and the rest 8 students had not reached the kkm. the completeness percentage obtained was 68% and the average score obtained was 71.2. thus, even though the average score of students has reached the specified kkm, but the percentage indicator of success has not been achieved. the results of observations towards students’ learning activities in cycle i are as follows; at the first meeting of the cycle i, students’ learning activities amounted to 56.25% with the medium category. meanwhile, at the second meeting, students’ learning activities increased significantly that was 71.87% which belonged to the high category. based on the description, it can be concluded that the learning activities of class iii b of sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan by using the quantum learning model in the cycle i reached an average percentage of 64.06% which belonged to the high category. cycle ii since the learning outcomes in cycle i have not been maximal, the writers took an action on the cycle ii by completing the previous learning. the action in the cycle ii was done by re-applying the quantum learning model with the tandur learning stages. during the learning process, students showed significant changes that the learning process is more pleasant and meaningful. therefore, the learning objectives are expected to be achieved thoroughly. learning outcomes in cycle ii (shown in table 3) can be seen as the results of the final evaluation on cycle ii. table 3. students’ learning outcomes in class iii b on multiplication at cycle ii total students cycle ii completeness percentage 25 c ic c ic 23 2 92% 8% students’ total score 2028.9 students’ average score 83,3 based on table 3, it can be concluded that there are 23 students (92%) out of 25 students, who managed to reach the kkm and students who had not reached kkm were only 2 students (8%). then, the completeness percentage obtained had fulfilled more than a success indicator of 92%. whereas, the average score obtained by class iii b students was also increased by 83.3. thus, the students’ average score has exceeded the determined kkm and the percentage of success has been achieved even more significantly than the previous cycle. the results of the observations during the action at cycle ii showed that students’ learning activities increased significantly from the previous cycle which amounted to 85.93% indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 51 at the first meeting with a very high category. meanwhile, at the second meeting, students’ learning activities increased even more, reaching 93.75% in the very high category. therefore, it can be concluded that the learning activities of class iii b at sdn 1 purwawinangun using a quantum learning model in cycle ii reached an average percentage of 89.84% with a very high category. in other words, applying quantum learning model in class iii b on mathematics at sd negeri 1 purwawinangun kuningan can improve students’ learning outcomes. this result is in line with sujatmika, et. al. (2018, p. 2) who states that quantum learning model is a model allowing students to learn pleasantly and encourages students to use all their potential. further, sa'ud (2010, p. 130) describe that quantum learning model can increase students’ participation through composing conditions, increase motivation and interest in learning, improve memory and increase a sense of togetherness, increase hearing power, and increase behavioural gentleness. based on the description, it can be concluded that students’ learning outcomes experience an increase in the percentage. the explanation of students’ learning outcomes at the end of cycle i and cycle ii is as follows: a. the final evaluation results of cycle i showed that there were still 8 students (32%) whose grades had not reached the kkm, and students who had reached the kkm were 17 students (68%) with the average score of 71.2. b. the final evaluation results of cycle ii showed that there were only 2 students (8%) whose grades had not reached the kkm, and 23 students (92%) had reached the kkm, with the average score of 83.3. the final evaluation results at the end of the cycle i and the end of the cycle ii are presented in the following graph. graph 1. diagram of evaluation at pre-cycle, cycle i and cycle ii the result of this study is in line with supramono (2016, p. 369) who expressed that quantum learning model is one of the learning models that involve all aspects supporting the achievement of learning objectives so that the learning process becomes more enjoyable and meaningful for educators and students. in the same vein, sujatmika, et. al. (2018, p. 4) said that “quantum learning models can be applied by teachers to improve the quality of learning. through this learning, the students are trained to use all the potential of brain owned. the learning process is also more challenging and fun. through memorable learning, the information or materials learned will be longer stored in the memory.” average complete (%) incomplete (%) pre-cycle cycle i cycle ii muhamad awaludin, yeyen suryani, & mohamad riyadi the efforts to increase multiplication learning outcomes with quantum learning model 52 based on the results obtained from the pre-action stages (pre-cycle) to post-actions (cycle ii), it can be concluded that quantum learning model has a positive impact since the application of quantum learning models can improve students’ learning outcomes in class iii b of sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan on multiplication material. conclusion based on the analysis, it can be concluded that; 1) the application of quantum learning model can improve students’ mathematics learning outcomes in class iii of sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan, especially in multiplication material; 2) the improvement of students’ learning outcomes in class iii b of sdn 1 purwawinangun kuningan can be seen from the increase in the average and the completeness percentage of students in mathematics subject on multiplication material in which the students’ average score was 60.8 with the completeness percentage was 44% in pre-cycle. the average score increases to 70.2 with the completeness percentage of 68% in cycle i, and increases again to 83.3 with a presentation of students’ success of 92% in cycle ii; and (3) learning activities using the tandur stages of quantum learning model can make the learning process pleasant and meaningful since every students’ learning success is always celebrated together with praise or reward. the following suggestions are presented based on the above conclusions; 1) the teacher should pay more attention to the role of syntax of the quantum learning model which is abbreviated as tandur; 2) teachers should guide students thoroughly when learning in groups; 3) every students’ success should always be celebrated by the teacher and students with more interesting and challenging praise and rewards; 4) to foster students’ motivation and involvement in the learning process, in addition to applying the quantum learning model, it should be assisted with the use of interesting mathematics learning media; and 5) the application of the quantum learning model is not only expected to increase learning outcomes, but also to increase students’ motivation and learning outcomes in which its presentation reaches 100%. references arikunto, s. (2013). prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: rineka cipta. depdiknas. (2006). kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (ktsp). jakarta: depdiknas. sa’ud, u. s. (2010). inovasi pendidikan. bandung: alfabeta. sholikhah, h. o. (2017). implementation of quantum learning viewed from multiple intelligences in mathematics learning. procedings international seminar of primary education, 1, 1-8. sujatmika, s. dkk. (2018) effect of quantum learning model in improving creativity and memory. journal of physics: international conference on science education (icosed). doi: 10.1088/17426596/1006/1/012036. supramono. a. (2016). pengaruh model pembelajaran quantum (quantum teaching) terhadap hasil belajar ipa kelas iii sd yps lawewu kecamatan nuha kabupaten luwu timur. jurnal nalar pendidikan, 4(2), 78-86. wena, m. (2016). strategi pembelajaran inovatif konteporer: suatu tinjauan konseptual oprasional. jakarta: bumi aksara. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong grinko vitaliy kharkiv institute of finance of kyiv, national university of trade and economics, kharkiv, ukraine e-mail: vngrinko78@gmail.com apa citation: vitaliy, g. (2019). an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 27-34. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1681. received: 28-12-2018 accepted: 22-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: the purpose of this study is experimentally to reveal the influence on the special endurance of aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobics), which are included in the program of higher educational institutions of groups with sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong, and to explore the need to include these classes in the curriculum for physical education. the methods use analysis and generalization of literary sources, pedagogical observation, pedagogical experiment, modeling. in the experiment, 106 first-year students took part: 53 is control group and 53 is experimental. the result of this study is technique of revealing the influence of aerobic training on the special endurance of students of groups with a sports orientation is tested; the effectiveness of the experimental technique of training for increasing special endurance was developed and proved. so, it can be concluded that at this stage of the experiment, the effectiveness of the program was substantiated and proved with the inclusion of aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobic elements) in the training groups on sporting orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong. keywords: aerobic classes; basic aerobics; cross training; sectional classes; simulated data; special endurance. introduction the problem of increasing the effectiveness of physical education of student youth has been and is most significant in recent times. in theory and in practice, the issues of differentiation, individualization and profiling of education, the integration of the content of education, the ideas of optimization and modernization of the educational system were actively developed (kudelko, shcherbina, & pavlenko, 2003). according to kudelko and korolinska (2006), it is necessary to abandon rigid normativeness, obligatory and authoritarianism, adjusting to the standard set from outside, to form an interested attitude of the student to the subject, to arouse interest in the possibility of building a healthy body, forming one's own health. all this indicates the need to find new ways to improve the physical, mental and moral state of student youth (plowman & smith, 2011). in our previous research on the results of the survey, students assessed the importance of developing physical qualities as follows: 1) endurance; 2) strength; 3) dexterity; 4) flexibility; 5) coordination; and 6) speed. meanwhile, grinko (2015) states that their own level of physical readiness was estimated as follows: 1) strength; 2) coordination; 3) speed; 4) flexibility; 5) dexterity; and 6) endurance. these facts show that students understand the important influence of endurance and its importance in solving the tasks of preparation for work, and they realize that it is this physical quality that most of them develop worse (grinko, 2015; kudelko & korolinska, 2006). mailto:vngrinko78@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1681 grinko vitaliy an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong 28 issues of improving the physical preparation of students in recent years have been considered in the works of a large number of researchers (grinko, 2015; kudelko, 2004). there are a lot of works where such physical quality as endurance is studied, but there are not enough works to improve special endurance in groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes), in particular ping-pong. a work to improve the special endurance means of cross training and with the help of basic aerobics in groups with a sports focus (sectional classes) in recent years generally does not occur. based on this, we have developed and justified a program based on cross training and elements of basic aerobics for groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong (grinko, 2015; kudelko, 2004), which should significantly improve physical quality such as special endurance. the purpose of the research is experimentally to reveal the influence on the special endurance of aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobics), which are included in the program of higher educational institutions of groups with sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong, and to explore the need to include these classes in the curriculum for physical education. method the method of this study are analysis and generalization of literary sources, pedagogical observation, pedagogical experiment, modeling. in the experiment, 106 first-year students participated consist of 53 is control group and 53 is experimental. the research was carried out on the basis of the simon kuznets kharkiv national university of economics and kharkov institute of finance of kiev national trade and economic university. to test the hypothesis, the first stage was: studied the level of physical preparedness of students; developed and justified the program of physical training for students of groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong. on the second stage: a comparative pedagogical experiment was conducted to check the effectiveness of the developed program. the experiment was conducted during the academic year from october 2015 to june 2016. students of the control group were engaged in the program of a higher educational institution for groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong, and students of the experimental group on the program developed by us to increase the level of special endurance, which combines a program for special sports training (pingpong – 75%) and aerobic exercise (cross training and elements of basic aerobics – 25%). the program was based on the program of the higher educational institution for groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong and included in it for every fourth session – aerobic exercise (cross training and basic aerobics). by the middle of december, while weather conditions allowed, the students of the experimental group each fourth session were engaged in crosstraining in the open air, then moved to the hall where, in the experiment, they continued to engage in every fourth session already with basic aerobics, and at the end of march they again took to fresh air, where they continued to study every fourth session by cross training. kudelko (2004) said that at the beginning and at the end of the experiment, ping-pong competitions were held in the control and experimental groups, as checking the level of endurance in game sports, in particular in table tennis, is better manifested in competitive conditions (each pair played five games, in each batch was considered the number of mistakes made). to check the level of special endurance at the beginning and at the end of the experiment, statistical and comparative analyzes of the experimental and control group data were made to find out how aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobics) affected the level of special endurance. for this, ashanin and indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 х pyatisotskaya (2016) suggested that the pairwise regression model was used f – fisher and t – student criteria were analyzed for the linear regression equation (novikova, 2011; peters, 1991), linear coefficients of pair correlation, determination and average error of approximation were calculated (dubnytskyi, 2011; mandelbrot, 2004), estimated statistical significance of regression and correlation parameters (lemeshko & pomadin, 2002; weerahandi, 1995), residual dispersion is determined, confidence intervals are calculated (nayman, 2009). results and discussion as a result of using the pair regression method, such equations were found for the experimental group at the beginning of the experiment on october 2018. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the experimental group at the beginning of the experiment is presented in the calculation table 1. we find estimates of the parameters of the regression equation: we obtain the regression equation: ŷx =a+bx. on this basis, we see that with an increase in the number of games played by at least one, the average number of errors increases on average by 0,73: ŷ1=3,55+0,73∙1=4,28; table 1. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the experimental group at the beginning of the experiment (october) № i/o х y ху̂ хуу ˆ 1 1 4,24 4,28 -0,04 2 2 5,0 5,01 -0,01 3 3 5,9 5,74 0,16 4 4 6,49 6,47 0,02 5 5 7,09 7,2 -0,11 total 15 28,72 28,7 0,02 average 3 5,74 5,74 0,004 here and below: х – set number, y – number of errors, ŷх, у–ŷх – additional values for finding linear regression parameters. ŷ1 =3,55+0,73*1=4,28; ŷ2=3,55+0,73∙2=5,01; ŷ3=3,55+0,73∙3=5,74; ŷ4=3,55+0,73∙4=6,47; ŷ5=3,55+0,73∙5=7,2. the tightness of the linear connection is estimated by the correlation coefficient: since the value of the correlation coefficient is greater than 0.9, there is a fairly close linear relationship between the number of played set and the number of grinko vitaliy an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong 30 errors committed. we find the coefficient of determination: this means that 98% of the variation in the errors (y) is due to the variation of the factor x – the number of played sets. having the regression equations ŷх=5,74+0,73∙x, t is possible to predict the number of errors for the sixth sets: ŷ6=5,74+0,73∙6=7,93. as can be seen from the equation, the error for the sixth set will increase slightly, but the calculation error does not exceed 10%. the calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the experimental group at the end of the experiment on may 2018 is presented in the calculation table 2. table 2. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the experimental group at the end of the experiment (may) № i/o х y 1 1 4,02 4,1 -0,08 2 2 4,45 4,4 0,05 3 3 4,81 4,7 0,1 4 4 5,04 5 0,04 5 5 5,19 5,3 -0,11 total 15 23,51 23,5 0 average 3 4,7 4,7 here and below: х – set number, y – number of errors, ŷх, у–ŷх – additional values for finding linear regression parameters. thus, having the regression equation ŷх=3,8+0,3∙x, we can predict the number of errors for the sixth set: ŷ6=3,8+0,3∙6=5,6. as can be seen from the equation, the error for the sixth set will increase slightly, but the calculation error does not exceed 10%. after statistical processing of the data, let us make a comparative analysis of the numerical data of the experimental group for october and may in the figure 1. figure 1. comparative analysis of the numerical data of the experimental group when playing table tennis in october and may: yж – data for october, yт – data for may as we see, the numerical data of the experimental group at the end of the experiment have a significant improvement: during the first set by 0,22; during the second х у̂ х уу ˆ 4.24 5.00 5.90 6.49 7.09 7,93 4.02 4.45 4.81 5.04 5.19 5,60 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 n u m b e r o f m is ta k e s number of set yж yт indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 by 0,55; during the third by 1,09; during the fourth by 1,02; during the fifth by 1,9; with a projected sixth set of 2,33. the level of reliability of the model is high, since the average error of approximation does not exceed 5% (in october, a=1,14%, and in may a=1,66%). calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the control group at the beginning of the experiment on october 2018 is presented in the calculation table 3. table 3. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the control group at the beginning of the experiment (october) № i/o х y ху̂ хуу ˆ 1 1 4,25 4,3 -0,05 2 2 5,11 5,02 -0,09 3 3 5,79 5,74 0,05 4 4 6,42 6,46 -0,04 5 5 7,15 7,18 -0,03 total 15 28,72 28,7 0,02 average 3 5,74 5,74 0,004 thus, having the regression equation ŷх=3,58+0,72∙x, we can predict the number of errors for the sixth set: ŷ6=3,58+0,72∙6=7,9. as can be seen from the equation, the error for the sixth set will increase slightly, but the calculation error does not exceed 10%. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equa tion for the control group at the end of the experiment on may 2018 is presented in the calculation table 4. table 4. calculation of the parameters of the linear regression equation for the control group at the end of the experiment (may) № i/o х y ху̂ хуу ˆ 1 1 3,94 3,99 -0,05 2 2 4,43 4,44 -0,01 3 3 4,94 4,9 0,04 4 4 5,4 5,36 0,04 5 5 5,79 5,82 -0,03 total 15 24,5 24,51 -0,01 average 3 4,9 4,9 thus, having the regression equation ŷх=3,52+0,46∙x, we can predict the number of errors for the sixth set: ŷ6=3,52+0,46∙6=6,28. as can be seen from the equation, the error for the sixth set will increase slightly, but the calculation error does not exceed 10%. after statistical processing of the data, let us make a comparative analysis of the numerical data of the experimental group for october and may in the figure 2. grinko vitaliy an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong 32 figure 2. comparative analysis of the numerical data of the control group when playing table tennis in october and may: yж – data for october, ym – data for may as we see, the numerical data of the experimental group at the end of the experiment have a significant improvement: during the first set by 0,31; during the second by 0,68; during the third by 0,85; during the fourth by 1,02; during the fifth by 1,36; with a projected sixth set of 1,62. the level of reliability of the model is high, since the average error of approximation does not exceed 5% (in october а=0,97%, and in may а=0,71%). thus, for the first time: the effectiveness of a methodological approach to the development of a physical education program for students of groups with a sports orientation, combining the conventional means of developing physical qualities with an emphasis on special endurance; justified the program of physical education for students of groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong with the inclusion of aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobics). obtained results supplement scientific data on aerobic occupations and their influence on special endurance (kudelko, 2004; mardia & zemroch, 1984; grinko, et al., 2017). these results confirm the opinion that in the correct ratio of the physical fitness classes for students of groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) and the inclusion of aerobic activities (cross training and basic aerobics), the special endurance of students can be significantly improved (grinko, kudelko, & hlotov, 2017). conclusion an overall analysis, it can be concluded that analysis of literature sources showed that the problem of studying the influence of aerobic exercises for improving special endurance in groups with a sports orientation (sectional classes) ping-pong is not sufficiently studied. at this stage of the experiment it was proved that the inclusion of aerobic ping-pong (cross training and elements of basic aerobics) in the experimental group included in the training program on sporting orientation (sectional classes) significantly influenced the special endurance of the students than those engaged in the ordinary program (control group). program on physical education on the basis of cross training and elements of basic aerobics for groups with a sport orientation (sectional classes) pingpong has been developed and justified, which essentially improves such physical quality as special endurance. with the improvement of special endurance, mobility and reaction rate improved. references ashanin, v. s., & pyatisotskaya, s. s. (2016). statistical analysis of experimental data by 4.25 5.11 5.79 6.42 7.15 7.90 3.94 4.43 4.94 5.40 5.79 6.28 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 n u m b e r o f m is ta k e s number of set yж yт indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 means of spreadsheets excel. russia: khsapc, kharkov. chaikovska, i. i. (2014). application of modern information technologies for modeling economic processes on the basis of fractal analysis. universytetski naukovi zapysky, (1), 378-387. dubnytskyi, v. i. (2011). choosing the method for forecasting the value of securities, taking into account the fractal dimensionality of a number of observations. biznes inform: nauk. zhurnal, 1(7), 120-121. grinko, v. m. (2015). attitude of students to physical education and healthy lifestyle and their selfesteem of physical fitness. slobozans`kij naukovo-sportivnij visnik, 45(1), 55-59. doi: 10.15391/snsv.2015-1.010. grinko, v. m. (2015). classes of aerobic character and their possible impact on the level of general and special endurance of students. naukovyi chasopys npu imeni m.p. drahomanova, 67(12), 42-45. grinko, v. m., kudelko, v. e., & hlotov, y. o. (2017). training of students’ special endurance in ping pong sport circles. physical education of students, (2), 52-60. doi: 10.15561/20755279.2017.0201. kartashov, m. v. (2007). imovirnist, protsesy, statystyka (probability, processes, statistics). ukraina: vpts kyivskyi universytet, kyiv. kudelko, v. e. & korolinska, s. v. (2006). analysis of socio-pedagogical foundations of the formation of needs in independent classes by physical culture at the students of the nfuu. pedahohika, psykholohiia ta medykobiolohichni problemy fizychnoho vykhovannia i sportu, (12), 93-96. kudelko, v. y. (2004). efficiency of organizational activity in the system of sports clubs. fizicheskoe vospitanie studentov tvorcheskikh spetsіalnostey, (3), 79-85. kudelko, v. y., shcherbina, z. i., & pavlenko, y. y. (2003). otsenka fizicheskogo sostoyaniya i fizicheskoy podgotovlennosti studentov (assessment of the physical condition and physical preparedness of students). russia: nfau, kharkov. lemeshko, b. y., & pomadin, s. s. (2002). correlation analysis of observations of multivariate random variables in the violation of assumptions of normality. sibirskiy zhurnal industrialnoy matematiki, 5(3), 115-130. mandelbrot, b. (2004). the (mis) behavior of markets: a fractal view of financial turbulence, hardcover. mardia, k., & zemroch, p. (1984). tablitsy fraspredeleniy i raspredeleniy (tables of fdistributions and distributions associated with them). moscow: svyazannykh s nimi, nauka. nayman, e. (2009). calculation of hurst’s index for the purpose of revealing the trend (persistence) of financial markets and macro-economic indicators. ekonomist, (10), 25-29. novikova, n. b. (2011). fractal methods and the concept of economically minimal production systems in innovation management. vestnik yurgtu (npi), (2), 162-166. peters, e. (1991). chaos and order in the capital markets. new york: john wiley. plowman, s. a., & smith, d. l. (2011). exercise physiology for health, fitness and performance. lippincott williams & wilkins. isbn 978-0 7817-8406-1. weerahandi, s. (1995). exact statistical methods for data analysis. new york: springer. grinko vitaliy an influence of aerobic activities on special endurance of students in groups with a sports orientation (sectional activities) of ping-pong 34 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 65 the analysis of item problems in high school mathematics textbook in indonesia (2016 revision edition) reviewed from the cognitive aspect of timss siti khodaria department of math education, universitas swadaya gunung djati, cirebon, indonesia e-mail: sitihakhoridah@gmail.com anggita maharani department of math education, universitas swadaya gunung djati, cirebon, indonesia e-mail: anggi3007@yahoo.co.id h. sulaiman department of math education, universitas swadaya gunung djati, cirebon, indonesia apa citation: khodaria, s., maharani, a., & sulaiman, h. (2019). the analysis of item problems in high school mathematics textbook in indonesia (2016 revision edition) reviewed from the cognitive aspect of timss. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 65-70. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1685. received: 23-12-2018 accepted: 20-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: this study aims to analyze the question items on two supplementary indonesian mathematics textbooks (revised edition 2016) of 2013 curriculum for xi graders and compare the analysis using 2015 timss assessment framework. this study apply qualitative study with naturalistic approach. the analysis results consist of 104 question items and 85 items of practice test. on a book published by pt. sewu bandung shows 3.5% of knowing cognitive domain, 4.71% applying, and 91.76% reasoning. the analysis on 19 items of practice test on a book is published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta. it shows 10.53% applying, 89.47% reasoning, but not showing a percentage on knowing cognitive domain. results of the question items analysis on knowing and applying cognitive domain for both the books are less percentage than reasoning cognitive domain. thus, the results of analysis of two textbooks are not yet in accordance with timss. nevertheless, the comparison of the analysis on knowing cognitive domain in a book published by pt. sewu bandung is close to what have expected by timss. meanwhile, on applying and reasoning cognitive domain the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta is close to what have expected by timss. keywords: cognitive aspects of timss; dimensions; domains; items; textbooks. introduction mathematics has a vital role in the world of education because all branches of science use it both in the scale of theory and in the implementation of daily life. in recent years, students' cognitive abilities have become a measuring tool to determine the level of educational progress of countries. as a result, the role of mathematics becomes essential. therefore, every country needs to evaluate its national education system to find out how far the success level that has been carried out. to evaluate the quality of education, since 1999 indonesia has participated in international research is organized by the trends international mathematics and science study (timss). timss is an international study of mathematics and science which researches every countries member (wardhani, 2014). the research is every four years for fourth and eighth-grade mailto:anggi3007@yahoo.co.id mailto:anggi3007@yahoo.co.id https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1685 siti khodaria, anggita maharani, & h. sulaiman the analysis of item problems in high school mathematics textbook in indonesia (2016 revision edition) reviewed from the cognitive aspect of timss 66 students. there are two dimension characteristics of timss, that is, content and cognitive. content is an assessment of the feasibility of the material presented both in textbooks and in the learning process. the cognitive is an assessment of students' thinking abilities which include three domains; knowing, applying, and reasoning. based on indonesia's participation in 2015's timss international study, the quality of education in indonesia is considered to be not optimal. indonesia student’s competence is still considered as weak (priyani & ekawati, 2018). of the 49 countries, indonesia was ranked 44th in mathematics achievement with an average score of 397 points from the international average of 500 points. indonesia's average score lags far behind neighbour countries, such as singapore, malaysia and thailand, which each score 611, 440 and 427 points. this result is not much different from indonesia's participation in previous years that presented in the following tables. table 1. indonesian participation results in timss tahun indonesia’s rank countries member average score indonesia international difference 1999 34 38 403 point 487 point 84 point 2003 35 46 411 point 467 point 56 point 2007 36 49 397 point 500 point 103 point 2011 38 42 386 point 500 point 114 point 2015 44 49 397 point 500 point 103 point based on the table above, the mathematics achievement of indonesian students is left behind and underdeveloped. the indonesian government's efforts in addressing this by improving the quality of education through the curriculum in the national education system which merged in the form of learning tools. textbooks as one element contain questions that important as a measuring tool to train students' cognitive level abilities. however, in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum revised edition of 2016, required textbooks for learning resources in schools both the teacher and students handle, in fact, until now it has not been distributed evenly by the government. so that the teacher in the learning process at school only uses commercial books from various kinds of publishers available in bookstores, while students use the student worksheet book and only rely on the explanations from the teacher in the learning process. thus, the mathematics textbooks used in schools have not been as appropriate. according to pepin in cahyono and adilah (2016), most teachers rely on the textbooks in the learning process, decide what to teach, how to teach, and only practice questions for students based on the textbooks they choose. so, the only source for learning is textbooks from the teacher even though there are many other sources. a textbook is essential and strategic to improve the quality of education concerning students' mathematical achievements at school. it is necessary to conduct a study of analysis or study of mathematics textbooks. the study not only focuses on the dimensions of content but also focused on the quality of the items that are following the cognitive dimensions of the timss assessment framework. method the research method used is the naturalistic method involving two reference books or two research data sources. the achievement of the cognitive aspects of timss was measured based on the items contained in the final evaluation form in the form of multiple choice questions in the conical section chapter covering circles, satellite dishes, ellipses, and hyperboles. data collection is carried out by observation with natural conditions derived from primary data. spradley’s stages were carried out in this study, namely the stages of description, indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 67 reduction, and selection. data analysis is carried out according to spradley’s stages namely domain, taxonomy, and compound analysis. objectivity of the findings is then analyzed through credibility tests (internal validity), transferability (external validity), dependability (reliability) and confirmability (objectivity). results and discussion mathematics textbook published by pt. sewu bandung has some questions on the conic section which is found in the final evaluation of the chapter/competency test in the form of objective (multiple choice) as many as 87 items. whereas in the mathematics textbook published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, the conic section questions are 25 items. as much as 104 of 112 total numbers of items have investigated. eight other items are not to analyse, because the questions had no answers, so they did not contain the cognitive aspects of timss. the results of domain analysis are in the following table. tabel 2. recapitulation of items based on timss cognitive domains publisher assessment framework timss 2015 total items knowing applying reasoning ∑ item % ∑ item % ∑ item % ∑ item % pt. sewu, bandung 3 3,53% 4 4,71% 78 91,76% 85 100% pt. bumi aksara, jakarta 0 0% 2 10,53% 17 89,47% 19 100% based on the table above, the book published by pt. sewu bandung, out of 85 items analyzed, resulting in three items or 3.53% for the knowing cognitive domain, four items or 4.71% for applying, and 78 items or 91.76% for reasoning. whereas in the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, of the 19 items analyzed there was no knowing cognitive domain, but produced two items or 10.53% for applying, and 17 items or 89.47% for reasoning. the results of the above domain analysis are presented more fully on the results of the taxonomic and compound analysis presented below. table 3. recapitulation of question items based on cognitive aspects of timss cognitive domain cognitive aspects publisher pt. sewu, bandung pt. bumi aksara, jakarta ∑ item % ∑ item % k n o w in g recall 0 0 recognize 0 0 compute 1 1,18% 0 retrieve 0 0 classify/order 2 2,35% 0 measure 0 0 a p p l y -i n g determine 0 0 represent/model 1 1,18% 0 implementation 3 3,53% 2 10,53% r e a so n in g analyze 0 0 integrated/synthesize 55 64,70% 13 68,42% evaluate 0 0 draw conclusions 12 14,12% 1 5,26% generalize 0 0 justify 11 12,94% 3 15,79% total 85 100% 19 100% based on the table above, the results of the analysis of the "knowing" domain in the book published by pt. sewu bandung contains cognitive aspects of "compute" one siti khodaria, anggita maharani, & h. sulaiman the analysis of item problems in high school mathematics textbook in indonesia (2016 revision edition) reviewed from the cognitive aspect of timss 68 item or 1.18%, and "classify/order" two items or 2.35%. for items in the "applying" domain, the cognitive aspects "represent/model" one item or 1.18%, and the "implementation" is three items or 3.53%. the items in the "reasoning" domain contain cognitive aspects of "integrated/synthesise" is 55 items or 64.70%, "draw conclusions" is 12 items or 14.12%, and "justify" is 11 items or 12.94%. furthermore, for the results of the analysis on "knowing" domain does not contain any cognitive aspects in the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta. for items in the "applying" domain, only the aspects of cognitive "implementation" as much as two items or 10.53%. the items in the "reasoning" domain contain cognitive aspects "integrated/synthesise" is13 items or 68.42%, one item of "draw conclusions" or 5.26% and "justify" is three items or 15.79%. the comparison results of the analysis of the items in the two mathematics textbooks with specialisation in high school class xi 2013 curriculum (revised edition 2016) are in the following table. table 4. comparative results from analysis of question items cognitive domain the expectation of timss 2015 analysis result difference close to timss a b a b knowing 35% 3,53% 0% −31,47% −35% a applying 40% 4,71% 10,53% −35,29% −29,47% b reasoning 25% 91,76% 89,47% 66,76% 64,47% b informati on: a= pt. sewu, bandung; b= pt. bumi aksara, jakarta. the difference between the results of the analysis of textbooks and timss, which obtained a lower percentage of the expectations of timss. the difference in the results of the analysis of textbooks and timss, which obtained a percentage higher than the expectations of timss. based on the table above, there is no single cognitive domain in the book, which corresponds to the timss achievement target. the results of the analysis of the two mathematics textbooks obtained scores of far percentages as expected by timss, so the mathematics curriculum in indonesia does not refer to timss. in "knowing" domain, the results of the analysis of books published by pt. sewu bandung reached 3.53% and 0% for the results of the analysis of books published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, while expected timss 35%, so that the difference of -31.47% for books published by pt. sewu bandung and -35% for books published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, where -35% <-31.47% <35%. in the "applying" domain, the results of the analysis of the book published by pt. sewu bandung reached 4.71% and the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta is 10.53%, while timss is expected to be 40% so that the difference of -35.29% for books published by pt. sewu bandung and 29.47% for books published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, where -35.29% <-29.47% <40%. in reasoning domain results from the analysis of books published by pt. sewu bandung reached 91.76% and the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta reaches 89.47%, while timss expected 25%, so the difference of 66.76% for books published by pt. sewu bandung and 64.47% for books published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta, where 25% <64.47% <66.76%. based on the difference in the analysis of the two books, the "knowing" domain of the book published by pt. sewu bandung is closer to what timss expected. whereas in the "applying" and "reasoning" domains, the results of the analysis from the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta is close to what timss expected. basic competence (bc) on cone slices material written in the syllabus at the level of sma/ma class xi 2013 curriculum (revised indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 69 edition 2016). bc 3.3 analyses cone slices (circles, ellipses, parabola, and hyperbole), and bc 4.3 complete problems related to cone slices. in the two bc, each contains indicators "analyzing" and "solving problems", which are in the cognitive dimension timss, that is, the "reasoning" domain. following the results of the analysis in this study, the percentage of cognitive "reasoning" domains was 91.76% for books published by pt. sewu bandung and 89.47% for books published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta. the results of the study are dominated by the percentage of cognitive "reasoning" domains so that they are not as expected by timss. several other studies at the junior high school level also produced the same conclusions, although the ministry of education and culture published the books analysed in the study. the results of the research from padmawati on class ix mathematics textbooks semester i and ii and research from in the first semester viii mathematics textbooks obtaining the "knowing" cognitive domain higher than expected timss meanwhile, "applying" and "reasoning" are lower than timss expected (padmawati, murtiyasa, & kom, 2017; cahyono & adilah, 2016). it is inversely proportional to the results of rohmah (rohmah & murtiyasa, 2017), which conducted research on junior high school mathematics national exam items in 2015/2016 and obtained "knowing" lower than expected timss, with higher "applying" and "reasoning" domains than expected timss. ideally, the result of cognitive aspects research of the items in the junior high school mathematics textbook published by the ministry of education and culture in the year of 2015 is following the results research of the 2015/2016 junior high school national exam items. the results indicate that the mathematics curriculum in indonesia has not referred to timss, so it is necessary to make adjustments. it is opposite the murtiyasa’s opinion that indonesia had renewed mathematics lessons in the 2013 curriculum by referring to timss(murtiyasa, 2015). according to the study(tatsuoka, corter, & tatsuoka, 2004), indonesian students ranked 18th out of 20 timss sample countries in setting the average standard for composite achievement variables. they obtained low scores on skills process, spatial, and reading. so the timss scores was ambiguous for them(meisenberg & woodley, 2013). it indicates that indonesian students are not accustomed to completing items with the characteristics of timss. according to yeom (mailizar, alafaleq, & fan, 2014), since the 1970s the policy of education has been changing in the context of the expansion of human resources for it national development purposes. in 2015, indonesia collaborated with the asian economic community (aec) with countries in southeast asia. hutabarat say that aec is a form of economic integration of the association of southeast asian nations (asean), whose goal is to produce a production-based market by 2020 with the free movement of services, goods, capital, investment and skilled labour in the southeast asia region(ariyanti, 2016). one of the most significant challenges related to the implementation of aec is human resource readiness(suratman, trisnawati, & wulandari, 2016). the aec opens both opportunities and challenges for educated indonesian workers to have work in asean countries. regarding work preparation, the teacher took the initiative to choose the subject matter in school based on students' needs in facing aec challenges (ariyanti, 2016). on this basis, it does not rule out the possibility that the curriculum in indonesia is designed to prepare indonesian workers in the face of aec. so it is appropriate if the implementation of the curriculum in indonesia does not pay attention and does not adjust as expected by timss international level research studies. although indonesia has participated in the timss international study from 1999 to the present and obtained the value of the conclusion that indonesian siti khodaria, anggita maharani, & h. sulaiman the analysis of item problems in high school mathematics textbook in indonesia (2016 revision edition) reviewed from the cognitive aspect of timss 70 students' mathematics achievements are lagging behind and underdeveloped. conclusion the percentage of achievement of the items problem in the two high school (sma/ma) mathematics textbooks in class xi 2013 curriculum (revised edition 2016) is not following the expected timss 2015 assessment framework. from the results of the analysis of the items in the two textbooks, there is no cognitive domain obtained in the book, which is following the target percentage of timss. the results of the analysis are far-reaching percentage values as expected by timss. consequently, the curriculum applied in indonesia does not refer to timss international studies but is designed to prepare indonesian workers in facing aec. the results of the comparison of the analysis of the items in the two mathematics textbooks show that the "knowing" domain in the book published by pt. sewu bandung is closer to what timss expected. whereas in the "applying" and "reasoning" domains, the results of the analysis from the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta is close to what timss expected. so in this case, the book published by pt. bumi aksara jakarta contains closer quality items like those expected by timss international studies. badan standar nasional pendidikan (bsnp) as the government representative in assessing the feasibility of a book should consider the quality of the items problem in the mathematics textbooks. the items are assessed based on the cognitive aspects of the international research. the bsnp needs to improve the curriculum by collaborating with international research institutions (related to the implementation of mathematics learning). they involvement are to increase the mathematics ratings of indonesian students in the timss research study. references ariyanti, r. (2016). exploring opportunities and challenges in incorporating sociocultural issues into elt in a vocational high school in salatiga (unpublished thesis). universitas kristen satya wacana, salatiga. cahyono, b., & adilah, n. (2016). analisis soal dalam buku siswa matematika kurikulum 2013 kelas viii semester i berdasarkan dimensi kognitif dari timss. jrpm (jurnal review pembelajaran matematika), 1(1), 86–98. mailizar, m., alafaleq, m., & fan, l. (2014). a historical overview of mathematics curriculum reform and development in modern indonesia. inovacije u nastavi-časopis za savremenu nastavu, 27(3), 58–68. meisenberg, g., & woodley, m. a. (2013). are cognitive differences between countries diminishing? evidence from timss and pisa. intelligence, 41(6), 808–816. murtiyasa, b. (2015). tantangan pembelajaran matematika era global. prosiding seminar nasional matematika dan pendidikan matematika universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. padmawati, a., a., murtiyasa, b., & kom, m. (2017). analisis deskriptif butir soal pada buku ajar matematika kelas ix kurikulum 2013 ditinjau dari aspek kognitif timss (unpublished paper). universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, surakarta. priyani, h. a., & ekawati, r. (2018). error analysis of mathematical problems on timss: a case of indonesian secondary students. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 296, 12-10. rohmah, i. f. z., & murtiyasa, b. (2017). pemetaan aspek kognitif trends internasional mathematics and science study pada ujian nasional matematika smp 2015/2016. universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, surakarta. suratman, b., trisnawati, n., & wulandari, s. s. (2016). revolusi mental dan kurikulum pendidikan ekonomi dalam menghadapi mea. prosiding seminar nasional himpunan sarjana ilmu-ilmu sosial, 1, 124–131. tatsuoka, k. k., corter, j. e., & tatsuoka, c. (2004). patterns of diagnosed mathematical content and process skills in timss-r across a sample of 20 countries. american educational research journal, 41(4), 901–926. wardhani, s. (2014). rumiati 2011 instrumen penilaian hasil belajar matematika smp: belajar dari pisa dan timss. kementerian pendidikan nasional. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance anna fitri hindriana department of biological education, postgraduate studies, universitas kuningan, indonesia email: anna@uniku.ac.id ina setiawati department of biological education, postgraduate studies, universitas kuningan, indonesia apa citation: hindriana, a. f., & setiawati, i. (2018). the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(1), 21-28. received: 10-02-2018 accepted: 26-03-2018 published: 01-04-2018 abstract: learning achievement that is currently being assessed, generally focusing only on cognitive domain, this is surely contradicted to the term of assessment that should be done in accordance with learning achievement stated in curriculum. authentic assessment needs right instrument to assess learning achievement. one of the instruments needed is assessment rubric. the rubric that has been used does not have the same standard, which is not accordance with the principals of assessment. based on that study, the assessment rubric is developed, consisting four components; job description, scale, dimension, and dimension description. the data was descriptively analyzed. analysis of suitability of developed rubric was empirically tested to 98 students. the result showed validity of rubric using factor analysis is between 0.29 – 0.96, the reliability judgement using cronbach alfa coefficient is 0.85 for argumentation skill and presentation skill, and 0.86 for problem solving skill and journal analysis. keywords: authentic; rubric; validity; reliability. introduction learning achievement generally is focused only on cognitive domain, and knowledge dimension. the lecturers still have limitation in measuring procedural and metacognitive knowledge dimension. this is because the authentic assessment rubric is needed to assess procedural and metacognitive dimension. the same thing goes in assessing attitude and skill, the ones that is assessing is while the process of achieving the result still often being neglected. this certainly is contradictory with the assessment that supposed to be done by lecturers where the characteristics of assesement based on stiggins (1994) goes along with the teaching process, stressing on assessing learning process and result, the lecturers should take students’ side in developing potention on knowledge aspects, attitude, and skill, and related to learning achievement that is stated in curriculum. nowadays, there is a tendency of people to think that assessment that is done on students suppose to be able to give holistics information about the students. when a students is said to be successful in his learning achievement, then the achievement is supposed to be measured by a measurement that is accordance with the objective or competence that need to be achieved. on the other hand, the information collected from assesement should be comprehensive and has been done in everytime during and after the students learn. this means the measurement should be done along with the learning process done by students. this is supported by government regulation that university should publish a letter of supporting certificate besides academic transkript at the graduation. based on permendikbud no. 81 year 2014, skpi is a document which contains information about anna fitri hindriana & ina setiawati the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance 22 academic achievement or basic qualification of tittling high education graduation.\it is also used as ‘students track record’. thus, all activities in learning and teaching process can be described by using skpi. the track record that describes students’ competencies is defined as product, skill, and attitude that are reflected in daily life. the product covers a set of facts, concepts, theory, law, principal and procedure. skill covers thinking skill, psikomotor skill, social skill (interpersonal skill), process skill (experiment skill, and teaching strategy), and also lifelearner skill and life skill. attitude covers good nature, ethics, and faith to god almighty. the said learning objective that will be achieved by students is in accordance with universal learning objective by unesco that is “learning to be, learning to know, learning to do, and learning to live together”. assessment method in quite a long time has been dominated by one test model that is paper and pencil test, which measures student cognitive skill on factual information or basic process skill. nowadays the demand in developing active role of students in learning has been rapidly developed, it covers the extent of material and the integrated learning objective, for example when the lecturer teach on material that is actually a foundation to solve problem. the objectives are also covering speaking skill, writing skill, reading skill, critical thinking skill, reasoning skill, and as far as possible related to real world. method this study develops authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance that has been done at biology education study program, fkip in private university in kuningan with good accreditation rate. the subjects of this study were 97 students in semester iii and v during academic year of 2016-2017. this study used research method and educational development (borg & gall, 2003) with these following stages: stage 1: introduction study literature study literature study involves studying former researches that have relevancy with development of authentic assessment rubric. since the basic of development of authentic assessment rubric process needs a strategy that can facilitate students in developing their potential according their decided learning objective. in other the other hand, it is important to study about the pattern of development of authentic assessment rubric, because in assessing students’ performance and learning achievement it is needed to gather information as much and as accurate as possible so the lecturer can be responsible about the decision they make related to students’ performance and learning achievement. field study field study is a study activity that is descriptive, that aims to gather information related to theapplication of authentic assessment in a study program, the hardship from lecturer in doing authentic assessment, the result of authentic assessment rubric they had been done by lecturers, and the result of students’ performance and learning achievement assessed by lecturers. stage 2: designing designing authentic assessmentrubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance based on the analysis on gathered information, the researchers designed the authentic assessment rubric. on the preparation stage of designing authentic assessment rubric, the research started it by deciding the aims, and components needed to be in the rubric, that is actually developed from the previous prestudy. the components in authentic assessment design that are being developed including: 1) making requirement on how the authentic assessment rubric can be designed; 2) deciding on authentic assessment that can develop students’ potential in hard skill and soft skill; 3) making indicator of the development of authentic assessment rubric that needed in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domain; 4) deciding strategy of development of authentic assessment rubric on its application in the class. validation on the authentic assessment rubric design was done by expert judgement and practitioners. the validation studied about the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 compatibility of job description, scale, dimension, and description of the dimensions for assessing students’ performance in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domain. furthermore, the validation includes the use of good indonesian language, the terms, the clarity, and the right way of the used language. making research instrument research instrument was made to evaluate effectivity of the developed rubric. the instruments cover the likert scale questionnaire to gather information from lectures in implementing the developed rubric, observation to test the effectivity of developed rubric, and students’ respond questionnaire to gather information about students’ respond of the developed rubric. before the research instrument is used, the instrument was first being validated by expertise. the study for semester ii is divided into two stages: stage 3: development the development stage is a validation stage in the field on the authentic assessment rubric and the research instrument. validation was done three times: trial i, validation was done to analyse rubric accuracy in assessing performance and learning achievement of the students. the students’ performance and learning achievement involved were the performance in learning process that possibly develops students’ potential in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domain. trial ii, validation was done to analyse the effectivity of authentic assessment rubric in training students’ hard skill and soft skill based on outcome number 6 on kkni curriculum. stage 4: implementation implementation program was done through survey and observation in class that implementing student centred learning. the implementation was begun by implementing authentic assessment rubric then analysing the ongoing assessment on students, and doing research in time series to observe the development of students’ potential along with the use of authentic assessment rubric. the aim of using this design is to test the developed rubric validity conceptual rubric that was empirically obtained. results and discussion validity and reliability of argumentation and presentation skill rubric validity test using kmo and bartlett’s test and pearson correlation is described below: table 1. result of validity test onthe rubric using kmo and bartlett's test component 1 2 ar .936 .178 ps .879 -.281 pj .857 -.010 pb .831 -.108 pjp .858 .209 pm .685 .579 pd -.522 .762 based on table 1, by analyzing the matrix component it shows that the whole items involving ar, ps, pj, pb, pjp, pm and pd have big loading factor which is above 0.50. thus, it can be proven that the 5 items are valid. table 2. result of validity test of component matrixusing pearson correlation component indicator 1 2 ar .936 .178 ps .879 -.281 pj .857 -.010 pb .831 -.108 pjp .858 .209 pm .685 .579 pd -.522 .762 anna fitri hindriana & ina setiawati the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance 24 based on table 2, the result of factor analysis on variable in argumentation and presentation skill rubric obtaining loading factor value and each indicator in the table on component matrix column 1 shows that the value of loading factor > 0.5, thus it can be concluded that ar, ps, pj, pb, pjp, and pm are the valid indicators on presentation skill variable, beside the pd factor that is stated as not valid. reliability test on the argumentation and presentation skill rubric is developed using cronbach alpha: reliability is stated as adequate when the coefficient of alpha cronbach is greater than or equal to 0.70. meanwhile the result of the test shows that the coefficient of alpha cronbach is 0.853. thus, it can be concluded that the variable of argumentation and presentation skill are stated as valid. table 3. reliability of argumentation and presentation skill validity and reliability of problem solving and journal analysis skill rubric validity test using mko and bartlett’s test and pearson correlation is described in table 4. as it can be seen in table 4, by analysing the component matrix, item of validity involving im, kt, am, and hp have big loading factor which are above 0.50. thus, it can be proven that four items are valid, while kmm has low validity which is 0.293 (0.293 < 0.50). table 4. result of validity test onthe rubric using kmo and bartlett's test table 5. result of validity test of component matrix using pearson correlation based on table 5 the output of factor analysis above on variable in data 2, it is obtained the loading factor value and each indicator in the table on component matrix in column 1 shows loading factor > 0.5. thus it can be concluded that im, kt, am, and hp are the indicators in variable data 2 that stated as valid. while kkm is stated as less valid. reliability test on developed problem solving and journal analysis skill rubric using cronbach's alpha is described as below: table 6. reliability of problem solving and journal analysis skill reliability is stated as adequate when the coefficient of alpha cronbach is greater than or equal to 0.70. meanwhile the result of the test shows that the coefficient of alpha cronbach is 0.856. thus, it can be concluded that the variable of problem solving and cronbach's alpha n of items .853 7 component 1 2 im .962 -.195 kt .962 -.195 am .964 -.073 hp .871 .195 kmm .293 .942 component indicator 1 2 im .965 -.192 kt .965 -.192 am .965 -.051 hp .870 .247 kmm .213 .962 cronbach's alpha n of items .856 5 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 journal analysis skill in this rubric are stated as valid. assessing learning process is like two facedcoin that cannot be separated from each other, the learning process is said as wellrunning when students can be appreciated based on their performance. the implementation of authentic assessment in class has consequences to develop assessment rubric, this is related with authentic assessment principal which is stated that performance assessment is a test involves actual demonstration of knowledge and skill in real life (feuer & fulton, 1992; hambleton, 1996; in slavin, 2000). based on arends (2001) performance assessment is a test that demands the students to demonstrate their performance on specific task, for example: writing essay, doing experiment, solving problem, etc. meanwhile depdiknas (2000) authentic assessment is a test used for practical activity related to certain competence, for example laboratory practicum. based on stiggins (1994), authentic assessment involves students in activities to show certain skills or create specific product. fuchs (viyanti, 2009) moreover stated that performance assessment could rectify learning process, because performance assessment helps educators to make decisions based on going learning process. based on the statement above, it is clear that students’ performance must be in accordance with the assessment. because of that, developing the rubric could improve learning process. the rubric is used to comprehensively assess the quality of students’ performance. the rubric also enables students to assess their own performance, in self-assessment session, after finishing some products or doing some performances by referred assessment tool. students can decide on how their performancesare scored in quality continuum. the developed rubric in this study consists of rubric for presentation skill, argumentation skill, problem solving skill, and journal analysis skill. these four skills are needed to improve 1) high order thinking skill, 2) material organizing skill to make logic representation, 3) reasoning skill, 4) presentation skill, 5) cooperation skill, 6) specific knowledge skill, 6) attitude. rubric of presentation skill consists of five dimensions; knowledge, way of thinking, communication, use of media, and attitude when doing presentation. the measurement of knowledge dimension aims to analyse students’ concept mastery and relate it with facts and data that they had contextually gathered, thus knowledge dimension can measure high order thinking skill and reasoning skill because students need to elaborate their knowledge with facts and data and making conclusion. elaboration skill is one of the aspects in critical thinking that stated by norris ennis (fahim & eslamdoost, 2004). the second dimension is way of thinking that aims to analyse students’ argumentation and theory that support the argument. way of thinking dimension can measure students’ high order thinking skill and way of organizing material into logic representation. this is because by way of thinking, the lecturer can analyse on how students’ express their arguments in which argumentation needs decision making skill that comes from alignment of information they have gathered and support it with theory that they have learned or are learning. decision making is one of dimension from high order thinking skill (ahmed & omotunde 2012). besides, students must arrange their verbal argument so it is systematic and easy to understand to make it logically acceptable. the third dimension is communication skill that aims to analyse on how students delivering their ideas, this communication skill can measure presentation skill, cooperation skill, and specific knowledge skill. this is because when students communicate, we can analyse how they present their result and deliver their ideas with supporting theory, fact, and data so it produces an idea that is acceptable and gives accurate information for other students. communication skill also can show cooperation skill, because when they communicate it can be seen on how they interact with the group and express idea and opinion with respect to their group mates’ knowledge and feeling. anna fitri hindriana & ina setiawati the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance 26 the fourth dimension is the use of media, this dimension can show students’ skill in organizing material into logic representation. when using media, students are needed to express their ideas with varied representations that can be understood by other students. the use of media demands students to translate verbal representation into pictorial, graphical, and audio-visual representation. the fifth dimension is presentation skill that shows students’ skill in improving their attitude. dimension of presentation can facilitate lecturer to assess how students deliver their ideas in clear and loud voice so it can be well heard, right intonation, with eye contact, and interesting gesture to attract attention. the attitude is needed to train students to do presentation in class when they become teacher in the future. the rubric that is being developed in this study was empirically and theoretically validated. theoretic validation was done by two lecturers from biology education, while the empiric validation was based on test on biology education students in fifth semester. the result of theoretic validation shows that the rubric is adequate to be used for assessing students’ performance and also precisely and accurately discriminating students’ skill. thus, the rubric was accordance with the statement from allen (2011), kaba and sengil (2016), furze, j, et al. (2015) that a good rubric can make assessing process easier and faster and produce assessing result that is more accurate, unbiased, and consistent. these impression were perceived by the lecturers that used the rubric, because students can do on going selfassessment and measure their own skill by setting eyes on the scale they achieved, on the other hand students can compare their own skill with their peers. the result of empiric validation covers the result of construct validity analyzation from the developed instrument which shows the loading factor out of 12 indicators, 11 indicators have correlation coefficient > 0.3 means that 11 indicators from the developed rubric have high validity. the reliability test of instrument that was measured usingalpha cronbach shows reliability> 0.5 means that the whole developed instrument has high reliability value. validation of argumentation skill shows high validity means that four argumentation dimension are adequate to measure students’ skill when delivering opinion with supporting facts, data, and theory to strengthen their argument. meanwhile, validation of presentation skill has five aspects highly valid and one aspect invalid. table 7. validity on argumentation and presentation skill 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 ar ps pj pb pp pm pd indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 based on table 7, the validity of argumentation (ar) shows the highest validity meanwhile out of six dimensions for presentation skill show high validity except one dimension which is presentation time (pd) that valued smaller than 0.5 and stated as low validity. this is caused by the good time management by all students during presentation with decided time allocation. the reliability for argumentation and presentation skill shows high validity with value 0.853, this means the rubric for argumentation and presentation skill has high constancy. validity of problem solving skill has high validity value, means the four dimensions that have been decided prior are able to measure high order thinking skill. high order thinking skill in this study is started by how students understand a problem from material that they learn, henceforth they identify the problem through proof finding in form of facts and data and relate them with theory that they discuss. the next step is making alternative solution in solving problem and choosing the alternative solution based on the chance to implement the strategy from solution and also to have the lowest risk to gain new problem. meanwhile, validity of journal analysis skill has high validity which can be seen on the following table. table 8. validity on journal analysis and problem solving skill 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 im kt am hp kmm the validity of journal analysis skill consists of four dimensions, which are problem identification (im), basic theory (kt), method analysis (am), and result from the research (hp), and all of dimension were stated as valid means each of the four dimension supports journal analysis skill. students are able to analyse the result from research or finding when they are able to do identify a problem, study the relevance theory and analyse a method from one research journal. this statement is in accordance with statement from hindriana (2016) who stated that complex thinking is a thinking pattern that constructed based on the result of assimilation and accommodation so that it can achieve balance and in the end constructs stabile cognitive structure. the reliability test for journal analysis and problem solving skill shows high reliability with value of 0.856, this means the rubric of journal analysis and problem solving skill has high constancy. conclusion based on the study, the assessment rubric is developed, consisting four components; job description, scale, dimension, and dimension description. the data was descriptively analyzed. analysis of suitability of developed rubric was empirically tested to 98 students. finally, the result showed validity of rubric using factor analysis is between 0.29 – 0.96, the reliability judgement using cronbach alfa coefficient is 0.85 for argumentation skill and presentation skill, and 0.86 for problem solving skill and journal analysis. anna fitri hindriana & ina setiawati the development of authentic assessment rubric for assessing undergraduate students’ learning and performance 28 references ahmed, m. t., & omotunde, h, (2012). theories and strategies of good decision making. international journal of scientific & technology research, 7(1) 51-54. arends, r. i, (2001), learning to teach (5th ed.). singapore: mcgraw-hill book co. fahim, m., & eslamdoost, s. (2014). critical thinking: frameworks and models for teaching. english language teaching, 7(7), 141-151. furze, j., gale, r. j., black, l., cochran, m., & jansen, m. g. (2015). clinical reasoning: development of a grading rubric for student assessment. journal of physical therapy education, 29(3), 34-45. hindriana, a. f. (2016). penurunan beban kognitif untuk meningkatkan kemampuan analisis konseptual. proceeding seminar pgsd. universitas kuningan. kaba, y., & şengül, s. (2016). developing the rubric for evaluating problem posing (repp). international online journal of educational sciences, 8(1), 8-25. stiggins, r. j. (1994). student-centered classroom assessment. new york: merrue an imprint of macmillan college publishing co. slavin, r. g. (2000). educational psychology: theory and practice (6th ed.). boston: allyn and bacon. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 teacher’s correction strategies on students’ errors in efl speaking class leni nuraeni department of english education, faculty of teachers training and education university of kuningan, indonesia e-mail: leninuraeni785@gmail.com fahrus zaman fadhly department of english education, faculty of teachers training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: fahruszf@gmail.com apa citation: nuraeni, l., & fadhly, f. z. (2018). teacher’s correction strategies on students’ errors in efl speaking class. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(2), 3944. received: 22-06-2018 accepted: 26-08-2018 published: 01-10-2018 abstract: this study is aimed at identifying the types of students’ errors made in efl speaking class and what the kind of teacher’s correction this study used descriptive qualitative method and the informants of this research was the efl students at second semester at the department of english education, universitas kuningan. techniques of collecting data used in this study were observation, questionnaire, and interview. ellis’s theory used to classify the teacher’s correction strategy used and arias’s theory used to classify the students’ errors type in efl speaking class. the findings showed that there are five types of errors that made by the students, they are pronunciation, grammatical, lexical, semantic, and pragmatic. pronunciation error was the most frequent error made by the students. while, there were strategies used by the teacher in correcting students’ errors, they were recast, repetition, explicit correction, elicitation, and clarification request. recast strategy was used by teacher as a frequent strategy. keywords: teacher’s correction strategy; students’ errors type; efl speaking class. introduction many students feel that there are some difficulties in learning speaking skill and most of them doing error(s) in their speaking. it is no surprise that students make a lot of errors in the process of acquiring the new language (tomkova, 2013). children learning their first language (l1), adult native speakers, second language learners, even the english as foreign language (efl) students, they all make the errors (lopez et all, 1999, p. 168). in several studies, like in the tomczyk’s study (2013), as regard the types of errors, out of three main sorts of errors (grammatical, pronunciation and lexical ones), grammatical and pronunciation errors tend to be the most important. it is also claimed in coskun’s (2010) study that the grammatical and phonological error are the most frequent error that appear in efl speaking class. there are some possibilities that efl students in speaking class made the error. so this study aims to identify what the error type that usually appear in efl speaking class in universitas kuningan. in fact, the teacher still let the students keep the error and do not correct the error at all. so, in every research related to corrective feedback on students’ error, it always raises the issue that error should be corrected. many students that made the error and it can make misunderstanding even speaker-listener miscommunication including pronunciation error. pronunciation is the “foundation of speaking english” (akram & qureshi, 2012, p. 43). pronunciation is one of the important aspect leni nuraeni & fahrus zaman fadhly teacher’s correction strategies on students’ errors in efl speaking class 40 to make someone understand what the speaker say. so, the “pronunciation should be accurate enough and should enable the students to communicate in efficient way” (akram & qureshi, 2012, p. 43). furthermore, arias (2004, p. 176) states that in the teaching learning process, especially in speaking class, the teachers are daily faced with the problem of whether to threat errors or not. error correction by teacher on students’ error is the importance activities in the teaching learning process during the past decade. no teacher can deny the fact that correcting the errors made by students when they speak or write is one of the most difficult tasks in language acquisition (amara, 2015). in fact, it can be possible that the teacher will not be successful in giving treatment on the students’ errors. as arias (2004, p. 175) states that “teachers often fail to help their students notice and correct their errors simply because they lack the necessary understanding of error treatment”. as the error as the natural phenomenon in the teaching learning process, so the teacher have to give feedback of that errors. punishing the error has always occurred along with teaching and learning processes and has always been used as an instrument of power and a teaching strategy (lopez et al, 1999, p. 169). in teaching learning process, the teacher have a role in helping the students to avoid the error, as lopez et al (1999, p. 172) noticed that the teacher’s role is to help the students become conscious of their errors and give them incentive to try and find for themselves why they have made the error and how they could avoid repeating it. in reaction to that, the teacher have to provide the students with some kind of feedback because, as ustaci (2014, p. 29) states all learners need their teachers’ help in correction process. giving a correction feedback on student’s error is an important role for the teacher in the teaching learning process especially in the speaking case. but teachers have to decide what strategy that will be used in correcting the students’ errors to offer the opportunity for student to perceive the mismatches between their language production and the target discourse form, potentially to reformulate their language outcomes (chatupote, 2014). as according to ellis (2009, p. 3), feedback is seen as contributing to language learning. besides, there are some controversies related to giving feedback to the students error that has been viewed in sla and language pedagogy, these controversies address which errors should be corrected, who should do the correcting (the teacher or the learners him/herself), which type of corrective feedback is the most effective, and what is the best timing for corrective feedback (immediate or delayed) (ellis, 2009, p. 3). based on the explanation above, this study focused to identifiy the error that is made by the students in the speaking class and endorse the correction strategy used to give the feedback on students’ errors in the efl speaking class. method this research used descriptive qualitative method. qualitative research method is chosen in order to explore and understand the social phenomenon (creswell, 2009). this research was carried out in the department of english education, faculty of teacher’s training and education, universitas kuningan. the participants of this research were the teacher and the learners. it consists of one teacher and the learners who was taken from two classes (a and b class) which consists of 23 students of each class at the second semester on the first grade in the academic year 2014/2015. according to creswell (2009, p. 164), qualitative researchers collect data themselves through examining documents, observing behavior, or interviewing participants. naturalistic observation is used in this study. fraenkel and wallen (2009, p. 442) argue that “naturalistic observation means observing individuals in their natural settings, simply observes and record what indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 happens as things naturally occur”. observation involves the collection of data without manipulating it (bloomer, 1998, p. 186). the following step to collect the data was questionnaire as one of the technique to collect the data. questionnaire used to gather the data about what participant usually do, what participant opinion and what the participant feel about the correction process in speaking error. as taylor (1998, p. 2) stated that a questionnaire can help you obtain information about what people do, what they have, what they think, know, feel, or want. this questionnaire use close-ended questions with the students as the respondents. in order to triangulate the data, in this research also used interview to know what the teacher applied in the process correcting the students’ errors in the speaking class. as stated by fraenkel and wallen (2009, p. 446), the purpose of interviewing people is to find what is on their mind-what they think or how they feel about something. results and discussion based on the data collected, it was found that there were five types of students’ errors corrected by the teacher in efl speaking class. they were pronunciation error, grammatical error, lexical error, semantic error, and semantics error. the most frequently students’ error made in efl speaking class was pronunciation error with the frequency is 33 or it can reached 72%. ellis (2009) noticed that an error takes place as a result of lack of knowledge (i.e. it represents a gap in competence). in other word, errors are produced of lack of misinterpretation of student in developing their knowledge or inadequate teaching and learning. pronunciation errors was the most frequent error made by the students in efl speaking class. it indicates that the pronunciation was one of the difficult aspect in speaking, because when the students make the error it was possible that the communication will not going well and the message of the speaker will not be conveyed. as akram and qureshi (2012, p. 43) stated that the “pronunciation should be accurate enough to be clearly understood and it should enable the students to communicate in an efficient way to be intelligible”. furthermore, this study found that there are five of six types of strategy used by the teacher in correcting the students’ errors in efl speaking class. those were recast, elicitation, repetition, clarification request, and explicit correction. the most frequently correction strategy used for correcting the students’ errors were recast strategy which reached the percentage 37%. recast strategy is the most frequent strategy used by the teacher in correcting the students’ errors. this probably indicates that the teacher wants the students to realize the error first or the teacher implicitly direct that the teacher implicitly direct the student to self-correct. since, in giving correction on students’ errors, the teacher immediately reformulate part of the error students’ utterance and replaced with the correct one, so the students will realize that there are something error in their utterance and doing the self-correct or the teacher give the other students to give correction (peer correction) . according to ellis (2009) recast strategy is a strategy that the corrector, in this case is teacher, incorporates the content words of the immediately preceding incorrect utterance and changes and correct the utterance. besides that, there are some controversies related to giving feedback to the students error that has been viewed in sla and language pedagogy, these controversies address which errors should be corrected, who should do the correcting (the teacher or the learners him/herself), which type of corrective feedback is the most effective, and what is the best timing for corrective feedback (immediate or delayed) (ellis, 2009). first, relating to the controversy about error should be corrected, in the students’ questionnaire result, about 91% or 42 of the respondent response that the teacher almost leni nuraeni & fahrus zaman fadhly teacher’s correction strategies on students’ errors in efl speaking class 42 always do correction when there are some errors happened in the students’ speaking, while just about 9% or 4 of the respondent response that the teacher does not give correction when his/her students made an error. also, based on the interview result, some of the respondents argued that the error should be corrected. it indicates that giving correction on the students’ error is important in order to develop the communicative skill and the learners’ performance. as sarosdy et al (2006, p. 121) states that the purpose of giving feedback is to improve learners’ performance, it provides constructive advice, and guidance to the learners in their effort to raise their performance levels. here are the part of the interview about the students should be corrected as follow. r : should the error be corrected? s#2 : of course, it should be corrected). because, if we let the error, even speaking is for communicating, if there is wrong of pronunciation, it will make understand. there is no synchronization between a and b for example. afterwards, with respect of the timing of error correction, the result shows that the teacher immediately gives correction to the students’ errors, that’s about 37% of the students’ response. it might indicates that the teacher have found the same problem that many students doing in speaking so the teacher considered to correct the students’ error immediately because as arias (2004, p. 178) states that the time to treat immediately is when the student make an error and it is type of error that many students are having problem with. based on such respondents in interview, they argued that the teacher usually give immediate correction, because they argued that it is effective for remembering the student about error that have been corrected. r : do the correction immediate or delay? it might be immediate, right? the teacher do not delay until the end of learning activity? s#6 : no, at the end of the students’ talking so the teacher give immediate correction, while the teacher delay the correction, but not at the end of the learning activity. in my point of view, that was effective, because when the teacher correct immediately when the student made the pronunciation error for example, so the students’ concentration in speaking will be cut, so the student will not focus on the content of what will be said. so the teacher should correct the error till the student end the talking. furthermore, in respect for who should correct the error, it related to the teacher’s correction technique. there are three options that were served for the students, those are teacher immediately corrects the student error (teacher correction), teacher engage the students to correct my own error (selfcorrection), and teacher ask the other student to correct my error (peer-correction).the result shows that there are 69 % of the respondent argued that the teacher immediately used his/her own correction on students’ errors (teacher’s correction), 10 or 22% of the respondents argue that teacher engage the students to correct their own error, and 4 or 9% of respondents argue that teacher ask the other student to correct student’s error. the most frequently technique used by the teacher was teacher correction, it possibly indicated that the student do not realize which they made an error or no and they might prefer their teacher to correct their error because of the teacher more understand what the teacher have to do on the student’s errors. as mendez (2010, p. 246) believes that the person to correct the errors is the teacher that knows the problem and the solution when the students make an error in their speaking. then, when the students made errors in their speaking, it can be relate with the source of its error made. the result shows indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 that the common source of error that affect type student made an error is intralingual transfer (70%), it probably occurs because the students do not master the english yet and the lack of the understanding of english. as brown (2000, p.225) states that as the learners progress in the second language, their previous experience and their subsumers begin to include structures within the target language itself. the while the least common source is the context of learning (6%). it probably occurs because the unsatisfactory the teaching learning process either in the teaching method or the course book that used by the teacher in delivering the material. so, the students often misinterpret what the students get from the teacher explained in the teaching learning process. besides that, in the correction activity, there are some reactions of the students like the students admit the error and correct by themselves, just continue talking. the result shows about 61% the most frequently reaction of the students when they realize that they carried out the speaking errors, the students usually admit the error, think about the error and correct them by themselves and continue talking. it probably indicates that the student want to improve their communication skill by trying to self-correct when they made an error. as tomkova (2013, p. 62) states with self-correction, the students can produce their own language and can repair their own communication breakdowns. later, the frequency of the students made an error in their speaking or it related into how often the students made the error in their speaking. there are four possibilities, those are more often, less often, always, and never do the error in their speaking. based on the result of the students’ response, there are 48 % of the respondents that more often do the error in their speaking. it probably indicates the lack of the students’ knowledge about english speaking that can be caused by the source of the students’ error, like mother tongue interference, lack of the second language understanding, and unsatisfactory teaching method and the course book used. as the brown (2000, p. 223) categorized that there are three source of errors, interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, and context of learning. the last, the frequency of the teacher’s correction or how often the teacher have to correct the students’ error. the frequency of the teacher’s correction can be related with the timing of the teachers’ correction. based on the students’ response, there are 85% of the respondents argue that the teacher always gives the correction if that is possible, 7% argue that the teacher gives correction only in the accuracy activities, 6% argue the teacher gives correction only in the fluency activities, and then 2% argue that the teacher never give correction when the students made an error. 85% respondents argued that the teacher always give the correction if that is possible. it might indicates that the teacher realizes that error correction is one of the important things in the teaching learning process. conclusion there are some types of error made by the students in the speaking class at the 2nd semester of universitas kuningan, such as pronunciation error, grammatical error, lexical error, grammatical error, and semantic error. after classifying the error made by the student, it can be known that the most frequently type of error in efl speaking class is pronunciation error, is 72 % or 33 of the respondents made an error. the strategy most frequently used by the teacher in correcting the students’ error is recast strategy which the teacher implicitly reformulates the students’ error, or provides the correction without directly pointing out that my utterance was incorrect. students’ error should be corrected to avoid the student made the error continually in the teaching learning process and to avoid misunderstanding even miscommunication in delivering the message when speaking. either the pronunciation error that is the most frequently type of error made, or grammatical error even lexical error can leni nuraeni & fahrus zaman fadhly teacher’s correction strategies on students’ errors in efl speaking class 44 make draw the underlying competence of the students’ in the productive skill, namely speaking. the teacher’s role is very important for giving the correction on students’ errors, especially in the efl speaking class with providing the strategy of correction with remembering the student about the error and let the students try to correct their own errors. the teacher usually give the correction immediately after the student end their speaking. later, a number of the students argued that the source of the students error is caused by the students do not master yet the knowledge about speaking english. references akram, m. qureshi, a. b. (2012). problem in learning and teaching english pronunciation in pakistan. int. j. of res. in linguistics and lexicography: intjr-ll, 1 (4), 43-48. amara, n. (2015). error correction in foreign language acquisition, the online journal of new horizons in education 5(3), 58-68. arias, i. j. (2004). treating the student’s error in oral production. journal of universidad nacional, 36, 175-188. bloomer, a. (1998). project in linguistics. london: arnold. brown, h.d. (2000). principles of language teaching learning. fourth edition. new york: addison wesley longman, inc. chatupote, m. & zhang, s. (2014). feedback used in classroom with native english and non-native english teacher. international journal of english language education, 2(1), 241-258. coskun, a. (2013). a classroom research study on oral error correction., turkey: abant izzet baysal university creswell, j. w. (2009). research design, qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. third edition. usa: sage publication inc. ellis, r. (2009). corrective feedback and teacher development. l2 journal, 1 (1), 3-18. retrieved march, 1, 2015 from http,//scholarship.org/uc/item/2504d6w3. fraenkel, j. r. &, wallen, n.e. (2009). how to design and evaluate in education. 7th edition. new york: mc grawhill. lopez, m.j.c., maicusi, p., & maicusi, t. (1999). the error in the second language acquisition, encuentro revista de investigacion e innovacion en la clase de idiomas, 11, 168173. mendez, e., crus, r. & loyo, g. (2010). oral corrective feedback by efl teachers at universidad de quintana roo. fel internacional, 240-253. retrieved march, 7, 2015 from http,//fel.uqroo.mx/adminfile/files/memorias/her nandez_mendez_edith_et_al_2.pdf. sarosdy, et al. (2006). applied linguistics i. ertekunki az ember: bolcsesz konzorcium. taylor, ellen., powell. (1998). questionnaire design, asking questions with a purpose. texas: mary g. marshall. tomczyk, a. (2013). perception of oral error correction and their corrective feedback, teachers vs. students. journal of language teaching & research, 3 (5), 924-931. tomkova, g. (2013). error correction in spoken practice. (thesis). masaryk university. retrieved february, 20, 2015 from http,//is.muni.cz/th/261663/ff_m/tomkova_erro r_correction_in_spoken_practice. ustaci, h.y., ok, s. (2014). preferences of elt learners in the correction of oral vocabulary and pronunciation errors. higher education studies 4(2), 29-41. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases pupu saeful rahmat department of economics education, postgraduate studies, universitas kuningan, indonesia email: poesya59@gmail.com apa citation: rahmat, s. f. (2018). investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(1), 29-36. received: 18-02-2018 accepted: 27-03-2018 published: 01-04-2018 abstract: this research aims to find out: (1) how the readiness of teachers in indonesia especially at smp negeri 3 kuningan, west java in teaching integrated social studies in terms of the management of learning and (2) any constraints faced by indonesian teachers in teaching integrated social studies. the method used in this research is qualitative method. the results showed that the readiness of indonesia teachers in teaching integrated social studies in terms of learning management of 80,15 % included in the ready category. constraints faced by teachers in the field of teaching integrated social studies, among others (1) less united geography, economic, historical and sociological concepts in the minds of teachers (2) limitations of supporting facilities of integrated social studies learning at schools. keywords: teacher’s readiness; teaching; integrated social studies. introduction education at schools is basically an educational process organized formally based on hierarchical and chronological structure, from kindergarten level to college level. in addition to referring to the implementation of applied in stages, the ongoing process of education at schools is very dependent on the existence of other subsystems consisting of students, management of school operations, the structure and timeschedule of teaching and learning activities, materials which are organized into a set of systems called curricula, educational activities, learning aids (textbooks, whiteboards, laboratories and audiovisuals), technology consisting of software (teaching strategies and tactics) as well as hardware (educational equipment), facilities buildings and supporting facilities and equipment, quality control sourced from target achievement goals, research for the development of educational activities and tuition fees in order to smooth the continuity of the education process. in the history of education in indonesia since the new order era has implemented seven curriculum namely: curriculum 1968, curriculum 1984, curriculum 1994, curriculum 2004 or we call competency-based curriculum or familiar with kbk, education unit level curriculum or we call ktsp, and the last curriculum 2013 (known as kurtilas) issued by the government through permendikbud number 54 of 2013 on competency standard of graduates, contents, candidate number 23 on graduate competency standard, and permendikbud number 65 of 2013 on standard process, permendikbud no. 66 of 2013 on the appraisal standards, permendikbud no. 21 year 2016 about content standard. the implementation of the curriculum of integrated social studies was first introduced by the curriculum center around 2004, one of the innovations included in the kbk is the integrated natural science (ipa) learning model and integrated social studies (ips) for junior high school level. this integrated pupu saeful rahmat investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases 30 learning model requires, among others, that an integrated natural sciences consisting of physics, biology and chemistry is taught by one teacher, as well as an integrated social science consisting of geography, history, economics, sociology as well as one teacher only. this change certainly requires readiness of the teacher one of them in the management of learning from the planning stage of learning, the process of teaching and learning in the classroom until the stage of assessment (evaluation) ability of learners. the integrated learning model raises the pros and cons in various circles, especially among teachers who have been accustomed to teach only one field. geography teachers, for example, said they would find it difficult to teach economics, as well as economics teachers, saying they would find it difficult to teach geography. nevertheless, not a few geography or economics teachers who regard the integrated learning model as a challenge and must be answered by increasing the knowledge of the teachers, either through formal education or through self-study. in connection with this implementation, especially in junior high school, integrated social studiesteachers are one of the key factors that play a key role, because they are the ones who will eventually implement the curriculum in the classroom, so that the achievement of the competency standards of the graduates. no matter what curriculum and educational system is available, without the support of qualified teachers, it will be in vain. teachers will remain at the forefront of creating competent human resource quality as mandated in the curriculum 2013 (or we call kurtilas). based on ktsp and kurtilas which requires that the field of integrated social studies consisting of geography, history, economics and sociology is only taught by one teacher alone becomes a separate issue related to the educational background of teachers who teach integrated social studiescomes from different disciplines and before integrated social studiesapplied they only teach one field of study only in accordance with the background of the discipline it possesses. this change necessarily requires the readiness of teachers, one of which relates to the ability of teachers in the management of learning. plus a variety of obstacles both concerning facilities that support teaching and learning activities in this case related to learning integrated social studies based on the problem identification, the problem in this research is limited to the readiness of the study subject teachers in teaching integrated social studiesin terms of the management of learning. based on the description above, the formulation of the problem in this study are: (1) how is the readiness of teachers in smp negeri 3 kuningan in teaching integrated social studies in terms of the management of learning? (2) what are the constraints faced by teachers in smp negeri 3 kuningan in teaching integrated social studies? method the method used in this research is qualitative method. the research was aimed at 6 teachers of integrated social studies as research sample. the collection was done by interview, observation and spreading the questionnaire as much as the number of samples from the research. questionnaire addressed to social studies teachers consists of 2 aspects namely the preparation of lesson plans and aspects of the implementation of teaching and learning interactions. for the questionnaire, the compilation of the lesson plan consists of 21 items and aspects of the implementation of teaching and learning interaction consists of 25 items. the survey instrument contains a number of variables to test for significant differences based on the firms' characteristics and the owner managers' profile. tables 2 and 3 provide summary statistics on the main variables of interest and information about mauritian smes. the majority of the questionnaires were completed by the owner manager of the firm or his/her representatives, which in most of the cases were close family members that had been appointed as director. the presence of family members increases indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 confidence in the completeness and reliability of the information provided. results and discussion this study aims to find out how the readiness of teachers in the field of teaching integrated social studiesin smp negeri 3 kuningan as a place of the research. based on the questionnaire results, observations and interviews have been done on each respondent, the results obtained of the research as follows: the author distributed the questionnaire as many as the number of samples from the research that is to 6 teachers of integrated social studies questionnaire addressed to social studiesteachers consists of 2 aspects namely the preparation of lesson plans and aspects of the implementation of teaching and learning interactions. for the questionnaire, the compilation of the lesson plan consists of 21 items and aspects of the implementation of teaching and learning interaction consists of 25 items preparation of learning plans the data processing of each questionnaire answered by the respondent has the following description: for the learning plan indicator, the teacher has very well arranged the lesson plan (100%), the discipline in preparing the lesson plan, and the teacher uses the lesson plan in the class according to lesson plan has been compiled (100%). in the indicator of the subject matter, the teacher has been very good at regular and systematic material presentation (100%), both in carrying out past material repetition and relating it to new material (85.15%), either in concluding the material at the end of the lesson (85% ) and very good at compiling the subject matter (100%). in teaching method indicator, teachers have used various methods and in accordance with the material characteristic (100%), good enough in using the existing media facilities according to the method used (78%) and good enough in applying teaching methods that make students active. in learning media indicator, teacher believes very well that learning media is very supportive of the achievement of competence to be mastered (100%), teachers also have good enough in using instructional media in accordance with the applied method (68%), but in using media that varies less (51%), and less media planning (52%), this is because of the lack of availability of integrated social studieslearning support media at schools. for indicators of reading sources, teachers have delivered materials from other sources well (77%), provided information about the literature to be used in learning (87.75%) and designed the use of the student handbook very well (89.75%). in the assessment indicator, the teacher assigns the students home duties and assesses (100%), the teacher is also good at making the final assessment directly or indirectly (76%), the teacher also assesses the students when the learning process takes place (68%). the indicator of time allocation given to integrated social studies according to teachers are still insufficient (53%), this is because the material taught very much. the implementation of teaching and learning interactions the data processing of each questionnaire answered by the respondent has the illustrated picture as follows: from learning skill indicators, the teacher did the material orientation well (78%), apperception to the students very well (85.75%) and motivated the students well (84.15%). from the indicator of the presentation of the material, the teacher is very good in mastering the material of social studies (100%), presents the material clearly to the students (100%), and presents the material systematically (89,75%). from the teaching method indicator, the teacher has used very well-planned methods (96.75%), and taught using well-varied methods (78%), but still lacks in linking methods with available media facilities (53%). from learning media indicator, teachers have used appropriate media of instructional material very well (85,75%), but still less in media usage / teaching aids and various media (51%). for communicative pupu saeful rahmat investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases 32 discussion and interaction indicators, teachers communicate very well (94.85%), and very good at interacting and involving students (95,50 %). for motivational indicators, teachers provide motivation to students while teaching and learning process takes place in the classroom well (78%) and on indicators of organizing teacher activities have been very good at organizing learning activities (100%). in the indicator of interaction with students communicatively very well done by the teacher (100%). for indicators of inferred learning, teachers have concluded learning materials well (79%) and for teacher feedback indicators have been very good at giving feedback (100%). for the learning appraisal indicator, the teacher has given the post test at the end of the lesson (78%) with good category, and gives assessment during the learning process (74.45%) but rarely prepretests lesson (45%). in the indicator of the use of time, the teacher opened the lesson on time (100%), presented the core material on time (93.90 %), but in the end of the teaching and learning process is still in enough category (58.15 %), this is due to integrated social studiesmaterial which will be submitted quite a lot, but the allocation of available time is very less according to the teacher. teachers’ readiness the average readiness of teachers in teaching integrated social studies in terms of preparation of lesson plans. the result of the research based on the questionnaire of the compilation of the lesson plan shows that the average of teacher preparedness in teaching integrated social studies at smp negeri 3 kuningan is 78,25 % included in good category. the results of the research based on questionnaire implementation of teaching and learning interaction shows that the average of teachers preparedness field in teaching ingrated social studies at smp negeri 3 kuningan 85.95% included in either category. thus, the teachers of the field of teaching integrated social studies at smp negeri 3 kuningan has been able to describe the competence of learning according to kurtilas and has been able to organize learning activities well and planned. form of assessment according to kurtilas also been applied by the teacher of cognitive, affective and psychomotor assessment and this is reflected in the implementation plan of learning made by an integrated social studies teacher at smp negeri 3 kuningan. however, the obstacles in the preparation of lesson plans according to the teachers is in allocating time, due to the many integrated social studies material, the difficulty in adjusting the method with the learning model considering the background of students who are not all the same. based on the results of interviews with teachers the difficulties they experienced in the implementation of teaching and learning interaction, especially when they have to deliver material that is not in accordance with educational background, as well as teachers who have the background of geography education should convey the subject of historical material. according to them the historical science base tends to be memorable and enrichment whereas geography tends to the technique and mastery of concepts. this, implicated in the implementation of learning that goes just to convey the contents of the book because the mastery of historical material has not been embedded in the minds of teachers as embedded the concept of geography. similarly, as perceived by teachers who have an economic education background when it comes to conveying geography and history materials. with such circumstances the teachers expressed feel less maximal in delivering the material to the students because just simply deliver the contents of the book plus the response of students who are less enthusiastic in following integrated social studies (interview on march 15, 2017). the constraints in terms of facilities that support integrated social studies learning revealed by the teachers are limited integrated social studies learning media. they revealed that in their schools the availability of instructional media is very minimal, for example when the lesson of integrated social indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 studiesgoes on the basic competence of interpreting the map about the pattern and shape of the earth, as the relevant media used is the map or the atlas, but the media is very limited in number, classes that will use quite a lot. therefore teachers rarely use instructional media while teaching. however, these obstacles are overcome by teachers by making policies such as for atlases required by students to have their own. another reason the teacher disclosed about this media was about materials that did not need to use the media, as when on integrated social studiesmaterial historical or sociological subject matter, according to them this material is enough to be delivered only by lecture method or discussion. through interview writers with teachers who teach integrated social studies in smp negeri 3 kuningan they convey the suggestion that the school and the education office can more often conduct training for integrated social studies so that their lack of understanding of materials that are not basic education they can be overcome. (interview thursday, march 23th, 2017). the constraints in terms of facilities that support integrated social studies learning revealed by the teachers are limited integrated social studies learning media. they revealed that in their schools the availability of instructional media is very minimal, for example when the lesson of integrated social studies goes on the basic competence of interpreting the map about the pattern and shape of the earth, as the relevant media used is the map or the atlas, but the media is very limited in number, classes that will use quite a lot. therefore teachers rarely use instructional media while teaching. however, these obstacles are overcome by teachers by making policies such as for atlases required by students to have their own. another reason the teacher disclosed about this media was about materials that did not need to use the media, as when on integrated social studies material historical or sociological subject matter, according to them this material is enough to be delivered only by lecture method or discussion. through interview writers with teachers who teach integrated social studiesin smp negeri 3 kuningan they convey the suggestion that the school and the education office can more often conduct training for integrated social studies so that their lack of understanding of materials that are not basic education they can be overcome. (interview thursday, march 23th, 2017). the core implementation of education in schools is teaching and learning activities, the success of teaching and learning activities determine the success of teachers and schools in implementing education. to achieve the success of learning in this case integrated social studies learning, teachers are required to have readiness in preparing lesson planning and manage the implementation of good teaching and learning interaction. from the results of research conducted on teachers in the field of study teaching integrated social studiesthat in general the readiness of teachers in the field of teaching integrated social studiesin smp negeri 3 kuningan included in the category of ready (79.85%). from the results of research conducted on teachers in the field of teaching integrated social studies at smp negeri 3 kuningan in the results of questionnaires the level of teacher readiness in the field of teaching integrated social studiesin terms of preparation of learning plans are included in either category (78.25%), this also in line with the results of observation assessment of the lesson plan has been included in the category of very good (93.85%) means that in general teachers of the field teaching integrated social studieshas been able to describe the goal / competence of learning according to kurtilas integrated social studies well, able to choose and determine integrated social studiesmaterials, able to organize the material well, able to determine the method of learning, able to determine the source / media learning, able to develop assessment tools and assessment techniques and able to allocate time well. implementation of the interaction of teaching and learning in a questionnaire result pupu saeful rahmat investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases 34 has been included in good category (85.95%), it means that in general the teachers of integrated social studiesteaching subject have been able to open the lesson well, able to present the material well, able to use media, able using props, using communicative subjects during the teaching and learning process, able to motivate students well, organize activities well, able to interact with students communicatively well, able to conclude learning and provide good feedback and able to carry out assessment and use the time with good. but unlike the observation of the implementation of learning is still in sufficient category (67.50%). this difference is caused because one of the indicators in the implementation of teaching and learning interaction that is using media is not fulfilled by the teacher and this is also reflected from one of the questionnaire on learning media indicator that is in the category less (50%). yet as hamalik (1986) in arsyad (2007) argues that the use of learning media in teaching and learning can generate new desires and interests, generate motivation and stimulate learning activities and bring psychological influences on students. through interviews with some teachers of integrated social studies, it can be seen that teachers in the delivery of material that is not the same as the educational background has not been fully mastered. this is caused by several factors, such as the understanding of the material that has not been fully embedded such as educational background, limited funds, lack of training, limited facilities and infrastructure as well as integrated consolidated social studiesconcept that has not integrated integrally. in practice the integrated social studies should integrate the learning of geography, economics, history and sociology but to separate the discussion in the chapters discussed. there remains a classification of geography chapters, economic chapters or historical chapters as well as sociology which actually indicates the incompatibility of integrated social studies learning. integrated social studies curriculum deserves a re-revision in its compilation. this can only be resolved if the government, especially the education office, reviews the implementation of this integrated social studies from the results of the research found that the interview result did not show comprehensively the result of the questionnaire. there is a difference between the two. in a questionnaire, teachers have been readiness in teaching integrated social studies however, in interviews can be found some of the difficulties faced by teachers, especially in the mastery of the material. this is due to the questionnaire filling that is done based on the feeling of the research object so that the result tends to be good. in the interview, more open so that the researcher can find that the teacher of the subject teaching integrated social studiesactually experience constraints in delivering integrated social studies material that is not the same as the educational background, plus the limitations of integrated social studies learning support tools that can hamper the teaching and learning process that ultimately will reduce the maximization of kurtilas implementation especially in this integrated social studies therefore, depdikbud and schools as institutions that oversee education need to routinely conduct training for teachers of study areas that teach integrated social studies so that they can improve their professional competence. conclusion based on the discussion of research results, it can be concluded that in general, the readiness of teachers in the field of teaching integrated social studies in smp negeri 3 kuningan viewed from the management of learning included in the ready category. obstacles faced by teachers in the field of study in teaching integrated social studies is less united geography, economic, historical and sociological concepts in the minds of teachers, and the limitations of instructional means of learning integrated social studiesat at school. however, teachers and prospective teachers to continuously improve their professional competence in integrated social indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 studies to support the implementation of kurtilas on integrated social studies learning. the school can also improve the procurement of infrastructure and supporting facilities of integrated social studies learning. the government is also expected to regularly conduct training for teachers of the field teaching integrated social studies to keep improving their professional competence. references abror, a. r. (2012). psikologi pendidikan. yogyakarta: pt tiara wacana. davis, g. a. ( 2012 ). anak berbakat dan pendidikan keberbakatan. jakarta: pt indeks, jakarta. djamarah, s. b. (2010). psikologi belajar. jakarta: rineka cipta. kunandar. (2008). guru profesional implementasi kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (ktsp) dan sukses dalam sertifikasi guru. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. majid, a. (2009). perencanaan pembelajaran mengembangkan standar kompetensi guru. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. ollila, j. (2017). social studies in curriculum integration in elementary classroom: a case study on a pennsylvania rural school. journal of social studies. rahmat, p. s. (2017) perkembangan peserta didik. jakarta: pt. bumi aksara. risang, m. (2012). kiat sukses menjadi guru paud yang disukai anak-anak. yogyakarta: araska. sugiyono. (2008). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. suprijono, a. (2012). cooperative learning: teori & aplikasi paikem. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. tay, l., & diener, e. (2011). needs and subjective well-being around the world. journal of personal social psychology, 101(2), 354-365. toharuddin, et al. (2011). membangun literasi sains peserta didik. bandung: humaniora. pupu saeful rahmat investigating teachers’ readiness in teaching integrated social studies: indonesian cases 36 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 71 the use of project based learning method in developing students' critical thinking iskandar postgraduate studies, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: iskandaruniku@gmail.com sri mulyati postgraduate studies, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: sri.mulyati@gmail.com apa citation: iskandar, i., & mulyati, s. (2019). the use of project based learning method in developing students’ critical thinking. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 71-78. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1686. received: 19-12-2018 accepted: 22-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: this research aims to determine the difference of students' critical thinking ability between class which get project based learning (pjbl) method and expository method. the method use experimental method with factorial design 2x2. the research subjects are class x-ips 1 as an experimental class consists of 32 students and class x-ips 2 as a control class consists of 32 students. the data collection techniques use test and questionnaires. while, the data analysis technique uses two way anova. from the result of data analysis, pjbl method is more effective in improving students’ critical thinking ability compared with expository method. however, there is a difference in critical thinking skills, where students with high motivation levels are more effective than students with low motivation. for students who have high motivation but use pjbl method, it is better when compared with students who have high motivation but use expository methods in the control class. there is an interaction between learning methods with learning motivation in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability. therefore, it is recommended for teacher to use pjbl method on cooperative material. in pjbl method, teachers play an important role in the implementation of the learning process for it requires mastery of materials and good class management and students should actively participate in project execution activities to make learning more meaningful. keywords: critical thinking ability; expository method; learning motivation; project based learning (pjbl) method. introduction entrepreneurship learning aims to develop students’ entrepreneurship intention. this entrepreneurship intention will appear if the students understand deeply the meaning of the material being delivered. therefore, the abilities of critical thinking and creative thinking are two main cases that should be developed in entrepreneurship learning. yet to develop these two kinds of ability needs a learning process that requires students’ involvement optimally. this is the main challenge encountered by the entrepreneurship teachers right now. unfortunately, the observation we conduct at the field shows that now teachers still orients to the completeness of material using simple method such as expository. as a result, students tend to receive more information and less afford the opportunities to develop their critical thinking ability. as stated by ausubel (bell, 1981), if this expository method is not packed creatively then it will result in the learning that concentrates more on the learning material only. the fact can be seen from several drawbacks of learning process occurring at school now. those drawbacks are: 1) https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1686 iskandar & sri mulyati the use of project based learning method in developing students’ critical thinking 72 students pay less attention to the teacher’s explanation in each learning process, 2) students have less desire and spirit in studying, 3) students’ low concentration during the learning process, and 4) students’ low motivation in following the learning process. based on the observation result, it was seen that students were still in doubt to ask and answer the teacher’s question, and there were still many students who answered the question by only repeating the words on the question without any more critical and creative answers. therefore, to change students to think critically needs an innovation in case of the learning method used by the teacher so it can improve the students’ learning outcomes. one of the creative method is project based learning (pjbl) method. the pjbl method refers to the theory of social constructivism learning from vygotsky that is believed to develop the students’ critical thinking ability through the activity of problem solving contextually which is conducted by students cooperatively and project making which is done by students evidently. yet in fact, it is not only the method that affects the learning outcomes, some studies show that the characteristics of each students, such as learning motivation level, also determines the students’ learning outcomes. this phenomenon drives us to conduct a research on the correlation between learning method used and the high and low of the learning motivation level in affecting students’ critical thinking ability. coming the rationale above, the problems of this research can be formulated as follows: 1) is there any difference of students’ critical thinking ability between the class using project based learning (pjbl) method and the class using expository method? 2) is there any difference of students’ critical thinking ability between students with high learning motivation and low learning motivation? 3) for students with high learning motivation, is there any difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method? 4) for students with low learning motivation, is there any difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method? and 5) is there any interaction between learning method and learning motivation in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability? norris and ennis in alec fisher (2009, p.4) state critical thinking as “rational and reflective thinking that focuses on decision making about what is done or believed.” furthermore, they explain that rational means that the thinking is based in the facts to produce the best decision, and reflective means finding the best solution consciously and explicitly. from norris and ennis’ definition above, it can be concluded that critical thinking is thinking which is directed to purpose. the purpose of critical thinking is evaluating the best action or belief. norris and ennis focus the framework on the thinking process that involves the information collection and criteria implementation to consider a series of different action or opinion, with indicators: 1) elementary classification; 2) basic support; 3) inferring, 4) advanced clarification; and 5) strategies and tactics. kosasih (2014, p.96) explains that project based learning is “the learning method that uses project or activity as the purpose.” based on the definition above, it can be concluded that project based learning (pjbl) focuses on students’ activity in form of information collection and its use to produce something beneficial for the students themselves or other people, but still related to the basic competence in curriculum. pjbl is believed to improve students’ academic achievement, as much observed by rais (2010), bell (2010), fatmawati and rustaman (2011), lyesmaya (2011) and so on, in rahman (2014, p.4) basically concludes that pjbl can improve the concept mastery, the problem solving ability, the communication ability, the critical thinking and creative thinking ability, and can grow characters. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 73 winkel (2005, p.160) calls learning motivation the whole mental driving force inside the students’ that causes the learning activity to achieve a purpose. according to uno (2011, p.23), learning motivation is internal and external encouragement on students who are learning to hold behavior, generally with some supporting indicators or elements. those indicators are: the desire and pretension to success, encouragement and needs in learning, future expectation and dreams, appreciation in learning and conducive learning environment. the hypotheses in this research are as follows: 1) there is difference of students’ critical thinking ability between the class with project based learning (pjbl) method and the class with expository method; 2) there is difference students’ critical thinking ability between those with high and low learning motivation; 3) for students with high learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method; 4) for students with low learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method; and 5) there is an interaction between learning method and learning motivation in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability. method this research had been carried out to determine the difference of students' critical thinking ability between class which get project based learning (pjbl) method and expository method. the research subjects are students in sma negeri 2 kuningan on academic year 2016/2017. all the participant are the students in class x-ips 1 as an experimental class consists of 32 students and class x-ips 2 as a control class consists of 32 students. the method used quasi experimental method with factorial design 2x2. the research design can be described as follows: table 1. factorial design 2x2 students’ learning motivation level (b) learning method (a) pjbl method (a1) expository method (a2) high level of learning motivation (b1) (a1 , b1) (a2 , b1) low level of learning motivation (b2) (a1 , b2) (a2 , b2) in this research, three types of instruments were employed for data collection. there were test, questionnaire, and documentation study. beside that, data analysis technique in this research used two way anova. in the test result of research instrument, there were four stages as follows: 1) validity test was about 50 items of valid questions and 35 items of valid questionnaire statements; 2) reliability test conducted the test instrument of critical thinking skill and reliable questionnaire since > 0.70; 3) question difficulty test was about 6% difficult questions, 4% easy questions and 90% medium questions; and 4) distinguishing power test was about 8% items of good enough questions, 22% items of good questions and 70% items of very good questions. results and discussion overall, the output of statistical result with factorial design 2x2 which can be used to describe the hypothesis 1 to the hypothesis 5 can be presented more clearly by the researcher as follows: iskandar & sri mulyati the use of project based learning method in developing students’ critical thinking 74 table 2. result of hypothesis test two way anova tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: kbk source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 2740,365a 3 913,455 8,228 ,000 intercept 367476,514 1 367476,514 3309,911 ,000 metode 1278,718 1 1278,718 11,518 ,001 motivasi 1288,915 1 1288,915 11,609 ,002 metode * motivasi 273,986 1 273,986 5,054 ,017 error 6661,385 60 111,023 total 377244,000 64 corrected total 9401,750 63 a. r squared = ,419 (adjusted r squared = ,406) hypothesis test 1 referring to the table above, through the tests of between-subjects effects on the method line obtained fcount of 11.518 > compared with ftable (0.05;1.64) = 3.99, then obtained its significance coefficient of 0.001 < 0.05. thus, the first null hypothesis in this research is rejected, from the f test where fcount > ftable it is also from the significance value which is less than 0.05 (0.001 < 0.05) meaning significant. it shows that hypothesis that stated there is difference of students’ critical thinking ability between the class using project based learning (pjbl) method and the class using expository method can be accepted. hypothesis test 2 on the motivation line is obtained fcount of 11.609 > compared with ftable (0.05;1,64) = 3,99 then obtained its significance coefficient of 0.002 < 0.05. thus, the second null hypothesis in this research is rejected since besides proven from the f test where fcount > ftable it is also from the significance value which is less than 0.05 (0.001 < 0.05) meaning significant. it shows that hypothesis that stated there is difference of students’ critical thinking ability between those with high and low learning motivation can be accepted. from the mean value of both experimental and control class, for the students with high motivation shows higher mean value compared with the mean value of critical thinking ability of students with low level of motivation. hypothesis test 3 referring to the table of result of hypothesis test through the post-hoc test is obtained its significance efficient (p-value) of 0.01 if compared with significance level (95% = 0.05) then it is significant because 0.01 < 0.05. thus, the third null hypothesis in this research is rejected, since proven from the post-hoc test it is obtained significant result (0.01 < 0.05). it means that it shows the hypothesis that stated that for students with high learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method can be accepted. hypothesis test 4 referring to the table of result of hypothesis test through the post-hoc test is obtained its significance efficient (p-value) of 0.04 if compared with significance level (95% = 0.05) then it is significant because 0.04 < 0.05. thus, the fourth null hypothesis in this research is rejected, since proven from the post-hoc test it is obtained significant result (0.04 < 0.05). it means that it shows the hypothesis that stated that for students with low learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method can be accepted. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 75 hypothesis test 5 the result of hypothesis test through tests of between-subjects effects on the motivation method line obtained fcount of 5.054 > ftable (0.05;1.64) = 3.99, then obtained its significance coefficient of 0.017 < 0.05. thus, the fifth null hypothesis in this research is rejected, since proven from the f test where fcount > ftable it is also from the significance value which is lower than 0.05 (0.017 < 0.05) which means significant. it shows that the hypothesis that stated that there is an interaction between learning method and learning motivation in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability can be accepted. the magnitude of the effect between the two independent variables and the interaction can explain the variability of dependent variable that is 0.406 and the remains of 0.594 is affected by the other factors that are not observed in this research. based on the result of the research that has been conducted, it is obtained that there is significant difference between critical thinking ability of students using pjbl method and students using expository method. after finding out the difference, it got the fact that experimental class using pjbl method has more excellent critical thinking ability if compared with control class using expository learning method. while the results of this research are in line with other relevant researches such as the research conducted by jamaludin (2013) with thesis entitled “the effect of project based learning (pjbl) on critical thinking, creative thinking, and scientific behavior in senior high school bandung”. it results in the conclusion that project based learning can develop significantly the ability of critical thinking and creative thinking compared with conventional learning. as stated by sanjaya (2009, p.175), what is meant by expository method is the method used by teacher in teaching the overall concept. so, if we study more deeply, the core of expository method is the learning method that emphasizes more on the material delivery verbally from a teacher to the students with purpose that the students can master the lesson material optimally. therefore, expository method which is a form of teacher centered approach is considered less able to facilitate the higher learning process where the main focus of this method is the students’ academic skills only. agar peserta didik dapat menguasai materi pelajaran secara optimal. coming from the theory proposed by ausubel (bell, 1981) which states that if this expository method is not creatively packed well by teacher, then the learning will concentrate more on any lesson material and less able to involve participation and interaction with students. from the result of the research above, it describes that pjbl method can develop the high order thinking skill of students such as critical thinking, by using supporting constructivism learning, students can develop their own thinking ability. where in this method, students creativity and activity can help them to stand alone in their cognitive life. they will be helped to be person who critically analyze something since they are thinking not only imitating. remembering that each student has different learning style, then pjbl gives chance to the students to dig up the content (material) by using many ways meaningful for themselves, and conducting experiment collaboratively. pjbl method is an in-depth investment about a real world topic, this is will be valuable for the learning process done by the students. it is seen when the discussion process happens with pjbl method, the students have been able to analyze arguments appearing from various thoughts proposed by each individual. in the question-answer process, the students are more enthusiastic to propose various questions as the form of curiosity inside themselves, while the students who have been able to answer various questions and problems existing by correlating between knowledge they have based in the experience they got during the completeness of project at the field. so, during the implementation of pjbl method, the students can argue by using logic and factual proofs. from the average score of the students with high and low motivation level, it can be iskandar & sri mulyati the use of project based learning method in developing students’ critical thinking 76 clearly seen that the average of critical thinking ability of students with high motivation level is higher than the students with low motivation level. besides, in line with what is stated by mcclelland (1953, p.104) which explicitly stated that someone who has high achievement motivation has better learning outcomes rather than those who have low motivation level. essentially, it can be concluded that there is correlation or positive relationship between the level of students’ learning motivation on their learning outcomes, which means that the stronger/higher the learning motivation, the better the learning outcomes. therefore, the teachers’ role to manage the learning motivation is crucial and can be done through various learning activities. the result of hypothesis test shows that there was interaction between learning method and learning motivation significantly on the students’ critical thinking ability. in this case, the teacher should do things that can encourage students in learning. their teaching ability makes themselves as model that can arouse the curiosity and the ability inside the students is the main asset in arousing motivation. essentially, it can be concluded that overall, the use of learning method affected the high and low of learning motivation and then could affect the students’ critical thinking ability together. conclusion based on the result and data analysis above, it can be concluded that there is difference of students’ critical thinking ability between class which uses project based learning (pjbl) method and expository method. it is seen from the mean value of students’ critical thinking ability for pjbl class is higher than the mean value of students’ critical thinking ability for control class which used expository learning method. it means that the project based learning method (pjbl) is more effective in developing students’ critical thinking ability rather than expository method. there is difference of students’ critical thinking ability between those with high and low learning motivation. where it is seen from the mean value of students with high motivation level is higher than the mean value of critical thinking ability of students with low motivation level. it means that the critical thinking ability of students with high motivation level is more effective than the students with low motivation level. for students with high learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method. it is seen from the mean value of critical thinking ability of students with high motivation level in experimental class is higher than the students with high motivation level in control class. it means that students with high motivation level in experimental class by using pjbl method is better than the students with high motivation level but use expository method in control class. for students with low learning motivation, there is difference of critical thinking ability between the students in class using pjbl method and the students in class using expository method. it is seen from the mean value of students with low motivation level in experimental class is higher than the students with low motivation level in control class. it means that students with low motivation level in experimental class by using pjbl method is better than the students with low motivation level but use expository method in control class. there is an interaction between learning method and learning motivation in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability. it means that the effect of methods on the critical thinking ability depends also in the students’ learning motivation. it also means that learning method and students’ motivation level are correlated each other in affecting the students’ critical thinking ability. some suggestions can be given by the writer are as follows: 1) for all teachers, use and implement the project based learning (pjbl) method in the entrepreneurship learning process, since based on the result of indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 77 the research, it shows that this project based learning (pjbl) method is more effective rather than the expository method that is often used by the teachers; 2) based on the result of research, it stated that the element of students; learning motivation affects much on the quality rather than the learning. it is seen from the students with high motivation level got higher learning outcomes as compared with the students with low motivation level. therefore, the teacher should truly pay attention to the students as a motivator. also, the teacher needs to grow students’ learning motivation. to get optimal learning outcomes, the teacher is required to creatively arouse the students’ learning motivation, so that it can form the students’ effective learning behavior; 3) in implementing pjbl learning method, it is important to pay attention to the compatibility of learning material, the availability of media and infrastructure, and the time division thoroughly. this learning method is suitable with the learning material related to the content, type and objectives of the subject that require the students to be able to do analysis of the problems and the management of further information through more useful solutions; 4) in pjbl method, teachers play important role in the implementation of learning process, therefore, it needs creativity and good class management; 5) teachers should involve the students’ participation actively in the activity of project implementation, so the knowledge got by the students truly attached and the learning process can be more meaningful; and 6) in the process of pjbl learning, teachers should train the students to be accustomed to correlate concepts, data, and facts in the material they study which exist in the students’ environment and analyze them well so in the end they can critically take a decision that is alternative solution. references bell, f. h. (1981). teaching and learning mathematics (in secondary school). usa: wm.c. brown company publisher. filsaime, d. k. (2008). menguak rahasia berpikir kritis dan kreatif. jakarta: prestasi pustakaraya. fisher, a. (2009). critical thinking an introduction. jakarta: erlangga. hamzah, b. u. (2006). teori motivasi dan pengukurannya analisis di bidang pendidikan. jakarta: bumi aksara. jamaludin, d. n. (2013). pengaruh project based learning (pjbl) terhadap berpikir kritis, berpikir kreatif, dan sikap ilmiah. bandung: upi. kosasih, e. (2014). strategi belajar dan pembelajaran implementasi kurikulum 2013. bandung: yrama widya. mcclelland, d. c., atkinson, clark & lowell. (1953). the achievment motive. new york: halsted press. rahman, t. (2014). makalah model pembelajaran project based learning. bandung: universitas pendidikan indonesia. sanjaya, w. (2009). strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses pendidikan. jakarta: kencana prenada media group. winkel. w. s. (2005). psikologi pengajaran. jakarta: pt. grasindo. iskandar & sri mulyati the use of project based learning method in developing students’ critical thinking 78 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation iin sunarti department of economy education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan, indonesia e-mail: iinsunarti56@gmail.com teni rumyani department of economy education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan, indonesia apa citation: sunarti, i., & rumyani, t. (2018). the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(2), 45-54. received: 11-06-2018 accepted: 24-08-2018 published: 01-10-2018 abstract: this research aims to find out the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students learning motivation. the research method used by the researcher is the survey method. for the measurement uses likert scale 5 options spreaded to 174 respondents. from the result of validity test, the variable x1 had 18 valid items, the variable x2 had 20 valid items, and variable y had 18 valid items. the instrument reliability for the three variables are reliable. the data analysis uses double regression. based on the result of the research, the questionnaire score gained for variable x1, variable x2 and variable y was categorized high criterion. based on the result of calculation of double regression analysis, it shows that teacher professional competence and learning facility had positive and significant effect on students learning motivation both partially and simultaneously. therefore, to increase the students learning motivation, the teacher professional competence and learning facility should be increased, those are: 1) teacher should master the learning material and improve the attractive learning method or media to increase students learning motivation; 2) the teacher should create pleasant learning atmosphere so the learning process can run effectively; 3) the students are expected to increase their reading so they can utilize their own ability and not depend on other’s opinion. keywords: teacher competence; learning facility; learning motivation. introduction motivation is an effort realized to propel, direct and keep one’s behavior so he is encouraged to act or do something to reach certain purpose. so, motivation can be made learning strengthener, to clarify learning objectives that will be reached, and to determine learning diligence. in fact, students learning motivation are various. there is high motivation, moderate motivation, and even low motivation, as on the students of class viii national junior high school 3 kuningan. there are still students who are less serious in the learning: they pay less attention to the teacher while in the teaching and learning activity, they do not have enthusiasm to come after the lesson, and they are absent-minded in doing task given by the teacher. there are many factors that can affect students learning motivation, such as teacher professional competence and learning facility. teacher professional competence is a competence or ability related to the teaching tasks completion. professional competence is expected to be fulfilled that teacher should master the effective learning method, can manage learning so that students will not get bored because teacher can manage the learning activity become pleasant learning mailto:iinsunarti56@gmail.com iin sunarti & teni rumyani the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation 46 activity that motivates students to learn and perform well. besides the teacher professional competence, students learning facility also has important role in their learning process because learning facility is everything that can facilitate and smooth the teaching and learning process at school, such as the availability of learning place (class room), teaching visual aids, textbook, library, laboratory and any learning supporting facility. therefore, professional competence and supporting learning facility can increase students learning motivation. based on the explanation above, the researcher conducted the research entitled the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students learning motivation of class viii national junior high school 3 kuningan. based on the background explained above, the researcher formulated research problems as follows: 1) how are the description of teacher professional competence, learning facility and students learning motivation of class viii at national junior high school 3 kuningan? 2) how is the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students learning motivation of class viii at national junior high school 3 kuningan? 3) how is the effect of teacher professional competence on students learning motivation of class viii at national junior high school 3 kuningan? 4) how is the effect of learning facility on students learning motivation of class viii at national junior high school 3 kuningan? motivation comes from the word ‘motive’ that can be defined as driving force existing in one’s self to do certain activity for the goal achievement. according to purwanto (2010: 61), motivation is a complex statement in an organism that directs behavior to a goal or incentive. motivation is viewed as mental propulsion that propels and directs human behavior, including learning behavior. in running his role and function, a teacher should be supported by various competencies so that he maximizes his performance. according to sudrajat (2011, p. 116), he explains that: basically, competence is the description about what should be able to do by someone in a task, such as activity, behavior and result that should be presented or shown. to be able to do something in his job, someone surely needs to have ability in form of knowledge, attitude, and skill in accordance with his job field.” suyanto and hisyam as cited in sudrajat (2011: 116), state that teacher professional competence is a teacher that has wide knowledge from the subject matter he teaches, chooses and uses various teaching method in the teaching and learning method he organizes. beside that, learning facility is extremely important in teaching and learning activity, since with adequate learning facility then learning purpose that has been established will be achieved. djamarah (2006: 46) says that facility is everything that facilitates students. while, sopiatin (2010: 73) argues that learning facility is medium and infrastructure that have to be available to smooth the educational activity at school. it can be concluded that learning facility is medium and infrastructure that can smooth the students teaching and learning process in order to make the purpose of education itself can run smoothly, regularly, effectively, and efficiently. method to conduct a research needed appropriate research method to get the conclusion. the use of research method was accustomed with the research objectives and situation so the instrument or technique that would be used can be established. the method used in this research was survey method. sugiyono (2015: 12) stated that survey method was used to obtained data from certain place that was natural (not artificial), but the research did some treatments in data collection, such as indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 spreading questionnaire, test, structured interview, and so on. variable was something that was valuated. it was in accordance with sugiyono’s (2015:60) opinion who proposed that variable was everything in any form that is determined by the researcher to be studied until the information about the variable was obtained, then it drew the conclusion. variable in this research consisted of two unbound variables that were teacher professional competence (x1) and learning facility (x2), and students learning motivation (y) as the affected variable. this measurement was a complex problem because it was related to the problem of variable function to describe the construct abstraction it represented. the measurement used in this research is likert scale. sugiyono (2015: 134) proposes that likert scale was used to measure someone’s or group’s attitude, opinion, and perception about social phenomenon. the measuring instrument used was questionnaire with five alternative answers as shown in table 1. on the other hand, the researcher established indicators from each variable as presented in table 2. table 1. likert scale no alternative answer measurement positive negative 1 always/very agree 5 1 2 often/agree 4 2 3 sometimes/doubtful 3 3 4 rarely/less agree 2 4 5 never/very disagree 1 5 table 2. variable and measurement variable dimension indicator measurement variable (x1) (teacher professional competence) 1. mastering teaching material a. mastering teaching material in curriculum of primary and intermediate education b. mastering enrichment material positive statement al/va = 5 of/a = 4 so/d = 3 ra/la = 2 n/vd = 1 negative statement al/va = 1 of/a = 2 so/d = 3 ra/la = 4 n/vd = 5 2. organizing teaching program a. establishing learning purpose b. selecting and developing learning material c. selecting and developing teaching and learning strategy d. selecting and developing appropriate learning media 3. implementing teaching program a. creating proper teaching and learning climate b. arranging classroom c. managing teaching and learning interaction 4. assessing the result and teaching and learning process that has been conducted a. assessing students’ achievement for teaching importance b. assessing teaching and iin sunarti & teni rumyani the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation 48 (usman, 2009: 17) learning process variable (x2) (learning facility) 1. school building a. land b. physical building c. security positive statement al/va = 5 of/a = 4 so/d = 3 ra/la = 2 n/vd = 1 negative statement al/va = 1 of/a = 2 so/d = 3 ra/la = 4 n/vd = 5 2. classroom\ a. lighting and ventilation b. cleanness 3. teaching media a. audio media and audio-visual media b. method or other media 4. learning furniture a. classroom b. table and chairs c. book shelf 5. school library a. freshness/comfort b. learning source 6. textbooks (gie, 2010: 33) a. compulsory textbooks and additional books variable y (learning motivation) 1. diligent in facing tasks a. diligent b. prioritizing the more important things c. never stop working before finish positive statement al/va = 5 of/a = 4 so/d = 3 ra/la = 2 n/vd = 1 negative statement al/va = 1 of/a = 2 so/d = 3 ra/la = 4 n/vd = 5 2. though in facing difficulty a. preferring challenge b. needing no encouragement from outside c. preferring to look for information when facing trouble 3. showing interest in various problems a. preferring to learn material b. utilizing media for searching for information c. preferring to discuss with friends d. trying to comprehend material carefully 4. preferring to work independently a. utilizing self-ability b. prioritizing process rather than the result c. doing tasks independently 5. getting bored easily of routine tasks a. preferring challenging tasks b. arguing actively c. confident 6. can defend his own opinion a. certaining about one thing 7. hard to extricate something he is truly convinced a. hard to be influenced b. preferring to study 8. preferring to seek and solve problems sardiman (2016: 83) a. having curiosity indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 in conducted research activity, data collection was an important step to find out the characteristic of the population that becomes the elements of the research object, and the data was used for the hypothesis testing. sugiyono (2015: 117) proposes that population was the generalization region which consists of object/subject that has quality and certain characteristic established by the researcher to be studied and then drawn the conclusion. population in this research was 308 people from ten class of viii national junior high school 3 kuningan. to obtain the sample that became the respondent, the research used slovin formula (suharsaputra, 2012: 119) in quantitative, qualitative, and action research methods as followed: 2 1 ne n n   explanation: n = sample number n = population e2 = error tolerance that would be taken by the researcher based on slovin formula above, the researcher took sample as follows:  2%53081 308  n 01.174n . 174n (rounded) thus, the researcher determined research samples of 174 people. sampling technique used in this research was probability sampling technique that was sampling technique to give equal opportunity to each population member to be chosen as sample member. based on the application, this probability sampling technique was done using proportional random sampling, that was the sampling and allocation that was proportionally based on the total of sampling unit in the strata. the technique used in this data collection was questionnaire distribution that was data collection technique using series of written statements given to the respondents who became research sample members, and this had affect on the indicators on each variable. questionnaire that was spreaded was closed questionnaire form with likert scale five categories to measure variable of teacher professional competence (x1), students learning facility (x2), and learning motivation (y). in the instrument testing in qustionnaire form, it needed to conduct validity test and realibility test first. in the operational step, validity test and reliability test were supported by using spss (statistical package for social science) 20 program software. to describe the teacher professional competence (variable x1), learning facility (variable x2) and learning motivation (variable y), the researcher used percentage technique. next, for the hypothesis testing, the researcher did some steps. there was statistical prerequisites test which contained some tests, namely data conversion, normality test, auto-corrrelation, multicollinearity, and double regression. data conversion was done as the rule to use parametric statistic. since the kind of data collected by the researcher was the ordinal data (rank) so it needed to be converted to interval data (gap inter-data had same weight). normality test was done as the rule test of analysis if would be used in parametric statistic. besides, to find out whether the sample was distributed normal or not, sample normality test was done using kolmogorov smirnov. meanwhile, if one of the variable data was not distributed normal, the analysis data would use non-parametric statistic with rank spearman correlation formula. auto-correlation was meant to find out whether or not there was correlation between residual in one observation with other observation. for the calculation, the researcher used spss for windows 20 program. while to find out whether or not there was auto-correlation used durbin watson (dw) test (santoso, 2000: 47) in hanggara (2012: 7). iin sunarti & teni rumyani the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation 50 multicollinearity test was to find out whether or not there was high correlation among the unbound variables in a model of doubled linear regression. to find whether or not there was multicollinearity could be seen by comparing vif (variance inflation factor) value. if the value of vif calculation result was higher than 10 (>10) then the variable had multicollinearity with other unbound variables. conversely, if the value of vif < 10 then it could be said that there was no multicollinearity (santoso, 2000: 39) in hanggara (2012: 6). for the calculation, the researcher used spss for windows 20 program. double regression analysis was the improvement of simple regression analysis. the function was to predict the value of related variable (y) if the unbound variables were two or more. according to somantri (2011: 250), double regression analysis was the tool to predict the influence value of two or more unbound variables on one dependent variable (to prove whether or not there was functional relationship or causal relationship between two or more unbound variables ,… on a dependent variable y. for the calculation of double regression, the researcher used spss 20 (statistical package for social science) 20 program. results and discussion in the validity test was used to find out whether an instrument was valid or not when used in the data collection. the calculation result of instrument validity item on each variable was as followed. table 3. calculation result of item analysis on instrument validity test variable number of valid items number of invalid items x1 18 items 2 items x2 20 items y 18 items 2 items total 56 items 4 items in the reliability testing, the research used cronbach’s alpha formula supported with spss for windows v.17 program. the calculation result of reliability test was as follow: table 4. calculation result of instrument reliability variable reliable category x1 0.990 very high x2 0.733 high y 0.965 very high descriptive analysis a. teacher professional competence the value of variable x1 as 70.22% was on the high criterion zone that was on the interval 61% 80%. b. learning facility the value of variable x2 as 69.55% was on the high criterion zone that was on the interval 61% 80%. c. learning motivation the value of variable y as 70.94% was on the high criterion zone that was on the interval 61% 80%. on the other hand, based on the statistical prerequisites test, the result of the research in data normality test could be showed on the table below. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 51 table 5. data normality test one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test professiona l competenc e learning facility learning motivatio n n 174 174 174 normal parametersa,b mean 63.20 69.55 63.85 std. deviation 7.799 6.569 6.850 most extreme differences absolute .050 .089 .077 positive .042 .089 .077 negative -.050 -.059 -.050 kolmogorov-smirnov z .657 1.176 1.016 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .781 .126 .253 a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. it was seen from the calculation result used spss (statistical package for social science) 20 obtained kolmogorov smirnov x1 as 657 with significance of variable x1 (professional competence) was 0.781, the value of kolmogorov smirnov x2 as 1.176 with significance variable x2 (learning facility) was 0.126, and the value of kolmogorov smirnov y as 1.016 with significance of variable y (learning motivation) was 0.253. the significance value > 0.05 which meant that the data of variable x1 (professional competence), x2 (learning facility) and y (learning motivation) was distributed normal. in the auto-correlation was meant to find out whether or not there was correlation between residual in one observation with other observation. while to find out whether or not there was auto-correlation used durbin watson (dw) test (santoso, 2000: 47) in hanggara (2012: 7). it was seen from the calculation result using spss for windows was obtained the value of dw of 1.897. the result of dw = 1.897 if accustomed with the table of dw value classification, the value was on 1.55 – 2.46 which showed that there was now autocorrelation. multicollinearity test was to find out whether or not there was high correlation among the unbound variables in a model of doubled linear regression. to find whether or not there was multicollinearity can be seen by comparing vif (variance inflation factor) value. if the value of vif calculation result was higher than 10 (>10) then the variable had multicollinearity with other unbound variables. conversely, if the value of vif < 10 then it could be said that there was no multicollinearity (santoso, 2000: 39) in hanggara (2012: 6). based on the calculation result used spss (statistical package for social science) 20, it was obtained the tolerance value of variable teacher professional competence (x1) and learning facility (x2) as 0.658 > 0.10. while the vif value of variable teacher professional competence and learning facility was 1.521 < 10.00. so it could be concluded that there was no multicollinearity. table 6. hypothesis test model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .723a .522 .517 4.762 a. predictors: (constant), learning facility, professional competence iin sunarti & teni rumyani the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation 52 from the calculation result was obtained r square value as 522, it meant that teacher professional competence and learning facility affects as much as 52.2% on learning motivation. while the residual as 47.8% was affected by other unobserved factors. table 7. the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students learning motivation anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 4240.509 2 2120.254 93.50 2 .000b residual 3877.606 171 22.676 total 8118.115 173 based on the table above was obtained f as 93.502 (sig. value is 0.000 < 0.05), so that ho was rejected and ha was accepted meaning that double regression coefficient was significant. so, teacher professional competence (x1) and learning facility (x2) affect simultaneously and significantly on students learning motivation (y). table 8. double regression analysis of variable y on x1 and x2 coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 10.6 34 3.943 2.69 7 .008 professional competence .271 .057 .308 4.72 8 .000 learning facility .519 .068 .498 7.63 9 .000 a. dependent variable: learning motivation from the table 8 showed the regression equation: y = 10.634 + 0.271 + 0.519, it showed that each accretion between x 1 and x2 as 1 will increase y as 0.271 + 0.519 meaning that each increased of professional competence and learning facility would increase learning motivation as well. to test the significance (measured from the probability), from the table seen the significance of x 1 and x2 as 0.000 < 0.05, so ha was accepted or the regression coefficient was significant. the teacher professional competence had relationship with learning motivation as 0.308. to test the significance (measured from the probability) from the table seen tcount as 4.728 with significance as 0.000 < 0.05, so ha was accepted or the regression coefficient was significant, it meant that teacher professional competence had effect on learning motivation. beside that, learning facility had relationship with learning motivation as 0.498. to test the significance (measured from the probability) from the table seen tcount as 7.639 with significance as 0.000 < 0.05, so ha was accepted or the regression coefficient was significant, it meant that learning facility had effect on learning motivation. conclusion from the result of the research that has been conducted, the researcher drawn some conclusions, as follows: 1) desciption of teacher professional competence, learning facility, and learning motivation has been good but not optimal yet. 2) based on the result of simultaneous test, it shows that there was effect of teacher professional indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 53 competence and learning facility on learning motivation significantly so ha was accepted, it means that teacher professional competence and learning facility affect simultaneously and significantly on learning motivation. 3) based on the result of partial test, it shows that there was effect of teacher professional competence on learning motivation significantly so ha was accepted, it means that teacher professional competence affect significantly on learning motivation. 4) based on the result of partial test, it shows that there was effect of learning facility on learning motivation significantly so ha was accepted, it means that learning facility 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(2009). menjadi guru profesional. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya. iin sunarti & teni rumyani the effect of teacher professional competence and learning facility on students’ learning motivation 54 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 the influence of social media on learning style of students’ in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria aderonke kofo soetan department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: adkof2015@gmail.com ajayi samuel ololade department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. amos ochayi onojah department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: haymoresonojah@gmail.com adenike janet aderogba department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria e-mail: temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com apa citation: soetan, a. k., ololade, a. s., onojah, a. c., & aderogba, a. j. (2020). the influence of social media on learning style of students' in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(1), 11-18. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v3i1.3003. received: 08-02-2020 accepted: 05-03-2020 published: 01-04-2020 abstract: social media is a platform which enables users to connect, create account profile, share files and interact with other users on the same platform. there have been reports that interaction of people with the social media has resulted to change in their behavior. however, it is not known whether or not this social media platform has capacity to influence learners’ behavior particularly their learning style. this research examined the influence of social media on colleges of education students’ learning style in kwara state. simple random sampling technique was employed to drawn 220 students (114 male and 106 female) from the selected colleges of education in ilorin, kwara state. four (4) research questions were raised and answered using frequency count and percentage while t-test was used to analyze the only hypothesis. the findings showed that social media had influence on colleges of education students’ learning style with 36.4 and there was no significant difference in the influence of social media on learning style based on gender with 0.592 p. (0.253). based on the findings, it was recommended that the use of social media for teaching in colleges of education be encouraged for interaction between instructors and student teachers to foster learning under close monitoring. keywords: colleges of education influence; learning style; social media; students. introduction social media is a technology tool that offers new educational possibilities. it is a medium through which information is passed from one person to another. bryer and zavatarro (2011) defined social media as technologies that facilitate social interaction, make possible collaboration, and enable deliberation across stakeholders. kenelechi, yonlonfoun and omotere (2014) asserted that social media comprises of online applications for social networking site, social book marking and sharing tools, blogging and micro blogging tools, virtual worlds, econferencing presentation sharing tools, audio and video tools, as well as e-project management tools primarily developed to foster user centered interaction. social media is a group of internetbased applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of web 2.0, which allows the creation and exchange of usergenerated content (kaplan & haenlein, 2010). social media tools can be used for learning at colleges of education to train intending teachers to be efficient in the use of innovative tools to impart knowledge to learners, disseminate information on new teaching strategies and professional standard of teaching. the way learners take in and process information differs based on individual differences and media use to appeal to their senses. instructors learning strategy is important in the way they teach. this in turn determines how students assimilate. use of social media to train teachers in 21 st century is necessary, but this is dependent on the topic mailto:temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com aderonke kofo soetan, ajayi samuel ololade, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba the influence of social media on learning style of students' in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria 12 learner’s needs, the interest and the capability of media used to appeal to the senses of the learners. the type of media employed will enable learner to actively participate and collaborate with other peers. awareness refers to having the knowledge and understanding of the meaning of the concept of social media. students’ level of awareness of social media platform and its integration into teaching and learning process could influence their academic performance. some students become bored and restless with the use of textbooks but learn better with the use of devious tools. social media is one of the tools that may provide intrinsic motivation for students to interact, collaborate and brainstorm. literature has also revealed that students learn better through interaction and exchange of information with one another on social media (bryer & zavatarro, 2011). similarly, social media has been reported to influence and change learners’ behavior as well as their interaction with peers and teachers. social media platform supports the democratization of knowledge and information and transform people from content consumers to content producers (joes 2009). however, the influence of social media on learning style of college of education students is yet to be determined. most studies on social media in nigeria seem to focus on its usefulness in sharing information, the types of social media used, problems encountered with the use of social media among others, but ignoring the aspect of social media influence on learning style especially among the college of education students. this study therefore examined the influence of social media on colleges of education students’ learning style in ilorin, kwara state. the purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of social media on colleges of education students’ learning style in ilorin, kwara state. specifically this study: 1. examined awareness of social media for learning by colleges of education students’; 2. ascertain use of social media for learning, among colleges of education students’; 3. identified the influence of social media on college of education students’ learning style; 4. examined social media influence on college of education students’ learning style based on gender. the research questions of this study: 1. are colleges of education students’ aware of social media use for learning? 2. how often do colleges of education students’ use social media for learning? 3. what is the influence on colleges of education students’ learning style? 4. do social media influence colleges of education students’ learning style based on gender? the research hypothesis is: h01 : there is no significant difference in the students learning style use of social media based on gender. social media is a form of electronic communication which facilitates interaction based on certain interests and characteristics. social media are media for social interaction, using highly accessible and scalable publishing techniques. social media use web-based technologies to transform and broadcast media monologues into social dialogues (paul, 2017). they support the democratization of knowledge and information and transform people from content consumers to content producers (joes 2009). the greatness of any nation depends on the genius, qualities, attitudes and aspirations of her people (awoniyo, 2001). it should not be expected to be ignorant and free at the same time most especially at this time when all form of teaching has been taken over by the social media in schools. social media technology is a tool that offers new educational possibilities, but it also generates new perils. kaplan and haenlein (2010), classified social media into six different categories which are; collaborative projects such as (wikipedia), blogs and microblogs like (twitter), content communities (e.g. youtube), social networking sites which include (facebook), virtual gameworld such as (world of warcraft) and lastly, virtual social worlds like second life. individual preference to acquire knowledge based on recognition of the leaner ability (slow or fast) how to learn, what to learn, and under which condition learning can take place could be catered for with the use of social media for learning. cain and policastr, (2011) posited that, if social media is used as a teaching tool, it may offer distinct advantages for teaching 21stc students leaning to positive psychological performance, because it has greatly influenced the way students communicate and share ideas online. tufekci, (2008) expressed that there is significant difference between male and female on the utilization of social media where males were found to have used certain social media platform such as facebook and linkedin than their female counterpart. regardless of the gender indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 utilization of social media, groups of bodies and individuals use social media for building personal and professional relationship with others in the name of business, academics, entertainment and the like. learning styles could also be referred to as personal characteristics and preferred ways through which information can be gathered, interpreted and organized. omnia (2012) asserted that due to the influence of the environment or past experience, different individual do things differently. this may also influence the way decision is made and how information is being processed. kolb (1974) expressed that learning style inventory (lsi) is intended to help employees or students understand how their learning style affect problem solving, teamwork, handling conflict, communication and career choice to develop more learning flexibility, find out why teams work well-or-badly-together; strengthen their overall learning as students. college of education (coe) is a tertiary institution where teachers for basic education are trained with innovative technology to meet the needs of present day learners. the college of education award nigerian certificate in education (nce) at the completion of three years course. pedagogy, subject matter content various disciplines are impacted to teachers in training, this students go through teaching practice exercises as part of their experience using various media. at this stage, what is taught in the classroom is practicalized on students for success. this will serve as a way of preparing them for the teaching job. gender theory implies that an effective teacher should be aware of different learning styles, that teacher training students be equipped with the different ways to impact knowledge taking into consideration differences in strengths, interest and capabilities. assignment and class work are posted to student teachers in trainees. in essence, student teacher’s male and female should be vast in the use of these technologies to be able to impact the required knowledge using appropriate tools for this 21c learners. learning style in an individual is not what can be achieved in a day it is a gradual process which can be built. growth and maturity could also lead to the development of some learning styles in an individual (harrison & garnero’neale, 2013). being conscious of one’s learning style helps one to maximize the amount of knowledge that can be possibly acquired within a given period of time (kazu, 2009). when a student is aware of his or her capability as a result of exposure, time management, ability to do the right thing at the right time relating to when to read how to read and when to submit assignments using social media can improve conscious learning style, and such a student can excel academically using chosen social media. the important thing is to consider the learning style of the students with the teaching strategy of the instructor and the instructional technology to employ teaching. method this study was a descriptive research of the survey type. it focuses on student’s perception on the influence of social media on college of education learning style in selected colleges of education in kwara state. the population for this study comprised students in kwara state college of education, muhyideen college of education and kinsey college of education ilorin, kwara state. simple random sampling technique was used to select 250 respondents from the three selected colleges of education. the research instrument was researcher’s designed questionnaire on influence of social media on college of education learning style. the questionnaire contained sections a and b. section a consist of demographic data of the respondents while section b sought information on the variables selected from the study. the variables are awareness, utilization and influence on learning style. two items on awareness, 2 items on utilization and 5 items on influence on learning style. a 4 points likert type scale with response options of sa=strongly agree, a= agree, sd= strongly disagree, d= disagree was adopted. the research instrument was validated by three lecturers in the department of educational technology for face and content validity. their suggestions, comments and corrections were used to produce a final draft of the instrument. to ascertain the internal consistencies of the instrument, it was trial tested on fifteen students of federal college of education, osiele, abeokuta, ogun state. the data collected were subjected to crombach alpha statistical tool and the result was 0.71 for awareness, 0.73 for utilization and 0.88 for influence, this made the research instrument highly reliable. two hundred and fifty copies of the questionnaire were administered and 220 were properly filled and returned amounting to 88% return rate. aderonke kofo soetan, ajayi samuel ololade, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba the influence of social media on learning style of students' in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria 14 the data obtained from this study was subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. the descriptive statistics of percentage was used to analyse the research questions and t-test was used at test the hypothesis at 0.05 alpha level of significance. the data collected were coded and analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 23.0. results and discussion table 1 showed the percentage distribution of the respondents by the institutions. it revealed that respondents of kwara state college of education (36.4%), muhyideen college of education (31.8%) and kinsey college of education (31.8%). table 1. percentage of distribution of respondents by institution institution frequency percentage (%) kwara state college of education 80 36.4 muhyideen college of education 70 31.8 kinsey college of education 70 31.8 total 220 100 table 2. percentage distribution of respondents by gender level frequency percentage (%) male 114 51.8 female 106 48.2 total 220 100 table 2 revealed the percentage distribution of respondents by gender. 114 (51.8%) of the respondents were male while the female respondents were 106 (48.2%). research question 1 are colleges of education undergraduates aware of social media for learning? table 3. coe undergraduates awareness of social media for learning? no item strongly agreed (%) agreed (%) disagreed (%) strongly disagreed (%) total 1 i am aware that social media exist 128(58.2) 87(39.5) 4(1.8) 1(0.5) 220(100) 2 i am aware that social media can be used for learning 116(52.7) 99(45.0) 2(0.9) 3(1.4) 220(100) table 3 showed that out of the 220 (100%) respondents, 128 (58.2%) strongly agreed that they are aware that social media can be used for learning, 87 (39.5%) respondents agreed, 4 (1.8%) respondents disagreed while 1 (0.5%) respondents strongly disagree. this shows that the majority of the respondents are aware that social media exist. on the other hand, 116 (52.7%) of the respondents strongly agreed that social media can be used for learning, 99(45.0%) agreed that social media can be used for learning, 2(0.9%) disagreed that social media can be used for learning while 3(1.4%) strongly disagreed that social media can be used for learning. this indicates that majority of the believed that social media can be used for learning. research question 2 how often do coe undergraduates use social media for learning? table 4. percentage distribution of how often coe undergraduate use social media for learning no item strongly agreed (%) agreed (%) disagreed (%) strongly disagreed (%) total 1 i often made use of social media for learning 79(35.9) 119(54.1) 21(9.5) 1(0.5) 220(100) 2 i always visit social media sites in order to acquire academic materials for learning purpose 87(39.5) 107(48.6) 18(8.2) 8(3.6) 220(100) indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 table 4 reveals that out of 220 (100%) respondents, 79 (35.9%) strongly agreed that they often make use of social media for learning. 119 (54.1%) agreed that they often make use of social media for learning. 21 (9.5%) disagreed that they often make use of social media for learning, while 1 (0.5%) strongly disagreed that they often make use of social media for learning. this shows that majority of the respondents often made use of social media for learning. on the other hand, 87 (39.5%) respondents strongly agreed that they always visit social media sites in order to acquire academic materials for learning purpose, 107 (48.6%) respondents agreed, 18 (8.2%) respondents disagreed while 8 (3.6%) strongly disagreed. this shows that majority of the respondents always visit social media sites in order to acquire academic materials for learning purpose. research question 3 does social media have influence on coe undergraduate learning style? table 5. what is the influence of social media on coe learning style? s/no item strongly agreed (%) agreed (%) strongly disagreed (%) disagreed (%) total 1 use of social media for learning influences my learning style 80(36.4 117(53.2) 18(8.2) 5(2.3) 220(100) 2 i understand more when i learn with social media 80(36.4) 116(52.7) 22(10.0) 2(0.9) 220(100) 3 i assimilate faster when i learn on social media 73(33.2) 108(49.1) 31(14.1) 8(3.6) 220(100) 4 i remember easily when i learn from social media 70(31.8) 118(53.6) 30(13.6) 2(0.9) 220(100) 5 i understand and learn better when i log on to social media for learning 85(38.6) 107(48.6) 22(10.0) 6(2.7) 220(100) 6 social media is the best medium through which i can learn 70(31.8) 91(41.4) 46(20.9) 13(5.9) 220(100) 7 when i spend more time on social media, it affects my learning style 49(22.3) 64(29.1) 65(29.5) 42(19.1) 220(100) 8 i am always distracted when i use social media for learning 48(21.8) 70(31.8) 67(30.5) 35(15.9) 220(100) table 5 confirms that out of the 220 (100%) respondents, 80 (36.4%) strongly agreed that the use of social media for learning influence their learning style while 117 (53.2%) of the respondents agreed that the use of social media for learning influence their learning style, 18 respondents (8.2% ) disagreed that the use of social media for learning influence their learning style while 5 respondents (2.3%) strongly disagreed that the use of social media for learning influence their learning style. this affirms that majority of the students believe that the use of social media for learning influences their learning style. also, 80 (36.4%) of the respondents strongly agreed and 116 (52.7%) of the respondents agreed that they understand more when they learn with social media while 22 respondents (10.0%) disagreed and 2 respondents (0.9%) strongly disagreed that they understand more when they learn with social media. this indicated that majority of the respondents understand more when they learn with social media. on the other hand, 73 (33.2%) of the respondents strongly agreed and 108 (49.1%) respondents agreed that they assimilate faster when they learn on social media while 31 (14.1%) respondents disagreed and 8 (3.6%) respondent strongly disagreed that they assimilate faster when they learn on social media. this established that majority of the respondents assimilate faster when they learn on social media. in addition, 70 (31.8%) respondents strongly agreed and 118 (53.6%) respondents agreed that they remember easily when they learn from social media while 30 (13.6%) respondents disagreed and 2 (0.9%) respondents strongly disagreed that they remember easily when they learn from social media. this reveals that majority of the respondents remember easily when they learn aderonke kofo soetan, ajayi samuel ololade, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba the influence of social media on learning style of students' in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria 16 from social media. others followed suit as shown in table 5. hypothesis one h01: the use of social media does not significantly influence students’ learning style based on gender. table 6. t-test analysis on influence of social media on coe undergraduates’ learning style based on gender variable n x sd df t sig remark male 114 1.74 0.66 218 0.592 0.653 accepted female 106 1.79 0.73 total 220 table 6 showed that df = 218, t = 0.592, p = 0.653. therefore, the hypothesis which states that the use of social media does not significantly influence students learning style based on gender was accepted. this decision was as a result of tvalue of 0.592 resulting in 0.653 p-value which is greater than 0.05 significant alpha level. it is evident from the tested hypothesis that social media does not influence students learning style based on gender. the findings of this study established that colleges of education students are aware of social media use for learning. also, colleges of education students use social media for learning. social media have positive influence on colleges of education students’ learning style. in support of the findings, kazu (2009) stated that being conscious of one’s learning style helps one to maximize the amount of knowledge that can be possibly acquired within a given period of time. on the other hand, it was deduced that the use of social media does not significantly influence students’ learning style based on gender. tufekci, (2008) expressed that there is significant difference between male and female on the utilization of social media where males were found to have used certain social media platform such as facebook and linkedin than their female counterpart. conclusion the findings of this study could serve as a prediction on the use of social media for learning. social media can be a source of information for academics, administrators, researchers and decision-makers involved in planning, designing, implementation and promotion of e-learning tools. based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. social media should be integrated into teaching and learning processes for the benefit of students and instructors 2. teacher should consider learning styles of learners before the students are exposed to technology tools 3. collage of education instructor, should make learning facilitating and appealing by making use of social media to teach. references ahmed, o. n (2012). the effect of different learning styles on developing writing skills of efl saudi learners. awoniyo, a. a. (2007). the effects of parental economic status and pupils sex on school achievement in english language. journal of vocational and technical education in nigeria. 2(2), 81-86. boyd, d. m., & ellison, n. b. (2007). social network sites: definition, history, and scholarship. journal of computer-mediated communication, 13(1), 1-11. bryert., & zavatarro s. (2011). social media and public administration: theoretical dimensions and introduction to symposium. in administrative theory & praxis. 33(3), 1-3. cain, j. (2008). online social networking issues within academia and pharmacy education. american journal of pharmaceutical education; 72(1), 1-7. harrison, s., & garner-o’neale g., (2013) an investigation of the learning styles and study habits of chemistry undergraduates in barbados and their effect as predictors of academic achievement in chemical group theory. joes, k. e. (2009). attitudes toward using social networking sites in educational settings with underperforming latino youth: a mixed methods study. urban education, 50 (8): 989– 1018. kanelechi c. k., yonlonfoun e., & omotere t. (2014) undergraduates and their use of social media: assessing influence on research skills. kazu, i. (2009). the effect of learning styles on education and the teaching process. journal of social sciences, 5(2), 85-94. retrieved on 14 th october, 2016 from http://perweb.firat.edu.tr/personel/yayinlar/fua35/3559283. pdf. http://per-web.firat.edu.tr/personel/yayinlar/fua35/3559283.pdf http://per-web.firat.edu.tr/personel/yayinlar/fua35/3559283.pdf http://per-web.firat.edu.tr/personel/yayinlar/fua35/3559283.pdf indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 kolb, d. a., rubin, i. m. & mcintyre, j. m. (1974) ‘learning and problem solving: on the management and the learning process’, in h. a. simon (ed.) organizational psychology: a book of readings, 27–42, englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall. lenhart, m. (2009). adults and social network websites. pew internet & american life project report. retrieved on may 19, 2016 http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/pipadult_social _networking_ data_memo_final.pdf. lenhart, m., & madden, m. (2007). teens, privacy and online social networks. how teens manage their online identities and personal information in the age of myspace. pew internet & american life project report. retrieved june 17, 2016, from http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media//files/reports/2009/pip_ad ult_social_networking_data_memo_fin al.pdf.pdf. lin, j. (2008, october 15). research shows that internet is rewiring our brains. retrieved from http://www.today.ucla.edu/portal/ut/ 081015_gary-small-ibrain.aspx. paul, t. (2017). influence of parental background on the use of social media for learning by primary school pupils in patigi local government area, kwara state. a research project submitted to the department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. smaldino s. e, reseel j. d., heinich r., molenda m. (2005). instructional technology and media for learning 8 th edition. ohio, new jersy: merill prentice hall. tüfekci, z. (2008). gender, social capital and social networking sites: women bonding, men searching. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american sociological association annual meeting, sheraton boston and the boston marriott copley place, boston, m.a. http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/pipadult_social_networking_%20data_memo_final.pd http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/pipadult_social_networking_%20data_memo_final.pd http://www.pew-internet.org/~/media/files/reports/2009/pip_adult_social_networking_data_memo_fin http://www.pew-internet.org/~/media/files/reports/2009/pip_adult_social_networking_data_memo_fin http://www.pew-internet.org/~/media/files/reports/2009/pip_adult_social_networking_data_memo_fin aderonke kofo soetan, ajayi samuel ololade, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba the influence of social media on learning style of students' in colleges of education in kwara state, nigeria 18 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing isah cahyani universitas pendidikan indonesia e-mail: isahcahyani@upi.edu lia yulindaria universitas pendidikan indonesia e-mail: liayulindaria@gmail.com apa citation: cahyani, i., & yulindaria, l. (2018). the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(1), 37-46. received: 14-02-2018 accepted: 23-03-2018 published: 01-04-2018 abstract: writing skill becomes a concern nowadays since it is an important skill in communication and becomes the hallmark of a creative, imaginative, and educated nation. yet, in fact, students’ writing skills are generally low which can be seen from the lack of quality of writing produced. this is caused by some factors, including the lack of time allocation provided by the teacher to practice writing, the lack of teachers’ creativity in using learning models that can stimulate students to write, and the low of students’ reading habits. hence, this study aims to identify the effectiveness of discovery learning (dl) model in improving students’ fiction writing. this research is a quasi experimental with nonequivalent control group design. the sample of research was the fourth grader of elementary school in purwakarta sub-district. the data in this research were collected through writing test, observation, and interview. moreover, students’ writing skills were assessed by using writing rubric which has been validated by expert lecturers. further, the data were then analyzed by using inference statistics including normality test, homogeneity test, and t-test. the results revealed that discovery learning model is effective in improving students’ fiction writing which can be seen from students’ post test score. this is because discover learning model allows students to explore, classify, and utilize more data to improve their imagination, their vocabulary selection, and their creativity as well. keywords: discovery learning model; writing skill; fiction writing. introduction reading and writing skills are important things to consider in today's age of technology and information because writing is an important ability in communicating to convey an intention and purpose (nurhayati, 2015; soleha, 2014; tarigan, 2008). besides, writing is one of skills that can improve student creativity (munawaroh, 2013; silalahi & haryadi, 2015). further, writing skill is regarded as a hallmark of an educated person or nation (soleha, 2014; supriyadi, 2013). as a skill, writing is a difficult and complex skill that is difficult to master. this problem is considered normal, because writing is not a hereditary ability, nor is it merely the activities of stringing words and sentences, but also expressing and developing the mind in a regular writing (cahyani, 2012). writing is said to be complicated because writing skills have six dimensions, namely 1) quality and content scope (quality and scope of content); 2) organization and presentation of content; 3) style and appropriateness; 4) grammatical forms (grammatical features); 5) spelling; and 6) handwriting and neatness (rahman, 2013; ismail, 2011). fiction story is a story containing narratives that are made based on the mailto:liayulindaria@gmail.com isah cahyani & lia yulindaria the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing 38 imaginary fantasy or imagination. fiction or custom stories are usually in the form of novels and short stories (frigg, 2010; sterling, 2009). fictional stories try to enliven the feelings or arouse the emotions of its readers. a fictional story as a literary work is a tool for instilling morale to students or children according to its characteristics (frigg, 2010; skolnik, 1973). children around 5-12 years old need concrete understanding. this is in line with piaget's opinion that the maturity level of children aged 7-12 years is called the concrete stage in which the maturity of children tends to be limited to concrete objects that can be seen and touched, while the abstract concept is still difficult to accept (wood, 2008). writing fiction stories will give some benefits for students, such as giving students the opportunity to be a young writer, allowing them to elaborate their imagination, and motivating them to appreciate literary works. yet, teaching fiction writing is not an easy task since writing, especially fiction writing is not yet a habit in our society. the writing culture among students is still very low (rakhmat, 2012; sumasari, 2014). discovery learning model is one of the learning models applied in the 2013 curriculum because it supports the application of scientific approach and can bring students to think high level (higher order thinking skill/hots). the dl model is one of learning models that is expected to develop selflearning (hermann, 1969; rumelhart & zipser, 1985). this model seeks to understand how we better understand ourselves, take responsibility for our education, and learn to reach or even transcend our current development in order to become stronger, more sensitive, and more creative in looking for a more prosperous life (marzano, 2011). discovery learning model, according to alma et al. (2010), is based on a belief in the framework of independent student development. this model requires active participation in scientific investigation. this is in line with the opinion that the child must play an active role in learning in the classroom.when applying the learning model, the teacher acts as a mentor by giving students the opportunity to actively learn. here, the teacher must be able to guide and direct the student’s learning activities according to the purpose (alfieri, brooks, aldrich, & tenenbaum, 2011). discovery learning is expected to be an alternative to improve learning outcomes and students’ ability in understanding the concept of fiction writing as well as minimizing the difficulty level of writing. in addition, with the discovery learning model, it is expected to bring the creativity and imagination of students as well as allow them to be able to write better fiction stories. method this research is a quasi experimental with nonequivalent control group design by employing two variables, namely the learning model (x) as independent variable and the skill of fiction writing (y) as the dependent variable (setyanto, 2006; supranto, 2000). the instruments used in this research were test, observation, questionnaire, and interview. the collected data were then analyzed by using software of ms excel 2013 and predictive analytics software (pasw statistics 21) or ibmspss version 21.0. the data in the form of test result of fictional story writing skill is analyzed quantitatively by using statistical test. results and discussion initial ability profile of circ (cooperative integrated reading composition) the results showed that the initial skill profile of writing group of dl 0% learning model was in the category of very good, 0% was in good category, 3.23% was in enough category, and 96,77% were in the category need guidance. table 1 below presents a complete profile of the initial capability of writing the dl group. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 table 1. initial writing capabilities profile of dl group no criteria interval frequency percentage 1 very good 90 – 100 0 0.00 2 good 80 – 89 0 0.00 3 enough 70 – 79 1 3.33 4 need guidance < 70 29 96.67 total 30 100.00 when described in graphical form, it is presented as in figure 1 below. figure 1. initial writing capabilities profile of dl group the number of students in the category need guidance indicates that the writing ability of students is still low so that reinforcement is needed on the indicators of writing skills, especially on indicators of style and storyline development, grammatical, spelling, and neatness of writing. furthermore, if the description of the initial ability to write the dl group is outlined based on the indicator, then presented as in table 2 below. table 2. initial skills indicator profile of dl group no indicator criteria interval frequency percentage 1 scope and content very good 90 100 2 6.67 good 80 89 14 46.67 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 14 46.67 2 organization and content view very good 90 100 0 0.00 good 80 89 9 30.00 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 21 70.00 3 development of styles and story flow very good 90 100 0 0.00 good 80 89 1 3.33 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 29 96.67 4 grammatical very good 90 100 0 0.00 good 80 89 1 3.33 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 29 96.67 5 spelling very good 90 100 0 0.00 good 80 89 2 6.67 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 28 93.33 isah cahyani & lia yulindaria the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing 40 6 posts, tidiness, and hygiene very good 90 100 0 0.00 good 80 89 2 6.67 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 28 93.33 based on table 2, it can be seen that the scope and content indicator show that 6.67% are in very good category, 46.67% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 46.67% are in need guidance category. the magnitude of both categories indicates that when writing, students have written the intrinsic element of the story in the form of title/theme, background, figure, plot, complete message, and content fit properly. in the organizational indicator and content display, it is found that 0% is in very good category, 30% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 70% are in need guidance category. the magnitude of the category needs guidance on this indicator indicates that the students in this class have not been able to decipher the ideas that are interconnected with each other and yet balanced between the opening, fill and closing sections. students have not been able to compose fictional essays from the beginning to the closing. the writing is not yet orderly, neat, clear, and logical. coherence between parts is not good enough. in the indicator of style and story development, it is found that 0% is in very good category, 3.33% are in good category, 0% are in enough category, and 96,67% are in need guidance category. the size of the category needs guidance on this indicator shows that the ability to apply and write sentences of words and variations of phrases used is still very low. subjection uses only a few simple words to describe the fiction story he wrote. the development of a story that contains the creativity and imagination of the author is still very shallow and simple. in the grammatical indicator it is found that 0% is in very good category, 3.33% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 96,67% are in need guidance category. the magnitude of the categories need guidance on this indicator indicates that the effective use of sentences, the correspondence between sentences with each other, and the selection of the right word or diction is still not mastered. in the spelling indicator, it is found that 0% is in very good category, 6.67% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 93,33% are in need guidance category. the size of the categories need guidance on this indicator indicates that students have not mastered the rules of writing, writing is often confusing, a lot of spelling errors, and there is often the use of less precise punctuation. in the indicator of writing, tidiness, and cleanliness, it is found that 0% is in very good category, 6.67% is in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 93,33% is in need guidance category. the size of the category need guidance on this indicator indicates that the student's writing is still a lot of unreadable letters, letter size and position of the letter is not as it should be, and the writing sheet that looks dirty. when being described in graphical form, it is presented as in figure 2 below. figure 2. initial skills indicator profile of dl group indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 the final capability profile of dl model group the results showed that the final writing ability profile of dl group are 73,33% learning model group is in very good category, 26.67% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. the following 3 presents the complete profile of the end group writing dl capabilities. table 3. final writing capabilities profile of dl group no criteria interval frequency percentage 1 very good 90 – 100 22 73.33 2 good 80 – 89 8 26.67 3 enough 70 – 79 0 0.00 4 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 total 30 100.00 when being described in graphical form, it is presented as in figure 3 below. figure 3. final writing capabilities profile of dl group furthermore, if the description of the final writing capability of the dl group is outlined based on the indicator, it is presented as in table 4 below. table 4. final writing capabilities profile of dl group no indicator criteria interval frequency percentage 1 scope and content very good 90 100 26 86.67 good 80 89 4 13.33 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 2 organization and content view very good 90 100 25 83.33 good 80 89 5 16.67 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 3 development of styles and story flow very good 90 100 11 36.67 good 80 89 19 63.33 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 4 grammatical very good 90 100 15 50.00 good 80 89 15 50.00 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 5 spelling very good 90 100 15 50.00 good 80 89 15 50.00 isah cahyani & lia yulindaria the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing 42 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 6 posts, tidiness, and hygiene very good 90 100 16 53.33 good 80 89 14 46.67 enough 70 79 0 0.00 need guidance < 70 0 0.00 based on table 4, it is found that in the scope and content indicator, 86.67% are in very good category, 13.33% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. in the organizational indicator and content patch, it is found that 83.33% are in very good category, 16.67% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. in the indicator of style and story development, it is found that 36.67% are in very good category, 63.33% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. in the grammatical indicator, it is found that 50% are in very good category, 50% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. in the spelling indicator, it is found that 50% are in very good category, 50% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. in the indicator of writing, tidiness, and cleanliness, it is found that 53.33% are in very good category, 46.67% are in good category, 0% is in enough category, and 0% is in need guidance category. when being described in graphical form, it is presented as in figure 4 below. graph 4. final writing capabilities profile of dl group this dl model is able to improve students’ writing skill because it gives students the opportunity to conduct their own experiments and practice in writing. as hoogeveen (2016) state students should be given plenty of opportunities to experiment with physical objects, supported by interactions with many elements, and assisted by teacher questions. teachers should provide stimulus to students to interact with the environment and actively seek and find things in the environment. the dl model provides students with opportunities to actively and effectively learn. the dl model provides a range of learning conditions and situations in the form of direct and actual experience involvement designed by the teacher (humphrey, 2014; anam, 2015; ausubel, 1971). the dl model directs students to gain more experience and effectiveness through direct and personal engagement. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 according to dewey, learning is the process of doing, reacting, discovering, and experiencing. students obtain learning outcomes based on activities that have been done (bower, 2014). in addition, dewey also explained that true education takes place through educational experience. the experiences that students have experienced have an important role in the formation of cognitive knowledge in the minds of students. learning based on experience also conforms to the ausubel concept of meaningful learning. according to ausubel, meaningful learning will occur if the new information received by students has a close relationship with existing concepts that have been received previously and stored in the cognitive structure. ausubel explains that experience gives students a way to find understanding instead of accepting understanding (dahar, 2011). therefore, dl affects the writing skills of students. each experience gives meaning so that students can write ideas about the information and experience it (bicknell-holmes & hoffman, 2000; bruner, 1961). another impact of this dl model is that students follow the lesson with enthusiasm and joy. enthusiasm when learning occurs because students gain a pleasant learning experience such as visiting the library, conducting interviews, and finding information through surfing the internet. student involvement in learning will provide experience so that students can construct their own knowledge. this is in line with kolb's theory that learning is a process for building knowledge through a series of concrete and abstract experiences (tomkins & ulus, 2016). the learning process takes place internally so that the learning process leads to the achievement of the objectives and curriculum so the teacher must plan with a systematic learning experience that allows changes in student behavior in accordance with what is expected. teachers’ efforts to create conditions that enable student learning to take place are optimally visible in dl learning. learning with the discovery learning model facilitates a learning process that enables students to develop themselves, their knowledge, understanding, behavior and skills they master (holland, holyoak, nisbett, & thagard, 1986; mayer, 2004). teachers are in charge of helping students by manipulating the environment so that students can learn easily. teachers held the selection of various strategies and learning models that exist and most likely to optimize student learning process (munawaroh, 2013). based on analysis, it was revealed that learning with the dl model has a tremendous impact on improving students’ fiction writing skills. by applying the dl learning model, students perform increased levels of exploration, classification, and greater use of data as well as their imagination, selection of vocabulary, and their creativity as well. conclusion based on the theories that have been presented and coupled with the analysis of research data, it can be concluded that the empirical model of discovery learning can improve students’ fiction writing skills significantly, especially on organizational indicators and content display, the development of style and storyline, grammatical, spelling, tidiness and cleanliness of writing. the discovery learning model enables students to grow as they provide opportunities for students to conduct their own experiments, allowing students to actively and effectively learn, providing a range of learning conditions and situations in the form of direct and actual experience engagement. in addition, the discovery learning model allows students to follow the lesson with enthusiasm and joy. students’ involvement in learning will provide experience so that students can construct their knowledge. teachers play a crucial role on the success of students in learning, where teachers have to manipulate the environment so that students can learn easily. teachers need to make an election to the various strategies and models of learning that exist. based on the result of the research, the researcher can provide the isah cahyani & lia yulindaria the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing 44 following suggestions; 1) the principal is expected to participate in training, seminar, or implement lesson study about cooperative learning model so that it can be implemented in the teaching and learning process in the classroom; 2) the discovery learning model should be implemented in a class with heterogeneous student composition; and, 3) giving more opportunities for students to write stories because students’ writing will get much better by practicing. refrences alfieri, l., brooks, p. j., aldrich, n. j., & tenenbaum, h. r. 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(2012). memilah fakta dan fiksi dalam kitab suci : sebuah usaha hermeneutis. kanz philosophia : a journal for islamic philosophy and mysticism, 2(2), 221. doi: 10.20871/kpjipm.v2i2.31. rahman. (2013). pengembangan kemampuan menulis kalimat pada siswa kelas. bandung: upi press. rumelhart, d. e., & zipser, d. (1985). feature discovery by competitive learning. cognitive science, 9(1), 75–112. doi: 10.1016/s03640213(85)80010-0. silalahi, r., & haryadi, h. (2015). peningkatan pembelajaran menulis puisi bebas melalui media lagu medley siswa kelas viii smp sintang. lingtera, 2(1), 73–83. doi: 10.21831/lt.v2i1.5409. skolnik, h. (1973). truth in fiction. journal of chemical documentation, 13(3), 106. doi: 10.1021/c160050a001 soleha, y. s. (2014). pembelajaran menulis deskripsi dengan teknik pemandangan indah pada siswa sekolah dasar negeri percobaan (sdnp) cileunyi, kabupaten bandung. metalingua, jurnal penelitian bahasa, 2(1). sterling, b. (2009). design fiction. interactions, 16(3), 20. doi: 10.1145/1516016.1516021. sumasari, y. j. (2014). analisis unsur-unsur intrinsik dalam hikayat cerita taifah. desember, 4(2), 2089– 3973. supranto, j. (2000). teknik sampling untuk survey dan eksperimen. jakarta: rineka cipta. supriyadi, s. (2013). strategi learning community untuk meningkatkan keterampilan menulis wacana deskriptif siswa sd. jurnal ilmu pendidikan, 18(1), 36–47. doi: 10.17977/jip.v18i1.3381. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 1, april 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 tarigan, h. g. (2008). menulis sebagai suatu keterampilan berbahasa. bandung: angkasa. tomkins, l., & ulus, e. (2016). oh was that “experiential learning”?! spaces, synergies and surprises with kolb’s learning cycle. management learning, 47(2), 158-178. wood, j. (2008). how fiction works. retrieved from: https://doi.org/doi 10.1093/escrit/cgp014. isah cahyani & lia yulindaria the effectiveness of discovery learning model in improving students’ fiction writing 46 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 multiple intelligence and students’ learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities lilis lismaya department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: lilis.lismaya@uniku.ac.id apa citation: lismaya, l. (2020). multiple intelligence and students’ learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(1), 19-26. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v3i1.3004. received: 05-01-2020 accepted: 09-03-2020 published: 01-04-2020 abstract: this research is motivated by learning that is still dominantly carried out in the classroom, learning emphasizes more on the aspects of knowledge, so students feel bored and lack the awareness to care for the environment well, lack of concern for the surrounding environment. the ability of students who are still lacking in terms of classifying the types of plant leaves shows biology learning requires a different learning method, one of which is using the demonstration with outdoor activities method. the purpose of this study is to analyze multiple intelligence and student learning motivation through demonstration method with outdoor activities. the research method used is weak experimental research design the onegroup pretest-posttest design. the instruments used in this study were multiple intelligence questions, observation sheets and questionnaires. the results showed that the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method can increase multiple intelligence and student learning motivation, because the demonstration with outdoor activities method is learning done outside the classroom by means of students practicing and being invited to look for material learned, so learning does not feel boring. based on the results of the study, it was concluded that there was an increase in multiple intelligences and student learning motivation through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method. keywords: multiple intelligence; motivation; demonstration; outdoor activities. introduction along with the times, education has also changed. this has resulted in changes in policies in the field of education so as to cause schools to also make changes in methods and learning strategies that are appropriate to achieve the desired learning goals (herliani, 2015). improving the quality of education in schools can be done through various ways, including through curriculum improvement, increasing teacher competency, improving the quality of learning, the effectiveness of learning methods, improving the quality of learning facilities and infrastructure and adequate teaching materials (sukitman, 2015). education is a conscious and planned effort to create an atmosphere of learning and learning process so that students are actively able to develop their potential to have spiritual strength, self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character and the skills needed by themselves, society, nation and state (sudjana, 2010). learning is a conscious and deliberate effort by the teacher to make students actively learn in developing their thinking creativity. the main purpose of organizing learning activities is to teach students to be able to process and obtain knowledge, skills and attitudes for themselves. students are expected to be motivated and happy to do interesting and meaningful learning activities. this means that the learning method is very important (arends, 2008). meaningful learning will bring students to a memorable learning experience. the experience gained by students will be more memorable if the learning process they obtain is the result of their own understanding and discovery (khasanah, 2016). in this context students experience and do it themselves. the learning process that takes place fully involves students to formulate their own concepts. the involvement of lecturers is only as a facilitator and moderator in the learning process. learning activities so far have only taken place in classrooms by utilizing monotonous learning resources and have not utilized outdoor activities, so that lecturers have difficimplementing varied learning activities (erlangga, 2014). as a result, learning about plant morphology is rigid and formal. in response to these conditions, it is worth remembering paulo freire's statement which says that every mailto:lilis.lismaya@uniku.ac.id lilis lismaya multiple intelligence and students' learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities 20 place is a school, everyone is a teacher. this means that everyone is a teacher, the teacher can be anyone, anywhere, and be present at any time without limits of space, time, and any conditions (lismaya, 2011). thus anyone can become a teacher and learning does not have to take place in the classroom, because every place can be a place for learning. the paulo freire concept is very appropriate when it is connected with outdoor activities. outdoor activities can be one alternative for enriching learning resources. outdoor activities allow students to experience the concepts learned firsthand. this is because learning material is an activity that is close to the experience of students in their daily lives so that it becomes meaningful for life. learning is an activity involving teachers and students. the succes of teaching and learning process are influenced by student learning motivation. the exixtence of student learning motivation will give spirit and learning becomes more focused for students.. motivation also determines the interesf of students in learning (emda, 2017). biology is concerned with finding out about nature systematically, biology is not only the mastery of a collection of knowledge in the form of facts, concepts, or principles, but also a process of discovery. so that learning does not have to be done in the classroom alone, students do not feel confined in the room alone to achieve learning objectives, because through learning biology is expected to be a vehicle for students to learn themselves and the natural surroundings, as well as the prospects for further development in applying it in everyday life. the learning process emphasizes providing direct experience to develop competencies in order to explore and understand the nature around scientifically. biology education is directed to inquiry and acting so that it can help students to gain a deeper understanding of the natural surroundings. education is not just a way to gain knowledge, but education is an effort to increase understanding, attitudes and skills and selfdevelopment of students. this ability or competency is expected to be achieved through various learning processes in schools. one of the learning processes that can be used to achieve the above competencies is through learning outside the classroom (outdoor activities). outdoor activities are one way how we increase student learning capacity. students can learn more deeply through objects encountered than if learning in a classroom that has many limitations. furthermore, learning outside the classroom can help students apply their knowledge. in addition, outdoor activities are more challenging for students and bridging between theories in books and reality in the field (nugroho, 2016). the quality of learning in real situations will provide increased capacity for learning achievement through the object being studied and can build better social and personal skills. outdoor activities can be done at any time in accordance with the program design made by the lecturer. outdoor activities are learning that is done outside the classroom or outside the school building, or in the wild, such as playing in the environment around the school, in the park, or in the surrounding community so that knowledge and values are obtained related to the learning outcomes, for material delivered outside the classroom (rohim, 2018). outdoor activities are the approach taken by the lecturer, where the lecturer invites students to study outside the classroom to see live events in the field that are used as learning resources. the role of the lecturer here is as a motivator, meaning that the lecturer is a guide so students learn through the experience they have gained. this approach consciously exploits the potential of the natural setting to contribute to physical and mental development. by increasing awareness of reciprocal relationships with the environment, programs can change attitudes and behaviors towards the environment that they gain through hands-on experience outside the classroom. second, the concept of outdoor activities is an approach using outdoor life that provides many opportunities for students to acquire and master various forms of basic skills, attitudes and appreciation of various things that are outside the classroom. dual intelligence is based on biological potential, which is then expressed as a result of genetic and environmental factors that influence each other (gangadevi, 2014). howard gardner expands the scope of human potential beyond the limits of iq scores through multiple intelligence theories. multiple intelligence is the ability to solve problems or create an effective or valuable product in a certain background (hasan, 2017). some previous studies on outdoor activities that have been carried include the research done by asiah (2014), namely the application of outdoor activities in science learning to improve student learning outcomes. from these studies the result obtained that student’s cognitive learning indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 completeness classically has increased. likewise with the affective and psychomotor learning outcomes of students has increased also. in addition, similar research has also been done by nababan (2019), which is about the aplication of outdoor activity learning models in improving student’s learning outcomes. from these studies the results obtained that the learning outcomes of class xi students of sman 1 pahae julu tapanuli regency increases through the use of outdoor activity learning models. it is proved by the increased value of student completeness. the two previous studies provide input for researcher conduct further research by modifiying learning methods anf determining different dependent variables, with the hope that they can both achieve the stated reseearch objectives. the research that i did was “multiple intelligence and students’ learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities”. this research is important to investigate because so far there are still many students who feel bored and less motivated in learning due to the use of learning methods that are not in accordance with the characteristics of the material and students. therefore i feel interested to do this research. method the research method used in this study is weak experimental with the research design of the one-group pretest-posttest design (fraenkel, 2007). this study only used experimental class given treatment to assess the effect of the treatment without comparing with control class. the design of the research design is as follows: table 1. research design the one-group pretestposttest design o pretest x treatment o posttest the populations in this study were all students of biology education study programs, kuningan university, totaling 98 students. the sample used in this study was taken by purposive sampling of 1 class, namely the level of 1 semester one of the students of biology education study program fkip kuningan university with a total of 16 students namely students who are taking plant morphology courses. the instrument used was a written test in the form of essay questions, which contained indicators to measure multiple intelligence, observation sheets and questionnaires. tests are given at the beginning and end of learning. observation sheets are used to analyze multiple intelligences of students. questionnaire is to measure students’ motivation. data processing and analysis is performed by statistical tests, activities include scoring for pretest and posttest, calculating n-gain, data analysis using statistical package for social science (spss) for windows version 16.0. results and discussion the results of the validity and instrument reliability tests get the data described in table 2. table 2. the result of trial validity and reliability no statistic test score remark 1. validity test 0,56 moderate 2. reliability test 0,60 moderate the results of the trial analysis which included the validity test showed a value of 0.56 meaning that all multiple intelligence questions had moderate validity. the reliability test results showed a value of 0.60 meaning that overall the multiple intelligence questions had medium category reliability. based on the results of the validity and reliability test, it can be concluded that the multiple intelligence problem can be used as an instrument in further research. to find out how to apply the demonstration with outdoor activities method to multiple intellegencies and student motivation, the results of pre-test and post-test was tested. the following in table 3 presented the results of the average pre-test and post-test experimental class. table 3. the average result of pre-test and posttest of multiple intellegencies class number of students multiple intellegencies pre test average post test average experimental class 16 72,6 76,35 table 3 shows the average pretest results of the experimental class is 72.6. after learning by using the demonstration with outdoor activities method, then a post test is given to see the multiple intelligences and student motivation. lilis lismaya multiple intelligence and students' learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities 22 the post test results showed the number 76.35 with a maximum value of 83. the results of the analysis of multiple intelligences of students based on the pre-test and post-test average values can also be seen in figure 1. figure 1. the average of pre test dan post test from the results of statistical tests, the data obtained were normally distributed and homogeneous, so the hypothesis testing was carried out using the parametric statistical t test, the independent sample test. t test was conducted to determine the significance level of the difference in the experimental class compared to kkm in plant morphology. the results of testing with a complete multiple intelligence t test can be seen in table 4. table 4. the result of t test of multiple intelligence data source class average score significance α remark post test eksperimen 73 0,000 0,05 significant difference kkm 70 based on table 4.5 it can be seen that the results of the t test show a significance of 0.00 <α (α = 0.05), so it can be concluded that there is a significant multiple intelligence difference in the experimental class compared to the kkm of plant morphology courses. based on the results of the analysis of the overall experimental class in the t test, it showed that there were significant differences in multiple intelligence compared to kkm in plant morphology. both of these indicate that there is an effect of applying the method demonstration with outdoor activities on learning plant morphology towards multiple student intelligence on leaf material and plant branching patterns. to find out the increase in multiple intelligence results in the experimental class as a whole based on the results of the pre-test and post-test, calculated using the n-gain formula and then classified. the recapitulation of n-gain calculation results is described in table 5. table 5. the result of n-gain test class score category eexperiment 0,5 medium from table 5 above it can be seen that the ngain value obtained in the experimental class as a whole is 0.5 in the medium category, meaning that the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method in learning plant morphology can increase student multiple intelligence by 0.5 in the medium category. furthermore, normality and homogeneity were tested for the multiple intelligence gain of students. normality and homogeneity tests are used as a prerequisite for subsequent statistical tests. the results of the normality test calculation of the gain value of the problem solving skills of the experimental class as a whole are shown in table 6. table 6. the result of normality test of n-gain data tes multiple intelligence p-value α remark n_gain 0,5 0,05 normal indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 the results of data normality testing with kolmogorov-smirnov results obtained experimental class gain values derived from populations that are normally distributed with a p-value of 0.50 greater than α = 0.05. = 0.05 and obtained the p-value as presented in table 7. table 7. the result of homogeneity test of n-gain data n multiple intelligence p-value α remark n_gain 16 0,5 0,05 homogenous based on table 7 it is known that the multiple intelligence gain value of students at the significance level α = 0.05 meets the p-value criterion α α = 0.05, this means that the data variance is homogeneous. from the results of statistical tests, the data obtained were normally distributed and homogeneous, so the hypothesis testing was carried out using the parametric statistical t test, the independent sample test. t test was conducted to determine the level of significance of increasing multiple intelligence of students, t test results showed a significance of 0.00 <α (α = 0.05), so it can be concluded that an increase in student multiple intelligence after the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method in learning plant morphology. multiple intelligence in this study includes several indicators, including based on the results of analysis of tests given to students, namely: a) classifying nature; b) conducting an investigation (hands-on investigation); c) conducting simulations (nature simulations); d) caring for nature; e) sensitive to natural phenomena (natural patterns) (lazear, 2004). based on the results of the researchers' analysis, it turns out that through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method, it can be seen that students' ability to classify nature, especially the types of leaves and plant branching patterns in kuningan botanical garden (krk) has increased, this can be seen from the results of the student's post test and observation sheets. used during the learning. likewise, the ability of students in conducting investigations both individuals and groups appears to increase, they look more enthusiastic in conducting investigations in the open space. based on the results of researchers' observations, it appears that students also look more concerned and sensitive to nature, because through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method students are trained to love nature more, not to damage nature. they are also more enthusiastic in planning conservation activities for the environment. multiple intelligence is the intelligence possessed by individuals towards plants, animals and the surrounding natural environment. individuals who have high multiple intelligences will have high interest and love for plants and animals of the universe. he will not carelessly cut trees. he will not carelessly kill and torture animals. and he will also tend to maintain the environment where he is. he will love plants, animals and the environment as he loves himself. this is a high naturalist intelligence (lazear, 2004). in this study a measurement of student learning motivation was carried out through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method. measurements were made through giving questionnaires to experimental class students. the questionnaire made included 6 indicators which were then developed into several questions. a recap of the percentage of student motivation through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method to learning plant morphology is shown in figure 2. figure 2. the result of students’ motivation questionnaire lilis lismaya multiple intelligence and students' learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities 24 based on figure 2, it can be seen that almost all indicators of student motivation show relatively high numbers. as for the motivational indicators measured include 6 indicators according to uno (2011), namely: 1) the existence of a desire to learn, 2) the existence of encouragement and needs in learning, 3) the hopes or ideals of the future, 4) the existence of rewards in learning, 5) the existence of interesting activities in learning, 6) the existence of a conducive learning environment. the first indicator is the existence of a desire to learn, from the results of the questionnaire seen that there are 15 students who agree that the implementation of demonstration with outdoor activities can increase student learning desires. this is consistent with the results of field observations that students look enthusiastic when observing demonstrations of leaf shape recognition, leaf reinforcement, and stem branching patterns. because they can see and practice directly the observation of plant morphology in kuningan botanical garden. the second motivational indicator is the existence of encouragement and needs in learning. the results of the questionnaire showed 10 students who agreed that through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method, it could increase the motivation and learning needs of students. although this figure shows the lowest number when compared with other motivational indicators. however, this still shows an increase in motivation in students. the third indicator is the existence of hopes or ideals of the future showing the number 13 students who agreed that the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method can increase their motivation to learn because they have hopes and ideals in the future. likewise with the fourth indicator which is the appreciation of learning. 11 students agreed that this appreciation in learning could increase student motivation, because they felt valued and recognized for their abilities. the fifth indicator is the presence of interesting activities in learning, and the sixth indicator is the existence of a conducive learning environment. all students agreed that the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method could increase student motivation, especially because through learning outside the classroom they felt more interested in learning, because the learning environment was conducive so that learning activities were not monotonous like when they studied in class. they have a greater chance to explore all their competencies. this is in line with research conducted by lismaya (2018) regarding outdoor activities that outdoor activities can improve student multiple intelligence, especially naturalist intelligence in learning plant morphology. conclusion based on the results of the study, it was concluded that there was an increase in multiple intelligences and student learning motivation through the application of the demonstration with outdoor activities method. this is evidenced by the results of the n gain test which shows a value of 0.5 means that there is a significant increase of multiple intelligence students. indicators of multiple intelligence measured and experiencing improvements in this study include 1) classifying nature; 2) conducting an investigation (hands-on investigation); 3) conducting simulations (nature simulations); 4) caring for nature; 5) being sensitive to natural phenomena (natural patterns). increased motivation is evidenced through the results of the analysis of student motivation questionnaires covering the six motivational indicators, namely 1) the desire to learn, 2) the encouragement and needs in learning, 3) the hopes or ideals of the future, 4) the existence of appreciation in learning, 5) there are interesting activities in learning, 6) the existence of a conducive learning environment. based on the results of the study, then i give a few suggestions to complete this research, including: 1) when learning, good time management is needed between each stage of learning demonstration with outdoor activities and at the end of the activity needs to be strengthened concepts., 2) when determining the place for learning, it should be adjusted to the learning material to be discussed so that it is right on target. references anderson, l.w. & d.r. krathwohl. ( 2001). kerangka landasan untuk pembelajaran, pengajaran dan asesmen agung prihantoro (penerjemah). yogyakarta : pustaka pelajar. ardimen. (2016). pengembangan multiple intelligence melalui pembelajaran integratif berbasis games. jurnal edukasi, 2(2), 107-129. arends, r.i. (2008). learning to teach (seventh edition). new york: mc graw-hill companies. arikunto, s. (2007). dasar-dasar evaluasi pendidikan. jakarta: bumi aksara. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 asiah. (2014). penerapan metode outdoor activity dalam pembelajaran ipa untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa sekolah dasar. jpgsd, 02(3), 1-11. blum., niss, b., & stein, b. s. (2010). how to assess higher-order thingking skills in your classroom. alexandria: virginia usa, ascd. emda, a. (2017). kedudukan motivasi belajar siswa dalam pembelajaran. lantanida journal, 5(2), 93-196. erlangga, a. (2014). pengaruh metode pembelajaran demonstrasi terhadap minat belajar siswa kelas x di smk negeri 3 singaraja. e jurnal jjpte, 3(1), 125-135. fraenkel, j. r & wallen, n. e. (2007). how to design and evaluate reseach in education. san francisco: mcgraw-hill higer education. gangadevi.s, ravi. (2014). multiple intelligence based curriculum to enhance inclusive education to bring out human potential. international journal of advanced research. 2(8), 619-626. hasan, n. (2017). penerapan multiple intelligences guna menumbuh kembangkan kreatifitas siswasiswi di smk kartika grati, kabupaten pasuruan. jurnal kajian islam, 2(1), 134-142. herliani, r.n. (2015). penerapan metode demonstration with outdoor activities dalam mata pelajaran sosiologi materi perilaku menyimpang untuk meningkatkan motivasi dan hasil belajar siswa kelas x ips man kota blitar. jurnal penelitian sosial dan ekonomi kehutanan. 2(1). khasanah, dwiastuti, & nurmiyati. (2016). the influence of guided discovery learning model toward scientific literacy based on naturalist intelligence. proceeding biology education conference. 13(1), 346-351. lazear, d. (2004). higher-order thinking the multiple intelligences way. chicago : zephyr press. lismaya, l. (2011). penerapan pembelajaran everyone is a teacher here pengaruhnya terhadap kemampuan argumentasi dan prestasi mahasiswa biologi (tingkat i) fkip uniku. quagga jurnal pendidikan dan biologi. 3(1), 35-45. lismaya, l. (2018). improving student’s naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on plant morphology learning. indonesian journal of learning & instruction. 1(1), 47-52. nababan. (2019). penerapan model pembelajaran outdoor activity dalam meningkatkan hasil belajar geografi. jurnal global edukasi, 3(1), 1318. nugroho, hanik. (2016). implementation of outdoor learning to improve students cognitive learning outcomes on high plant systematics course. bioedukasi. 9(1), 41-44. rohim, asmana. (2018). efektivitas pembelajaran di luar kelas (outdoor activities) dengan pendekatan pmri. jurnal elektronik pembelajaran matematika. 5(3), 217-229. sudjana, n. (2010). dasar-dasar proses belajar mengajar. bandung: sinar baru algesindo. sugiyono. 2010. metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. sukitman. (2015). konsep pembelajaran multiple intelligence dalam pendidikan ips di sekolah dasar. jurnal ilmiah fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, 18(1), 1-12. wibawa, c. (2007). perbedaan efektivitas metode demonstrasi dengan pemutaran video pemberantasan dbd terhadap peningkatan pengetahuan dan sikap siswa. jurnal promosi kesehatan indonesia, 2(2), 145-156. uno, b.h. (2011). teori motivasi dan pengukurannya: analisis di bidang pendidikan. jakarta: bumi aksara. lilis lismaya multiple intelligence and students' learning motivation through demonstration with outdoor activities 26 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria augustine c. ukwueze faculty of education, national open university of nigeria, lagos office, victoria island e-mail: acukwueze@gmail.com apa citation: ukwueze, a. c. (2018). availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(2), 11-20. received: 07-06-2018 accepted: 13-08-2018 published: 01-10-2018 abstract: the emergence of technology has made it possible for counsellors all over the world to reach their clients in distant locations without compromising the principle of confidentiality. this study examined the availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms in counselling students for quality distance learning in the national open university of nigeria (noun). through purposive research design using 56 professional counsellors in the university, five research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. data collection was through a self-structured questionnaire that sought information from the respondents on the availability, utilization, challenges and possible solutions to e-counselling platforms in noun. both descriptive and inferential statistical tools were used to analyse the data using the spss platform. the results of the study showed that most of the modern social media platforms for e-counselling are not available for use in the university. in effect, there are challenges that face the utilization of e-counselling platforms, which include inadequate power supply and lack of ict facilities. the study recommended the provision of alternative power supply, free data for students and counsellors as well as computerized counselling laboratories with internet connections for students and counsellors in all the study centres of the university. keywords: availability; utilization; e-counselling; distance learning. introduction the introduction of open and distance education all over the world came as a means of providing learning processes otherwise monopolized by conventional institutions. this, to a large extent, was aimed at providing easy access to education for people that yearn for quality education especially at the tertiary level but were hitherto denied the opportunity. thus, the globalization of distance education provides many opportunities for the realization of educational goals of nations especially the developing countries (unesco, 2002). nigeria is one of such developing countries that has embraced open and distance education as a way of providing quality education to people. hence, the national open university of nigeria (noun) was statutorily established to provide open and distance education in nigeria with a view to ensuring that a vast majority of nigerians, who were hitherto denied higher education for one reason or the other, acquire qualitative education at affordable cost (federal republic of nigeria, 2004). the emergence of ict facilities has given birth to the emergence of contemporary means of imparting knowledge to the people especially in eeducation and other human endeavours (apagu & wakili, 2015).it has also revolutionalised the operations and processes of delivering teaching and learning processes. in nigeria, distance education is gradually gaining upper hand due to the failing in pedagogical methods occasioned by poor training received by most teachers and overemphasis on teacher-pupil interaction at the expense of pupil-pupil and augustine c. ukwueze availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria 12 pupil-material interactions (odeleye, 2009). this has led to several conventional universities in nigeria transforming themselves into dual mode universities in order to provide students with the best and most up-to-date educational resources. today, the national open university of nigeria (noun) and the national teachers’ institute at kaduna are the only institutions that provide single mode distance education while seven conventional universities have been given the approval to operate as dual mode institutions. these dual mode universities are the ahmadu bello university, zaria, university of nigeria, nsukka, university of ibadan, ibadan, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, university of lagos, akoka-lagos, university of maiduguri, maiduguri and the modibbo adama university of technology, yola. the national universities commission (nuc) accredits courses and programmes undertaken by these universities to ensure quality and uniformity. a vital component of open and distance education all over the world is the learner support services with counselling as a major tool for students’ retention and academic achievement (ukwueze, 2016). learner support services via counselling in open education provides intervention to students on academic programmes, adjustment to family life for better performance, reinforcement of confidence, self-esteem and progress, eradication of social vices, vocational information, and study guide (tai, 2003; nnaka & ezekannagha, 2013). counselling ensures that learners are welladjusted to face their studies and avoid the temptation of dropping out of their programmes. tahir (2016) asserts that counselling in open education aims at covering learners in their diverse locations through course registration, registration for examinations, facilitation of courses, study guide, interpersonal relationships, missing scores and results and general enquiries about the scope and acceptability of open education. as a result of the spatial and diverse location of learners in open education, the traditional face-to-face counselling is becoming obsolete in the face of the current revolution in technology. okopi (2010) opines that the present face-to-face counselling is inadequate to meet students’ inquiries, complaints and counselling needs in the face of the present evolution of internet based technology. consequently, modern life has changed what students should learn, how learning should happen, where and when learning can happen (ayiro, 2013). this calls for online counselling, which allows for virtual interactions where counsellors interact with more learners simultaneously at different locations (ojo, 2013; & okopi, 2010). similarly, tahir (2016) posits that open education is a technology-driven and student-centred programme where learners should not be left to their devices alone as they often need assistance in tackling problems that may ensue in the process. despite these benefits of online counselling, it is unfortunate to observe that the traditional method of faceto-face counselling is still in vogue in most of the institutions that operate distance education. perhaps, this could be as a result of lack of ubiquitous access to the internet and university resources at home, school or at work in nigeria. therefore, having established that e-counselling or online counselling is imperative in achieving accessible, flexible and quality education as seen in the literature so far, it is desirable to state that e-counselling must be utilized for quality learning in open and distance education. kolog (2014) defines e-counselling as an electronic way of receiving supportive counselling through various forms of social media such as e-mail, webcam, telephone and digital games. ukwueze (2016) states that e-counselling could be referred to as online counselling, internet counselling, computer-based counselling, automated counselling or virtual counselling, which makes use of ict facilities to aid people who are separated geographically and over a indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 period of time like in open education situation. there are several platforms through which trained counsellors can reach their students. brown (2012) categorizes online counselling platforms into asynchronous and synchronous modalities. the asynchronous modalities are e-mailing, message boards, and web logs where the counsellor and the counsellee need not to be at the computer at the same time but may consider how and when to respond to the counselling interaction (yaphe & speyer, 2010). the synchronous online counselling interactions involve written or spoken dialogue in “real time” where the counsellor and the counsellee have access to a computer engaging in instant messaging and videoconferencing (derrig-palumbo, 2010). other platforms include e-mail, videoconferencing, web-based messaging, twitter, telephone services, chat, short message system (sms), face book, optical video disk, g-mail, whatsapp, google talk, skype, and blogs (zamani, 2009; shiller, 2009; okoregbe, 2013; kolog, 2014; apagu & wakili. 2015; & ukwueze, 2016). in a study by green and yallow (2002), it was observed that counsellors use ict facilities in e-counselling to generate high level of enthusiasm and commitment during the counselling process as well as increased reasoning ability of learners, increased attention and concentration. shiran (2001) earlier found that investment in the ecounselling facilities during counselling is a big boost in counselling and other support services. anyamene, nwokolo and anyachebelu (2012) assert that counsellors utilize ict facilities for e-counselling and general education in japan, malaysia, spain and israel, which has shown great impact on students’ education. however, these researchers found that ict resources are not often used in counselling students to improve their learning in the conventional universities in southeast nigeria as only 10% of the population used for their study could engage in online counselling. this study found that inadequate telecommunication, lack of stand by generators, constant power failure, limited number of computers and lack of internet services in schools affect the implementation of ict facilities in counselling. the result of the study further shows that ict counselling could be enhanced through alternative power supply, provision of internet outlet, adequate computers and furniture. brown (2012) in a study on the attitude and potential utilization of online counselling by college students found promising student interest with 28.9% of them utilizing online counselling. he also found gender differences consistent with counselling literature which emerged for face-to-face counselling but not for online counselling. in all, brown (2012) found that online counselling is easily available for students in colleges; and that many students often use face-to-face counselling to complement online counselling. in a study on the use of ict facilities in teaching and learning, apagu and wakili (2015) observed that ict facilities are not adequate for use with irregular power supply as a major challenge facing their application. similarly, ukwueze (2016) identified unsteady power supply, poverty, poor network coverage and outright outage, problem of confidentiality, poor attitude towards the use of computers and inadequate computer literacy as major challenges facing the use of e-counselling in open education. in a recent study, omeje, eze and egeonu (2016) found that e-counselling facilities are available for career information dissemination in the federal universities in southeast nigeria with students using social networks in sourcing and disseminating information than their counsellors. they found significant convenience in the use and easy accessibility to information via ecounselling. the literature reviewed so far indicate inconsistency on the availability and utilization of e-counselling in the school system. literature is either scanty or nonexistent on this issue in africa and other developing parts of the world where distance learning has been embraced. besides, none augustine c. ukwueze availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria 14 of the studies was particular about the extent of availability and utilization of ecounselling platforms in open and distance education in nigeria. it is in realization of this gap that this study sought to investigate the availability and utilization of ecounselling platforms for quality distance education in nigeria. it is quite uncertain about the extent of the availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms in counselling students in the national open university of nigeria (noun) despite the imperativeness and universal acceptance of the platforms all over the world. based on the literature review above, this study focus into five research questions as follows: (1) which e-counselling platforms are available for counselling students in the national open university of nigeria (noun)?; (2) what is the extent of utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling students in noun?; (3) to what extent are instant messaging and chat platforms used in e-counselling platforms for counselling students in noun?; (4) what are the challenges facing the use of ecounselling platforms in counselling students in noun?; (5) what are the possible solutions to the challenges facing the use of e-counselling platforms in counselling students in noun? furthermore, this study has two hypothesis which is formulated to guide this study, they are: (1) there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female counsellors on the availability of e-counselling platforms for counselling in the noun; (2) there is no significant difference between the mean scores of young and experienced counsellors on the utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling in noun. method the study was carried out in the study centres and the department of educational foundations of the national open university of nigeria (noun), using purposive research design. thus, the population of the study comprised all the 69 student counsellors in the study centres of the noun across the country and the academic counsellors of the department of educational foundations, noun. however, 56 of the counsellors at the study centres and the department of educational foundations who returned their completed questionnaires were used for the study. an instrument entitled: availability and utilization of ecounselling facilities inventory (auefi) was constructed and validated for data collection. a total of 50 items out of 68 survived the careful scrutiny undertaken by two experts in guidance and counselling, which were used to construct the final instrument. the instrument sought for information from the respondents on their bio-data, availability of e-counselling platforms, utilization of ecounselling platforms, extent of usage of instant messaging and chat facilities, challenges of e-counselling and possible solutions to e-counselling challenges. the items in the second part of the instrument after the bio-data were placed on two-point rating scale of available and not available. four-point rating scales of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree were used for the remaining clusters of the instrument with assigned weight of 4, 3, 2 and 1 points respectively. the instrument was further administered to 30 counsellors in secondary schools who were not part of this study on two occasions after an interval of three weeks. thereafter, the two sets of scores obtained were subjected to correlation coefficient analysis, which yielded a result of 0.97 to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. results and discussion e-counselling platforms available for counselling students in the national open university of nigeria the analysis showed that the e-counselling platforms available for counselling students in the national open university of nigeria (noun) are e-mail, internet connections, cellular phones, computers for internet services, audio recorder and free data for counsellors. the respondents did not differ indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 in their opinions as the standard deviation ranges from 0.25 to 0.50. the details can be seen in table 1. table 1. availability status of e-counselling platforms in noun s/n items mean std.dev. remarks 1. e-mail 1.73 .44 av 2. videoconferencing network 1.27 .44 na 3. weblogs 1.07 .25 na 4. internet connections 1.60 .49 av 5. java 1.01 .03 na 6. cd-rom 1.47 .50 na 7. cellular phone 1.73 .44 av 8. computers for internet services 1.53 .50 av 9. free data for counsellors 1.67 .50 av 10. audio recorder 1.62 .47 av 11. counselling data base management system 1.33 .47 na 12. computerized counselling room 1.07 .25 na 13. blogs 1.07 .25 na 14. microcomputers for students 1.20 .40 na av = available; na = not available the extent of utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling students in noun the analysis indicated that counsellors in noun utilize whatsapp, facebook, android phones, chatting devices, sms, audio recorder and e-mail as e-counselling platforms to interact with their students online. thus, counselors and students often chat using the above platforms. the overall data is shown in table 2. table 2. utilization of e-counselling platforms s/n items mean std. dev. remarks 1. whatsapp is used by counsellors and students to interact 3.60 .88 accepted 2. interaction with counsellors is through face book 2.60 1.08 accepted 3. android phones are often used for counselling 3.13 .88 accepted 4. counsellors and students often engage in chatting 3.33 .69 accepted 5. sms is always used for interaction 3.53 .81 accepted 6. twitter is used for counselling 2.33 .94 rejected 7. counsellors use skype to counsel their students 2.00 .89 rejected 8. microsoft messenger is often used for counselling 2.27 .99 rejected 9. students use blogs to interact with counsellors 2.13 1.02 rejected 10. counsellors use audio recorder in counselling 2.73 .99 accepted 11. videoconferencing is used by counsellors and students 1.87 .88 rejected 12. counsellors and students use e-mail to interact 3.40 .80 accepted extent to which instant messaging and chat platforms used in e-counselling platforms for counselling students in noun the data in table 3 below indicated that chat, sms, and whatsapp are the major instant messaging and chatting platforms often used by counselors for counsellors in e-counselling interactions with students. face book and microsoft messenger were used but not often or regularly in counselling students. augustine c. ukwueze availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria 16 table 3. extent of usage of instant message and chat in noun s/n items mean std. dev. remarks 1. chat 2.93 1.24 ou 2. sms 3.53 .72 ou 3. face book 2.33 1.01 nou 4. twitter 1.80 .91 ru 5. whatsapp 3.20 1.05 ou 6. skype 1.67 .87 ru 7. microsoft messenger 2.13 .96 nou ou = often used; nou = not often used; ru = rarely used the challenges faced in using ecounselling platforms in counselling students in noun the data in table 4 below show that all the items were accepted as the challenges facing the use of e-counselling platforms in counselling students in noun. besides, the standard deviation ranges from 0.40 to 1.02 to ascertain the close affinity of the respondents on their views about the challenges facing the use of e-counselling platforms in counselling students in noun. table 4. challenges of e-counselling in noun s/n challenges mean std. dev. remarks 1. inadequate public power supply 3.60 .80 accepted 2. irregular power supply 3.80 .40 accepted 3. poor internet services 3.67 .59 accepted 4. inadequate computers for students’ use 3.33 .60 accepted 5. poor knowledge of computer application by students 2.93 .88 accepted 6. poor knowledge of computer application by counsellors 3.07 .93 accepted 7. lack of computer laboratories 3.20 .83 accepted 8. expensive nature of computers 3.13 .72 accepted 9. network outages 2.87 1.02 accepted 10. lack of awareness of the availability of ecounselling facilities 3.0 .82 accepted the possible solutions to the challenges faced in using e-counselling platforms in counselling students in noun from the data presented in table 5 below, it was observed that all the items were possible solutions to the numerous challenges facing the application of e-counselling services in noun. the standard deviation ranges from 0.44 to 1.05 to indicate the close affinity of the respondents on their opinions. table 5. possible solutions to e-counselling challenges in noun s/n possible solutions mean std. dev. remarks 1. provision of stand by generators 3.73 .44 accepted 2. training of counsellors on the use of computers 3.60 .61 accepted 3. provision of ict laboratories with internet facilities 3.27 .99 accepted 4. provision of free data to students and counsellors 3.67 .60 accepted 5. scholarship awards to indigent students 3.20 1.05 accepted 6. awareness about computer usage during orientation 3.47 .62 accepted 7. provision of adequate computers for students’ use 3.27 .77 accepted table 6. the t-test analysis of the mean scores of respondents on gender basis gender number mean std. dev. df t-cal. sig. male 17 1.29 .45 54 .46 ns female 39 1.37 .48 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 the data in table 6 indicate that the tcalculated (0.46) is not significant at 0.05 probability level. thus, the hypothesis of no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female counsellors on the availability of e-counselling platforms for counselling in noun is hereby accepted. the implication of this result is that gender did not influence the opinions of the respondents on the availability of ecounselling platforms for counselling in noun. table 7. the t-test analysis of the mean scores of respondents on years of experience years of experience number mean std. dev. df t-cal. sig. young counsellors 36 2.72 1.03 54 .403 ns experienced counsellors 20 2.81 1.11 the data in table 7 showed that the tcalculated (0.403) was not significant at 0.05 probability level. thus, the hypothesis of no significant difference between the mean scores of young and experienced counsellors on the utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling in noun is hereby accepted. by implication, counsellors’ years of experience did not influence their opinions on the utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling in noun. the results of the study showed that very few social media platforms are available for e-counselling in the national open university of nigeria (noun). these ecounselling platforms for the online interactions among counselors and students were e-mail, internet connections, cellular phones, computers, audio recorder and free data for counselors. these discoveries were in consonant with the observations of okoroegbe (2013) and ukwueze (2016) that few of these platforms are available for online counselling. however, the results corroborated with the assertions of apagu and wakili (2015) and anyamene, nwokolo and anyachebelu (2012) that ict facilities are not adequately available for online counselling in nigerian tertiary institutions. another discovery of the study was the extent of utilization of some e-counselling platforms for counselling students in noun. the only e-counselling platforms utilized by counselors in interacting with students are whatsapp, face book, android phones, audio recorder and e-mail. this discovery agreed with the findings of zamani (2009), shiller (2009) and kolog (2014) which state that these mentioned platforms were actually used in online counselling. the instant messaging and chat platforms used in ecounselling are chats, sms, and whatsapp as discovered by this study. face book was used for e-counselling but not as often as in other cultures. this was in agreement with the assertions of okoroegbe (2013) and kolog (2014) that instant messaging and chat platforms were used to facilitate online counselling for better learning in distance education. the challenges of e-counselling in noun as identified by this study include inadequate public power supply, poor internet services, inadequate computers, poor knowledge of computer application by students, lack of computer laboratories for counselling at the study centres, expensive nature of computers, network outages, and lack of awareness of the availability of ecounselling facilities by students. to alleviate these challenges, the study found that the problems could be surmounted through the provision of alternative power supply using stand by generators, provision of adequate computers, provision of adequate internet outlets, training of counselors and students on the use of computers, provision of ict laboratories, provision of free data to students, scholarship awards to indigent students and creation of awareness about computer usage in counselling during students’ orientation. this discovery was in tandem with the observations of anyamene, nwokolo and anyachebelu (2012), apagu and wakili (2015) and ukwueze (2016). also, the study revealed no significant gender differences in the opinions of augustine c. ukwueze availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria 18 counsellors on the availability of ecounselling platforms for counselling in noun. this agrees with the assertion of brown (2012) that online counselling was easily available for students irrespective of gender differences in colleges. similarly, both the young and the experienced counsellors in noun agree on the extent of utilization of e-counselling platforms for counselling in the institution. conclusion the use of social media in online counselling is yet to permeate into counselling practices in noun. from the results of the study, most of the recent or modern e-counselling platforms used in other countries especially the advanced world are yet to be embraced by nigerian counsellors and other workers in noun and perhaps other tertiary institutions in the country. with the inconsistency on the literature reviewed for this study, it became imperative to embark on this study. several e-counselling platforms are not available for counsellors to interact with their students. ecounselling is fraught with inadequate power supply, inadequate computers, network outages and poor knowledge of computer applications among counsellors and students. for effective e-counselling interactions, there should be alternative power supply, adequate computers and free data to students and counsellors. therefore, there is need for counsellors and students to be exposed to modern e-counselling platforms like videoconferencing, counselling data base management system, web-based messaging, blogs, microsoft messenger and subsidized android phones to students and counsellors. similarly, there should be ict laboratories with internet facilitiesin all the study centres of noun to ensure frequent studentcounsellor interactions in all the regions of nigeria and beyond. in particular, videoconferencing will enhance group counselling for career information, effective study behaviours and group study and facilitation. acknowledgement i wish to acknowledge the almighty for guiding me throughout the period of this study. i equally wish to acknowledge the authors that i consulted their works and other materials in the course of undergoing this study. i cannot forget the contributions of my senior colleagues and those that honestly filled the questionnaires that were used for data collection. finally, i must appreciate the contributions of my secretarial staff for their roles during the production of this work. references anyamene, a. n., nwokolo, c. n., & anyachebulu, e. f. (2012). availability and use of information and communication technology resources for counselling university students in south east states, nigeria. international journal of humanities and social sciences, 2(7), 220-225. apagu, v. v., & wakili, b. a. (2015). availability and utilization of ict facilities for teaching and learning of vocational and technical education in yobe state technical colleges. american journal of engineering research, 4(2), 113-118. ayiro, l. p. (2013). acquisition and utilization of ict skills among university lecturers in subafrica: a case of universities in kenya. journal of continuous, open and distance education, 2(1), 103-127. brown, c. (2012). online counselling: attitude and potential utilization by college students. m. a. thesis submitted to the faculty of education, humboldt state university. derig-palumbo, k. (2010). using chat and instant message (im) to conduct a therapeutic relationship. in k. anthony, d. m. nagel, & s. goss (eds.), the use of technology in mental health (applications, ethics and practice) (pp. 15-28). springfield, il: charles c. thomas publisher ltd. federal republic of nigeria (2004). national policy on education. lagos: nerdc press. green, r., & yallow, r. (2002). technology and its impact in classroom. new york: cambridge university press. kolog, e. a. (2014). e-counselling implementation: contextual approach. master’s thesis submitted to the university of eastern finland. nnaka, c. v., & ezekannagha, g. n. (2013). student support services in open and distance learning at noun. in t. a. bolarin, & g. c. unachukwu (eds.), education for all: progress indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 and challenges (pp. 147-155). lagos: nigerian academy of education. odeleye, d. a. (2009). repositioning nigerian education for relevance in the 21st century. ibadan: college press & publishers ltd. ojo, d. o. (2013). enhancing access to learning through blended learning and convergence approaches in open and distance education. west african journal of open and flexible learning, 2(2), 27-37. okopi, f. o. (2010). challenges of technology mediated approach to counselling in the national open university of nigeria (noun). african journal of political science and international relations, 4(4), 115-119. okoroegbe, f. n. (2013). social media networks as interactive counselling platform: a national open university of nigeria survey. west african journal of open and flexible learning, 2(2), 75-95. omeje, j. c., eze, j. u., & egeonu, d. c. (2016). utilization of e-counselling in career information dissemination among undergraduates of federal universities in south east nigeria. sage and open access journal, 1-8, april-june. shiller, i. (2009). online counselling: a review of the literature. retrieved from www.emys.on.ca/pdfs.../onlinecounselling_li teraturereview.pdf shiran, r. (2001). ict in counselling in the classroom. london: routledge publishers. tahir, g. (2016). re-tooling preand in-service teacher education through open and distance learning (odl). first public lecture series of the faculty of education, national open university of nigeria, abuja, 4thseptember. tait, a. (2003). reflection on student support in open and distance learning. international review of research in odl, 4(1), 1-5. ukwueze, a. c. (2016). e-counselling for learner support services in odl institutions: a practical approach. west african journal of open and flexible learning, 4(2), 4358. unesco (2002). open and distance learning: trends, policy and strategy considerations. paris: unesco press. yaphe, j. & speyer, c. (2010). text-based online counselling: email. in r. kraus, j. s. zack, & g. stricker (eds.), online counselling: a handbook for mental health professionals (2nd ed.), 2-18. san diego, ca: elsevier academic press. zamani, z.a. (2009). computer technology and counselling. proceedings of the 2nd international conference on computer science and information technology (iccsit) of institute of electrical and electronics engineers (ieee) held in beijing. 488-490, august 8-11. augustine c. ukwueze availability and utilization of e-counselling platforms for quality distance learning in national open university of nigeria 20 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback puan tursina english education department, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidkan (stkip) muhammadiyah, aceh barat daya, indonesia e-mail: forlangncyu12@gmail.com min-tung chuang department of foreign languages, national chiayi university, taiwan e-mail: mintunchuang@gmail.com henny susanty english education department, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidkan (stkip) muhammadiyah, aceh barat daya, indonesia e-mail: henny.susanty5@gmail.com silmawati english education department, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidkan (stkip) muhammadiyah, aceh barat daya, indonesia e-mail: silmawati1987@gmail.com zuhri effendi english education department, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidkan (stkip) muhammadiyah, aceh barat daya, indonesia e-mail: zuhrisps@gmail.com apa citation: tursina, p., chuang, m. t., susanty, h., silmawati, s., & effendi, z. (2019). efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 23-32. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1990. received: 12-06-2019 accepted: 14-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: one solution to help efl (english as a foreign language) students in writing skill is providing a written corrective feedback by a teacher. somehow, it is also necessary for a teacher to know the appropriate feedback given to their students. this study had two purposes: 1) to describe the students’ thought toward feedback strategies with different proficiency levels in general and in specific writing aspects content; and 2) to explore the most students’ preference with different proficiency levels in general and in specific writing aspects content and form. a qualitative data analysis approach was integrated using an interview, eight students in total were chosen to be interviewed; two from each group and level (two-high, two low direct feedback with an end note and two-high, two-low indirect feedback with an end note). n vivo was used to analyze the content analysis of the data. the study found that no matter low or high proficient writers, they had a positive attitude toward the teacher’s feedback and most of them preferred to receive direct corrective feedback to improve their writing performance both in content and form. in brief, providing a feedback is needed for students however it must be advisable with students’ proficiency level in order to make them easier in understanding the feedback. keywords: direct corrective feedback; efl (english as a foreign language); indirect corrective feedback; students’ preference; students’ proficiency; written corrective feedback. mailto:forlangncyu12@gmail.com mailto:mintunchuang@gmail.com mailto:henny.susanty5@gmail.com mailto:silmawati1987@gmail.com puan tursina, min-tung chuang, henny susanty, silmawati, & zuhri effendi efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback 24 introduction although writing is known an essential skill for language production, writing is still commonly debated as the hardest skill (ahmadi, maftoon, & mehrdard, 2012) learnt by esl (english as a second language) or efl (english as a foreign language) students, students have many problems and challenges, namely untrained teachers, ineffective teaching methods, lack of reading and writing practices, low motivation and lack of ideas (fareed, ashraf & bilal, 2016). another scholar reports that students’ problems in writing are usage errors, mechanical mistakes such as spelling, punctual, adequate knowledge of writing skill, cognitive problems and graphomotor problems (alfaki, 2015). therefore, to alleviate those problems the teachers need to find good strategies to help their students to improve their writing. one of the solutions is providing feedback to students’ writing task. there are many types of feedback and the most favorite one received by students is teachers’ written corrective feedback (wcf). many studies reveal that teachers’ wcf give positive effects of feedback on language acquisition (farrokhi & sattapour, 2011), help to improve the students’ written accuracy over time (van, de jong, & kuiken, 2012). it is also divided into two categories; indirect corrective feedback and direct corrective feedback. indirect corrective feedback is occurred when a teacher only identifies the students’ errors without giving any correction meanwhile direct corrective feedback is occurred when a teacher identifies the students’ errors and provides the correction directly. nevertheless, there is some debate as to whether corrective feedback or indirect corrective feedback is more appropriate and prefer to be received by students. as a study conducted by horbacauskiene and kasperaviciene (2015) at kaunas university technology, it reveals that the teacher feedback gives a little influence towards the students writing performances. also, the students show preference for feedback on different error type, and they prefer indirect corrective feedback with a clue to direct corrective feedback. in addition, westmacott (2017) describes that the students prefer to receive indirect feedback to direct feedback to stimulate their ability to become independent learners. on the contrary, aridah, atmowardoyo and salija (2017) find that the students prefer to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback given by the teachers. in addition, tursina and chuang (2017) and irwin (2017) reveal that most of the students prefer to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback especially on content and form. van, et al. (2012) mention that direct corrective feedback is better used to correct students’ grammatical errors meanwhile indirect corrective feedback is better used to correct non-grammatical errors. moreover, guénette and lyster (2013) state that providing direct corrective feedback to students might motivate, give more practices, and satisfy the students’ needs, for example they know their mistakes and they know how to revise them. the next issue is the effectiveness of indirect corrective feedback and direct corrective feedback towards content and form. as mentioned by daneshvar & rahimi (2014), students who receive direct corrective have improvement in their grammar ability. while, if the teacher only focuses on form such as grammar, it will be less effective in helping students’ writing skill, it will be better if the teacher focuses on content then form because it may be meaningful for students (biber, nekrasova, & horn, 2011). another ongoing issue is students’ proficiency, only a few research investigated on how those two types of feedback can be meaningful not only focusing in terms of content and form but also considering students’ proficiency level. hashemnezhad and mohammadnejad (2012) explore that providing direct corrective feedback and focusing on the form is more benefit than indirect corrective feedback for proficient indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 students. also, chen, nassaji, and liu (2016) explain that the high proficient students do not want their teacher to focus on grammar, the more advanced the students, the less they require explicit feedback on their grammatical errors. however, they still prefer if the teacher corrects their errors and provides an explanation for the correction rather than simply marks the errors without providing any clues and correcting their errors. to fill in the gap about students’ preference in receiving the teacher’s feedback with different proficiency levels in terms of content and form, the study reported both high and low proficient students in two different treatments, two groups receiving direct and the others indirect corrective feedback to improve content and form. this study has two purposes, first; to explore the students’ preference toward teacher’s feedback with different proficiency levels and second, to describe the most preference teacher’s feedback in terms of content and form receiving by students. this study set out to find the gap in the efl research through the following research questions: 1) how are the students’ perception at different proficiency levels toward teacher’s feedback? and 2) what is the most students’ preference at different proficiency levels in receiving feedback in terms of content and form? method a qualitative design was used to address the research questions in this study. as stated by creswell (2012, p. 181), “qualitative research has multiple methods that are interactive and humanistic. the methods of data collection are growing, and they increasingly involve active participation by participants and sensitivity to the participants in the study. the researchers applied two different types of feedback; direct corrective feedback in an endnote and indirect corrective feedback in an endnote. there were four groups formed as participants in this study, namely: low direct corrective feedback group (ld), high direct corrective feedback group (hd), low indirect corrective feedback group (li) and high indirect corrective feedback group (hi). a total of eight students was from three different universities. they were from national chiayi university, chiayi, taiwan, open learning university/universitas terbuka taiwan and another one was from open learning university/universitas terbuka hongkong. four indonesian students and four taiwanese students. the indonesian students ranged in age from the late 19-22 years old, while taiwanese students ranged in age from the late 19-20 years old a total of eight students was from three different universities. they were from national chiayi university, chiayi, taiwan, open learning university/universitas terbuka taiwan and another one was from open learning university/universitas terbuka hongkong. four indonesian students and four taiwanese students. the indonesian students ranged in age from the late 19-22 years old, while taiwanese students ranged in age from the late 19-20 years old. to divide the students into some groups, all of them attended to the mini workshop “how to write a short narrative essays”, and submitted their first task. after scoring their first task, the researchers classified them into their writing performance; high or low proficient writers and each student received direct or indirect corrective feedback in an endnote. finally, there were four groups formed as participants in this study, namely: low direct corrective feedback group (ld), high direct corrective feedback group (hd), low indirect corrective feedback group (li) and high indirect corrective feedback group (hi). to answer the research questions, the researchers used a semi-structured interview. before doing the interview, the students were required to complete their tasks in writing five narrative essays on three different topics: my first day at school, my most memorable journey and the moment of success. after that a semi-structured interview was conducted to learn more puan tursina, min-tung chuang, henny susanty, silmawati, & zuhri effendi efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback 26 details about students’ perception towards receiving the teacher’s feedback, and what types of feedback strategies that students preferred to receive from the teacher’s responses in correcting both content and form. eight students in total were chosen to be interviewed; two from each group and level (two-high, two low direct feedback with an end note and two-high, two-low indirect feedback with an end note). there were seven questions including three main points being discussed by the semi-interview questions. first, the teacher’s feedback. second, direct corrective feedback in total and specifically in terms of content and form and finally, indirect corrective feedback in general, focused on content and form. it took ten to fifteen minutes per participant. to analyze the data, n-vivo was operated to analyze the content of the data got from students’ answers. then, the researchers coded the data refer to answers ‘needed. finally, wrote conclusions to answer the problems. results and discussion students’ perception at different proficiency levels toward teacher’s feedback the first question presented to the students was whether they prefer to receive teacher feedback or not. table 1 presented the results of the interviews of students’ preferences towards teacher feedback and showed that all of the students with different language proficiency value and like the teacher’s feedback and want to receive feedback (irwin, 2017). in addition, they claimed that by receiving the teacher’s feedback, they made changes to their writing for the better such as give a chance to students to know their mistakes, learn how to revise them and help them to improve their skill (aridah, atmowardoyo, & salija, 2017). for instance: when ld1 was asked whether she preferred to have the teacher’s feedback, she replied: “yes, it will help me a lot to make my writing better than before”. moreover, hd1 said that “yes, i do prefer it because it lets me know my mistakes and teaches me how to fix or correct it. indeed, as learners we need someone who can give feedback to make the next writing better than before.” “yes, as a learner i still need my teacher’s help to improve my writing skills. i will understand my mistakes and remember them”. (hi2) to summarize these findings, it could be assumed that the students’ overall preferences for feedback, as expressed in their interview. all of the students indicated that they would prefer to receive feedback. the main reason given was that teacher’s feedback gave a positive effect on students to identify errors and improve in the future (bitchener, 2012; farrokhi & sattapour, 2011; van, de jong, & kuiken, 2012). table 1. students’ perception towards teacher’s feedback teachers’ feedback responses total participants group prefer: helpful correct my errors 6 ld1, ld2, li1, l12, hd1, and hi1 improve my writing 2 hi2 and hd2 direct corrective feedback strategy table 2 described that six students from ld1, ld2, li1, li2, hi1, and hi2 groups prefer to receive direct corrective feedback from the teacher because of two assumptions. first, four of them think this strategy could help them learn fast, improve and make their writing better. secondly, the rest of them thought by receiving this strategy it is easier for them to know how to correct the answers indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 and know what the teachers mean (aridah, atmowardoyo, & salija, 2017; black & nanni, 2016; guénette & lyster, 2013; irwin, 2017; sayyar & zamanian, 2015). in addition, it was effective, engaged the students to do more practices, and made them felt satisfied by providing the correction (chen, nassaji, & liu, 2016). “yes, i prefer this strategy because i gain a lot of knowledge and it helps me to make my writing better than before, such as i know how to solve the problems sooner.” (ld1) “yes, i do prefer this way. it helps me learn fast. i don’t need to spend my time thinking about the corrections and i can see the correct answers soon after getting my paper.” (hi1) on the other hand, it is surprising that those students in the hd1 and hd2 groups disliked receiving feedback in this way because they wanted to get a chance to solve the problem by themselves. “no, i prefer the teacher teaches students how to fix errors and then let the student do it by his or herself.” (hd1) “no, because i want to think on my own more, rather than be limited by the instructions given by the teacher.” (hd2) table 2. direct corrective feedback strategy direct corrective feedback responses total participants group prefer: helpful improve my writing 2 ld1, li1 corrects my error 2 hi2, li2 saving time 2 hi1, ld2 no prefer: guidanceproblem solving let students to correct the errors 2 hd1 and hd2 indirect corrective feedback strategy the next question asked if they preferred to receive indirect corrective feedback instead of direct corrective feedback. the results implied that two students who did not receive indirect corrective feedback prefer to receive it. in their opinion, by receiving indirect corrective feedback they had encouragement to explore their own knowledge to fix the errors, promoted their cognitive process and strengthened their autonomous learning behavior (westmacott, 2017). also, it was easier to see the errors they have made by underlining or coding the errors, as can be seen in table 3. “yes, it will be much easier to see where my errors are and the way to correct them. it saves some effort on checking around. in other words, it won’t waste my time looking for the correct ones.” (hd1) surprisingly, six students who were received indirect corrective feedback disliked receiving indirect corrective feedback because of two reasons. first, four of them felt that it was confusing because they felt that they were not able to fix all of the errors they made and it really costs them time to think of the correct answers. in brief, only two students who categorized as high proficient students prefer to receive indirect corrective feedback to direct corrective feedback. conversely, all students who grouped in low proficient students prefer to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect puan tursina, min-tung chuang, henny susanty, silmawati, & zuhri effendi efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback 28 corrective feedback. unbelievable, two students who were in high indirect corrective feedback group did not want to receive the strategy of feedback. the finding is totally different from chen, nassaji, & liu (2016) who described that the advanced english proficiency students prefer to receive indirect corrective feedback to direct corrective feedback. table 3. indirect corrective feedback strategy indirect corrective feedback responses total participants group prefer: engage easy to see and get a chance to think 2 hd1 and hd2 no prefer: confused not efficient don’t know how to solve the errors spend a lot of time, 4 2 li1, li2, hi1 and hi2 ld1 and ld2 regarding to the explanations, it could be indicated that feedback, as expected, was highly appreciated by students because they assumed that the teacher’s feedback can improve their writing (ahmadi, maftoon, & mehdrad, 2012). moreover, all low proficiency students who were in two different groups prefer to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback. this finding was also the same as mubaraq (2013) and tursina and chuang (2017) who showed that students preferred the teacher wrote the correction of the errors on their paper instead of underlining the errors without any corrections because they believe it is easier to understand and correct the error. meanwhile, the high proficiency students preferred to receive both of the teacher’s feedback strategies; direct corrective feedback, or indirect corrective feedback because it motivated a more active response from students and let them know how to incorporate the corrections in a new draft (which they had not done with the direct feedback), westmacott, 2017. the most students’ preference at different proficiency level in receiving feedback in terms of content and form direct corrective feedback on content table 4 presented whether they preferred the teacher to write the correction of their content and organization on the paper directly or not. the answers indicated that the majority, six of them, prefer it when the teacher corrected their errors on their paper and believed that they could benefit more from this strategy because it was easier for them to understand what wrong was and how to fix it. below were two quotations from ld2 and hi2: “yes, i prefer the teacher corrects it because in this way i can know the correct use of the errors i had.” (ld2) “yes, to me, these kinds of errors are mostly a result of carelessness, it’s more efficient to just give us the correct answers.” (hi2) on the other hand, the result also revealed that surprisingly, hd2 who received this strategy disagree. she said that “it really wastes my time to see and reads through the correct answer.” in addition, unexpectedly, hi1 who receives indirect corrective feedback felt that he disagrees because it was also a student’s responsibility to figure out problems and solve them. “no, sometimes we students need to figure out problems and solve them. all educators need to do is to give hints or underline the errors, so that we will know what the problems are and try correct them.” (hd2) indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 table 4. direct corrective feedback on content indirect corrective feedback responses total participants group prefer: efficient solve my problem soon, 6 ld1,ld2,li1, li2,hd1 and hi2, no prefer: waste time self-learning check the correct answer figure out problems and solve them 1 1 hd2 and hi1 direct corrective feedback on form further, the students were asked whether they prefer the teacher corrects their grammar and mechanical errors directly on their paper or not. unexpectedly, no matter low or high proficiency level, they agree. they stated that this is an efficient way to solve the students’ problems fast. they did not need to spend their time thinking about the right correction of their mistakes. also, they thought that it was an easy and fast way to help them, as could be seen in table 5. “yes, the teacher can correct my grammar and mechanical errors, and it will be more professional on my paper.” (li2) “yes, it’s easier and it’s direct.” (hi2), and “yes, because this is the fastest way for us to understand our mistakes.” (hd1) table 5. direct corrective feedback on form direct corrective feedback on form responses total participants group prefer: efficient , saving time, 8 ld1, ld2, li1, li2, hd1, hd2, hi1 and hi2 as a conclusion, all of low proficient students prefer to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback in terms of content and form. while, not all of high proficient students agreed to receive direct corrective in terms of content. surprisingly, all high proficient students liked to receive direct corrective feedback in terms of form (bitchener, 2012; daneshvar & rahimi, 2014; hashemnezhad & mohammadnejad, 2012) because it lighted out the mistake and correct their errors (irwin, 2017). however, this finding was not similar to chen, nassaji, & liu (2016), revealed that most of high proficient students did not like to receive feedback in terms of form, they assumed that focus on form was not effective to improve their writing skill. indirect corrective feedback on content on the question of whether the students preferred the teacher to correct their content and organization errors by only underlining or not, responses indicated that seven of eight students disagree. there were two reasons why they disagree. firstly, sometimes it was too hard to try to understand and correct their errors when the teacher only underlines them. still, they believed that the corrections they make on the errors are not right and do not show any progress. also, hd2 said that it’s easy for a teacher, so it will be better for the teacher to write the correct answer directly rather than just underline it. only, hd1 totally agrees on this strategy, to receive content feedback from a teacher. “yes, it‘s a good way to train the students to fix errors by themselves, giving students a chance puan tursina, min-tung chuang, henny susanty, silmawati, & zuhri effendi efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback 30 to do it and become independent. besides, it also provides the students opportunity to apply the knowledge they have gained.” table 6. indirect corrective feedback on content indirect corrective feedback on content responses total participants group prefer: self-learning solve problems by themselves 1 hd1 no prefer: easy for teacher confused it’s not a big deal have no idea 1 6 hd2 ld1, ld2, li1, li2, hi1 and hi2 indirect corrective feedback on form contradictory to the previous question group; table 7 indicated that all of the students totally disagree on receiving feedback if the teacher just underlines their grammar and mechanical errors on their paper. they felt that this strategy was confusing and wastes their time because they did not know what the teacher’s expectations were. “no, personally, my grammar is not exactly excellent, so i would prefer the teacher let me know my mistakes directly.” (ld2) “no, if the teacher just underlines it, i won't know how to correctly write my mistakes. in other words, i cannot make changes because i do not understand what the correct is. if the teacher just underlines the errors, it is difficult for me to understand what he means.” (hd1) “no, just underlining the errors may kind of confuse me. it’s better to tell me where my mistake is.” (hi2) table 7. indirect corrective feedback on form indirect corrective feedback on form responses total participants group no prefer: confused waste time do not know the correct ones it’s not a big deal for teacher 6 2 ld1,li1,li2, hd1,hd2 and hi2 ld2 and h11 in summary, it showed that all low proficient students did not want to receive indirect corrective feedback from their teacher/s in terms of content and form. conversely, only one student who wanted to receive indirect corrective feedback in terms of content. unpredictable, no one of all high proficient students agreed to receive indirect corrective feedback in terms of form. the results of this qualitative data revealed that providing written corrective feedback gave a positive influence on the students’ writing performance. all of the students agreed on receiving teacher’s feedback because it was helpful to improve the students’ writing performance both in content and form (biber, nekrasova, & horn, 2011). turning on what types of feedback they preferred to receive, unexpectedly, six indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 of the students preferred direct correction feedback in which they wanted their teacher to write the correction of the errors directly on their paper. they believed that this strategy could help them to learn fast, improve and make their writing better. also, it was easy for them to know how to correct the errors and know what the teacher means. generally, all low proficient students preferred to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback in terms of content and form. meanwhile, two of high proficient students preferred indirect corrective feedback to direct corrective feedback where the teacher just underlined the errors without correcting the errors. this way they felt that they are encouraged to explore their own knowledge to fix the errors. in addition, it was easy to see the errors they produced. the last investigation in terms of content and form, they preferred the teacher writes the correction on content to underline the errors without correcting them. while, two of them wanted the teacher to give direct corrective feedback because they felt that this is an efficient way to solve the students’ problems quickly. they did not need to spend their time thinking about the appropriate correction of their mistakes. also, they thought that it was the easiest and the fastest way to help them. as a conclusion, most of the students preferred to receive direct corrective feedback to indirect corrective feedback (aridah, atmowardoyo, & salijah, 2017; black & nanni, 2016; sayyar & zamanian, 2015), especially in terms of content and form (biber, nekrasova, & horn, 2011). conclusion as a conclusion, no matter whether students are low or high proficient students or whether they receive direct corrective feedback in an endnote or indirect corrective feedback in an endnote, it give a positive response towards the teacher’s feedback, for instance, they feel that it helps them to improve their writing performances. besides, it may be believed that the endnote provided by the teacher give an aid to clarify the students’ errors and what they have to do in revising their writing. additionally, most of them prefer to receive direct corrective feedback in an endnote to indirect corrective feedback in an endnote in terms of content and form, especially for the low proficient students. thanks to all participants who study at the national chiayi university (ncyu), open learning university (universitas terbuka) taiwan and open learning university (universitas terbuka) hongkong. references ahmadi, d., maftoon, p., & mehdrad, a. g. (2012). investigating the effects of two types of feedback on efl students’ writing. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 2590-2595. alfaki, i. m. (2015). university students’ english writing problmes: diagnosis and remedy. international journal of english language teaching, 3(3), 40-52. aridah, a., atmowardoyo, h., & salija, k. (2017). teacher practices and students’ preferences of written corrective feedback and their implication on writing instruction. international journal of english linguistics, 7(1), 112-125. biber, d., nekrasova, t., & horn, b. (2011). the effectiveness of feedback for l1-english and l2 writing development: a meta-analysis. toefl ibt tm research report. bitchener, j. (2012). a reflection on the ‘language learning potential’ of written cf. journal of second language writing, 21, 348-363. black, d. a., & nanni, a. (2016). written corrective feedback: preferences and justification of teachers and students in a thai context. journal of language studies, 16(3), 99-114. chen, s., nassaji, h., & liu, q. (2016). efl learners; perceptions and preferences of written corrective feedback: a case study of university students from mainland china. asian-pacific journal of second and foreign language education, 1(5), 1-17. creswell, j. w. (2012). research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches second edition. united states of america; sage publication. daneshvar, e., & rahimi, a. (2014). written corrective feedback and teaching grammar. procedia social and behavioral sciences,136, 217–221. fareed, m., ashraf, a., & bilal, m. (2016). esl learners’ writing skills: problems, factors and suggestions. journal of education and social sciences, 4(2), 81-92. puan tursina, min-tung chuang, henny susanty, silmawati, & zuhri effendi efl students’ preference in receiving written corrective feedback 32 farrokhi, f., & sattapour, s. (2011). the effects of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback on grammatical accuracy of iranian efl learners. theory and practice in language studies, 1(12), 1797-1803. guénette, d., & lyster, r. (2013). written corrective feedback and its challenges for pre-service esl teachers. canadian modern language review, 69(2), 129-152. hashemnezhad, h., & mohammadnejad, s. (2012). a case for direct and indirect feedback: the other side of coin. english language teaching, 5(3). horbacauskiene, j., & kasperaviciene, r. (2015). learners’ preferences towards corrective feedback in writing assignments in tertiary education. explorations in english language and lingustics, 3(2), 70-83. irwin, b. (2017). written corrective feedback: student preferences and teacher feedback practices. iafor journal of language teaching, 3(2), 35-58. sayyar, s., & zamanian, m. (2015). iranian learners and teachers on written corrective feedback: how much and what kinds? international journal of educational investigations, 2(2), 98– 120 tursina, p., & chuang, m. (2017). direct and indirect corrective feedback on efl students’ performance. proceedings of the 1st english education international conference (eedic) in conjunction with the 2nd reciprocal graduate research symposium (rgrs) of the consortium of asia pacific education universities (capeu) between sultan idris education university and syiah kuala university. banda aceh, usk. van, b. c., de jong, n. h. and kuiken, f. (2012). evidence on the effectiveness of comprehensive error correction in second language writing. language learning, 62(1), 1-41. westmacott, a. (2017). direct vs. indirect written corrective feedback: student perceptions. ikala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 22(1), 1-20. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 divergent thinking in a standardized test nyak mutia ismail english department, teacher training and education faculty, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia e-mail: nyakmutiaismail2010@gmail.com moriyanti english department, teacher training and education faculty, iskandarmuda university, banda aceh, indonesia e-mail: mori.yanti@yahoo.com dara yusnida english department, teacher training and education faculty, iskandarmuda university, banda aceh, indonesia e-mail: dara_yusnida@yahoo.co.id apa citation: ismail, n. m., moriyanti, m., & yusnida, d. (2019). divergent thinking in a standardized test. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 13-22. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1979. received: 06-06-2019 accepted: 09-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: in dealing with standardized tests, including toefl test, there is a common propensity for test-takers to adopt convergent thinking which is a cognitive process in retrieving a pre-existing answers using concepts, knowledge, and understandings. on the contrary, the use of divergent thinking in standardized tests is scarce because the test-takers do not create new knowledge or ideas during the test. this study sought whether higher divergent thinking ability could affect toefl score. a case study was employed to gather the data from 143 respondents (divided into two groups: each 73 and 70 students) whom of which were 3rd year economics students at syiah kuala university. guilford’s alternative uses test was used as the instrument where the students should name the functions of a stone in 5 minutes. the total of 538 responses from group a and 366 from group b were obtained from this test. the data were analyzed using the descriptive statistics in terms of its originality. the results showed that the group whose ability in divergent thinking is higher could achieve average score reaching 523, while those with less ability in employing divergent thinking could only attained 477 in average. the findings imply that in teaching toefl preparation or other standardized tests, divergent teaching technique needs to be employed as the instructors should expands students’ thinking by not only limiting it to question-answer technique. keywords: divergent thinking; language teaching; language tests; test of english as a foreign language (toefl); thinking skills. introduction test of english as a foreign language, or shortly known as toefl, is an english standard test for non-native speakers of english (phillips, 2001). this test measures english capability level of non-native english speakers. the authority of this test is significantly vital for students as well as for mailto:nyakmutiaismail2010@gmail.com mailto:mori.yanti@yahoo.com mailto:dara_yusnida@yahoo.co.id nyak mutia ismail, moriyanti, & dara yusnida divergent thinking in a standardized test 14 those who look for jobs. it is important to say that toefl has been around for quite a long time as an estimating test since quantities of colleges, both local and worldwide, demand on having their candidates to achieve certain score in the test to be conceded (ananda, 2016). as now we see loads of indonesian students are making a decent attempt to ace every of the toefl question on the test as a genuine effort to achieve a specific score, or much higher, to apply to the coveted local or worldwide college. later to that, most prominent colleges in indonesia oblige their students to tolerate no less than 450-500 toefl score as a fundamental prerequisite for both their confirmation and graduation. conversely, the instructing domain has indicated doubtful certainties concerning the toefl test when the test-takers answer the reading section questions. by and large, most of the test-takers make sure that as often as possible they tend not to answer this segment thouroughly for a few reasons, for example, lackness of vocabulary, time inadequacy, and so forth. this condition is totally upheld by farrell (2001) specifying that most l2 students still utilize essential reading strategies to be specific. it is word-by-word reading and interpretation technique (ismail, 2017). both of these techniques are naturally restrained by the lackness of vocabulary. various ways and attempts that have been executed but it seems that the problems have not shown any end-points. it is worth to look at the students’ thinking style specifically in this study, convergent and divergent thinking style. divergent thinking is what spurs the creativity, which primitively has no concerns in standardized tests like toefl. it is assumed a vital part in advancement, improvement, and wellbeing. ongoing exploration has utilized neuroscientific strategies to ponder innovation, oddity, knowledge, dissimilar reasoning, and different procedures identified with imaginative mental process. discoveries show that both hemispheres of the brain are engaged with dissimilar reasoning, which is joined by both occasion related increments and declines in the neural actuation. unique reasoning is by all accounts related with high neural actuation in the focal, transient, and parietal areas, signs of semantic handling and re-blend of semantically related data (yoruk & runco, 2014). so that, it is clear that scientifically, there is a connection between creativity and reading comprehension process which actively involves semantic proccessings. indeed, the process of both convergent and divergent thinking happen simoultaneously during the thinking process. however, the second type promotes more analogy and reasoning ability in semantic processings. hence, to specify the intention of this study, it tries to figure out whether the divergent thinking ability for toefl testtakers matters to their score level. most experts concur that creativity is the capacity to produce satisfying performance and social results that are valuable and useful (sternberg & lubart, 1996). in this manner, imagination is considered as an execution or capacity, showed in unique, important, and socially acknowledged thoughts or items. the creativity level of an individual can be surveyed by methods for execution measures got from creative reasoning errands. guilford (1971) who can be viewed as the founder of present day creativity proposal, drew a refinement amongst divergent and convergent thinking. convergent thinking goes for a single, exceptionally compelled answer for an issue, though disparate reasoning includes the age of various answers to a regularly defined (chermahini, hickendorff, & hommel, 2012). indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 a lot of discussions about creativity started to rise in 1949 by guilford's 1949 presidential address to the american psychological association (cropley, 2006). besides, he also pay attention to other factors such as as personality which is specified into the ideas of convergent and divergent thinking. indeed, he acknowledges the importance of not only divergent thinking but also convergent thinking, although in the later period, these two are competed and conflicted as one is superior to the other. convergent thinking is sometimes considered to me more inferior than divergent thinking. a fact that needs to be taken into account is that the creativity production, for sure, does not appear independently from the divergent thinking alone, the convergent thinking also plays its parts (cropley, 2006). divergent thinking is a demanding part of the process if creativity (dippo, 2013). designing a solution to a problem commonly does not have one right and frequent arrangement, there are numerous answers for a given problem, instead. it is imperative to see how distinct are a person’s ideas for a certain problem and how she/he makes relationship to consider original thoughts. the ability is measured using a test named alternative uses test. this test can be utilized to comprehend the connection between amount of ideas and oddity of thoughts. we can likewise perceive the number of thoughts individuals deliver before getting to the highest level of exceptionally original thoughts. it is important that in this test, novelty (or originality) is an essential constituent of imagination (dippo, 2013). on the other hand, convergent thinking is situated towards inferring the single best response to an unmistakably characterized question (cropley, 2006). it accentuates speed, exactness, rationale, and so forth, and spotlights on perceiving the commonplace, reapplying set systems, and aggregating data. it is accordingly best in circumstances where an instant answer exists and needs just to be reviewed from put away data, or worked out from what is now known by applying ordinary and sensible pursuit, acknowledgment and basic leadership procedures. a standout amongst the most imperative parts of convergent thinking is that it prompts a solitary best answer, and in this manner rules out uncertainty: answers are either right or wrong. in a more focalized manner, it is likewise personally connected to information from one perspective only. it certainly includes control of existing learning by methods for standard strategies (cropley, 2006; jones & estes, 2015). both divergent and convergent thinking are significant thinking skills to create unique or inventive answers for an issue or problem. the students need to plan an arrangement or item by creating potential arrangements by deduction from divergent points of view and assess them dependent on advantages and disadvantages investigation and imperatives on convergent thinking model (bryan, 2008). unlike convergent thinking style, divergent model is creating thoughts with spotlight on quantity and not on quality (basadur, et al., 1990). the sub-skills related with divergent thinking are flexibility which is the capacity to produce numerous reactions or thoughts, adaptability which is the capacity to create fluctuated thoughts from alternate points of view, or the capacity to change the structure, adjust data, or move viewpoints, originality which is the capacity to produce unordinary or novel reactions and elaboration which is the capacity to decorate a thought with subtleties (runco & acar, 2012). meanwhile, convergent thinking is related with critical thinking where the significance is nyak mutia ismail, moriyanti, & dara yusnida divergent thinking in a standardized test 16 given to deliberately settling on choices dependent on judgment, proof, suppositions and standards or ideas (kathleen, 1991; niu, et al., 2013). the attention is on systematically assessing and choosing a solitary right arrangement dependent on suppositions, limitations and standards. the sub-skills required in the convergent thinking are various solution arrangements, making appropriate presumptions for a given issue, determination of exact arrangement dependent on limitations distinguished in a given issue and advocating chosen arrangement (madhuri, 2015). both divergent and convergent thinking abilities are significant in producing imaginative or innovative answers for an open problem. these abilities can be supported in educational plan by fusing following instructive changes. first, undertaking the teaching model that configure classes with open-ended solution and problem arrangements (bryan, 2008). second, consider an assessment model that trains students to think divergent to convergent in all phases of critical thinking (basadur & finkbeiner, 1985). this, students are urged to take various perspectives while taking care of issues (brown, 2009). last, evaluate procedure that should be followed on critical thinking process rather than just on the results (bryan, 2008). problem solving is ordered into deduction models and imaginative and creative models. the convergent models have following basic stages, there are setting up a need, investigation of errands, structure and execution. these are concurrent models which are centered around the assessing and choosing a solitary right arrangement which in this way it can lead to structuring a customary arrangement. the cognitive psychology research proposes inventive thinking models which separate the thought between age and assessment stages. the phases of imaginative procedure models are analysis, generation and evaluation (howard, stephen, & dekoninck, 2008). basadur, wakabayashi, and graen (1990) propose a coordinated model in which divergent and convergent is fused in every one of the three periods of critical thinking issue discovering, comprehending and execution. the study is done to explore the impacts of preparing in coordinated critical thinking model. the members of the preparation are experts at various levels. they are made to rehearse the intellectual procedure and strategies of divergent thinking to unravel real world, open innovative issues. the frame of mind towards divergent and convergent thinking about the members is estimated when the preparation utilizing survey in this study. the expansion in inclination for divergent thinking is noteworthy for more expertsadministrators rather than non-expert respondent. in the following is provided the basadur's coordinated model to settle genuine and open structure problems to prepare students in creating both divergent and convergent thinking as demonstrated as follows. first, establishing a need and examination of errand (result is issue articulation). this initial phase a divergent to convergent model. second, it is the design phase in which the result is planned as a solution to a problem. this is also employs divergent to convergent thinking style. finally, the implementation in which the outcome or solution is stated. this is again employing divergent to convergent thinking model. in the first period of critical thinking setting up a need and analysis, students need to comprehend the issue and repeat the issue explanation. in this stage, divergence is energized utilizing the structure thinking standards expressed as taking a principle at the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 issue from various perspectives (brown, 2009) and afterward join to repeat the issue dependent on the pre-requisites and requirements of the issue. in the second phase of problem solving which is design, the student begin with divergent thinking by giving prompts to produce numerous solutions and after that unite to assess and choose the best arrangement among the solutions created. during divergent thinking, students ought to be urged to utilize various divergent analogical procedures such as analogical thinking which means moving an idea from one setting to another one; conceptualizing which is urging to exclusively create thoughts with spotlight on amount and not quality in less measure of time; mind mapping which is making variation of conceptualizing, where thoughts are spoken to in pictures just as words and characteristic listing which is recognizing traits of a subject and brainstorm approaches to adjust, turn around, join or enhance each (zhiqiang & schonwetter, 2004). when the conceivable collection of arrangements are accessible, perform upsides and downsides examination and select an answer or channel them dependent on imperatives, inclinations, presumptions and converge to one single solution. in third period of problem solving which is execution, the chosen ideas are to be actualized utilizing suitable innovation. the divergent thinking is expected to list potential advancements to actualize the ideas and join to choose innovation dependent on suitability and plausibility. in addition, the problem solving mode would get activated when there are triggers questions. there are various sorts of inquiry prompts which we went over while attempting to discover their adequacy with regards to sick structure issues. the sorts of inquiries prompts and their subjective just as metacognitive capacities which thusly encourage open critical thinking procedure are referenced underneath. various exact investigations in regards to address prompts uncover that question prompts can fulfill number of psychological and metacognitive capacities which thus empower genuine open critical thinking. question prompts can be categorized as procedural, elaborative and intelligent prompts (ge & land, 2003). method the capacity to create a wide range of conceivable answers for an issue is an essential part of divergent thinking and has been particularly converted into the psychometric convention by methods alternative uses test (guilford, 1971) in which respondents were requested to create the functions of stone for as many as they can. the test was administered in march 2017 involving 143 economics students at syiah kuala university who were sitting for toefl preparation class. they were divided into two groups. group a consisted of 73 students, and they had higher toefl score compared to group b. meanwhile group b consisted of 70 students. both groups were given three minutes to generate and write down all aternative uses of a stone (bennett, 1973). boden (2004) points this test a personal-psychological creativity which means that a person is producing a new idea even for him/herself, regardless of how many other people have used those ideas previously. the data were analyzed using the protocols given by the guildford test itself. there are four components that are needed to utilize in the scoring process: originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration. originality was determined by the unusualness and uniqueness (if only 5% respondents of the group mention an object’, then it is considered nyak mutia ismail, moriyanti, & dara yusnida divergent thinking in a standardized test 18 ‘unusual’; if only 1% of the group does so, then the object is ‘unique’). flexibility was the total responses. flexibility was the object category such as weapon, jewelry, etc. then, elaboration was the explanation entailing the object, for example ‘a stone to put in the yard so that the yard is not muddy when raining’. results and discussion the responses were all digitized and provided in the following graph. figure 1. variables come as the alternate uses of a stone group a the graph above showed all of the alternative uses of a stone that was posed by group a. there were 538 responses altogether from this group. as we could see that the most frequent thought that come to their mind was the use of a stone a weapon (143 responses) and as construction materials (115 responses). next, it was followed by the use of a stone a decoration, which was 78 responses, jewelry (72 responses), and cooking tools (65 responses). what came least frequent were the functions as gravestone and beauty aims, 29 and 23 responses, respectively. the least thought they could bear were as kids’ toy (11 responses) and direction sign, only 2 responses. to the originality of the idea and how it affected their toefl score, the following table was provided. if there was 0.10 percent of the meanscore, it meant that 10% of the whole population also think of the similar thought(s) (dippo, 2013). originality was seen as the measure of creativity. a factor that showed a connection between divergent thinking and creativity in problem solving was the idea of the semantic systems found in most of creative people. inventive thoughts were thoughts emerged from the capacity to interface disconnected ideas in more approximately organized semantic systems (nusbaum & silvia, 2011). evidences demonstrate that profoundly imaginative people see less semantic separation between irrelevant word combinations when contrasted with less imaginative people (rossmann & fink, 2010). kenett, anaki, and faust (2014) explored the semantic systems of high innovative versus low innovative people, and they found that the innovative ones had more extensive interconnected semantic systems. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 table 1. originality of ideas on toefl score (group a) alternate use originality (mean) originality (unusualness) originality (uniqueness) toefl score in average weapon 0.97 523 construction materials 0.95 cooking tools 0.74 decoration 0.82 beauty aims 0.40 √ kids’ toy 0.23 √ gravestone 0.54 direction sign 0.10 √ jewelry 0.79 in the table above, we could see that the most common ideas were “weapon” and “construction materials” as we could see the means were 0.97 and 0.95. this meant that from the entire population, there were 97% of them who think of weapon and 95% of them who think of construction materials. so, this idea was not considered original as it was written by more than either 5% or 1% of the group members. while the ideas with higher originality were “direction sign” and “kids’ toy”, as their meanscores were 0.10 and 0.23, respectively. specifically, ‘direction sign’ was considered unique because only 1% of the respondents wrote it, and ‘kid’s toy’ was considered unusual as less than 5% of them thought of it. the other unusual idea was ‘beauty aims”. in addition to that, we could see that this group proposed more alternatives to the use of a stone; and we could see it was ranging from the usual such as weapon and construction materials to unsual uses, such as kids’ toy and direction signs. indeed, there was a correlation between the students’ advanced proficiency in english (in general) and their ability to think divergently. as it was supported by ghonsooly and showqi (2012) that learning english could expand students’ creativity in terms of divergent thinking skills fluency, elaboration, originality and flexibility. divergent thinking style was utilized to create an expansive arrangement of related ideas and classes, including the capacities of shaping free connections, and familiarity as well as adaptability of ideas (jones, caulfield, wilkinson, & weller, 2011; jones & estes, 2015). it is further viewed as a crucial norm for creativity capacity (acar & runco, 2012). divergent thinking was frequently estimated by innovative assignments (beaty, nusbaum, & silvia, 2014), for example the alternative uses task (guildford, christensen, merrifield, & wilson, 1978), in which members were required to produce the same number of and differed utilizes for an ordinary object like a stone within a limited period of given time. a conceivable purpose behind the relationship between divergent thinking and problem solving was the familiarity and adaptability of idea required in unique intuition errands as the number and variations of possibly pertinent ideas recovered was expanded toward a problem solving attempts (ansburg, 2000; kenett, anaki, & faust, 2014). then, below was provided a graph showing the variables from group b. nyak mutia ismail, moriyanti, & dara yusnida divergent thinking in a standardized test 20 figure2. variables come as the alternate uses of a stone group b unlike the former graph with nine bars, this graph only showed five bars. this meant that group b was posing less alternatives to the use of a stone; there were 366 responses entirely. on the graph we could see that the most common idea was still the use of a stone as a weapon (170 responses). the uses as jewelry and construction materials were still rather usual since there were 93 responses and 88 responses. the least frequent thoughts were the use of a stone as beauty aims (10 responses) and gravestone (5 responses). as supported by ge and land (2003) that indeed, an organized problem solving was very difficult task, and a student needed high measure of platform before arriving at this degree of skill. since a novice student's information was delicate and came up short on a capacity to incorporate what had been learned with current situation, the open idea of issue may wind up discouragingly. this may be because of a lot of reasons, for example, shallow information, absence of enthusiasm, coming up short on the ability, misconceptions, and improper reasoning skills, and so on. hence, exposing students only to a true, real-life problems would not generate powerful and adequate thinking skills. because of the perplexing idea of not well organized critical thinking skills and multifaceted nature looked by beginner learners in figuring out how to take care of open problems, the problems would only captivate the students without knowing how to figure out the solution for them (ge & land, 2003). below is provide the meanscore to outline their idea of originality. table 2. originality of ideas on toefl score (group b) alternate use originality (mean) originality (unusualness) originality (uniqueness) toefl score in average weapon 0.98 477 construction materials 0.75 beauty aims 0.48 √ gravestone 0.22 √ jewelry 0.79 the table above showed that there were only five functions of a stone that came to the thoughts of group b students. the most original one was “gravestone” with the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 originality of 2% which was considered unusual. however, compared to the former group originality percentage which was 1%, this group revealed to be less original in ideas. while the most unoriginal idea was weapon (0.98) which meant that from the whole population, 98% of them would think that the function of a stone was as a weapon. the participants might have presumed that the task was incomplete since there were no additional motives mentioned to support the reasons that they should find the alternative uses of a stone. a task of incomplete problem was not just road to different various arrangements yet in addition found that through this technique, different new methodologies emerge which was joined with information that was recently learned (birenbaum & tatsuoka, 1987). however, an inadequate problem emergence did not completely indicate the objective inquiry, rather incite or leave space for creative mind and presumptions for the issue solver. open-problems should be nonrepresentative issues and should have these two significant fundamentals. firstly, every student ought to have the option to relate the issue to some recognizable themes and it ought to intrigue (diefes-dux, et al., 2004). along these lines, the student would feel a solid association towards the issue and would accordingly understand the need of tackling it. secondly, open problems should be reasonable so that it could meet the learning target necessities and furthermore ideally improve into new problems (kwon, park, & park, 2006). hence, in accordance with the toefl score, we could see that the group with higher score tend to think more divergently compared to the group with lower score. it was marked by hoffman (1962) in powers and kaufman (2002) that in originality, there was a tendency they would think more deeply about one certain idea. conclusion there are two conclusions that can be taken from the results corroborated above. first, there is a linear relation between the ability of divergent thinking and standardized test, in this case, toefl test. second, the more divergent a person can think, the more alternatives for a problem can she/he design. it is suggested for english teachers especially toelf trainers that posing our students to a classroom condition where they can think freely is not really a hard choice to make compared to forcing them to sit still for the whole timespan for the merely score oriented purpose. this recommendation is made without any propensity of judging any type of thinking is more superior to the other. references acar, s., & runco, m. 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(2014). the neuroscience of divergent thinking. activitas nervosa superior, 56, 1-16. https://www.researchgate.net/journal/1040-0419_creativity_research_journal indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters tharwat m. el-sakran english department, college of arts and sciences, american university of sharjah, united arab emirates e-mail: telsakran@aus.edu apa citation: el-sakran, t. m. (2019). textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 45-54. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1904. received: 20-06-2019 accepted: 23-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: converting a research article (ra) into a poster is a complex, recursive reading-writing activity that can impose an overwhelming cognitive load on designers. this study contributes to a growing body of research which emphasizes the importance of designing clear academic posters. it proposes practical guidelines for academic poster design and contents. a total of 20 published ras with their subsequent posters from the engineering field were analyzed to see what elements of the ras were modified, changed or totally removed. several software packages were used for this investigation. a correlation was found between the length of the ra and the amount of ra contents retained in the poster. analyses also show that function words, the literature review section and the list of references were the main victims of heavy reductionism. however, comparisons of ras and their related posters revealed that visuals were the least sacrificed textual items in the reduction process. it is proposed that poster contents may reflect the original ra structure with more emphasis allotted to new information in the research. such a practice will help reduce the limitations that the poster space may impose on the contents, allow the poster presenter more freedom to use a bigger font size, and most importantly; interact and engage actively with the interested audience. the research concludes with limitations and recommendations for further research. keywords: academic poster presentation; academic research articles; poster contents; poster design; textual reduction strategies; visuals in posters. introduction although poster presentations are not confined to single academic disciplines, be they hard or soft sciences, they seem to be widely used in the hard sciences (d’angelo, 2011). d’angelo (2011, p. 15) ascertains that “posters play … an important part in scientific conferences and constitute a valid and interesting alternative to paper presentations by facilitating informal discussions between presenters and their audience”. research on poster presentations (e.g., el-sakran & prescott, 2015; hand, 2010; rezaeian, rezaeian, & rezaeian, 2017; tomita, 2017) has focused mainly on aspects of design and communication benefits. for example, el-sakran and prescott (2013) report on the use of poster presentations by engineering students in a professional communication course, where the focus is on improving students’ written and oral communication skills. they conclude that poster presentations prepare students for relevant community membership by getting them engaged in interactive tasks that they may do in the future when they participate in academic discussions/conferences. in another related study, cianflone (2011) discusses professional and formal poster presentations delivered in conferences and how they allow tharwat m. el-sakran textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters 46 interactivity between presenter(s) and audience. along the same lines, brandt (2009) argues that academic speaking skills can be better developed through poster presentations. she points out that poster presentations develop these skills better than powerpoint presentations as powerpoint presentations can have a negative, reductive, effect on presentation content. rowe and ilic (2009, p.7) mention that “a poster … needs to provide clear navigation in either vertical or horizontal planes in order to provide a sequential logic”. they further add that the information provided in posters needs to be supplemented by some form of oral presentation, or author presence, to further communicate the content. in a similar vein, gordon, darbyshire, saifuddin, and vimalesvaran (2013) note that poster presentations have limitations in terms of communicating full research information. d’angelo (2010) carried out a preliminary multimodal discourse analysis of the main textual and visual elements of a corpus of 60 posters belonging to the disciplines of psychology, law and physics to find out the authors’ preferred visuals and communicative strategies. she rightly argues that “… posters need to condense their content within a very limited amount of space” (p. 16). similarly, swales and feak (2000) recommend the employment of compressed language in posters to avoid textual density. although much has been written in the form of sound general advice on poster design and layout and contents, the level of generality surrounding such guidelines can, and indeed do, confuse academic poster designers. hence, this study presents a comparative discourse analysis approach on the ra and its subsequent poster with the purpose of delineating the linguistic and nonlinguistic differences between the two. specifically, it aims to answer the research questions: 1) what are the current practices in selecting academic poster contents? 2) what are the textual differences, if any, between the ras and their subsequent posters? and 3) what are the most appropriate layout(s) and academic contents for a poster? seeking answers to the questions is expected to make available practical and user-friendly guidelines for prospective academic poster designers and presenters. method a total of 20 engineering ras, already published and publically available online, and their corresponding academic posters were used for this exploratory study. the corpus was personally culled from colleagues who applied for conferences to deliver oral presentations, but were instead asked by the conference organizers to give a poster presentation. all ras and their corresponding posters had a minimum of three authors’ names on them. the authors’ nationalities ranged from arabs, indians, canadians, americans and british. the data, each individual ra and its related poster, were fed into the analysis tools, saw below for details, for an examination of their similarities and differences. several software packages were employed to help find answers to the research questions. these were: 1) safe assign; 2) coh-metrix; and 3) lexical density. first, safe assign was to determine the similarities/differences between the poster and its related ra, the poster was submitted to the safe assign software at the academic institution the researcher works for. safe assign was one of blackboard products. it was utilized in this research to verify the extent of any textual matching between the ras and their related posters. a matching percentage of 30% and above was taken as an indication of a copy and paste process. second, coh-metrix was a publically accessible computational instrument for natural language processing developed at the university of memphis (wang & cho, 2010, p. 509). it provided 54 indices that measure the cohesion, coherence, readability, and language of text and discourse. it was applied to the collected ras and their subsequent indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 posters for the identification of textual differences/similarities between each individual ra and its related poster. it was also used for measuring the level of narrativity in the data. this measure was used to explain differences, if found, between the level(s) of narrativity in the ra and its related poster, which may help account for textual reduction strategies and their effect(s) on texts. narrativity as used here means that the ra or poster was more or less-story like in the sense that the more reductions the text was subjected to, the less narrativity it demonstrated and the more difficult it became to comprehend it and vice versa. as for syntactic simplicity, this meant that the texts examined had simple sentence structures, which enhance the creation of cohesion. by contrast, the syntactic complexity measure indicated the presence of cohesion gaps that require the reader to make inferences, which could be challenging and unsuccessful without sufficient prior knowledge. moreover, several other lexical density (ld) measures were used to distinguish between the ras and their related posters. if those measures showed same or close ld between a ra and its related poster, this meant that the poster was a mere copy and paste process. on the contrary, if they showed a richer ld in the poster, compared to its related ra, then this was an indication that the poster had been subjected to heavy text reduction. ld as used here “provides a measure of the proportion of lexical items (i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives and some adverbs) in the text (johansson, 2008, p. 61). ld was calculated by counting the number of lexical words (or content words) divided by the total number of words. lexical words give a text its meaning and provide information regarding what the text was about. other kinds of words such as articles (a, the), prepositions (on, at, in), conjunctions (and, or, but), and so forth were more grammatical in nature and, by themselves, give little or no information on what a text was about. there were two of the lexical density measures were: 1) textalyser was an online text analysis tool for the analysis of ld and readability. it was applied to the data with the hope that the yielded results would help corroborate results obtained from other analysis tools; and 2) antconc software was a freeware corpus analysis toolkit for concordances, word frequency and text analysis. it was used to compare between frequencies of words in the ras and their relevant posters. since all of the aforementioned tools were insensitive to the visuals used in the ra and its related poster, the examination was conducted manually by calculating the percentage (i.e., number) of visuals used in the ra and how much of that percentage was used in the poster. other external features (i.e., the layout of both the ra and the poster) were manually compared. results and discussion examinations of the ras and their related posters point to the existence of more similarities rather than differences, which proved resorting to the copy and paste process when transforming the ra contents into a poster format. uploading the academic posters on the safe assign software yielded the matching percentages ranging from 100%, the highest, to 29%, the lowest. what follows was an illustration of exact copy and paste from ra 1 to poster 1: extract from ra 1 the use of as-built building models and 3d mapping technology is widely acknowledged and researched in the architecture, engineering and construction (aec) community. although, in the past, novel methods of acquiring building model data has been identified to be labour-intensive, strenuous and time-consuming[1]. traditionally, methods of acquiring data have been done through the use of terrestrial laser scanners and photogrammetric methods. facilitating a more efficient method of creating as-built models has led tharwat m. el-sakran textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters 48 researchers to automating the process, which has been proven effective. photogrammetric methods, such as modelling from images and video, are more portable and convenient when compared to laser scanners. pollefeys et al. (2011) developed a processing pipeline that constructed a 3d model from hand-held cameras. extract from poster 1 the use of as-built building models and 3d mapping technology is widely acknowledged and researched in the architecture, engineering and construction (aec) community. although, in the past, novel methods of acquiring building model data has been identified to be labour-intensive, strenuous and time-consuming [1]. traditionally, methods of acquiring data have been done through the use of terrestrial laser scanners and photogrammetric methods. facilitating a more efficient method of creating as-built models has led researchers to automating the process, which has been proven effective. photogrammetric methods, such as modelling from images and video, are more portable and convenient when compared to laser scanners. the second test applied was to measure the differences/similarities in syntactic complexity/simplicity and narrativity between each individual ra and its related poster. the indices, syntactic simplicity/complexity, showed that posters exhibited more similarities, or near similar percentages of syntactic simplicity/complexity, rather than differences with their related ras. in support of this, the statistical analysis for syntactic simplicity/complexity indices showed a strong positive correlation (correlation coefficient = 0.665 with p-value ≤ 0.001) between the ras and their related posters as a result of the copy and paste process. the same strong positive correlation (correlation coefficient = 0.537 with p-value= 0.015) existed between the posters and their related ras when tested for narrativity. as for the readability for the posters in comparison with their related ras, there was no significant correlation (correlation coefficient = -0.018 with p-value= 0.940) between the ras and the posters in terms of readability, which might attest to the presence of the copy and paste process. nevertheless, calculating all percentage averaged for ras and posters for readability, used 2 sample t-test, results showed statistically significant differences between the averages (t= -3.36, df=33, pvalue=0.002), which might account for the fact that some ras, especially lengthy ones, were shortened to make them fit into the poster space. such a practice had led to statistically significant differences (t=4.62, df=29, p-value < 0.001) in ld, making these specific poster contents richer than their related ras. it was also noted that ras subjected to heavy deletions made their related posters text less readable in comparison with the ras they are derived from. in such cases, function words (i.e., the, of, and, at) were the main victims for this heavy reductionism strategy. for example, some occurrences of ‘the’ (358 times in ra 4) were drastically reduced to 22 cases in the poster. in support of the above, results generated from applying the antconc software showed that the more frequent items in the ras were function words (i.e., the, of, and, for, etc.) whereas for posters, content words (specific technical keywords related to the research topic) were the most frequent as demonstrated in the example below: extract from paper 9 based on the results of this study it can be concluded that: 1) the results for both single shear pullout specimen and flexural prism were comparable when considering modeled data versus obtained experimental data; 2) despite the slight difference in the results, the models’ behavior, has shown to be matching the experimental bond behavior especially in the flexural prisms; 3) slip phenomenon was observed in the single shear pullout specimen model, which further verifies the efficiency of simulating bond behavior in the developed fe model; 4) flexural prism model and experimental indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 ultimate load and corresponding deflection data were close to each other at failure, and in both cases the prism behaved elastically; 5) variation of ultimate deflection value when comparing modeled and experimental single shear pullout specimen, could be due to experimental setup error, machine errors, or normal stiffness factor that is defined in the model’s contact region; and 6) the developed and validated fe models could be used as a platform to conduct parametric studies. extract from poster 9 single pullout shear model and experimental specimen achieved comparable results slip phenomena deflection was observed variation in load graph experimental error machine irregularities normal stiffness factor flexural prism model and experimental specimen achieved closely similar results at failure both the flexure model and experimental specimen behaved elastically as for comparisons of word frequencies for the ras and their related posters, it was noted that posters of same text lengths as the ras they were based on had same word frequencies and concordances. an example of this was poster 1, which had the following lexical and function words as the most frequent oneszed, crack detection, measurement, surface, the, of the , from the, it isas its related paper. furthermore, frequencies of occurrences for some content words were reduced by limiting the occurrences of same word type(s). for instance, the word “parkinson’s” in paper 4 was used 17 times, whereas in the poster its use was reduced to 5 times. also observed that the two sections of the ras where this process took place, the most, were the literature review (lr) section and the list of sources. in the latter case, the numbers of references in the poster were drastically reduced to less than one third of the total supplied in the ra, or even more. but, the poster, being an academic product, still retained some sources. the striking reduction was found in the lr section, which was totally removed from the poster as illustrated in the following example: extract: lr section from ra 10 several fe investigations were performed to investigate the flexural and shear behavior of rc members where researchers would study stiffness response and stress/strain contour plots [17–20]. [18] studied the effect of plate debonding and performance of rc beams externally strengthened with bonded carbon fra (cfra) plates. nonlinear fe models expressing six beams were simulated, where results like the load–midspan deflection were in close agreement those of the experiment. in addition, a parametric study was conducted to study the impact of bar diameter and arrangements of the cfra uwraps on the beams’ flexural capacity. as a result, the increase in bar diameter lead to an increase in the load capacity of the beam and a reduction in the ductility, and wider cfra wraps aimed to delay the debonding which induced a more ductile specimen without impacting the load capacity of the beam. other researchers utilized fe modeling to account for temperature effects on fra composites and developed fe models to simulate insulated cfrastrengthened specimens using experimental data [21, 22]. this provided an alternative to exhausting resources and funds for expensive experimental investigations. abu-obeidah et al. [20] conducted a nonlinear fe analysis of strengthened simply supported rc beams with aa plates, obtained from [4], targeting shear response. the experimental program included four rc strengthened beams in shear subjected to a four point bending test until failure. a parametric study was conducted to study the strip spacing and orientation of the aa plates. the five fe models were validated by comparing the load-deflection response curve of the numerical results to the experimental results. the results show that the developed fe models generally tend to overestimate the load-carrying capacity and tharwat m. el-sakran textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters 50 underestimate the ultimate mid-span deflection. extract: lr section from poster 10 none as regards visuals, it was noticed that all types of visuals (i.e. graphs, pie charts, diagrams, etc.) were heavily populated in the ras and their related posters. they were copied from the ra and pasted into the poster in the case of short length ras, although some were sacrificed when the ra was lengthy. in these specific cases, only visuals portraying a new design, model, results, or process(es) were included in the poster. however, it was observed that the verbal texts hade undergone more reductionism than the visuals used in the research. an example of this was poster 8 where the most highly frequent word was the item “figure”, used 15 times. in other words, verbal text was reduced by 84.2% whereas visuals were only reduced by 14.3%. in some cases, visuals in the poster were more than the mother ra. an example of this was ra 10, where only 9 visuals were used, compared to 15 visuals in its subsequent poster. looking into reasons why, it was found out that some of the processes verbally presented in the mother ra were presented as visuals in the poster. this procedure had also reduced the poster’s narrativity index to 0%. a second example was poster 17, which was mainly composed of visual items copied from the mother ra. it seemed that this process had drastically reduced the ld and narrativity measures. a third illustration was from ra and poster number 10, where all the verbal text in the results section in the ra was sacrificed in the poster. another text reduction strategy adopted was the use of word initials. for instance, poster 7 made 8 uses of the initials ntu, standing for nephelometric turbidity units, whereas full words were used in the ra. the same strategy was used in posters 5, 9 and 12. comparisons between the ras and their subsequent posters showed that the longer the original ra was the smaller the matching percentage. this was justified because the authors had to remove parts or big text chunks from the mother ra to make its contents fit into the poster size. although this text reduction strategy had reduced the matching percentage, yet; the percentage was still indicative of strong matching relationships. along the same lines, it was also observed that the shorter the original ra was, the higher the matching percentages. it was obvious here that the small size of the original ra tempts authors to copy from the mother ra into poster. in three such cases, the matching percentages were 100%, 97%, and 93%. this was further supported when texts’ narrativity and syntactic simplicity/complexity were checked. individual poster texts with more deletions had exhibited higher syntactic complexity and less narrativity than the related ras. likewise, posters with more deletions demonstrated more ld and less readability than their mother ras and posters with more ld, more syntactic complexity, less narrativity and less readability might had been impacted by heavy deletion of function words and the disappearance of the lr section. this heavy ld of some posters might also be a result of the reductions that happened in content words. for instance, in ra 3 the noun “fractions” came first (19 times), whereas in the poster it occurred 5 times only. thus, ld might be a byproduct of reductions in the word token and increases in word type(s), lexical diversity (alami, sabbah & iranmanesh, 2013; gregori-signes & clavel-arroitia, 2015). in all cases of text reductions, function words were the most heavily affected since, according to gee (2011): “they carry less of the real content of the communication (their job being to signal the grammar of the sentence), we can say that they tend to be informationally less salient than content words. while they are certainly helpful, they are often dispensable, as anyone who has written a telegram knows. thus, indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 51 function words are usually informationally less salient than content words” (p. 130). this seemed logical as the main objective of the poster presentation was for presenters to interact with audience, supply the needed information, and create cohesion and coherence among the ideas recorded on the poster. the second and third most highly impacted text chunks affected by the deletion process were the lr section and the academic sources/references used, especially in the cases of heavily reduced texts. since the lr section tends to be in the more narrative side, that was, reviewing relevant research on the topic, which might increase the sense of narrativity in the ra and reduced it in posters when subjected to deletion or reduction. the references section was another victim of reductionism as the posters only display full details of the sources cited on them. as regards the use of visuals, in addition to purely textual elements, engineering disciplines exploit the visual dimension, which was "an intrinsic and inseparable part of engineering" (ferguson, 1992, p. 47). as markel (1994) observes "many technical people, especially scientists and engineers, think visually rather than verbally" (p. 87). visual language reflects an instrumental orientation to technology reflected in images and text (taha & elsakran, 2014). in support of this, comparisons of ras and their related posters revealed that visuals were the least sacrificed textual items in the reduction process. it was found out that visual items closely related to the focal point of the research were maintained in the posters and vice versa, an observation that might lend some validity to hess, tosney, and liegel’s (2009, p. 319) viewpoint that “posters comprise primarily visual displays of data with just enough supporting text to provide context, interpretation, and conclusions.” from the above, it might be concluded that there was an inversely proportional relationship between the mother ra and its related poster. that was, the closer the poster contents were to its mother ra, the more identical their characteristics would be, and the less similar they were, the more ld, syntactic complexity and less narrativity the poster exhibits in comparison with the mother ra. as for the layout and academic contents of the ras and their subsequent posters, it was noticed that more than 85% the ras adopted swales’ (1990) imrd pattern (introduction, method, results, discussion) and that the posters mirrored the same design with same ra information details. worthy of note here was that poster designers should know that posters might reflect same rhetorical structure as the ras with varying degrees of prominence, since this hinges on the research objective/focus. take this example: if the whole ra dealt with a new method, then the methodology section on the poster should be given more prominence by providing bullet point descriptions of the tool(s) and procedures adopted. an advantage of such a practice was that it would allow the presenters more poster space so that they could use a bigger font size that could be clearly viewed and read by all audience, regardless of their eyesight abilities. furthermore, listing only key bullet points could be a direct invitation to onlookers/audience to ask for details, which would bring about the desired interactivity between audience and presenters that, as hess, tosney, and liegel (2009) noted that the main aim of the poster presentation. the same bullet point technique could be applied to the rest of the sections. if, in other cases, the focal point of the research was the results section, then, more coverage in the poster should be allotted to this section and other sections could be reduced to the minimum; said one bullet point item, for example. conclusion this research proposes that poster contents may reflect the original ra structure with more emphasis allotted to new information in the research. that is, the research’s focal point, what is new? should be given more focus than the other sections in the research. tharwat m. el-sakran textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters 52 such a practice will help reduce the restrictions that the poster space may impose on the contents, allow the poster presenter more freedom to use a bigger font size, and most importantly; interact and engage actively with the interested audience. doing so, will, hopefully serve to encapsulate the research topic in the minimum number of words/bulleted points, attract the audience to the poster and, compel them to inquire by asking questions. although all the evidence obtain in this study corroborates the conclusions reach in earlier researches that the poster is a mere copy and paste of the whole research or parts of it, yet; the small sample uses for this research, being collected from one educational institution and one academic discipline, may not be reflective of all practices. thus, future research may consider analyzing a bigger sample and seek the perceptions of the poster designers about the factor(s) that may, sometimes, compel them to reduce texts for the poster and what parts of texts are sacrificed. furthermore, considering the small corpus of ras and their related poster examined (40; 20 ras and 20 posters), the results may not be generalizable to standalone posters, those that are meant for audience to read on their own. future researcher may also consider analyzing a bigger corpus of ras and their related posters from specific academic disciplines and examine variations within disciplines. as the data for this study are collected from several engineering disciplines, the small number of ras and their subsequent posters do not enable the researcher to investigate any possible variations within the disciplines the data are culled from. other ethical and academic integrity issues, such as publishing same research twice, may be explored. acknowledgements the researcher would like to thank the office of institutional research at the american university of sharjah for funding this research. thanks are also due to the engineering colleagues who supplied the researcher with their ras and posters. the researcher is also indebted to professors john swales and hilary nesi for constructive comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript. references alami, m., sabbah, m., & iranmanesh, m. (2013). male-female discourse difference in terms of lexical density. research journal of applied sciences, engineering and technology, 5(23), 5365-5369. brandt, c. (2009). powerpoint or posters for eap students’ presentation skills development? in t. stewart (eds.), insights on teaching speaking in tesol. virginia, usa: tesol international publications inc. cianflone, e. (2011). a preliminary description of abstracts and poster presentations in food sciences. english for specific purposes world, 10(32). d’angelo, l. (2011). academic posters across disciplines: a preliminary study. university of reading language studies working papers, 3, 15-28. d’angelo, l. (2010). creating a framework for the analysis of academic posters. university of reading language studies working papers, 2, 38-50. el-sakran, t. m., & prescott, d. l. (2013). poster presentations improve engineering students’ communication skills. international journal of education and practice, 1(7), 75-86. el-sakran, t. m., & prescott, d. l. (2015). schema for poster design, defense and assessment. the journal of teaching english for specific and academic purposes, 3(1), 101-114. ferguson, e. s. (1992). engineering and the mind's eye. cambridge, mass: mit press. gee, j. p. (2011). an introduction to discourse analysis: theory and method (3rd ed.). new york: routledge. gordon, m., darbyshire, d., aamir saifuddin, a., & vimalesvaran, k. (2013). limitations of poster presentations reporting educational innovations at a major international medical education conference. med educ online, 18(1). retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/meo.v18i0.20498 gregori-signes, c., & clavel-arroitia, b. (2015). analyzing lexical density and lexical diversity in university students’ written discourse. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 198, 546-556. hand, h. (2010). reflections on preparing a poster for an rcn conference. nurse researcher, 17(2), 52-59. hess, g. r., tosney, k. w. & liegel, l. h. (2009). creating effective poster presentations: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/meo.v18i0.20498 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 53 amee guide. medical teacher, 31(4), 319321. doi:10.1080/01421590902825131 johansson, v. (2008). lexical diversity and lexical density in speech and writing: a developmental perspective. lund university, dept. of linguistics and phonetics working papers, 53, 61-79. markel, m. h. (1994). writing in the technical fields: a step-by-step guide for engineers, scientists, and technicians. piscataway, new york: ieee press inc. rezaeian , m., rezaeian, m., & rezaeian, m. (2017). how to prepare a poster for a scientific presentation. world family medicine/middle east journal of family medicine, 15(7), 133135. rowe , n., & ilic, d. (2009). what impact do posters have on academic knowledge transfer? a pilot survey on author attitudes and experiences. bmc medical education, 9(71). retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/14726920-9-71 swales, j. m. (1990). genre analysis: english in academic and research settings. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j.m., & feak, c. (2000). english in today’s research world: a writer’s guide. ann arbor: michigan university press. taha, s. m., & el-sakran, t. m. (2014). guidelines for understanding and using visuals in business texts. the journal of teaching english for specific and academic purposes, 2(3), 379-428 . tomita, k. (2017). visual design tips to develop an inviting poster for poster presentations. techtrends, 61, 313–315. wang, x., & cho, k. (2010). computational linguistic assessment of genre differences focusing on text cohesive devices of student writing: implications for library instruction. the journal of academic librarianship, 36(6), 501-510. tharwat m. el-sakran textual reductionism: from engineering research articles (ras) to their subsequent posters 54 extract from paper 9 extract from poster 9 single pullout shear model and experimental specimen achieved comparable results variation in load graph experimental error machine irregularities normal stiffness factor flexural prism model and experimental specimen achieved closely similar results at failure both the flexure model and experimental specimen behaved elastically evropski univerzitet-brčko indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics desa ilić bsc mathematics and physics matijevac, university in brcko, bosnia and herzegovina, vladimirci, serbia e-mail: desarilic@gmail.com apa citation: ilić, d. (2018). methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(2), 1-10. received: 09-06-2018 accepted: 18-08-2018 published: 01-10-2018 abstract: in modern school, children need to play a central role. it should become a place where they are exploring, examining, solving problems and to lead them to a deliberate dialogue. students need to experience the school as a place where the child develops in cognitive, emotional and social sense, where the child's motivation to work is at a high level. an active school is more focused on a young man who is treated as a whole person whose intellectual potentials need to engage more in the teaching process. the active school is based on compulsory education standards based on which the orientation plans and work programs are designed. such access also implies a part of teaching that is flexible and varies depending on the student's interest. in teaching, active learning methods are based on work and intellectual engagement of students and research activities. the goal of an active school is not only the adoption of a curriculum, but also the versatile personality development of students. the active school evaluates not only the degree of competence of the knowledge defined by the educational standards, but also the progress of the children in comparison with the initial situation, the motivation and interest of the students for work and activity, the development of the personality and the satisfaction of the student's teaching that is realized. keywords: mathematics; learning; co-operation; classes. introduction cooperative learning is the topic of a large number of research both in the world and in our country. the focus of these researches is on achievements, interpersonal relationships and mental health. participants in research differ according to age, ability, gender, race, nationality, socio-economic status etc. different tasks, models and techniques of cooperation were used. research has been conducted by researchers of different theoretical orientations in different conditions and over a long period of time. this research, in addition, has such validity and trust, which can be rarely found in pedagogical and psychological literature. in the broadest sense, cooperative learning can be defined as any learning situation in a classroom where students of all levels of achievement work in structured groups to achieve a common goal. cooperative learning is also defined as the use in teaching small groups where students work together to achieve the maximum, both their own and the groups they work with. in these groups they are negotiating, initiating, planning and evaluating each other. instead of working individually and competing with each other, students are responsible for building a community in which all students participate. co-operative learning requires that students work together to achieve goals that as individuals do not achieve. students involved in cooperative learning have many social and academic benefits. the experience of cooperation and the interactive exchange of information that occurs during cooperative learning has the desa ilić methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics 2 consequence of having a better memory of teaching contents, improving attitudes towards learning and strengthening interpersonal relationships among group members. teachers should try to create a class organization that will encourage student interaction with the goal of mutual cooperation. co-operation and interaction among children can be encouraged by the introduction of collaborative groups. in the following, we will present several models of collaborative groups, i.e. ways of organizing student work in the teaching of mathematics (rešić, 2016). the aim of cooperative learning is to advance each and every student, in different aspects, such as achievement, social skills, self-confidence, etc. after participating in cooperative work, the members of the group should be trained to do the same or similar task independently. cooperative learning in teaching mathematics, only a small number of researchers have carefully examined specific types of interactions that occur among students while learning math in smaller groups. most of the interaction-related tasks identified among students are related to the help they seek or provide to each other (gušović, 2013). a great deal of concern among mathematicians is encountering the low recognition of students that they need help in learning math. neumann and goldin (1990) show that children, especially with lower opportunities, are reluctant to seek help when they have difficulties in learning math. they are most reluctant to seek help from their friends, mostly because of being afraid they will laugh at them. if they are to seek help, their main source is a teacher who is often unable to provide the appropriate assistance each pupil needs individually. carefully designed subdivisions to smaller groups can enable interaction between students who, in turn, can provide appropriate assistance to the pupils who need it. unfortunately, most math lessons do not sufficiently promote student activity in tasks. what is more, full-time, as an environment in which students are not sufficiently active, has shown negative effects of low student achievement (mulyn, 1992). by contrast, some small cooperative learning groups have shown that student work is increased and student interaction facilitated learning in small groups does not ensure automatic collaboration in work and positive effects in all students. for example, sometimes more capable learners by showing far more active behavior tend to dominate the less able learners. although promoting math through co-operation in small groups makes it feasible for "highly productive students", the real challenge remains to do the same with "low productivity" students. the most commonly applied levels or forms of realization of cooperative learning in the teaching of mathematics are: 1) cooperative learning based on the department; 2) cooperative learning based on small groups, subgroups or teams; 3) cooperative learning based on couples. in cooperative learning based on the department are suitable for certain stages of work, such as: talk breaks used for discussion and active student learning, for introducing into a topic or problem, when discussing topics that are just present for discussion, asking questions, and interplay help with the materials that are just exposed. while, cooperative learning based on small groups, subgroups or terms take place when small groups of students work on a common task that can only be solved by cooperation of all group members. the group work represents the sitting of students in smaller groups of 3 to 6 students. the best group of 4 students, because that communication is six-fold. group composition can be permanent or changeable. then, cooperative learning based on couples has long been considered that learning in pairs is nothing more than learning in the smallest group. working in pairs (tandem) is a transitional model of individual to more complex forms of work. we can say that work in couples is indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 an innovative form of work in the contemporary teaching. by working in pairs, the students get better and the climate for work is more enjoyable, the student's activity is maximized, as feedback is even more encouraging for the activity. the student is trained to compare his work as well as to listen patiently to the interlocutor. this mode of work also has some shortcomings, such as restriction, rivalry, more time to get feedback on student work, etc. the solution needs to be sought in understanding the pair as a temporary form of joint work on a task or part of a task. method anyone who had ever tried to organize a cooperative lesson from any subject knew that it was not easy, because it was necessary that the time was so designed to provide an active participation of all students. some of the leading pedagogues in this area had devised methods used by teachers around the world. some of these methods were taken from contemporary literature in this paper, some i had taken from the seminar "to functional knowledge using methods and techniques in interactive teaching", and some were just ideas that need to be thoroughly considered. the aim was to provide teachers with as many methods as possible and more recent knowledge in this field. of course, in applying this method it was possible to perform combinations or create an analogous own approach, depending on the specific conditions of teaching practice and teacher training. it had been shown that these methods develop apart from achievement, and cooperative quality of personality, favorable emotional climate in learning and a higher level of student motivation. the most important advantage of cooperative learning methods was their compatibility with traditional teaching. the teacher, therefore, did not have to abandon his previous experiences. practice had shown that whoever tries these methods would definitely decide to continue to use them and would not go back to the old. the mosaic method was one of the first strategies of cooperative learning. it was originally developed by eliot aronson and his colleagues at the university of texas. aronson had developed a mosaic method to address some of the school segregation problems of the 1970s in the united states when they were separated in black and white studs and there was very little interaction between pupils of different skin colors. aronson has solved this problem by involving students in small, heterogeneous groups with a division of tasks and sources in which the pupils are doing so that each student has to rely on all the members of the group. this interdependence of the students was very high, and the role of the teacher as a provider of information was temporarily diminished. the name "mosaic" expresses the essence of this cooperative learning strategy. the learning material was distributed to members of the group in the form of mosaics and a piece was given to members of the group. the zeal that was generated by the slicing of the material would not be solved until all the pieces are put together. in essence, the responsibility of each member of the team was to process their piece of material and to teach the other. in other words, the mosaic method firmly binds pupils of materials and resources, as well as strongly motivated the interdependence of students in cooperative learning. a team member who was not efficient in the work on his or her piece of work can help other members of the team. although it was originally developed for the fifth and sixth grades of elementary school, the mosaic method can be applied for work in all grades of primary school, and children need to be able to read because most tasks in the mosaic method require a minimum reading ability. in the original mosaic method the students work in two groups: a control group (expert group) working together to produce a joint material and a mosaic group (the so-called homegroup) working on material that had just been learned from each group member desa ilić methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics 4 individually in expert groups. the original mosaic method required each mosaic group member to be part of one of the control groups working on the teaching material. the members of the control group had the same number of different mosaic groups. they work on the same teaching material, study information, discuss the method for working on the material. when the mosaic of the group was rebuilt, each student taught others about his material he learned in his control group. while the mosaic method strongly relied on the task and resources as well as on the interdependence of group members, it was important to point out that this was essentially not a hierarchical method. the method did not require the same level of mastery for all students. usually, students master the material that, as experts, convey to their mosaic group. it was recommended to reduce the number of members of mosaic groups, depending on the number of topics for work. team members could be selected so that one organizer-leader was found in each group for each mosaic group. it was important that the group organizer helped the group and forms the role of a team leader for other students in the group (because all must play that role). after two to three meetings, the roles of the team leader rotate and each mosaic group chooses a new leader. to be experts in their field, pupils were composed of members of the same mosaic groups who had the same questions, the same thing. the members of the matched or expert groups work together to understand the material, and discuss how it was easier to master that piece to make the most of it to its mosaic group. approximately 30% of time was spent on treating materials in the expert group. it was recommended that the leader of a mosaic group choose pre-work. if all the material was matched and done at the same level, it was possible to enable students in the expert groups who had completed their task to help others in their work on the design, as well as developing the ways of doing it themselves. in these circumstances, each expert group must be as heterogeneous as the mosaic group. when they finish learning in expert groups, students returned to their mosaic groups to teach others the curriculum, as specially arranged, if possible. members of the group mosaic considered the material to ensure that each member understands. when the group ended up with the learning material, the time for discussion, analysis, and reflection followed. proportionally, it is necessary to spend 60% of the time on the curriculum and 40% on the discussion. when they finish working in mosaic groups, students take individual tests and materials. the interaction task used in the mosaic method is to ensure that each student was fully successful on an individual test. this success depends on the individual's cooperation. aronson and his associates did not foresee any form of reward within this method. results and discussion this was the teaching unit with which students of the eighth grade of elementary schools meet. the very concept of treating the information was known to the students, both from the earlier classes and from life. this teaching unit was also a good proof that math is everywhere around us and that it was a very applicable science. there was also an opportunity to acquire functional (applicable) knowledge in which it is specifically insisted. one example of this was when students were given data gathered in a survey and they were subdivided into expert groups first to learn how to process and display data (drawing tables, graphs, diagrams) and then return to their mosaic groups and train other students to present together files. we divided the students into groups of 4 students and each group gets a special assignment. namely, the students had visited the tourist destinations of our region as part of the project of learning geography and collected data on the number of visitors, number of foreigners, age structure, number of visitors in certain periods of the year and indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 so on. now, at the math class, students received the data they were supposed to process and show to some of the statistical methods. each group got one tourist destination. the students pulled out one card marked with a number from 1 to 4. then the students with the same number on the card formed the group. then the captains of the groups form an expert group that had two tasks to learn how to make graphs and diagrams based on data written in the table using one of the word tools and then teach other members of its mosaic group. when they finish learning in their expert groups, students return to their mosaic groups. each of the mosaic members of the group was obliged to transfer the knowledge they had acquired to the other members in order to ensure that each member understands. when the group had finished the learning material, it was time for questions, analysis, thinking, etc. after completing the work in mosaic groups, each student got tasks to work individually. depending on the interaction within the group used in the mosaic method, each student would achieve some result on the individual test. if the group work was successful and the students cooperated with each other, then the results on the test would be as good as possible. method of scoring-achievement this method had emerged as a practical application of learning theorists of motivation achievement. the essence of applying the scoring method was that the students know exactly what they were looking for, that they had time to prepare and that there were no surprise factors in checking the adopted knowledge. after processing the teaching unit, students were given points for mastering the teaching contents. points were given analytically. any information, fact, or essential item was scored in brackets beside content with a predefined number of points, so that the students knew how much points they were going to get by filling out this information. at the end of the teaching unit or topic, a score scale was awarded (for example, 21 points for grade 2, 31 for good and the like). the student did not know which questions would be on the test or on the test of knowledge. points achievement was very effective for group work. the class was divided into groups that were preparing for a few days or weeks to test the lessons learned. group collaboration was followed. all members of the group were concerned that each group learner learns the best to make the group more successful. it was possible to organize various forms of competition between groups. the differences between the other cooperative methods and this were that the students know exactly what was being sought for the grade, and that grade would not be different from the teachers. when working on teaching contents, the teacher should draw the student’s attention to important information and scoring. it is best to give the teaching unit a test question. in addition to which it was indicated where the answers are in the book or other source of knowledge, as well as how many points they carry. the teacher could use multiple forms of evaluation of achievement, depending on their assessment of the effects of this evaluation. this type of evaluation should be applied which would most contribute to the further achievement of students: testing individual achievement when group work is used: the goal was to establish a group's achievement, and individual student contributions were valued only by a group. it is an important group assessment. a group rating was highlighted in a class chart, in a school newspaper or otherwise. it was important that a group is struggling for more achievement by training or "training" all its members for maximum individual scores; evaluating group achievement without individual scoring: the goal was to test groups rather than individuals. testing for the group needs to be prepared. self-assessment of the group: the goal was to show the group's achievements in the desa ilić methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics 6 curriculum and analyze the way to achieve the achievement. method of group research methods of group research had been developed by sharan and herzlazarowitz (sharan and hertz-lazarowitz, 1980; sharan and sharan, 1992) as a variation of the project method. topics could be suggested by students based on search by source or by self-propagation topic. groups of 5 to 6 students are formed that would study the topic of their choice. the composition of the group is based on the theme selection. each group discusses its topic and analyzes the aspects of a possible approach to the topic. the first three questions should be answered first: what will we do? how will we do it? why will we do it? subsequently, the group conducts it was research plan, which implies defining tasks for each member of the group. group members searched for sources of knowledge to better respond to the project assignment. each group member should be aware that a better outcome of each individual will also mean a better result for the group. each group should select one member for the steering board. the task of this committee was to monitor the group's progress, to ensure that each member of the group is engaged, to hear the group's plans for the final report, to draw up a list of final presentations and to consider the needs of each group. the whole group presented what it had done so that every member of the group had its role in the final report. the teacher helps students who did not know how to present their material. the entire class should be in good standing during the presentation of any group. it would be desirable for the presentations to include a part that points to difficulties in processing or investigating problems, as well as instruction to other students as best to overcome the topic considered. the teacher was starting to evaluate during the observation of the students' work in the groups. it was necessary to evaluate how students had approached the subject and the problem of research, how they cognitively treated and which skills did they use. it was necessary to involve students in evaluation as much as possible or to develop self-evaluation. the steering board should be a group work assessor, but it was very important to carry out the evaluation of this committee's work. for the evaluation, the teacher could create a "group efficiency questionnaire" that would be filled out by all the students and processed by the board of directors. students should be divided into 5 groups of heterogeneous compositions with approximately equal number of members. each of the groups would deal with one of the following budget items: foods and beverages, chemical products home appliances and applied techniques wardrobe monthly accounts (taxes) the groups could agree on which items would be responsible or items may be assigned by a random selection method, for example by pulling the cedar from the hat. before going to the survey, each student should ask their parents who were working in the family, how often they went shopping, which foods they bought every day, what was in their opinion necessary to bought within the items the student belonged to and the monthly invoices. when students met in a group, it was necessary to share the knowledge they had come to and to make a list of the things that were necessary for the life of a family. their imaginative family must be equipped with as many basic things as possible. the goal was to save as much as possible. it was also necessary to elect the members of the board of directors from that group. the task of the first three groups was to visit great brands and find the catalogs with the reduced prices of the products that they need in accordance with their group and then calculated how much the percentage was their discount, how much money would indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 be saved in such a purchase and write down in their reports. if students lived in an environment where there were no large markets, these catalogs could be found in daily newspapers or discounts seen in tv commercials. old catalogs could also be used, and the pupils could do it by going to the appropriate shops, for example the home appliance store, and writing down what was on the discount. individual products must be found in the reports regardless of whether they were discounted because their purchase is indispensable for family life. thus, a group in charge of food products in their report must be obliged to include bread, dairy products, fruits and vegetables and other basic products with their prices if they were in the catalogs or not. in the final report must be found all the products that the group "bought" with their prices with and without a discount, the total amount of money spent and how much of the percentages were saved by discounting. as the wardrobe was rarely found in the catalogs, the group responsible for "dressing" the family had to go to the shops and on the face of the place find the reductions they mostly had throughout the year. the minimum wardrobe was a shirt, trousers or skirt, depending on the half, and shoes for each member individually. the family, for example, consisted of four members: father, mother and two children. in the final report, all the wardrobes that the group had chosen to buy with their prices with and without discounts, the total amount of money spent and how much money was saved by discounting. as for the group in charge of monthly households, their task was for each member of the group to collect information from their parents about the monthly bills for the previous month for items: electricity, telephone, cable, internet, etc. based on the data of each group member, by calculating the mean value for each item, the monthly account of the imaginary family was obtained. also, from talking to parents and studying accounts, the group should determine how much each account would be reduced if a payment was made to a specific date, or, if not, until the date was specified, how much would be the increase (interest) on these accounts. in the final report, all accounts should be found with their amounts if they were paid in time, to calculate how much savings had been made and what the costs would be if they were late for payment. when all the groups complete their research, each group would say what it all included in their research, which they produced on the list, how they came to the price, what caused them problems and how much they had saved. for such a presentation, the group could choose to own a representative who did not have to be a member of the board of directors. when the presentations are over, the board of directors would meet, and based on the data that each member of the board would bring, it was calculated how much money was spent on the family (total budget), what was the final cost savings and what percentage of that total budget that group spent. this information would be forwarded to each group by each member of the board, and all submissions would be completed by entering them. co-operative concept mapping the "cooperative map concept" method had been developed by a group of authors at the concordia university in montreal. the author's intention was to develop a method that would help students understand the subject matter with the help of their classmates. it had been noted that a large number of children equated memory with the understanding of the material. practice had shown that children could easily explain some of their contents and ideas to each other in their own way, rather than what teachers do. when students learned to sketch and conceptualize their explanations, the effectiveness of these instructions increases. this method required students to plan and conceptualize their plan maps based on identifying the main ideas and links between them. it was a graphical seed, for example, a desa ilić methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics 8 node-junction-node, in which the contents of the idea are printed in nodes (rectangles and circles) and the links were represented by lines or arrows. it was advisable for a teacher to bring out and demonstrate a concept map and explain it and give groups so that students saw a conceptual model that would later facilitate their learning and mapping. many students came to school with prejudices about learning and teaching, with the understanding that success was enough to memorize the facts. it also supported the beholder mode. to work efficiently in the map concept, students had to change their attitudes or prejudice about teaching. learning objectives should be understood by students as their own. it was necessary to form heterogeneous groups of 3 to 4 members and encourage them to cooperate and assist the weaker so they could lean onto the group. it was important for students to understand a cooperative mapping concept and to understand the conceptualization process. the teacher should make an emphasis on thinking out loud so that all students can follow the theses, main ideas, relationships between them and the like. let the students understand that it was not only important to conceptualize the contents, but also to develop the ability to conceptualize. it was necessary that students have the courage to notice the main ideas, to learn to summarize the text and to know what is important. when each of the students drew their own idea into the notebook, the students in the groups discuss individual notes, ideas and theses. they ask each other questions and ideas. groups reduced the number of ideas and make the key structure of the nodes from which the concept maps will be derived. it was necessary to encourage students to ask or consult teachers, if necessary. while explaining the folder to other members of the group, the student purifies his understanding of the material. students should be able to see the success of this work from a teacher's point of view, but should ask themselves to analyze what they had learned and how the mapping process was going on. also, it was important for students to emphasize that it was not only the concept of folders that they were important but also the facilitations they made when memorizing content. conclusion the fact is that the most efficient learning is what is happening in the group and that cooperation is the basis for any progress. when we separate people and individually evaluate, we make a gap between them and their natural environment. the results of the research have shown that co-operative learning as an indicator of quality education and education is reflected in school climate, interaction and communication, improving interpersonal relationships, willingness to help and cooperate, friendships and peer acceptance, as well as their own contribution to learning and work. pupils who have met cooperative learning point out the interestingness and usefulness of this learning, its contribution to relaxation and the overcoming of fears of negative evaluation and school failure. however, although the review of the mentioned literature on cooperative learning provides a clear picture that its application in school provides very potent effects when student achievement and their social and emotional development, research on school practice shows that the application of individual work is still dominant in the teaching of basic and secondary schools. one of the possible reasons for insufficient representation of cooperative learning in practice is the fact that initial attempts by teachers to create those situations among pupils are often condemned to failure. teachers who do not have the resources and resources to plan and apply this form of work, apart from their enthusiasm and interest in trying something new with their students, are quickly disappointed because they are faced with serious problems in discipline and motivation of students. more careful insight into interaction models in groups reveals primers of a number of indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 9 phonographs and the withdrawal of others. given that they are not accustomed to cooperation while learning, students will rather retain patterns of behavior commonly used in individual forms of work. however, this does not have to discourage the teachers. every teacher who has had at least one successful class and felt the benefits of such a method often returns to this modern method. references anić, i., pavlović, b. d., & radak, v. (2011). formula života: za sve koji vole matematiku i žele da je poklone drugima. beograd: matematiskop. aronson, e., bridgeman, d.l., & geffner, r. (1978). the effects of a cooperative classroom structure on students’ behaviour and attitudes. in d. bartal, & l. saxe (eds.), social psychology of education: theory and research. washington dc: hemisphere. davidson, n. (1990). small-group cooperative learning in mathematics. in t. j.cooney, & c. r. hirsh (eds.), teaching and learning mathematics in the 1990s, the 1990 yearbook of the national council of teachers of mathematics (pp.52-61). reston, va: national council of teachers of mathematics. de zan, i. (2000). metodika nastave prirode i društva. zagreb: školska knjiga. dedic, h., rosenfield, s., d’apollonia, s., & de simone, c. (1994). using cooperative concept mapping in college science classes. cooperative learning and college teaching, 4, 12-15. ivan, i., ana, p., & slobodanka, a. (2001). aktivno učenje. beograd: institut za psihologiju and unicef. johnson, d. w., & johnson, r.t. (1994). learning together and alone (4th ed.). needham heights, ma: allyn and bacon. kagan, m., robertson, l. & kagan, s. (1995). cooperative learning structures for classbuilding. san clemente, ca: kagan cooperative learning. mulryan, c. m. (1992). student passivity during cooperative small groups on mathematics. journal of educational research, 85, 261-273. newman, r. s., & goldin, l. (1990). children's reluctance to seek help with schoolwork. journal of educational psychology. 82(1), 92-100. piaget, j. (1975). ou vas l’education. paris: denoel. rešić, s., & alma, š. (2016). metodika nastave matematike. užice: učiteljski fakultet. ruthven, k. (1987). ability stereotyping in mathematics. educational studies in mathematics, 18, 243-253. sharan, s., & hertz-lazarowitz, r. (1980). a groupinvestigation method of cooperative learning in the classroom. in s. sharan, p. hare, c. d. webb, & r. hertz-lazarowitz (eds.), cooperation in education. provo, ut: brigham young university press. ševkušić, s. (1995). teorijske osnove i perspektive kooperativnog učenja. zbornik instituta za pedagoška istraživanja, 27, 138–157. beograd: institut za pedagoška istraživanja. webb, n. m. (1985). student interaction & learning in small groups: a research summary. in r. slavin, s. sharan, s. kagan, r. hertzlazarowitz, c. webb, & r. schmuck (eds.), learning to cooperate, cooperating to learn (pp. 147-172). new york: plenum press. desa ilić methods of cooperative learning and their application in the development of competitive themes in teaching mathematics 10 in cooperative learning based on the department are suitable for certain stages of work, such as: talk breaks used for discussion and active student learning, for introducing into a topic or problem, when discussing topics that are just present for di... method references indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories mahmood hashemian english department, faculty of letters and humanities, shahrekord university, iran e-mail: hashemin-m@sku.ac.ir apa citation: hashemian, m. (2018). a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 1(2), 21-32. received: 17-06-2018 accepted: 23-08-2018 published: 01-10-2018 abstract: this study explores the (possible) relationship between affective variables and metaphorical competence. the main objective is to investigate the difference between the thinking/feeling and the judging/perceiving personality variables and l2 learners’ metaphorical competence. participants are 90 male and female iranian l2 learners who take the opt and responded to the myers briggs type indicator (mbti) personality questionnaire. they are divided into 2 categories of thinking/feeling and judging/perceiving in line with the results of the mbti. then, a teacher-made metaphor test is administered to the groups to check their metaphorical competence. finally, to observe whether there is any significant difference between the 2 groups in terms of metaphor comprehension, an independent samples t test is carried out. the metaphor test is the dependent variable and the personality type is the independent variable. results show that the thinking/feeling personality category has no significant effect on the participants’ metaphorical competence, whereas the judging/perceiving personality category play some role in their metaphorical competence in that the perceiving participants outperfor med the judging ones on the metaphor test. keywords: metaphorical competence; personality type; myers briggs type indicator (mbti); thinking/feeling; judging/perceiving. introduction metaphor is at the very heart of mind and language, and it has been such a mindboggling concern since the time of aristotle (tendahl & gibbs, 2008). being a widespread feature of everyday thought and language (feldman, 2006; lakoff, in press; lakoff & johnson, 1999), metaphor has attracted the attention of both l2 teachers and learners as a teaching device (ortony, 1975; sacristan, 2004). sacristan (2004) believed that by using metaphors in l2 teaching programs, l2 learners are provided with an appropriate device raising their awareness and knowledge of the main issues, concepts, and models to an acceptable level. metaphor and metaphorical thinking increase our understanding by relating one thing to another kind of thing (azuma, 2005), and this kind of connection leads to successful metaphor comprehension and production that is the basis for the key concept of metaphorical competence in learning an l2 (littlemore & low, 2006). metaphorical competence is defined as the natural ability to comprehend and use metaphors in a given language. lack of knowledge about metaphorical concepts leads to the wrong transfer of l1 metaphorical expressions similar to their l2 counterparts. therefore, it is necessary for l2 teachers to make their learners aware of the l2 conceptual system (hashemian & talebinezhad, 2007). there are numerous factors affecting successful l2 learning, such as intelligence mahmood hashemian a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories 22 (binet, 1905; gardner, 1983), aptitude (teepen, 2005), motivation and attitude (crookes & schmidt, 1991), learner preferences (reid, 1987), learner beliefs (tittle, 2000), age (flege, yeni-komshian, & liu, 1999), and personality (eysenck, 1997). learning more about the students and gaining some information about the personal differences in the language classroom have always been one of the primary objectives in l2 learning and teaching. selecting an appropriate method to apply to the teachinglearning process has been the great concern of teachers in the history of language teaching. however, in modern language teaching today, involving with the students’ profiles individually on academic basis and trying to learn more about them help l2 learners and teachers more to reach the objectives of the program (erton, 2010). here, the personality of the student appears to be in the core of the issue. personality is defined as a broad term related to general behavioral patterns individuals manifest in their everyday lives (balkis & isiker, 2005). a number of personality characteristics have been proposed as likely to affect l2 learning, measured by different personality inventories proposed by a number of researchers (eysenck & eysenck, 1964; holland, 1973; myers & myers, 1980). myers briggs type indicator (mbti) is one of those inventories of personality assessment based on the four categories of human personality, each of which consists of two opposite preferences that determine the way we function in all situations (pittenger, 1993). the four dimensions of human personality, according to the mbti scale, are: extroversion (e) vs. introversion (i), sensing (s) vs. intuition (n), thinking (t) vs. feeling (f), and judgment (j) vs. perception (p). as expressed by wilz (2000), our personality also affects the way we learn. so, an understanding of personality type would be useful in defining why we learn differently. each human being is unique and has unique preferences. identifying these unique preferences and the different behavior patterns of each individual improves our understanding of ourselves and of the world around us (marefat, 2006). many studies had been conducted in this regard which investigated the effects of different categories of personality types on different aspects of academic success and performance (e.g., balkis & isiker, 2005; erton, 2010). despite great strides made on metaphor (danesi, 1994, 1995), metaphorical competence (hashemian, 2007), and personality types (eysenck, 1997) in recent years, the reams of research papers on l2 learning published up to now attest to the fact that, to the best of our current knowledge, almost nothing has been done on the relationship between l2 learners’ personality types and metaphorical competence. the present study set out to find out the (possible) relationship between l2 learners’ personality types and their metaphorical competence in order to fill the existing gap. metaphor and metaphorical competence have dominated discussions of sla researchers since the late 20th century (azuma, 2005; danesi, 1992; hashemian & talebinezhad, 2007; littlemore & low, 2006). despite its widespread use and need in everyday life, metaphor is most of the time neglected by l2 teachers. because of lack of experiments on language learning and discourse programming, the inclusion of metaphorical competence in l2 learning and teaching programs has not yet that much penetrated the mindset of researchers and practitioners (danesi, 1995). the works of lakoff and johnson in linguistics (e.g., lakoff, 1987; johnson, 1987; lakoff & johnson, 1980) might have been the most relevant to developing the notion of metaphorical competence for l2 teaching during the past decades. the crucial claim made by these two scholars is that our most common concepts are forged via metaphor (danesi, 1995). lakoff and johnson in their seminal work in 1980 emphasized the omnipresent role of metaphorical schema in everyday life and made it the case of their indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 future educational investigation. metaphor is not something that occurs only in literary uses despite the widespread fallacy believed by many, but it is also the omnipresent part of all other kinds of discourse—professional or nonprofessional (donglin & yin, 2009). in this regard, hashemian and talebinezhad (2007) proposed the idea of metaphorical competence as the natural ability to comprehend and use metaphors in a given language. metaphorical competence, like linguistic competence, is a good tool to measure l2 learners’ proficiency and tap into their existing l2 mastery, and because of its vital role in l2 proficiency and comprehension, it is under great controversy (yan, 2007). for many years, people have debated about different personality types and their indispensable role and effect on every aspect of life. personality is defined as a set of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual and are stable over time (racicot, venne, durivage, & vaillancourt, 2011). this stability would affect every aspect of a person’s life, one of which is his or her metaphorical competence. much work has been done on the relationship between personality types and many other factors related to sla, such as learning styles (honey & mumford, 1992) and strategies (brown, 2000), but to the best of our present knowledge, despite its prevalent use and function in everyday language, nothing has been done on the relationship between metaphorical competence and personality types. lawrence (1984) mixed the learning style research with mbti. he believes that mbti can be used to develop teaching methods to meet the needs of different types. smith, irey, and mccaulley (1973) found that personality types can influence l2 learners’ attitude and performance in selfpaced instruction. they consider this as the major cause of failure in college teaching that stems from l2 teachers and learners’ lack of recognition of each other’s differences. this major realm of differences gave rise to the need for different learning activities. smith et al. (1973) believe that by assigning appropriate instructional modules and packages to fit different styles of learner perception and judgment, the outcome of self-paced instruction and also learning will be raised. very broadly, the thinking behind the current research is to investigate the differences, if any, between the thinking/feeling and judging/perceiving personality types identified by mbti in terms of metaphorical competence. afterward, based upon the abovementioned deliberations, the following questions stand out: 1. is there any significant difference between feeling and thinking personality types in terms of metaphorical competence? 2. is there any significant difference between perceiving and judging personality types in terms of metaphorical competence? also, in line with the abovementioned research questions, the following null hypotheses are formulated: h01: there is no significant difference between feeling and thinking personality types in terms of metaphorical competence scores. h02: there is no significant difference between perceiving and judging personality types in terms of metaphorical competence scores. method for the present study, the participants were elected from one english literature class and one translation of idiomatic expressions class, each having 45 male and female junior learners majoring in english translation, aged 20-26, all from shahrekord university, iran. in order to ensure the homogeneity of the participants, the oxford placement test (opt) was administered to the participants in the first stage of the study, from which the participants whose scores were lower than the mean score of the total possible scores were excluded from the study. mahmood hashemian a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories 24 the opt was administered to the participants in the first stage of the study in order to determine their proficiency level and also to ensure the homogeneity of the participants under investigation. the mbti was used in order to assess the personality types of the participants and to examine the influence of these personality types on the participants’ metaphorical competence. also, a teacher-made metaphor test was administered to the participants in order to test the metaphorical knowledge. it was designed based on the books idiom organiser (wright, 1999) and 136 american idioms (collis, 2004). it should be added that the reliability and validity of the test was examined via the experts’ views and cronbachʼs alpha. it is well worth mentioning that the calculated reliability coefficient for the aforementioned test was .74. after selecting the participants randomly from shahrekord university, the opt was administered to them to determine their proficiency level and to ensure their homogeneity. among the participants who took the test, only those whose scores were above the mean were selected as the sample for the study. then, a teacher-made metaphor test was conducted to tap into the participants’ metaphorical competence. the last stage was to identify the participants’ personality types by mbti during the semester. the data collected (i.e., the scores on the english metaphor test and mbti) were subjected to both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. as for the former, such descriptive statistics techniques as standard deviation and mean were calculated. as for the latter, using spss, an independent samples t tests was run to compare each of the preferences of the two dichotomies of feeling/thinking and judging/perceiving in terms of metaphorical competence, and to see if there was any significant difference between them in terms of metaphorical competence. results and discussion descriptive results for feeling/thinking and perceiving/judging preferences in this section of the t test analysis, the answer of whether there was a statistical strong relationship between feeling/thinking and judging/perceiving personality type and the metaphorical competence of the participants was examined through statistical methods. table 2. descriptive statistics of the feeling/thinking and judging/perceiving participants min max mean std. dev. skewness kurtosis statistic statistic statistic std. error statistic std. error metaphorical competence of the feeling 42 14 19.50 17.03 1.45 -.34 .36 -.31 .71 metaphorical competence of the thinking 48 16 19 17.37 .91 .04 .34 -1.06 .37 metaphorical competence of the perceiving 54 14 18.75 16.97 1.25 -.65 .32 -.95 .63 metaphorical competence of the judging 36 16.50 19.50 17.58 1.03 .44 .39 -1.11 .76 according to the descriptive statistics, the mean score of the metaphorical competence of the feeling participants was 17.03 and that of the thinking participants indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 was 17.37. although statistically significant, the actual difference in the two mean scores was small, almost less than 1 scale point. the mean score of the metaphorical competence of the perceiving participants was 16.97 and that of the judging participants was 17.58. although statistically significant, the actual difference in the two mean scores was small, but almost 1 scale point. according to kinnear and gray (1999), the skewness and kurtosis values within the range of -1.5 to +1.5 indicate an acceptable normality of variances. according to table 2, the kurtosis and skewness statistics of metaphorical scores of the participants were within the range, suggesting the possibility of significant normality. figure 1 also shows the histogram of the metaphor scores of the feeling participants. according to the figure, the sample of the metaphor scores of the feeling did not have skewed scores. also, the metaphor scores of the thinking looked more normal (see figure 2). figure 1. metaphor scores of the feeling participants figure 2. metaphor scores of the thinking participants figures 3 and 4 showed the histograms of the metaphor scores of the judging and perceiving participants. according to the figures, the sample of the perceiving participants’ scores seems to be skewed to the left (see figure 3). however, its degree was not very great. also, the histogram of the metaphor scores of the judging mahmood hashemian a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories 26 participants seems to be a bit peaked (see figure 4). figure 3. metaphor scores of the perceiving participants. figure 4. metaphor scores of the judging participants. inferential results for feeling/thinking and perceiving/judging preferences to answer the research questions of the current study, independent samples t tests were conducted (see table 3). table 3. independent samples t-test levene's test for equality of variances t test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference std. error differenc e metaphor feeling equal variances 6.000 .016 1.340 88 .184 -.33929 .25315 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 metaphor thinking assumed equal variances not assumed 1.301 66.934 .198 -.33929 .26076 metaphor perceiving metaphor judging equal variances assumed equal variances not assumed 88 84.1 .61 .61 .25 .24 the results of the t test indicated the inequality of the variances of the differences in the mean scores (p = .01). according to table 3, equal variances were not assumed for the t test, and there was no significant difference in the scores of the feeling (m = 17.03, sd = 1.45) and the thinking (m = 17.37, sd = .91); t (66.93) = -1.3, p = .19 (two-tailed). the magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = -.33, 95% ci: -.85 to .18) was very small (eta squared = .01). thus, the first null hypothesis is in line with our expectations and is not rejected. also, table 3 demonstrates the inequality of the variances of the differences in the mean scores (p = .39). this inequality showed that the equal variances were not assumed for the t test. according to table 2, there was a significant difference in the scores of the perceiving (m = 17.58, sd = 1.03) and the judging (m = 16.97, sd = 1.25); t (84.1) = 2.52, p = .01 (two-tailed). the magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = .6, 95% ci: .1 to 1.09) was moderate (eta squared = .06), which was just like that of the first category—introversion/extroversion—and it showed that 6% of the participants’ metaphorical competence was explained by perceiving. thus, the second null hypothesis was rejected, and the following directional hypothesis comes forth: h3: there was a significant difference between perceiving and judging personality types in terms of metaphorical competence scores. being one of the most important concepts of l2 pedagogy, metaphor had been studied by a large number of scholars (feldman, 2006; gibbs, 2006; lakoff, in press; tendahl & gibbs, 2008) in order to define and fill the existing gap which had been felt about the status of metaphor and the uncertainty and doubts which had been felt to exist between the traditional and contemporary views of metaphor. most scholars had unanimously agreed upon what lakoff and johnson (1980) proposed about the naturality of our metaphorical conceptual system, which manifests itself in linguistic evidence and everyday verbal or written communication. attempts had been made to define and relate this natural and ubiquitous metaphorical competence to different attributes of learners, such as cognitive styles (fadaei, 2011), emotional intelligence (forouzandeh, 2012), and so on, but to the best of our knowledge, nothing had been done on the most effective and most dominant feature of every human being, that is, his or her personality trait, and its roled on a better understanding l2 learners’ metaphorical competence. one of the important factors which leaded to the prevalent development of a country was improving the quality of education in that country and to invest on its educational and human resources. one of the main objectives of this qualified education was the improvement of students’ academic achievement which helped them actualize their talents and abilities (hakimi, hejazi, & lavasani, 2011). in their seminal work in mahmood hashemian a study of l2 learners’ metaphorical competence and personality types: a case of thinking/feeling vs. judging/perceiving personality categories 28 2005, caspi, robert, and shiner investigated educational settings such as schools in which personality traits and academic achievement of students were related. they concluded that the relationship between personality and academic achievement was something personal, that was, people choose situations to which they feel more comfortable. when this happens and achievement criteria and personality characteristics intersect, personality and academic achievement may be directly related. as such, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of personality types of i/e, n/s, f/t, and p/j according to the mbti taxonomy towards the learners’ performance on the metaphor test which leads to better language and academic achievement and success. in fact, the aim was to have an investigation into the defining the role of personality types regarding metaphor test performance, and accordingly, to improve l2 learners’ comprehension of metaphors. regarding the concerns of the present study, metaphorical expression as well as linguistic, and semantic elements include elements that concern human cognition and culture (azuma, 2006). the cognitive approach viewed metaphor more as a matter of mind, or as taki (2011) asserted, as a set of fixed mappings between two conceptual domains. in fact, metaphors were a more abstracted model than a mental model which helped individuals made more inferences than they would make from less abstract data (nonaka, 1991). as astley and zammuto manifested in their work in 1992, the ambiguous language of metaphors provides a cue to the learner and let the rest to him or her to interpret the meaning. regarding the perceiving category of personality and its positive relationship with metaphorical competence, to the best of our knowledge, nothing could be more effective than the spontaneity and flexibility of a perceiving learner. according to wolk and nikoli (1997), an individual who prefered a perceiving category tend to follow a perceiving process in his or her behavior. the perceiving learners always welcome incoming and new information and prefer to see all sides of an issue. they are spontaneous, curious, flexible, and adaptable which may be the key to their good metaphorical comprehension. the findings of this study could be useful to l2 pedagogy. during the last decade, individual learners had received a significant amount of attention as the central element in the complex process of learning an l2. according to mcdonouch and shaw (2003), an understanding of l2 learners’ characteristics could prove helpful to l2 classrooms by adjusting certain aspects of the classroom. in this regard, the role of personality and personality types had also been mentioned as the most effective participant in life affairs and actions (racicot et al., 2011). because of the wide domain of l2 pedagogy, anything which could help l2 learners in better learning things was of paramount importance, so a significant amount of attention had been put on metaphor and its vital and indispensable used in everyday language in the last two decades (feldman, 2006; gibbs, 2006a, b, c; lakoff, in press; lakoff & johnson, 1999). metaphorical competence had been considered by many (e.g., hashemian, 2007; hashemian & talebinezhad, 2007) as a good tool for measuring l2 proficiency in l2 teaching (hashemian, 2007; littlemore & low, 2006). because of the vital importance of metaphorical competence in l2 research, and its role and effect on better comprehending and learning of an l2 (hashemian, 2007; littlemore & low, 2006), the present study was set out to find out and to determine the role that personality type plays in this domain. subsequently, the findings of this study would help l2 teachers with a better understanding of l2 learners and help them made use of the detailed portfolios of l2 learners and finding their areas of weakness and strength and act accordingly by finding the best suited methodology, materials to be presented, activities, and means of assessment for those learners. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 1, issue 2, october 2018 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 it was worth mentioning that an increasing body of research suggested that personality was vital for success in many areas of life (racicot et al., 2011). the present study attempted to detect the effect of different personality types―thinking/feeling and judging/perceiving― on l2 learners’ metaphorical competence. l2 learners with different personality types (e.g., extroversion vs. introversion) react differently to different teaching methods and materials presented by the teachers (myers & myers, 1980; tieger& barron-tieger, 1995). l2 learners knew their personality types and their relation with metaphorical competence could try to do their best to improve these two related concepts so as to communicate better in l2 contexts, cultures, and societies. almost none of the studies conducted so far (e.g., azuma, 2005; danesi, 1992; hashemian, 2007; hashemian &talebinezhad, 2007; littlemore & low, 2006) had investigated the relationship between metaphorical competence and personality types; so, this study sought to fill the existing gap. conclusion according to the results of the metaphor 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(2007). the development of metaphorical competence in efl learners: a case study. unpublished master’s thesis, donghua university, college of foreign languages. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language khadija belfarhi english department, badji mokhtar-annaba university, annaba, algeria e-mail: khadija_belfarhi@yahoo.com apa citation: belfarhi, k. (2019). pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 33-44. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1850. received: 18-06-2019 accepted: 20-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: the recent developments in cognitive linguistics turn efl research interest to investigate the role of pragmatic aspects in the learn ability of english instead of grammargoverned learning. pragmatics becomes ever more essential to the success of the language learner for its focus on language-in-use tasks. pragmatic transfer occurs when non-native speakers of english transfer their l1 pragmatic knowledge to the target language. the efl algerian learner is closely concerned with pragmatic transfer since he/she speaks two languages, the first, arabic, exhibits language distance with english while the second, french, is pragmatically more related to english than arabic. the aim of the present research is to investigate the aspects of the pragmatic transfer and find out which language do learners transfer more from. to investigate the pragmatic transfer in the efl algerian classroom, we selected to work on the speech acts of requests among second year english students at annaba university, through the use of discourse completion task. the analysis of data indicated the dominance of negative transfer of requests from arabic to english. algerian efl learners transfer from arabic to english and not from french despite the factor of language distance between arabic and english. keywords: bilingualism; efl; english; learning; pragmatic transfer; third language. introduction the study of pragmatic transfer becomes ever more central for the fact that l2 and foreign language learners transfer unconsciously from their l1. pragmatic transfer addresses interlanguage studies and brings understanding of the learner’s learning experiences. in the efl classroom, it is a necessary stage in the acquisition of the new pragmatics knowledge and occurs when nonnative speakers of english transfer their l1 pragmatic knowledge to the target language (kasper, 1992). pragmatic failure is often recorded by teachers especially in those settings where the pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic transfer are inappropriate within the l1/l2 and the target language; in that, pragmatic differences in the learner’s languages may lead to unsuccessful communication (thomas, 1983; beebe & takahashi, 1989). besides, pragmatic proficiency correlates with pragmatic transfer (beebe & takahashi, 1989; blum-kulka, 1982). moreover, thomas (1984) considers pragmatic failure as more problematic than linguistic errors. pragmatic failure may occur as the result of learners’ overgeneralizing the use of l2 to inappropriate settings which is linked to pragmalinguistic failure. research on pragmatic transfer in the case of three languages is almost absent. a reason why an investigation in such a context is beneficial to predict where the pragmatic failure can occur. pragmatic transfer occurs when nonnative speakers of english transfer their l1 pragmatic knowledge to the target language (kasper, 1992). it is recognized in communicative tasks where learners perform a communicative behavior in the target language with a remarkable influence from the l1. factors of pragmatic transfer are khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 34 varied. pütz & aertselaer (2008, p. 303) summarize them as follows: occurrences of pragmatic transfer may be influenced by various factors including learners’ perception of language distance between their native and target language (e.g., takahashi, 1996), learning context (e.g., beebe & taka-hashi, 1989), instructional effect (e.g., bardovi-harlig, 2001; kasper, 1992), second language proficiency (e.g., olshtain & cohen 1989; beebe & taka-hashi, 1989), and length of time in the target community (e.g., félixbradsefer, 2004; olshtain & blumkulka, 1982). languages differ from each other not only at the grammatical level but also at the pragmatic. languages of the same family and which share lexical features may differ pragmatically, how about languages descending from different families. in other words, the function of languages is socioculturally established and once coming in interaction, they become at the hands of their users. as schmitt (2013, p. 83) notes that: “the ways in which pragmatic differences are handled may need to vary according to whether they are primarily pragmalinguistic differences (that is, differences in the linguistic strategies typically used to convey a given illocutionary force) or primarily sociopragmatic differences (that is, differences in the social assessment, beliefs and principles that underlie language use.” pragmatic differences between languages are nowadays handled by “crosscultural pragmatics” which explains differences not as misguided universalism but rather in reference to social and cultural factors. wierzbicka (2003) notes the relevance of these factors by saying: 1) in different societies, and different countries, people speak differently; 2) these differences in ways of speaking are profound and systematic; 3) these differences reflect different cultural values, or at least different hierarchies of values; and 4) different ways of speaking, different communicative styles, can be explained and made sense of, in terms of independency established different cultural values and cultural priorities. culture, thus, acts upon language and directs its use towards cultural priorities which can even act upon the normative forms which display stability in their native context and becomes different in the multilingual context, yet a source of constraints to the learner who has more than two languages in her/his linguistic repertoire. research in interlanguage pragmatics settles on the assumption that pragmatic transfer leads to proficiency in the second language. beebe and taka-hashi (1989) propose that: “the positive correlation hypothesis standing on empirical study, they advanced the generalization that negative transfer of form and meaning is more likely to occur with higher proficiency learners because they have the l2 morphosyntactic resources to utilize their l1 communicative knowledge and practices in the l2” (as cited in belz & vyatkina, 2006, p.361). however, other studies came to refute beebe and taka-hashi’s generalization. dalmau and gotor (2007) report that “an increase in l2 proficiency does not necessarily translate into a linear decrease in the number of non-optimal pragmatic performances” (as cited in salgado, 2011, p.39). in the same line, keshavarz, eslami, and ghahraman (2006) say that evidence contrary to beebe and taka-hashi (1989) proposition exist taking examples of the study by maeshiba, et al. (1996) who study transfer of apology strategies of intermediate and advanced japanese speaking esl learners in hawaii. the study’s conclusion refutes the positive correlation hypothesis whereby advanced learners performed better than the intermediate group, showing more positive transfer and less negative transfer. kasper (1992) comments on maeshiba, et al. (1996) by saying that “transfer of apology strategies could be based on similarities and differences in assessment of contextual indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 variables, with positive transfer occurring with similar assessment, and negative transfer where assessment differed.” for the most part, these predictions were borne out (as cited in ringbom, 2007, p. 66). ringbom (2007) suggests that a threshold level of proficiency combining both an extensive vocabulary and ideas about: “the learner needs to have both a fairly extensive vocabulary and some idea of how these ideas can be joined together. once this stage has been researched, assumed similarities at the pragmatic level may come into play. however, in other language areas, the effect of pragmatic transfer gradually weakens as proficiency develops” (p. 66-67). pragmatic transfer occurs necessarily in multilingual communication having speakers expressing their actions with the appropriate polite forms at their disposal: “it is significant that politeness is expressed by a large number of speech formulae and similar conventionalized verbal means which are tightly bound to the deep structures of the cooperative action” (rehbein & fienemann, 2004, p.260). pragmatic transfer represents the influences of the l1 structures to the l2 under social measures: “to generalize, in the domain of polite action, there are influences of pragmatic l1-strucyures on the forms of acting and speaking in l2, especially regarding social measures of polite action from different traditions, linguistic formulae, action patterns, illocutionary acts and linguistic procedures from different linguistic fields. in summarizing, we label these influences pragmatic transfer” (p. 264). the influences excercise as the result of the pragmatic transfer may condition the appropriateness of the multilingual communication wherein some parameters come into consideration: 1) the language used; 2) the speech situation; 3) the roles of the participants; 4) the sociopolitical status of the languages involved; 5) the skills of the participants; 6) the typological distance of the languages involved; and 7) the degree of languages separation, language mixing or switching (house & rehbein, 2004, p. 3). the language user, being a participant in a social speech situation or a language learner, is in general under the effect of pragmatic transfer. of the above parameters, the last three ones are likely to condition the learner’s pragmatic transfer. in that, the skills of the participants in the target language may act upon the negative transfer; the typological distance may either lead to separate use of each language or wrong generalizations of speech acts; and the extent to which languages are separate or close and whether learners, consciously or unconsciously, can keep languages separate. the transfer from the l1 to the l2 in a bilingual context is inevitable unless learners’ language proficiency in the second language enables learners to develop positive transfer, or they have separate use of languages. in the case of a third language, the transfer cannot be predicted or generalized as it depends the most on the mastery of the second language (bilinguality), language distance between the three languages, and the developed pragmatic competence in the l3. research on pragmatic transfer in multilingual contexts is limited if compared to bilingual and esl contexts; and the available one focused more on syntactic features’ influence on the target language. the question becomes then which language learners rely on in their pragmatic production? the literature on the topic, though not enough to support the varied multilingual contexts, suggests some useful views. fouser (1997), as a case of illustration, studied the pragmatic transfer in adult korean/english learners of japanese as a third language. the participants were set to mixed research method involving a japanese c-test, a translation task, a discourse completion test, a discourse evaluation test, a short writing task, and a language learning-experience questionnaire (as cited in jordà, 2005). fouser (1997) predicts that language transfer would occur from the language perceived as closest (korean) to the https://www.google.tn/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22maria+pilar+safont+jord%c3%a0%22 khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 36 target language (japanese). the results confirmed his hypothesis wherein the language distance affected pragmatic transfer, that is, subjects resorted to the l1 (korean) regarding the pragmatic features of the target language (japanese) (as cited in jordà, 2005). the present research focuses on the speech act use of requests by algerian efl learners at the university of annaba. the case of algerian learners is that the pragmatic transfer is subject to two different languages and not just an l2 influencing the pragmatic knowledge of the target language. the aim is to see how pragmatic transfer occurs: 1) is it from the l1 or l2? and 2) is it positive or negative transfer? it is assumed that language dominance affects pragmatic proficiency which is manifested in english pragmatic proficiency. the research methodology presents a study of requests among efl learners of intermediate level (2nd grade) at the university of annaba. it adopts dct wherein learners are asked to fill in a discourse completion task (dct) on requests presented in the form of a questionnaire. another questionnaire is used for the aim to evaluate language dominance, and see from which language the participants transfer requests. method to examine efl learners’ pragmatic transfer, two research tools had been used. the first was a language dominance questionnaire aiming to know what language dominated the informant; that was, arabic or french. the second tool was a discourse completion task (dct) aiming to test the pragmatic transfer. the two tests were administered to a randomly selected group of twenty learners from the 2nd grade of the department of english at annaba university. the sample that contributed in the present research was a group of undergraduate students learning english as a foreign language. the choice had been on the 2nd grade was for the reason that english learners in the algerian university study three years (lmd) whereby the second year was the middle where the learner was supposed to have acquired a language proficiency in the first year and developed it further in the third year. the method used for collecting data was discourse completion task. the choice had been on requests as they occupied an important part in interlanguage pragmatics, and mark pragmatic transfer. depending on the role of instruction in communicative tasks, learners might use different requests strategies in the target language. in that, they might transfer the l1/l2 to the target language and might also use native-like request strategies. the test represents eight situations of different request forms, reflecting daily speech situations taken from the algerian context. the informants were told to ask a request corresponding to the situation in english. a request was considered appropriate if it was polite and went with the language’s social norms and corresponded to speech acts of english requests. concerning data analysis, the pragmatic transfer was evaluated as positive or negative. the latter occured when the same structure and meaning was transferred from one language to another. if the two forms of requests were accepted in the two languages, the request was to consider as a positive transfer. if the transfer transcended the norms of the english and results in inappropriate used of english, it was, then, considered as negative. correlations were established in relation to language dominance test to find out the source of the pragmatic transfer, that the source language. results and discussion language dominance questionnaire the first research method aimed at investigating the informants’ language dominance. that was, the language that the informants made much use of. this was done by administering a bilingual background questionnaire for arabic/french speakers. https://www.google.tn/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22maria+pilar+safont+jord%c3%a0%22 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 table 1. the result of the language dominance questionnaire p’ orig parents’ parents’ early lge acqui early f lge parents’ lge infor gp lge educ bili before 5 y mant’s lge lge alg ar/fr m:es ar6 no ar fr ar ar ar a f:ms fr7 alg ar/fr /ka m:hs ar3y yes ar fr ar fr ar ar fr f:hs fr7 b с alg ar fr m:gs ar3y yes ar fr ar fr ar fr ar fr f:gs fr7y d alg ar/br m:gs ar6y no ar/br fr ar/br ar/br ar f:gs fr7y alg ar/fr m:gs ar6y yes ar fr ar fr ar fr ar e f:gs fr7y f alg ar/fr m:gs ar3y yes ar/fr ar/fr ar/fr fr f:gs fr3y alg ar/fr m:gs ar4y yes ar/fr ar/fr ar/fr ar/f r g f:gs fr6y alg ar/fr m:hs ar3y yes ar/fr ar ar/fr ar/f r f:hs fr5y h alg ar/fr m:с ar5y no ar/fr ar/fr ar ar i f:hs fr7y j alg ar m:es ar4y no ar ar ar ar f:hs fr8y alg ar/fr m:hs ar4y no ar ar ar ar k f:es fr9y alg ar m:ms ar6y no ar ar ar ar l f:es fr9y alg ar m:с ar5y no ar/fr ar/fr ar ar m f:с fr7y alg ar m:hs ar6y no ar/fr ar/fr ar/fr ar n f:с fr7y alg ar m:es ar3y no ar/fr ar ar/fr ar o f:es fr5y alg ar/fr m:ms ar3y no ar/fr ar/fr ar/fr ar p f:hs fr9y alg ar/fr m:hs ar4y no ar/fr ar ar ar/f r q f:hs fr7y alg ar/fr m:с ar5y no ar/fr ar/fr ar ar r f:с fr7y alg ar/fr m:hs ar5y yes ar/fr ar/fr ar/fr ar s f:hs fr7y alg ar/fr m:с ar6y no ar/fr ar/fr ar ar t f:с fr7y khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 38 table 2. the result of the language dominance questionnaire tv lge lge of read stories ar overall ability fr overall ability ar skills fr skills lge pref lge dom inance a ar fr ar native unders & speak well native speaker vg list & read depends adresee g spea & writ ar b ar fr ar fr native unders & speak native speaker g list read depends adresee & spea needs work in wri ar-fr c ar fr ar fr native native nsc nsc ar fr ar-fr except wri d ar/fr ar/fr native native nsc nsc fr ar/br fr wri wri e ar fr ar fr native unders & speak well vgread& vg read ar fr spea g spea & list g list & wri nw wri ar-fr f fr fr native native nsc nsc ar/fr ar-fr except wri g ar/fr ar/fr understand & speak well native vg list vg in all skills depends adresee g read & g wri spea ar-fr nw wri h fr ar/fr understand & speak well unders & speak well nsc nsc depends adresee read& list in rea & lis vg spea & wri vgspea & wri ar-fr i ar ar understand & speak well unders & speak well nscread vgread & list ar vg speak list & wri g spea & wri ar j ar/fr ar understand & speak well unders & speak well vg read nw read & spea ar g spea & list p wri & list ar nw wri k ar/fr ar native unders & speakgreat nsc gread & list ar indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 difficu nwspea & wri ar l ar ar native unders & speak some difficu nsc vg list ar nw remain skills ar m ar ar native understand & speakgreat diffi nscexcept wri g read ar nwremain skills ar n fr fr understand & speak some diffi native vg list nsc except wri depends adresee g read & spea nwwri ar/fr o ar ar native unders & speak great diffi vg all skills g except spea depends adresee g read ar p ar/fr ar native unders & speak some diffi nsc list vg read depends adresee vg read & spea g list ar-fr g wri nw spea wri q ar/fr ar/fr unders & speak little diffi unders& speak some diffi nsc read & list nscread ar/fr vg spea & wri vgremain skills ar/fr r ar/fr ar/fr unders & speak little diffiy unders & speak some diffi nsc g except wri ar/fr ar/fr s ar/fr ar/fr native unders & speak little diffi nsc except read vg list depends on the adresee gremain skills ar/fr t ar/fr ar/fr native unders & speak some diffi native speaker vg read ar comand nw remain skills ar notes: arabic monolinguals: a, i, j, k, l, m, o, t equal bilinguals: b, с, d, e, g, h, n, p, q, r, s bilinguals dominated by french: f eight informants were monolingual speakers speaking arabic while the twelve remaining ones were arabic-french bilinguals. from the results, the informants’ bilingualism could be grouped into three categories: arabic monolinguals, equal bilinguals, and bilinguals dominated by french. the results of the questionnaire point to what the informants thought their language state was. it was estimation about their language used in general but their real bilinguality could be confirmed only by measuring their bilingual proficiency. the language dominanced questionnaire, therefore, indicated the language(s) that the informants use in different domains of khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 40 language. the majority of the informants, 12, were arabic-french bilinguals of which 11 were equal bilinguals, and one informant was a bilinguals dominated by french. test of pragmatic transfer the test’s questions were displayed in q1, q2, etc. every question was evaluated whether it was negative or a positive transfer, either from arabic or from french. in a third case, it could be an english request which was a performance of the speech act of request done in the same way as a request performed by a native english speaker table 3. the results of dct based on requests q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 q8 a nta nta er er nta er er nta b nta nta er er nta nta nta nta с er er pta er er pta er er d nta nta pta pta nta nta nta nta e nta pta nta nta pta nta nta nta f er er er er er er pta pta g nta nta pta pta nta nta nta nta h nta nta nta pta nta nta nta nta i nta nta nta nta nta nta nta nta j nta nta nta nta nta nta nta nta k nta nta pta nta pta nta nta nta l nta nta pta er er er nta nta m nta nta pta nta nta nta nta nta n pta nta nta nta nta nta pta er o er nta pta nta pta nta pta pta p er er pta er er er pta er q nta nta pta er nta nta pta nta r nta nta pta nta nta pta nta nta s er nta nta er er pta pta pta t nta nta er er er er pta pta the number of the performed requests was 160, 89 represented negative transfer from arabic, 34 had a positive transfer from arabic, and 37 performed english requests. it could be represented diagrammatically as follows: figure 1. the result of dct based on requests the results point to the existence of pragmatic transfer in the use of the english language. transfer occurred from arabic to english and not from french to english. the amount of negative transfer from arabic was higher than positive transfer from arabic. the amount of transfer from french to english, positive and negative was null. the informants’ requests needed to be analyzed individually to see their quality and the nature of transfer. for example, if we took randomly informant a, we found that he/she had the first request realized from a direct transfer from dialectical arabic and which sounds impolite in english as it used the strategy of direct addressing. the second 0 20 40 60 80 100 nta pta er ptf indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 question was a transfer from arabic but which used a polite strategy “sorry but could you please” and results in positive transfer from arabic. the third question was performed with an english request where the informant used a polite strategy for asking about help. in this question, the informant was in need of help and this could be the reason why his/her request strategy was english-like. the same thing for question 4, question 5 was a negative transfer from arabic because it lacked polite forms such as “can you please”. it might be because the speech situation was within close friends that was why the informant avoided polite forms (register). question 6 & 7 were performed as an english request because the informant needed something and his language was purposeful; therefore, it was polite and performed in an english tone. question 8 was a positive transfer from arabic because the last expression “can i do that” was a translation from dialectical arabic. just four informants had requests performed in an english way (с, f, t and p). the remaining had variability in their requests ranging generally between nta (negative transfer from arabic) and pta (positive transfer from arabic). to understand the variability, we needed to analyze the informants’ answers in terms of the different performed speech situations. the questions vary in their purposes. in that, questions one and two were about complaints and had almost all been performed with a negative transfer from arabic. the remaining speech situations were about services where the informant needed help or something. there was a move from nta to pta along questions one and two, and questions three and four. this included eleven informants: a, b, d, g, h, k, l, m, q, r and t. the positive transfer occured when the informant needed a service but when he/she was in an unpleasant situation, the transfer from arabic was negative. it was to say that the current sample of english learning set to the evaluation of the source of pragmatic transfer in a multilingual context revealed the transfer from arabic and not from french. now, let’s drew lines between the request form, the affecting language and the type of transfer. from the previous analysis, we got informed that nta was the highest. to understand this more, we established the following correlations presented in the table below: table 4. correlations between the type of bilingualism and the type of pragmatic transfer informants type of bilingualism type of transfer a ar nta er b ar-fr nta с ar-fr er d ar/br fr nta e ar-fr nta f ar-fr er g ar-fr nta h ar-fr nta i ar nta j ar nta k ar nta l ar nta er m ar nta n ar/fr nta o ar pta nta p ar-fr er q ar/fr nta r ar/fr nta s ar/fr pta er t ar pta nta er khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 42 the correlation between the type of bilingualism and the type of pragmatic transfer revealed null correspondences because both of the informants who were dominated by arabic (monolinguals) and the bilingual informants had variable pragmatic transfer. informant a, for example, was dominated by arabic and had yet a nta and er. similarly, informant t, who was arabicfrench bilingual, had pragmatic transfer of the type pta nta er. this was an indication that the negative transfer originated from arabic as the majority of the informants were arabicfrench bilinguals dominated by arabic. language dominance affected pragmatic proficiency in case the informant had a mixed state of the three languages and one of affects english pragmatic proficiency more than the other. the current sample had the majority of informants made a negative transfer from arabic and a small minority made english-like requests. the first group could be said to not having distance between their native language (arabic) and the target language (english). besides, they had not well developed pragmatic competence in english which could be due to the instructional effect and the length of time in the target community. the second group, by contrast, performed english requests as the result of pragmatic proficiency they had in english. their functional proficiency in english allowed them, as suggested by gass and neu (2006) to rely less on their native language. however, the two groups lack proficiency in french pragmatics as there was the total absence of pragmatic transfer from french because they lacked second language proficiency and their use of the french was superficial. the reasons of pragmatic transfer could be attributed to three interrelated factors: learners could not make distance between arabic and english in the way that they transfer unconsciously forms and strategies from arabic to english without being aware of whether english allowed for such transfer. it occured as the result of the role of instructional effect. english learners in algeria did not reach pragmatic proficiency and kept focusing on grammatical proficiency, a factor resulting from the limited teaching and practice of pragmatics in general. a last factor had to do with the length of time in the target community. algerian learners had a limited contact with the english native community expected those who rely on computer-mediated communication. real contact with english native speakers fosters the development of pragmatic proficiency and could decrease negative transfer from arabic. forms of arabic pragmatic transfer the present section dealt with the forms that the informants used in performing the different situations of english requests. grouped as communication strategies by house (2007), we dealt with strategies resulting in positive as well as negative transfer. in that there were some forms the informants took from arabic and tried to perform requests with in english. it was an overgeneralization from arabic. those who made a negative transfer from arabic made a wrong use of “sorry” which rendered their requests a translation from arabic yet unacceptable in english. “sorry” was usually used to apologize for mistakes in general. in algerian arabic “sorry” was, too, used for apologizing and also for taking attention when there was a need to have somebody did something. in the analyzed requests, “sorry” had more wrong generalizations than just apologizing because the main aim of dсt was requests not apologies. for example, in question four a lot of informants started it with “sorry” while a salutation form was required as the speaker made a call to ask for help and not to apologize. in algerian arabic it occured as the speaker apologizes for interruption. in this case, “excuse me” after a salutation would make the request sounding english. this was an example for illustration from question eight (appendix b): “sorry could i change this shirt please?”. the informant could first use an introductory phrase instead of “sorry”. another similar ill-use of sorry indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 was “i’m sorry but i want to change the shirt i bought earlier is it possible?” similar cases of word-to-word translation from arabic had been found in a similar research by dendenne (2016) who studied the performance of the speech acts of request and apology by algerian efl learners as part of their interlanguage-pragmatics. dendenne’s collected sample presents interesting examples of direct translation from arabic: jazaaka lahu khayran/may god increase your bounty (p.179). another over generalization from arabic was the typical translation of arabic polite forms. it included typical translations from algerian arabic by translating words directly from algerian arabic like the following example: “сould you please tell me the nearest station? i am not from here, please” “ تقدرمن فضلك تقلي أقرب محطة ؟ منيش منا the translation resulted in .”من فضلك syntactic mistakes (lack of about before the nearest) and the repetition of the word “please”. another translation was seen in the following example: “pardon me, i am new in town. if you are not very occupied could you please guide me to the nearest station?” سامحني أنا جديد في البالد كان ماكش التي بزاف تقدر “ the request .”يعيشك دلني على المحطة القريبة resulted in negative transfer due to the ill-use of the expression “pardon me” which was a typical translation from algerian arabic. the learners might not be aware of the performed speech act as they went straightforward to translation from algerian arabic which resulted in cases of negative and positive polite forms. this strategy was used in an intimate way since the user ignores the right equivalent in english or she/he had thought of its counterpart, yet resulting in a pragmatic negative transfer. however, it should be noted that the negative polite forms did not aim at creating impolite acts in themselves, as suggested by brown and levison’s theory (1987). they were rather unconsciously performed resulting from the high influence of arabic and ignorance of the pragmatic rules of the english language. another way of negative transfer from arabic was the use of arabic words cotexting with english words, that was a kind of code-switching. examples included the following: “salam alikom. do you know where the nearest station from here?” “ السالم and “hey mam, i ”عليكم تعرف أقرب محطة منا ؟ think this shirt is too large for me, so can i change it?” “ أ ما تبانلي هاد تركو كبير علي، نقدر the first example made a salutation in .”نبدلو؟ arabic while the second used the word “mam” which was typically cultural in the sense that when algerians address an old woman, they used the word “mam” for showing respect for her. however, such a language alternation was considered as unacceptable though resulting from the speaker’s language proficiency (guerini, 2006, p. 216). сonclusion the present study deals with pragmatic transfer in a multilingual context of algerian arabic-french bilinguals learning english as a third language. the results reveal the existence of pragmatic transfer in the use of the english language. transfer occurs from arabic to english and not from french to english. moreover, requests are realized from a direct transfer from dialectical arabic and which sounds impolite in english as it uses the strategy of direct addressing. there is also positive transfer from arabic but its amount is limited if compared with negative transfer. the absence of transfer from french to english indicates that the informants lack pragmatic proficiency in this language despite its status and use in algeria. the correlation between pragmatic transfer and bilingualism points to the existence of negative transfer from arabic as the majority of the informants are arabicfrench bilinguals dominated by arabic. language dominance affects pragmatic proficiency in case the informant has a mixed state of the three languages; and arabic, the dominant language, affects english pragmatic proficiency. finally, the reasons of negative pragmatic transfer from arabic can be attributed to the low effect in the teaching of pragmatics in efl classes. in that, the lack of khadija belfarhi pragmatic transfer of algerian learners in learning english as a third language 44 pragmatic awareness in english makes the efl learners relying on their arabic pragmatic proficiency by transferring from arabic to english and transcending, therefore, the pragmatic norms of english. references beebe, l. m., & takahashi, t. (1989). sociolinguistic variation in facethreatening speech acts: chastisement and disagreement. in m. eisenstein (eds.), the dynamic interlanguage: empirical studies in second language variation (pp. 199-218). new york: plenum. belz, j., & vyatkina, n. (2006). a learner corpus driven intervention for the development of l2 pragmatic competence. in k. bardovi-harlig, j. c. félix-brasdefer, a. s. omar (eds.), pragmatics & language learning (pp. 315-402). natl foreign lg resource ctr. blum-kulka, s. (1982). learning how to say what you mean in a second language: a study of speech act performance of learners of hebrew as a second language. applied linguistics, 3(1), 2960. brown, p., & levinson, s. (1987). politeness: some universals in language use. cambridge: cambridge university press. dendenne, b. (2016). pragmatic transfer in requests and apologies performed by algerian efl learners: a cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatic study. unpublished dissertation. algeria: university of constantine. gass, s., & neu, j. (2006). speech acts across cultures: challenges to communication in a second language. new york: walter de gruyter. guerini, f. (2006). language alternation strategies in multilingual settings: a case study: ghanaian immigrants in northern italy: peter lang. house, j. (2007). what is an intercultural speaker? in a. solar & s. jorda (eds.), intercultural language use and language learning (pp. 7-22). dordrecht (netherland): springer. house, j., & rehbein. j. (2004). multilingual communication. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. jordà, m. p. s. (2005). third language learners: pragmatic production and awareness. clevedon: multilingual matters. kasper, g. (1992). pragmatic transfer. second language research, 8(3), 203-231. pütz, m., & aertselaer, j. (2008). developing contrastive pragmatics: interlanguage and cross-cultural perspectives. berlin: walter de gruyter. rehbein, j., & fienemann, f. (2004). introductions being polite in multilingual settings. in j. house & j. rehbein (eds.), multilingual communication, (pp. 223-278). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. ringbom, h. (2007). cross-linguistic similarity in foreign language learning. clevedon: multilingual matters. salgado, e. f. (2011). the pragmatics of requests and apologies: developmental patterns of mexican students. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. schmitt, n. (2013). an introduction to applied linguistics. london: routledge. thomas, j. (1983). cross-cultural pragmatic failure. applied linguistics, 4, 91-112. thomas, j. (1984). cross-cultural discourse as unequal encounter: towards a pragmatic analysis. applied linguistics, 5, 226-235. wierzbicka, a. (2003). cross-cultural pragmatics: the semantics of human interaction. new york: walter de gruyter. https://www.google.tn/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22maria+pilar+safont+jord%c3%a0%22 guerini, f. (2006). language alternation strategies in multilingual settings: a case study: ghanaian immigrants in northern italy: peter lang. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 55 types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners' general and academic self-efficacy abbas ali zarei associate professor, english department, faculty of humanities, imam khomeini international university, qazvin, iran e-mail: a.zarei@hum.ikiu.ac.ir zahra usefli ma, english department, islamic azad university, qazvin, iran e-mail: usefli.zahra@gmail.com apa citation: zarei, a. a., & usefli, z. (2019). types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 55-66. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1992. received: 24-06-2019 accepted: 26-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: the purpose of this study is to compare the effects of three types of assessment (self, peer, and teacher) on efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy. the participants included a sample of 94 iranian efl learners studying english at it english institute in qazvin, iran. a version of the preliminary english test (pet) along with the persian translation of a 12-item general self-efficacy and an 8-item academic self-efficacy questionnaire were used to collect data. the participants were divided into three groups, and each group of participants was exposed to one of the treatment conditions. they were given the questionnaires both before and after the treatment. two separate ancova procedures were used to analyze data. no significant differences were found among the effects of the three types of assessment on general self-efficacy. however, both self-assessment and peer-assessment were found to be more effective on academic self-efficacy than teacher-assessment. meanwhile, the difference between self and peer -assessment in academic self-efficacy was not statistically significant. other than theoretical implications, the findings of this study may also have pedagogical implications for teachers, learners as well as syllabus designers. keywords: academic self-efficacy; general self-efficacy; peer-assessment; self-assessment; teacher-assessment. introduction recently, many researchers have attempted to figure out the potential effect of selfefficacy on learners' educational achievement. type of assessment is also among the influential factors affecting learners' course performance. selfassessment requires learners to reflect on their own activity and evaluate it against the assigned criteria (adachi, hong-weng tai, & dawson, 2017). on the other hand, peerassessment engages learners in the assessment of the activities of their classmates using established criteria (wanner & palmer, 2018). teacher-assessment refers to the traditional system in which teachers are responsible for students' performance assessment (brown & hudson, 1998). it is still the dominant type of assessment in iranian educational system. although many researchers have studied the effects of several types of selfefficacy including goal-orientation, selfregulation and achievement motivation on the course performance of learners (abbasian, khezrinejad, & teimourtash, 2017; bandura, barbaranelli, caprara, & pastorelli, 2001), as well as the impact of self (butler & lee, 2010; chen, 2008), peer (cheng & warren, 2005; topping, 2017), and teacher-assessment (chacon, 2005; hoy & davis, 2006) on learners' mailto:usefli.zahra@gmail.com abbas ali zarei & zahra usefli types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy 56 performance, few studies have been conducted on the differences among types of self-efficacy as psychological factors and their relationships with peer, teacher and selfassessment (alfallay, 2004; nicol & macfarlane-dick, 2006). therefore, the purpose of this study is to compare the effects of peer, teacher, and self-assessment on efl learners’ general and academic selfefficacy. it aims to find answers for the following research questions: 1) which type of assessment (self, peer, and teacher) is more effective on iranian efl learners’ general selfefficacy? and 2) which type of assessment (self, peer, and teacher) is more effective on iranian efl learners’ academic self-efficacy? self-efficacy is generally defined as students' confidence towards their own capabilities by which they try to improve their level of proficiency (schunk & pajares, 2002). maraghi, mortazavi-tabatabaei, ahmady, and hosseini (2018) argue that learners with high levels of self-efficacy in a specific activity are expected to show higher quality performance than those with low and insufficient self-efficacy. it is also assumed that learners with low self-efficacy levels may easily give up their attempt when they face obstacles. doménech-betoret, abellán-roselló, and gómez-artiga (2017) study the role of learners' self-efficacy beliefs in their academic outcomes. they emphasize the predictive power of self-efficacy in predicting students' success and maybe their persistence in their future career and academic achievement. they claim that their study has influential implications, especially for counseling in terms of learners' educational or vocational needs. they present a detailed review of related literature related to self-efficacy beliefs and the effects such beliefs can have on learners' academic achievement. they also employ a quantitative meta-analysis and find evidence in support of the direct relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and students' insistence on improving their academic achievement. zimmerman (2000) emphasizes selfefficacy as the most effective component in forecasting students' motivation and performance. he believes that early studies in this regard pay little attention to environmental and contextual factors. to this end, he studies self-efficacy with specific focus on how students regulate learning and control their own performance. he maintains that self-efficacy has many aspects that differ with regard to their area of functioning. he also concludes that self-efficacy has salutary effects on predicting learners' motivation and improving their learning. pajares (2003) investigates the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on learners' achievement in writing. in the study, he emphasizes that during the past decades, studies have highlighted the potential effect of selfefficacy on learners' academic writing, and that these findings corroborate maraghi, et al. (2018) claim about the unique contribution that self-efficacy makes to human performance. he also asserts that this relationship has a unique implication for teachers in helping students to develop their ability and self-beliefs. he claims that teachers' concentration on students' selfefficacy beliefs and encouraging them to self-reflect on their own performance are essential aspects of improving their writing performance. pajares (2006) points out that selfefficacy assists learners to keep their endeavor to achieve success rather than teach them how to be a successful person. when learners are required to make a choice related to their competence in their educational performance, they will undoubtedly choose the suitable one (pajares, 2006). according to britner and pajares (2006), self-efficacy has an undeniable role in students' course choice and their performance in learning. elsewhere, schunk, and pajares (2002) claim that the prediction of students’ achievement is possible through self-efficacy beliefs. generally, self-efficacy has to do with one's potential to judge and execute specified action (pajares, 2006). specifically speaking, however, self-efficacy may be of two types; indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 57 namely, general and academic. general selfefficacy refers to a broad and somehow fixed feeling of individual capability across different environments (schwarzer & jerusalem, 1995). academicelf-efficacy is defined as an individual’s confidence about performing determined tasks or controlling actions in academic settings (lampert, 2007). chemers, hu, and garcia (2001) define academic selfefficacy as one’s perceptions of performance in academic tasks. in a study, köseoğlu (2015) attempts to clarify the relationships between self-efficacy and academic achievement. it is concluded that selfefficacy level is directly related to academic outcomes. lampert (2007) believes that in an academic context, individuals' self-efficacy potential to manage their educational process affects their academic performance and achievement. believing that self-efficacy affects learning achievement, several researchers ivestigate their relationship and concluded that academic self-efficacy has a significant effect on academic achievement (bong, 2001; pajares, 2006). elahi motlagh, amrai, and yazdani (2011) report the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement in high school context. meanwhile, pajares (2006) confirms that self-efficacy correlated positively with academic performance. according to ratminingsih, marhaeni, agung, and vigayanti (2018), selfassessment refers to students' engagement in classroom activities, and the evaluation of their own achievement. self-assessment is usually aimed in improving students' active participation in the classroom and causing them to reflect on their own performance towards further learning. assessment provides learners' with information about their strengths and weaknesses, especially by actively engaging them in their own or peer assessment. they are guided in assigned learning goals, and by getting feedback, they benefit from selfevaluating and self-assessing (davies, 2002; shepard, 2000). sluijsmans, dochy, and moerkerke (1999) study how using self and peer assessment can help to generate a positive learning environment. they conclude that the most important aspect of self and peer assessment is to set certain criteria that can be used to evaluate learners' improvement and change the norm-referenced testing to criterion-referenced testing in studentcentered environments, or to shift from product assessment to process assessment. keig (2000) investigates faculty members’ attitudes at liberal art colleges towards colleague assessment. the study aims in discovering which methods of peerassessment (evaluation of course materials, videotaping of classes, classroom observation and assessment of their evaluation) the faculty will choose to improve teaching. the results suggest that: 1) over 50 % of the faculty is willing to take part in these types of assessment. 2) there is a statistically negative relationship between willingness of faculty members towards using each approach of assessment and each detractor; and 3) the relationship between faculty members' willingness to use each method of assessment and each enhancer depends on some effective conditions such as participants' membership in this process, or faculty's consultation in planning the forms of the review. mclaughlin and simpson (2004) study students' feeling about the application of peer-assessment at melbourne university to find out whether students prefer to be assessed by peers or the teacher. the results show a large number of students preferred peer-assessment. similarly and karaca (2009) investigate the attitudes of teacher trainees toward peer-assessment and how variables like experience in peer-assessment, gender, and trust in peer-assessment can influence the participants’ opinion. it is found that the teacher trainees believed peerassessment can persuade learners to actively engage themselves in assessment, and that this is significantly related to their gender. ross (2005) examines the effect of assessment method on the development of abbas ali zarei & zahra usefli types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy 58 foreign language proficiency with a group of 2215 participants in an eight-year longitudinal study. based on the results, formative assessment is more effective on language learning, especially on the development of listening comprehension ability. nicol and macfarlane-dick (2006) investigates how self-regulated learning and formative assessment can assist learners to manage their own performance as selfregulated learners. sluijsmans and prins (2006) examine the possibility of integrating peer-assessment into teacher education. the results indicate a positive correlation between peer-assessment tasks and learners' general improvement. in another study, xiao and lucking (2008) compare the effectiveness of peer-assessment on learners' performance and satisfaction. the participants are 232 sophomore and junior students. the results suggest that the participants of the peer-evaluation group outperformed those in the comparison group in writing and have a higher level of satisfaction. pare and joordens (2008) study the agreement between peer-assessment and expert marking in peer scholar system (as a kind of online peer-assessment tool). the participants are 1143 university students who are required to complete two writing assignments through using computers by connecting to the website hosting peerscholar. the results show significant correlations among expert markers and a high level of agreement between peer assessors and expert markers. white (2009) claims that when learners assess their peers’ performance, they are concerned about their own capabilities with regard to subject matter, their objectivity, and their relationship with peers. moreover, white's (2009) study shows the participants' positive attitude and a feeling of satisfaction in peer-assessment. in a similar study, karaca (2009) investigates the opinion of teacher trainees about peer-assessment and the role of variables like previous experience and gender in the participants’ opinion. the results indicate that the teacher trainees thought that peer-assessment is a useful method for persuading learners to participate in assessment and evaluate their peers’ work. it is also observed that this is strongly moderated by their gender. butler and lee (2010) search to find out how self-assessment affects the selfconfidence of efl learners from two different schools, one from upper middle class and the other from lower socioeconomic level with two different experienced teachers. they use two types of self-assessment including general selfassessment for summative purposes, and unit-based self-assessment. the results confirm the positive effect of self-assessment on learners' english learning and their selfconfidence improvement. chen (2010) investigates the effectiveness of a system of mobile peer and self-assessment. the results show positive relationships between the participants' attitude and their mobile assessment participation system and its implementation, although there is no consistency between teacher-evaluation and learner-evaluation. tillema, leenknecht, and segers (2011) investigate how peer-assessment affects the quality of assessment. the results indicate that there is a direct relationship between learners' involvement in peer assessment and improvement in their quality of assessment. kao (2012) investigates the possible ways of improving the quality of students' peer review. the study follows several steps including grouping, task completion, training in peer-assessment, group presentation, self/peer-assessment in the normal and peerassessment with positive interdependence (papi) conditions, and scores. the results show that peer-assessment with a positive independence condition lead to a decrease in the students’ reliance on their own preferences or opinion. esfandiari and myford (2013) study if there are any differences among teacher, peer and self-assessors in scoring efl essays. they conclude that among the three assessor indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 59 types, self-assessors are the least severe while teachers are the most severe assessors. zarei and sayar mahdavi (2014) study the possible effect of peer and teacher assessment on iranian efl learners' lexical and grammatical writing accuracy. based on the results, the experimental group, which use peer-assessment, significantly outperformed the comparison group, which use teacher-assessment, in both lexical and grammatical writing accuracy. the above review suggests that various aspects of self-efficacy have already been investigated, and so have different kinds of assessment. however, there seems to be a paucity of research on how different types of assessment may influence students’ feelings of general and academic self-efficacy. the present study is conducted to partially fill this gap. method the participants of the present study included a sample of 94 iranian efl learners (both male and female) roughly at intermediate level of proficiency. they were between the age range of 19 to 28, and they were learning english at it english institute in qazvin, iran. they had about four years of learning experience at the mentioned institute. therefore, they were naturally expected to have at least partial knowledge of types of assessment and types of strategies that they used. still, to ensure full understanding, the key elements were elaborated in their native language. three instruments were used to collect data including the following: a preliminary english test (pet) was used to determine the participants’ level of proficiency and to homogenize them before starting the treatment. pet is a standard test to determine intermediate students’ level of proficiency. the version of the pet used in this study included 55 items in multiple-choice format, 30 grammatical items, and 25 vocabulary items. the test also included reading comprehension items in four formats including matching, comprehension questions, true-false, and gap fills. the participants' general self-efficacy was checked using bosscher and smit’s (1998) questionnaire. it had 17 items scored on a likert type scale. the original index of the reliability of the test was reported to be α = 0.69. bosscher and smit excluded five items due to their vague wording. the questionnaire was adopted from zarei and taheri (2013). to ensure learners’ understanding, the questionnaire was translated by the researcher. it contained a total number of 12 statements regarding the participants' general self-efficacy. it was scored on a 5-point likert type scale from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. to reestimate the reliability of the questionnaire, the index of cronbach’s alpha was checked, and it was 0.66. the academic self-efficacy scale developed by chemers, hu, and garcia (2001) was used to gauge the participants' academic self-efficacy. the questionnaire was adopted from zarei and taheri (2013). to ensure learners’ understanding, the questionnaire was translated by the researcher. it consisted of 8 items. the response format was a 5-point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). to estimate the reliability of the instrument in the context of the present study, cronbach’s alpha was checked; it was 0.70 (α = 0.70). to collect the required data, the following steps were followed: in the first stage, the participants who were studying english in an institute in qazvin were selected. to prevent the participants' confusion and to remove any possible source of anxiety, all of the participants were briefed about the aims of the study. next, the pet test was administered at the beginning of the study to ensure the participants' homogeneity, in terms of their level of language proficiency. sixty minutes were allocated to this test. the results confirmed the participants were more or less at the same level of proficiency. then the general self-efficacy and academic self-efficacy questionnaires were administered, and the participants were abbas ali zarei & zahra usefli types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy 60 asked to respond to the above questionnaires by choosing from among 5 alternatives ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. the time that was allotted to the questionnaires was about 30 minutes. then, the 16-session treatment began. the participants were placed in three groups, with each group receiving one of the different types of treatment (teacher, peer, and self-assessment). after the experimental period, the same questionnaires were given again to measure the participants’ gain after the implementation of the assessment techniques. the obtained data were then summarized and submitted to statistical analysis. to analyze the collected data and to answer the research questions about the effects of teacher, peer, and self-assessment on learners’ general and academic selfefficacy, two separate analysis of covariance (ancova) procedures were utilized. results and discussion the aim of the first question was to see if there were any differences in the effectiveness of self, peer, and teacherassessment on efl learners’ general selfefficacy. to do so, a one-way ancova was used. table 1 contained the descriptive statistics. table 1. descriptive statistics on general self efficacy group mean std. deviation n self 34.1333 3.10432 30 peer 35.3529 4.16975 34 teacher 35.2333 3.82986 30 total 34.9255 3.74809 94 table 1 clearly showed that the peerassessment group had the highest mean score, followed by the teacher-assessment group. the first group, receiving selfassessment, had the lowest mean. to see whether or not the differences between the groups were statistically significant, ancova was used, the results of which were presented in table 2. based on table 2, no statistically significant differences could be seen among the peer, self, and teacher assessment groups on the post-test (f(1,93) = 0. 526 , p > 0.05). at the same time, the table showed significant initial differences among them on the pre-test. this meant that no sound conclusion could be made about the effect of assessment type of the learners’ general self-efficacy. table 2. test statistics for the ancova on general self-efficacy the second question was intended to see the differences in the effectiveness of peer, self and teacher-assessment on academic self-efficacy. to this end, another ancova was run. table 3 showed the descriptive statistics. source type ii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared observed power b corrected model 431.56a 3 143.78 14.78 .000 .330 1.00 intercept 314.96 1 314.96 32.39 .000 .265 1.00 generalselfefficacypre 403.47 1 403.47 41.49 .000 .316 1.00 group 10.23 2 5.11 .526 .593 .012 .13 error total 875.12 115967.00 90 94 9.72 corrected total 1306.47 93 a. r squared = .330 (adjusted r squared = .308) b. computed using alpha = .05 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 61 table 3. descriptive statistics on academic self-efficacy group mean std. deviation n self 34.4667 3.50107 30 peer 34.4412 4.62661 34 teacher 31.0333 4.76686 30 total 33.3617 4.59043 94 based on table 3, the self-assessment group had got the highest mean, closely followed by the peer-assessment group, and the teacher-assessment group had got the lowest mean. to see whether the observed differences were significant or not, the ancova was run, the results of which were summarized in table 4. table 4 showed that self, peer, and teacher-assessment were differentially effective on efl learners’ academic self-efficacy. however, it could be observed from table 4 that the differences were significant in the pre-test, too. therefore, care must be exercised in interpreting the obtained result (f(1,93) = 3.27, p < 0.05). this implied that the differences that were observed among the groups might not be necessarily attributable to the effect of the treatment. that was why the effect size was also checked. the effect size (0.068 =2ף) indicated that about 7% of the observed differences were due to the independent variable (assessment type). this meant that the other 93% of the variance was still unaccounted for. table 4. test statistics for the ancova on academic self efficacy source type ii sum of squares df mean squar e f sig. partial eta squared observed power b corrected model 733.45a 3 244.48 17.94 .000 .37 1.00 intercept 769.30 1 769.30 56.46 .000 .38 1.00 academicselfefficacypre 494.56 1 494.56 36.29 .000 .28 1.00 group 89.33 2 44.66 3.27 .042 .06 .60 error 1226.25 90 13.62 total 106582.00 94 corrected total 1959.70 93 a. r squared = .374 (adjusted r squared = .353) b. computed using alpha = .05 to locate the differences, the pair wise comparisons were done. the results of the pair wise comparisons were presented in table 5. table 5. pair wise comparisons on academic self efficacy (i) grou p (j) group mean difference (i-j) std. erro r sig. b 95% confidence interval for difference b lower bound upper bound self self peer peer -.131 .925 .887 -1.969 1.706 teacher 2.085* .979 .036 .140 4.030 teacher 2.217* .946 .021 .338 4.095 based on estimated marginal means *. the mean difference is significant at the .05 level. b. adjustment for multiple comparisons: least significant difference (equivalent to no adjustments). based on table 5, the difference between the first and the second groups was not statistically significant. however, the members of both groups had outperformed abbas ali zarei & zahra usefli types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy 62 those in group 3. this meant that although there was no meaningful difference between self and peer-assessment on efl learners’ academic self-efficacy, both types of assessment were significantly more effective than teacher-assessment. one of the findings of the present study was that no significant differences were found in the effects of different kinds of assessment on learners’ general self-efficacy. this finding did not corroborate those obtained by xiao and lucking (2008), who concluded that learners’ satisfaction, which was one of the components of general selfefficacy, was related to peer-assessment. this finding of the study also contradicted those of kao (2012), who reported a positive correlation between the type of assessment, especially peer-assessment and students’ general self-efficacy. the other finding of this study was the significant effect of assessment type on academic self-efficacy. this finding supported those of ross (2005), who reported that assessment affects learners’ language learning. since, learning language was one of the results of students’ academic performance, so this study was in accord with that of ross. this result was also compatible with those of zarei and sayar mahdavi (2014), who concluded that peerassessment was effective on learners’ lexical and grammatical accuracy in writing, which was one of the components of their academic performance. in addition, this finding lent support to that of sluijsmans and prins (2006), who reported a positive relationship between learners’ peer-assessment tasks and their learning performance, because a strong positive relationship had already reported between self-efficacy and learning performance (caprara, et al., 2011; pajares, 2003; zimmerman, 2000). several factors could possibly account for these findings. one of the reasons might be the iranian socio-cultural educational context in which students found it easier to avoid expressing their opinion and just follow teachers’ instructions. moreover, mostly teachers were change-resistant, and were used to the security of comfortable routines, which might decrease learners’ motivation. another reason might be attributed to the learners’ knowledge about the differences among the types of assessment. when learners had information about the merits of self-assessment, they might be more willing to use it just to eradicate teacher assessment, which caused stress and anxiety resulting in a decrease in their active participation in class activities. learners in teacher-centered classes tried to save themselves from losing face. another potential reason might be the learners’ proficiency level, which was an important factor in assessment. the participants should be at a good proficiency level to be able to assess each other. for example, participants in huang’s (2011) study were all college students, but in this study, the participants were a combination of high school and collage learners. this might had affected their performance. another reason could possibly be the students’ proficiency level and age. in kao’s (2012) study, all of the participants were graduate students, but in this study, the participants were a combination of high school and university students. therefore, when learners were young and at different levels of proficiency, their tendency toward expressing their opinion might be moderated. another factor could had been the age of the participants. the participants of this study were between the age range of 19 to 28. so, one reason why we came up with different results was probably because of the differences between the age level of the participants in this study and others. still another reason might be attributable to students’ personality traits, especially being extrovert or introvert in expressing their own preferences. introvert learners were usually less willing to express their own ideas and mostly tried to follow others’ instruction. other possible reasons for such findings might be the participants’ linguistic background or their self-confidence indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 63 and their opportunity to use target language in such contexts. another possible reason might be the participants’ motivation. as zimmerman (2008) reported, self-regulation was strongly correlated with motivation. the other possible reason might be the participants’ gender, which was not taken into account in this study. it needed to be noted that this study was conducted with a comparatively small sample size over a relatively short period. this implied that other studies with larger samples over longer experimental periods were needed before any generalization could be made. conclusion the findings of the present study show that assessment type affects academic selfefficacy. self-assessment is shown to be more effective in comparison with both peerassessment and teacher-assessment. based on the findings, it may be concluded that it is advisable to encourage self-assessment for the purpose of improving learners’ academic self-efficacy. this means that concerning learners’ academic self-efficacy and their significant positive relationships with selfassessment, teachers can create compatibility among learners to raise their self-beliefs about their capability to improve their class performance. in addition, this study finds no statistically meaningful effect of assessment type on learners’ general self-efficacy. in educational systems, interested teachers come to learn how to improve learners’ selfefficacy to improve class performance. they may examine other assessment types in classroom contexts, and alter them to achieve desired outcomes. for example, they may choose to shift from self-assessment to peerassessment, to teacher-assessment. this usually causes stress for learners and mostly makes them confused about classroom atmosphere. it can be concluded from the findings of this study that if teachers wish to improve learners’ general self-efficacy and thus improve their class performance, they need a bit of careful thought. since assessment types have no effects on general self-efficacy, enthusiastic teachers need to follow other suitable techniques, which are effective. references abbasian, g. r., khezrinejad, m., & teimourtash, m. 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(2014). the effect of peer and teacher assessment on efl learners' grammatical and lexical writing accuracy. journal of social issues and humanities, 2(9), 92-97. zarei, a. a., & taheri, s (2013). multiple intelligences as predictors of self-efficacy. germany: lambert academic publishing. zimmerman, b. j. (2000). self-efficacy: an essential motive to learn. contemporary educational psychology, 25, 82-91. zimmerman, b. j. (2008). investigating self-regulation and motivation: historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. american educational research journal, 45(1), 166-183. abbas ali zarei & zahra usefli types of assessment affecting iranian efl learners’ general and academic self-efficacy 66 kao, g. y. m. (2012). enhancing the quality of peer review by reducing student free riding: peer assessment with positive interdependence. british journal of educational technology, 44(1),112-124. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge harisa mardiana study program information technology, faculty of science and technology universitas buddhi dharma, tangerang, indonesia e-mail: harisa.mardiana@buddhidharma.ac.id apa citation: mardiana, h. (2019). social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 35-46. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1682. received: 27-12-2018 accepted: 19-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: my interest of doing the research is to investigate the effect of social media in higher education on globalization. as the learning process changes, social media takes a step ahead to present itself to support the learning process in campus. furthermore, students can communicate and share everything about the content of learning with their peers, lecturers, staff and others. the changes refer to available demand on access toward contents, schedules, and news, in different time, location and digital devices that provide the user with the chance to interact through comments, feedback and creative participation. the objective of the research is to describe the problems faced by the stakeholders of the higher education regarding the use of social media in higher education context. the research found that ignorance or lack of preparation were the most significant challenges. in fact, innovation in learning has converged with all application in mobile device, and the change of learning has led to the new management. the design of the research was a mixed method research quantitative and qualitative method. data collection technique was done through observation, questionnaires and interview and data analysis. the result of the research showed that social media in higher education need to be implemented in university. and the effect in higher education needed to be incorporated into curriculum for the learning by social media and the adoption of social media as a teaching and learning process including the program of elearning. keywords: benefit of social media; effect in global challenge; higher education; innovation in social media, online learning. introduction with industrial revolution 4.0 going on these days, an education follows the era, it means that all the technology use for learning is changed rapidly. technology development will change the way of life, work and learning. there are a number of lessons that will be lost but there are new lessons that will grow and eventually everyone will align their expertise to keep up with technological progress (gray, 2016). by mastering technology, learning can be maximized in the future without suffering the consequences. for instance, the students could communicate easily using smartphones, tablets, and other gadgets. in educational context, students are able to “plug in” virtually whenever they desire to connect within their learning process either inside or outside the classroom (russell, 2017). many researcher predict that industrial revolution 4.0 will necessitate profound the change in major aspects of education such as content, delivery pedagogy and structure management of education (hasheeb, 2018). seemingly, universities and other higher institutions are expected to be open to anyone motivated to learn, thus requiring these higher institutions to notice issues through social experience involvement in the activities. social media has come to help connecting people and to find resources of learning, and given the impact to the higher education leading the improvement of the mailto:harisa.mardiana@buddhidharma.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1682 harisa mardiana social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge 36 students’ learning process (senouci & kherrous, 2015). emphasis on certain skills and new content must be added and new programs developed to meet the demands of change. the problem is that some of the higher educations have often ignored this advanced technology. for instance, the learning process that the students experience is still conducted in the class and the curriculum content still unformatted in digital device to give the interaction to the user such as lecturers, students, staff and members of faculty. the effect leads to a gap that is wide in which on-demand access about contents, schedules, news anytime, anywhere and the campus is very rigid to open itself in social media. previously, some journals written by germain (2016) have indicated that with the industrial revolution, the role of internet especially on social media and have been a great audience connector not only with prospective students but also with prospective parents. with reaching out to engage with applicants on facebook or twitter which constitutes a robust social media campaign, along with such creative features as students-run blogs, can lure prospective students while a stale online presence can turn them off. according to griesemer (2012), changes in the pedagogy which is later on followed in the course, the faculty must set up the effective uses of several social media to approach students’ learning. in this case, social media is the place to interact between campuses and students and stake holders where they can communicate and share everything about campuses. another researcher roger (2017) indicated that even though the characteristics of technologies integration and the blurring lines between physical, digital and biological aspect of life are foreseen as a substantial influence over the education, social and cultural environment, there is a need to ensure that all people can continue to learn, adapt and apply relevant technologies to the dynamic learning and work environment, and readjust to cultural, economic, political and social advancement. moreover, when social infrastructure has failed to adapt to technological advancements to continue student-centered learning, lifelong learning and learning outcomes, it is recommended to use information communication technology (ict) in education especially in higher education so that it can rely on ease of learning, curriculum and program with demands (xing & marwala, 2017). based on the above studies, the authors conclude that knowledge, skills, communication through the internet, especially social media are needed at this time. delays from the institution on this matter will result in being left behind in education and all lecturers, staff, technicians and laboratory staff are required to master advanced technology. the purpose of this research is to seek the significance of the internet especially on social media in higher education, besides investigating the impact of social media in global challenge with which every campus must be open toward such new technology in industrial revolution 4.0. the value of social media is in the connection with the media to publish of matter, which is currently interchangeable terms, because people can create new media without being social, but one cannot create social media without being in new media (southren, 2013). social media is leading to real-time transparency which makes the production control, and management processes more flexible and can transform to be challenging for higher educations that have started their journey to transformation since they provide interactive website, improve the learning service and others (bauer, hämmerle, schlund, & vocke, 2015). the advance of new information technologies and a new ways of communicating science through social media create an easily available and accessible to everyone to learn. the new reality as demonstrated in communicating emerging issue with online media (szabo, 2014). the pervasive changes to communication indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 between organizations, communities and individuals, social media aspects improve the frequency of usability, immediacy and permanence and spend more time of the site. and a new media refers to on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere and on any digital device and it is interactive to the user gives comments, feedback, creative participation (divol, edelman, & sarrazin, 2012). as selwyn (2012) argued that social media tend to focus either on the very prosaic of growing numbers of educationalists are beginning to consider the possible significance that it likely gives the implications of social media for education practice and provision—especially in terms of higher education which engages with an audience in a new media channels, social media is seen as viable tool for university communicators due to its low cost, immediacy, and used by a large number of students (kelleher & sweetser, 2012). ken & taylor (2012) indicated that the understanding of framework has five principles of features that it is successfully integrating public relations dialogues onto the web: mutually, is the recognition or organization-public relationships; propinquity, is the temporality and spontaneity of interactions with publics; empathy, is the supportiveness and confirmation of public goals and interests; risk, is the willingness to interact with individuals and publics on their own terms; and commitment, it is the extent to which an organization gives itself over to dialogue, interpretation and understanding in its interaction with publics. based on the scholar opinions and research studies above, it clearly establishes that the increase of technological tools such as social media by millennial, higher education institutions must create dialogue on traditional internet sites sparks inquiry into how well the institutions are able to utilize social media to interact with the current and future publics to challenge globalization. following the same reasoning, the adoption of social media in globalization can be defined as the use of social media to support a higher education business which the innovation adoption process in an institution can be divided in two phases: initiation and implementation (damanpur, 1991). the future universities and other institutions are not taught only for the young, they are expected to become more open to people of all ages who wish to further their education to inevitable in global world. the formation of strategy of education-social media-globalization as mytton (2011) defined what programs to run, on what platforms and for which audience groups. the key concern of using social media is the security, insufficient time for managing activities and lack of internet connection. the university management must control the internet, and each of the class should use social media in a certain time. the faculty and lecturers give the time limit to use social media in campus in order to give other class use social media and internet (osborne, 2011). another key performance indicators to measure the performance of particular channels and outputs about social media data can potentially provide rapidly feedback from the audiences and the changes in audience relations described in the introduction that possible to draw on audience data to influence the content of individual program of the web content on the basis web metrics information. (gillespie, mackay, & webb, 2011); (mackay & tong, 2011). the term of social media has been used to describe emerging new technologies that are important public relations such as describing the interactive nature of blogging; within social media or new media can be broadly applied to all interactive technologies. social media in education integrates the learning and teaching environments and it may have new form of inquiry, communication, collaboration, identity work or have positive cognitive, social and emotional impact (divall & kirwin, 2012); (greenhow & robelia, 2009b). for instance, on social network sites (e.g. facebook), the interaction, harisa mardiana social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge 38 collaboration, information and resource sharing is encouraging participation and critical thinking; thus increased peer support and communication about course content and assessment when inter-cultural language learning and positive effects on the expression of identities and digital literacies, particularly for marginalize the group of learning (manca & ranieri, 2013). according to palmer and koenig (2009), the college and universities use social media to recruit and research prospective students. online behavior can have an important consequence for young people to utilize of making decision. in addition, the new students will have social media to help them to get information about higher education institution to connect with others with similar interests before the new students apply to the universities. the advantages of social media in many universities have successfully use as a promotional tools. many institutions of higher education use social media as a part of their target to develop interact with the target audience (dabbagh & kitsantas, 2012). as a compliment to the course, social media works best to connect with the students outside of the class, but the lecturers need to pre-developed the course to help students stay engage the lesson and build the avenue to contact between lecturer and students or students and students in managing the communication platform. the use of social media in education provide students ability to get more useful information, to connect with learning groups and other educations systems that make education convenient ( anderson & dron, 2017). hence, social media has gained credibility as a trusted source of information and platform where higher education can interact with the prospect students, lecturers, staff or technician. the benefit of online learning and resources is shared through social media especially social network in which the valuable knowledge is gained through social media such as analytics and insights on various topics or issues for study purposes. (ganis & kohirkar, 2016). the effect of education strategy is measured in deep consideration of human condition in which the new technology and shifting economic power impact to the people in that institution ( penprase, 2018). as the world is increasingly interconnected, the deep intercultural understanding and abiding respect of freedom and human right approach the favor of global curriculum and a residential context that is found in the institution. and this approach will maximize the development of intercultural and interpersonal skills which is a hallmark of future learning in the 21st century method the purpose of the research is to conduct the mixed method research in which to seek the significance of social media in higher education and also to investigate the impact of social media in global challenge with university or institution must be open to a new technology in industrial revolution 4.0. the subject sampling selection was applied to 26 respondents. the questionnaires were used as instrument to elicit the return responses of respondents regarding to social media use from each division such as 5 staff, 8 lecturers, 3 employees (technician laboratories), and 10 students. the questionnaires were taken in week 2 month of june, 2018. the result of questionnaires will be analyzed using excel ms. moreover, series of works had been undertaken to collect data for the research. related literature was reviewed and questionnaire was developed by the author. the research was also followed by semistructured interviews conducted with the researches ( jamshed, 2014). creation and deployment of the research are mainly to get significance of social media in higher education. there are 14 questions developed and had crosschecked to measure respondents’ use of social media in campus or institution. prior to the research, an extensive exploratory phase was conducted to issue the importance to the user or nonusers of social media in higher education. the questionnaires are divided indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 into 5 categories: (1) the role of social media in supporting the communication between each other; (2) the frequency of social media use; (3) the role of social media in learning process; (4) the benefit of using social media; (5) the availability of social media services or support in campus. a detailed description of this research uses a quantitative and the instrument use is questionnaires which are used to elicit the return responses from the respondents. the questionnaires contain some questions which are related to the followings: 1) the role of social media in supporting the communication between each other; 2) the frequency of social media use; 3) the role of social media in learning process; 4) the benefit of using social media; and 5) the availability of social media services or support in campus. data collection was constituted faculty of science and technology, universitas buddhi dharma, tangerang, indonesia. the questionnaires were used as an instrument to elicit the return responses of respondents regarding to social media use from each division such as from 5 staff, 8 lecturers, 3 employees (technician laboratories), and 10 students. the questionnaires were taken in week 2 month of june, 2018. the result of questionnaires will be analyzed using excel ms. results and discussion the result of the research study is to determine how significant the effect of social media toward higher education is, as well as analyzing the significance on the on global challenge. from the finding the research study examined the data above that most of members of university (staffs, employees, lecturers and students) have positive impact on social media usage in higher education. to find the result of data, the research excel ms and the result of the study is shown in table 1. table 1. the use of social media of members in higher education (n=18) the use of social media members in higher education the role of social media in supporting the communication between each other no variables yes no don’t know means st.dev 1 communication outside 12 6 0 2.65 .493 2 favorite in campus 15 3 0 2.82 .393 3 method of communication 12 3 3 2.47 .800 total 39 12 2 7.94 1.686 the frequency of social media use 4 using social media/networking 18 0 0 3.00 .000 5 popularity of social media 12 3 3 2.59 .712 6 preferable of work online 11 3 4 2.35 .862 total 41 6 7 7.94 1.574 the role of social media in learning process 7 online learning process 13 5 1 2.65 .606 8 using top social media for teaching 15 0 3 2.65 .786 9 valuable for teaching and learning 10 3 5 2.24 .903 38 8 9 7.54 2.295 total the benefit of using social media 10 valuable online space 12 2 2 2.65 .702 11 valuable in teaching online 10 4 2 2.29 .849 12 valuable in teaching by social media 12 4 0 2.76 .437 harisa mardiana social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge 40 total 34 10 4 7.70 1.988 the availability of social media services or support in campus 13 provided by university 18 0 0 3.00 .000 14 requirement by university 18 0 0 3.00 .000 total 36 0 0 6.00 .000 from data above, the research found that the first highest is the frequency of using social media in higher education was deemed as the most important factor indicated with the highest score (41). from 18 members of respondents, indicated that all of the 18 members of university use social media/ network and 12 members think that social media is also popular. the 3 members said that they never think that social media or social network is popular, and 11 members said that they prefer to work by online, for example to send and receive data by email, because it is very fast. as harvey, b., (2012) indicated that in term of substantive creation of content it appears that the philosophy of social media lies at the heart of people’s ethos to encourage choosing the comments that they will post in which all the members of university will find the knowledge or expertise in the process of communication. and selwyn (2012) commented that the effect of social media will give to the individuals learn differently and start the new technology to embrace the challenge of vision to create and share their own knowledge in their contents and activities which will take longer when they want to continue outside of class. the second highest is the role of social media in supporting the communication between each other. the score is 39. from 18 members of university found that 12 members use social media to communicate all the times and only 6 members do not use social media, because they think that social media destroys the lives. social media is the favorite way to communicate inside and outside of campus. beside cheaper than texting, they can send and receive messages, images and videos. the method of communication is such as chatting, commenting, sharing, sending or receiving images, video and etc. gartner predicted that social media will transform communication and data-sharing in the enterprise. it was predicted that by 2019, internal social media will achieve as much importance within the organization as email and the telephone have contributed (gartner, 2013). the third highest is the role of social media in learning process. the score is 38, from 18 members, 13 members use online learning process is the best way for teaching and learning, 5 members do not use online learning process, they prefer to have conventional learning process and 1 member do not know about online learning process. there are 10 members who think that social media is valuable for teaching and learning, and 3 members do not think that social media is valuable for teaching and learning and 5 members do not know about the valuable of social media for teaching and learning. and means for role of social media in learning process is 2.65 and std. dev is 0.606. as a new media refers to on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere and on any digital device and it is interactive to the user gives comments, feedback, creative participation (divol, edelman, & sarrazin, 2012). moreover, the implication for using social media in higher education will ask the students to understand the interactions of communication where the questions of rules and etiquette are clearly crucial (divol, edelman, & sarrazin, 2012). the fourth highest is the benefit of using social media for communication and learning process. there are 12 members who considered that social media is valuable online space, 2 members do not think that valuable online space and 2 members think that they don’t know about the valuable online space. the means is 2.65 and std. dev is 0.702. another point is the valuable in teaching online. there are 10 members think that teaching online is valuable, 4 members do not think that teaching online is valuable and 2 members do not know about the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 valuable in teaching online. means is 2.29 and std. dev is 0.849. the last for benefit of using social media is the valuable in teaching by social media. it is mentioned that 12 members think that teaching by social media is valuable and 4 members do not think that teaching by social media is valuable and none of the member do not know about valuable in teaching by social media. means is 2.76 and std. dev. is 0.437. the innovation of the core of construct in social media is the readiness, the establishing of attitude toward technology has given differences to determine the characteristic of students who refers to the spread of ideas, gives the technical information and move from sources to the students’ contents (rogers, 2003). it triggers the interest to educators who perceive these technologies as beneficial in higher education (kumar & vigil, 2011). the last or the fifth highest is the availability of social media services or support in campus which has 2 dimensions; there are provided by university, requirement by university. all of members think that university is provided of social media and also it is requirement by university. none of members think that university do not provide and do not require of social media. university supports the online teaching and communication. means for this is 3.00 and std.dev. is 0.00. the university and faculty force the students to think only of themselves and their own personal development which is able to work closely in teams, because the working team requires students to develop skills in group dynamics, compromise, debate, persuasion and organization, leadership and management skills (cogburn, 2011). the university and faculty is forced to build the curriculum for the learning by social media and the interactive learning will be accelerated of the stratification of education with the availability of funding to create and adopt social media as a teaching and learning process (anderson, boyles, & rainie, 2012). advanced technologies are very important in industrial technology 4.0 and it brings the possibilities to a new solutions to global challenges, employment opportunities for jobs need to be invented (brown-martin, 2017). as a result, the vital education is to develop human potential rather human machines. the education systems designed for an industrial is now automated require transformation from a system based on the facts and procedures to one that actively applies that knowledge to collaborative problem solving (schwab, 2016). most campus’ members are responsible for the creation and sharing of their profile or their personal ephemeral. social media supports the communication between all members is mainly to communicate with each members in institution. the interview to 4 members, from 26 members, 15 members or half of the members mentioned that social media is one of the most favorite ways to communicate and it is cheaper to communicate by social media such as whatsapp or facebook. the frequency of the use of social media indicated that most of the members use social media networking, from 26 members, there are 18 members use social media all the time. as a matter of fact, most of the university members have social media and have group to make easier to communicate. but, some of the members argued that they have the popular social media as a part to communicate. although most members use many social media, such as facebook, twitter, instragram, whatsapp and line but only 3 members think that social media is not important to communicate. it is because; the 3 members have a technologically problem on internet. however, the associations between social media usage behavior, personal background and work value are having positive benefits with the staff. it indicates that staff workers with different demographic characteristics have different social media usage behavior pattern ( ying-chao lin, nhathanh le, & khalil, 2012); ( tolliday, 2017); ( baruah, 2012). nevertheless, the innovation of the core of construct in social media is the readiness, the establishing of attitude toward technology has given differences to determine the harisa mardiana social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge 42 characteristic of students who refers to the spread of ideas, gives the technical information and move from sources to the students’ contents (rogers, 2003). the challenge for higher education to adopt social media as their teaching and learning process in globalize era is by using technology and new technologies which product the new knowledge and dissemination of data, information and knowledge. some technologies include the internet, world wide web, cd-rom and printed, audio, video and other electronic media form which allow the students and academics to move from being sages on the stage into the role of the guide on the side and assist students in gaining the skills and abilities required to acquire and utilize knowledge contained in various form around the world (dabholkar & bagozzi, 2002). since the research only concern with the response of the respondents towards the significance of social media in educational field further research might be specifically focused on the background of respondents. using social media in the higher education is increasing interaction between students, lecturers and members of institutions. this benefit may help the members who have lack of knowledge and skills in technological use, the job descriptions or in studying ( datko, 2015). one of the members stated that the students and lecturers mentioned that social media is the place to find the source of learning. there are many sources of learning related to the subjects, and effective ways to increase students’ engagement. the features of social media resources have attracted the attention of millions of people around the globe, which is capable of drawing the attention of students to the learning opportunities provided by the academic institution (faizi i, afia , & chiheb, 2013). lecturers and students can collaborated with fellow from the social media and the students and lecturers may feel comfortable to express themselves and to share the resources or ideas on social media (mcloughlin & lee, 2007). there is no surprise that university and institutions have embraced social media. the growth of communicating and sharing experience on social media sites helps grow the popularity of university or institutions ( ridley, 2017). using the power of social media with different networks and engaging the content, the university or institution stay connect with each other and the university or institute has already installed the requirement of internet to make easier for the university or institution to connect each other (ubd, 2018). finally, todays’, it's time for universities or institutes to keep in touch with the world. globalization calls on all of us to keep in touch with each other to make it easier to get information and colleagues. conclusion as the learning process changes, it is a challenge for social media as a tool to take a part in the changes. the effect of social media in higher education will give the impact of social life and real life for the universities, faculties and business industries need to be more active with connecting with students through social media (ganis & kohirkar, 2016). also, they will give to the individuals learn differently and start the new technology to embrace the challenge of vision to create and share their own knowledge in their contents and activities to outside of the class. the security is component of structure in new media of improvement, mission, vision to education, and carry out the research through approach characterize by ethnics, autonomy, responsibility and anticipation. the changes in knowledge creation which interdisciplinary approach should be taken and non-scientific forms of knowledge should be explored (hall, 2014). the responsibility for the creation and sharing their profile or their personal ephemeral is the substantive creation content that appears in social media which lies at the heart of people’s ethos to encourage choosing the comment that they will post in which they find the knowledge or expertise the process of teaching and learning. as the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 21st century learning process changes, social media will take a step ahead to present itself in turn on the learning media and they can communicate, share everything about the content learning which it can be seen as pervasive change as a new media on digital device and give the interaction to the users by having the comments, feedback (deborah, mcilrath, & huitt, 1995). with the specific challenge of higher education to face a new management and the power of individual and states, the teaching and learning process will come to global challenge for the 21st century learning process. to address information technology (it) problems, the efficient and systematic of infrastructure especially in internet connection is a set of stage that the university or institutions to have. the university or institution must employ the technicians in order to help the lack of resembling plugand-chug. the digital strategy from the academic domain can further strengthen a university’s commitment to internet technology by helping to create the articulate environment where the faculty, staff, and administrations feel more comfortable embarking on new line initiatives in and out of the classroom (ubd, 2018); (waite & wheeler, 2016). acknowledgment i wish to thanks various people for their contribution to this research. dr. rar. 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(2012). social media usage and work values indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 the example of facebook in taiwan. social behavior and personality, 40(2), 195-200. harisa mardiana social media in higher education and its effect on global challenge 46 references indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners golyas akhavan tabatabaee english department, isfahan (khoarsgan) branch, islamic azad university, iran e-mail: golyas90@gmail.com ehsan rezvani english department, isfahan (khoarsgan) branch, islamic azad university, iran e-mail: rezvani_ehsan_1982@yahoo.com apa citation: tabatabaee, g. a., & rezvani, e. (2019). effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 15-26. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1680. received: 26-12-2018 accepted: 14-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: this study is an attempt to explore the potential effects of using podcasts on idiom and vocabulary learning of iranian efl upper and lower intermediate learners as well as their attitudes toward learning via podcasts. to achieve the goals of the study, 100 participants who are made homogeneous in terms of language proficiency using an oxford placement test (opt) are selected, and are subsequently divided into four groups: two experimental groups and two control groups. those students whose scores fall two standard deviations above the mean are considered as the upper intermediate group and those whose scores fall two standard deviations below the mean constituted the lower intermediate group. then, researcher make vocabulary and idiom pre-tests are administered to assess the learners’ knowledge of the target vocabulary and idioms prior to treatment. as for the treatment, the students in the control group are taught conventionally using the readings in an elt textbook, whereas the experimental groups’ learners are taught using podcasts containing idioms and vocabulary in focus. finally, the learners are given a post-test parallel in form to the pre-test. the findings indicate that the learners who are taught via podcasts outperformed the control group on the post-test. moreover, the findings show that learners have a significantly positive attitude toward learning via podcasts. the results will have implications for efl teachers and materials developers. keywords: atittude; idiom; podcast; proficiency level; vocabulary. introduction idioms and metaphoric expressions are important parts of learning and understanding the second or foreign language. gibbs (1992) suggests that students can further understand texts that contain metaphorical and lexical meanings if the understanding of figurative language is developed. as proposed by honeck (1997), a language which is literally has the same meaning but is interpreted as something different is called figurative language. idioms are also known as an important thing in a language consists of our vocabulary (qualls, o’brien, blood, & hammer, 2003). learning is a cognitive process that involves conscious and active behavior. students look for similarities and differences between new information and prior knowledge, and in this way they are able to effectively assimilate new learning into existing cognitive structures (piaget, 1980). language, according to hudson (1980), one of the greatest achievements of mankind is the ability to learn language and it is the center of human life. language consists of many different aspects that is important in mailto:golyas90@gmail.com mailto:rezvani_ehsan_1982@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1680 golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 16 learning. in english, learning and understanding idioms, metaphoric, and idiomatic expression are an important role. new technologies are affecting different aspects of life. education, in particular, is a field that has undergone major changes in recent years. the development of digital communication methods, information transfer, and storage has had a significant influence on education, and technology development has made it possible for individuals with less computer skills to produce and disseminate information. as a result, teaching and learning now can occur almost at any time and in any place that has communication services. in addition, new technologies allow students ready access to a wide range of information and educational resources, as well as frequent contact with peers and mentors. many teachers believe that different teaching methods play important roles in the quality of learning, especially learning a second or foreign language. caused by the entry of extraordinary technology has changed the tradition of teaching english dramatically. the increasing of language teaching becomes more productive and interesting by using technology. besides that, one of the most significant aspects of social and language change is technology. graddol (1997) assumes that education work and culture are affected by technology that is in the globalization process. the use of english has increased rapidly after 1960. currently, in curriculum and language of imparting education, the role and status of english is the language of social context, political, sociocultural, business, education, industries, media, library, communication across borders, and key subject. it is also a crucial determinant for university entrance and processing well-paid jobs in the commercial sector. in promoting student activities, initiatives of student and teaching effect in english class, multimedia technology has been shown to play a positive role. nowadays, the way of our communication are changed by technological innovations which have gone hand in hand with the growth of english. as we know, the growth of the internet has facilitated the growth of english and nowadays computers have been widely used by everyone. because of this, there has been a very significant proliferation of literature concerning the use of technology in teaching english. podcasting is one of the powerful, emergent technological media that has been used in education for many years. language learning has been recognized as one of the fields about to get help from the rapid development in podcasting. research studies on podcasting have already acknowledged its potentiality and have documented much evidence that podcasts can greatly help develop learners’ language skills, especially in developing learners’ speaking and listening skills (ashton-hay & brookes, 2011; o’bryan & hegelheimer, 2007) a series of digital audio and video recordings uploaded on the web with the help of rapid simple syndication (rss) feeds are called podcasts (lafferty & walch, 2006). on the internet, there are many types of podcasts such as television podcasts, radio podcasts, class podcasts, and individual or group podcasts. few articles have considered the theoretical aspects of podcasting (o’bryan & hegelheimer, 2007; rosell-aguilar, 2007), while much of the literature surrounding podcasting and language learning has focused on the technical aspects and practical examples of podcasting projects (e.g., mccarty, 2005; stanley, 2006, and young, 2007), blake (2008) suggested that the technology is theoretically and methodologically neutral. but the responses to what the practitioners understand or believe to be true about sla are how technology is used its particular culture of practice is not neutral. in second language acquisition (sla) research, podcasting has several theoretical foundations, esspecially in the areas of input, output, and motivation. dervin (2006) argued that podcasts can help to reinforce indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 autonomous learning and motivation. motivation may be increased, speculated, due to the fact that students are creating authentic content for a real audience and not just for a grade, stanley (2006). moreover, dervin (2006), if the underlined “students can”, it means they can take the initiative to ask questions, interact and communicate with podcasters, thus providing opportunities for autonomy and motivation. output is identified as important thing for second language learning. a good number of language-specific articles have addressed podcasting and have provided practical ideas for its use in the classroom, (fox, 2008; schmidt, 2008; young, 2007). fox (2008) proposed that podcasts can also be set up like talk show and allow students to listen, create, and publish podcasts by using a talk radio podcast. there is a special podcast discussed by fox, suggested a corresponding blog where information, or “show notes,” about corresponding episodes were archived, and where listeners could communicate with the podcasters. the importance of vocabulary in language learning has been undervalued in the past 50 years of elt history, (seal, 1991; zimmerman, 1997). the role of vocabulary is typically considered in terms of the classic elt methodologies and the theories of reading models. the important factors in reading and listening comprehension, speaking and writing fluency are influenced by knowledge of word meanings and the ability to access knowledge efficiently. in othe words, students can easily understand the language when supported by their language comprehension. like widdowson (1989), mckeown (2002) state that the heart of language understanding and use is knowledge of vocabulary. the need and opportunity to investigate the effects of multimedia on vocabulary acquisition has created by computer-assisted language learning (call) in recent years. thus far, numerous studies (al-seghayer, 2001; groot, 2000; hulstijn, 2000; laufer & hill, 2000; siribodhi, 1995) have shown that computerized media and a multimedia environment can be helpful for learning foreign language vocabulary. gainer and lapp (2010) state that students' knowledge and interests outside of school are recognized, respected, and used as part of instructional images in class culture if engaged learning is involved. martinez-lage (1997), al-seghayer (2001), wood (2001), reported that the potentiality of computer was the multimodal presentations of any kind of instructions. since the multimedia presentations provide immediate access to the available annotated information in a program, including textual, audio, and visual annotations, these pieces of information attached to a word enables readers to "confirm or reject hypotheses made about the meaning of a word" as martinez-lage (1997) contends. in this respect, mayer (2005) suggest that helping students build referential connections between two forms of mental representation systems namely verbal and visual is a function of multimedia programs. when verbal and visual materials are presented simultaneously, referential connections will be easier to build. ghabanchi and anbarestani (2008) in their study explored the effect of call on vocabulary learning. they indicated that students can have an intensive mental process and have a strong memory of words by using call program. call also produces better results in contextualized vocabulary learning than ordinary desktop dictionary method. xin and rieth (2001), and also assert that computer technology increases the probability of idiom recall from one’s long term memory. al-seghayer (2001) suggests that information will be more meaningful and more memorable if it is influenced by visuals’ contextual richness and cultural authenticity. using multimedia technology to simultaneously present the audio, visual and textual information to the learners, the new idioms can be presented in a contextual setting which, according to studies such as ghabanchi &anbarestani (2008), leads to higher immediate and delayed post-test scores in comparison with golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 18 learners who have access to merely textual information. method to achieve the goals of this study, 120 students at pooyesh language center in esfahan were randomly selected. then, an oxford placement test (opt), (vocabulary and grammar sections), was run to select 100 homogeneous students based on the normal distribution of the scores using the opt level chart. all the participants were within the age range of 15 to 25 years and they were all native speakers of persian. after choosing 100 homogeneous participants out of 120, they were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and two control groups (25 students each). those students whose scores fell 2 standard deviations above the mean constituted the upper intermediate group and those whose scores fell 2 standard deviations below the mean made the lower intermediate group. in this study, four types of instruments were employed for data collection. there were oxford placement test, pre-test, posttest, and questionnaire. an oxford placement test (opt), (grammar and vocabulary sections), was conducted whose validity and reliability had already been confirmed. it consisted of 70 multiple-choice items including 20 listening items, 20 reading items, and 30 items related to language use. beside that, a researcher made multiple choice pre-test consisting of 20 vocabulary test items and 20 idiom test items was run to measure the knowledge of vocabulary and idioms prior to treatment, whose validity and reliability were checked. a researcher-made post-test which was parallel to the pre-test was used to measure vocabulary and idiom knowledge after the treatment. moreover, a researcher made questionnaire of 24 test items was designed to discover the attitudes of the learners toward using podcast. as for the reliability of the questionnaire, alpha cronbach method was applied. with regards to validity of the tests and questionnaire, two expert judges in the field of tefl observed the tests and determined their validity. this study was conducted in pooyesh language center. as it was mentioned earlier, the population of the study was 120 students. then, an oxford placement test (opt), (vocabulary and grammar sections), was run to select 100 homogeneous students based on the normal distribution of the scores using the opt level chart. next, they were randomly divided into four equal groups: two experimental and two control groups at upper and lower intermediate levels. prior to the treatment, the pretest including 20 idiom test items and 20 vocabulary test items was administered to the groups of the study to discover the participants' level of knowledge of english idioms and vocabulary. as for the treatment, every session, some new idioms and vocabulary items were taught about 30 minutes to students in the experimental groups through podcasts. the students in the control group were taught using the readings in select readings by linda lee & eric guandersen, (1995), whereas the experimental groups’ learners were taught using podcasts only. the participants in experimental groups listened to podcasts containing idioms and vocabularies in class twice a week. the teacher provided them with necessary feedback either explicitly or implicitly. they also were asked to write one sentence to exchange with their partners and bring their assignments to the class for the next session. after the experiment was done, the post test was given to the groups in order to find the gains in idiom and vocabulary learning. finally, the researcher gave a questionnaire to the learners to obtain their attitudes toward learning by podcasts. results and discussion results for upper-intermediate learners one of the objectives of the current study was to investigate whether listening to podcasts played a significant role in upper intermediate iranian efl learners’ acquisition of vocabulary and idiom or not. to achieve this end, uieg and uecg learners’ pre-test scores were first compared indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 using an independent-samples t test to make certain they were not drastically different in terms of knowledge of idiom and vocabulary; their post-test scores were compared via the same statistical procedure as well. table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for these analyses. table 1. descriptive statistics for comparing pre-test scores of uieg and uicg and their post-test scores n mean std. deviation std. error mean uieg pre-test uicg pre-test 25 25 11.94 11.74 2.37 2.41 .57 .52 uieg post-test uicg post-test 25 25 19.11 13.46 1.62 2.53 .21 .47 as it can be seen in table 1, the difference between the pre-test scores of the uieg (m = 11.94) and the uicg (m = 11.74) was minimal, but the post-test scores of the uieg (m = 19.11) and the uicg (m = 13.46) were considerably different. to find out whether the differences in the pre-test and post-test scores of the two groups were statistically significant or not, the following t test table had to be consulted. table 2. results of the independent-samples t-test comparing pretest scores of uieg and uicg and their post-test scores levene’s test for equality of variances t test for equality of means f. sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean differenc e std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pre-test .22 .63 .22 48 .79 .20 .75 -1.54 1.91 post-test 66.00 .000 1.87 48 .000 5.65 .69 6.22 9.05 as it could be seen in table 2, there was not a statistically significant difference in pre-test scores for uieg and uicg, t (48) = .22, p = .79 (two-tailed). this indicated that the two groups were not significantly different at the outset of the study with regard to their knowledge of vocabulary and idiom. the difference between uieg and uicg learners’ post-test scores, however, was statistically significant since the p value under the sig, (2-tailed) column was less than the significance level (i.e. .000 < .05). this means that the treatment had been effective as far as the vocabulary/idiom knowledge of upper intermediate iranian efl learners was concerned giving rise to the claim that listening to podcasts significantly improved the vocabulary and idiom knowledge of the learners at the upper intermediate level of proficiency. results for lower-intermediate learners another objective of the present study was to see whether listening to podcasts could significantly improve lower intermediate efl learners’ knowledge of idiom and vocabulary or not. in order to find an answer to this question, lieg and licg learners’ golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 20 pre-test scores were compared using an independent-samples t test; likewise, their post-test scores were compared via another independent-samples t test. table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for the pre-test and post-test scores of the lieg and licg learners. table 3. descriptive statistics for comparing pretest scores of lieg and licg learners and their post-test scores n mean std. deviation std. error mean lieg pre-test licg pre-test 25 25 10.53 10.34 1.69 2.75 .43 .57 lieg post-test licg post-test 25 25 15.08 13.26 1.65 2.90 .45 .51 table 3 illustrates that the difference between the pretest scores of the lieg (m = 10.53) and the licg (m = 10.34) was not substantial, but the difference between the post-test scores of the lieg (m = 15.08) and the licg (m = 13.26) was comparatively larger. to figure out whether the differences in the pre-test and post-test scores of the two groups were statistically significant or not, the following t test table (and the p value therein) had to be checked. table 4. results of the independent-samples t-test comparing pretest scores of lieg and licg and their post-test scores levene’s test for equality of variances t test for equality of means f. sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean differenc e std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pre-test 2.31 .11 .09 48 .89 .19 .71 -1.33 1.43 post-test 1.55 .23 .73 48 .04 1.82 .66 -1.22 1.35 table 4 depicts there was not a statistically significant difference in pretest scores for lieg and licg learners, t (48) = .09, p = .98 (two-tailed). this meant that the two groups did not differ significantly in terms of their idiom and vocabulary knowledge prior to the implementation of the treatment. however, the difference between lieg and licg learners’ post-test scores reached statistical significance since the p value under the sig, (2-tailed) column was less than the significance level (i.e. .04 < .05). this implies that the treatment had a significant positive effect on the vocabulary/idiom knowledge of lower intermediate iranian efl learners. comparing lowerand upper-intermediate learners in order to compare the achievements of the lowerand upper-intermediate learners in the experimental groups, one could cast a look at the mean differences for the post-test comparisons made in the previous sections. in table 2, the mean difference for the posttest scores of the upper intermediate learners indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 was 5.65. this means the upper intermediate experimental group outperformed the upper intermediate control group by a mean difference of 5.65 on the post-test. on the other hand, the mean difference for the posttest comparison of the lower intermediate learners (as shown in table 4.) was 1.82. this means that the lower intermediate experimental group had a better performance than the lower intermediate control group on the post-test by 1.82 mean difference. the overall conclusion from this part could be that the treatment (i.e. listening to podcasts) was more effective for the improvement of upper intermediate learners than it was the improvement of lower intermediate learners. an alternative approach to comparing the achievements of lowerand upperintermediate learners would be through comparing the effect sizes of the difference, which could be calculated through the eta squared formula (eta squared = t2 / t2 + df). the calculated effect size for upper intermediate learners was .067, while the obtained value for lower intermediate learners was .010. according to cohen (1988, pp. 284-287, as cited in pallant, 2011), the effect size is small if the eta squared value is falls between .01 and .06, moderate if it is between .06 and .14, and large if it is greater than .14. in this case, the effect size for lower intermediate learners was small, but for upper intermediate learners was moderate. so the conclusion made above was verified through this alternative approach. results for the attitude questionnaire as it was previously stated, the third research question of the study intended to examine whether eg learners’ attitude towards using podcasts for language learning in general and vocabulary/idiom learning in particular was positive or not. the results for uieg and lieg learners are presented below. uieg learners’ attitudes towards using podcasts to unravel the attitudes of the uieg learners towards the treatment, one-sample t test was employed. this statistical technique compares the mean score of a distribution against a constant (which was 3.00 in this analysis since the choices in the likert-scale questionnaire ranged from 1 to 5 and the average value of the choices was 3.00). table 5 shows the results of descriptive statistics performed for this purpose. table 5. descriptive statistics for uieg learners’ attitude scores n mean std. deviation std. error mean uieg questionnaire 25 4.63 .21 .14 for the uieg, the attitude mean score was found to be 4.63, which was larger than 3.00. this means that the learners’ attitudes toward using podcasts were positive. whether this positive attitude was of statistical significance or not could only be determined by taking a look at the sig. (2-tailed) value in the t test table below (table 6). table 6. one-sample t-test results for uieg learners’ attitude scores test value = 3 t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper uieg questionnaire 31.43 24 .000 1.63 1.65 1.87 according to table 6, there was a statistically significant difference between the uieg learners’ mean attitude score (m = 4.63) and the average value of the choices golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 22 (i.e. 3.00) since the p value was smaller than the specified level of significance (.000 < .05). it could be thus concluded that the relevant treatment (i.e., the use of podcasts) was significantly welcome by the uieg learners. lieg learners’ attitudes towards using podcasts another one-sample t test was utilized to find out if lieg learners’ attitude towards using podcasts for learning idiom/vocabulary was positive or not. table 7 displays the results of descriptive statistics performed for this analysis. table 7. descriptive statistics for lieg learners’ attitude scores n mean std. deviation std. error mean lieg questionnaire 25 4.33 .31 .11 as for the lieg learners, the attitude mean score appeared to be 4.33, which was greater than 3.00. this indicates that the lieg learners’ attitudes toward using podcasts for idiom/vocabulary learning was positive. however, whether this positive attitude was statistically significant or not could only be found out by examining the sig. (2-tailed) value in the t test table below (table 8). table 8. one-sample t-test results for lieg learners’ attitude scores test value = 3 t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper eg2 questionnaire 16.21 24 .000 1.33 1.31 1.72 based on the information in table 8, there was a statistically significant difference between the lieg learners’ mean attitude score (m = 4.33) and the average value of the choices (i.e. 3.00) because of the fact that the p value was smaller than the specified level of significance (.000 < .05). it could thus be inferred that the treatment was viewed to be significantly positive by the learners in lieg. discussion for research question 1 considering the first research question for the upper intermediate learners, the results of the present study indicated that the two groups were roughly similar at the beginning of the experiment, but the uieg, due to being exposed to the treatment, managed to significantly outperform the uicg on the posttest, giving rise to the claim that listening to podcasts significantly improved the vocabulary and idiom knowledge of the learners at the upper intermediate level of proficiency. based on the same research question for the lower intermediate learners, the results of the current study show that the two groups were not very much different at the beginning of the experiment. nonetheless, the lieg significantly outperformed the licg on the posttest, giving rise to the conclusion that listening to podcasts significantly improved lower intermediate learners’ vocabulary and idiom knowledge. the practice of podcasting technology has been used to develop vocabulary and idiom learning and improving memorization by a good number of researchers. in a study by allan (2007), students extensively used the provided materials on their personal computers. the results of this study demonstrated that without proper guidance and encouragements of teachers, students remain to be lethargic towards using indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 podcasting that is similar to the findings of the present study. the findings of this study also support the study conducted by facer et al. (2009), who found that incorporating podcasting technology into classroom teaching will result in improvement in all language skills as well as comprehension of vocabulary. likewise, a study by lin, and chen (2012) revealed that by sending podcasting materials to students’ devices including their smartphones, listening abilities and the level of vocabulary knowledge have improved considerably. however, in a different experiment from the present study, palalas (2009) revealed that implementing podcasting skill will result in rote memorization of vocabulary. in this work, despite positive feedbacks from students, little amount of peer connection was observed between participants. stockwell (2010) assumes that podcasting can be regarded as a valuable resource for providing audiovisual material but does not have important elements of language learning, such as interaction which is not in line with the findings of this study. in the present study, podcasts are considered as the main teaching tool which is opposed to a study conducted by abdous et al., (2012) who concluded that supplementary podcasts can have stronger effects on language learning than podcasts as the main teaching tools. by supplementary, they mean podcasts are not considered to be the main teaching and learning tools but something which can help in the process of teaching in addition to other tools. discussion for research question 2 in order to compare the achievements of the lowerand upper-intermediate learners in the experimental groups, one could cast a look at the mean differences for the posttest comparisons. considering the second research question, the results of the present study showed that the treatment (i.e. listening to podcasts) was more effective for the improvement of upper intermediate learners than it was for the improvement of lower intermediate learners. rosell-aguilar (2007) suggested that the findings of this study can be supported by appropriate materials which can be found in the wealth of podcasts resources which was available on the website. according to the definition of extensive listening, students should be “doing a lot of easy, comprehensible, and enjoyable listening practice” (chang & millet, 2013). as proposed by putman and kingsey (2012) and yeh (2013) highlighted, students were much more likely to continue listening to podcasts because the materials were interesting and easy to find based on their level of proficiency. the same is supported in the present study. discussion for research question 3 the results of this study indicated that the relevant treatment (i.e., the use of podcasts) was significantly welcome by the uieg and lieg learners. language learning is influenced by many factors and the most significant and facilitating factor is positive attitude (mian, 1998). it is sometimes difficult to motivate students outside the classroom, but the use of podcasts can assist this issue. podcasts have the potentiality to create both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among students (o-bryan & hegelheimer 2007). kavaliauskienė and anusienė (2009) used survey questions to examine learners’ perceptions of online listening to podcasts. the participants of this study were taken from mykolas romeris university, lithuania. in line with the findings of the present study, most of the participants showed positive attitudes to the techniques of developing listening skills using podcasts. kim and king (2011) claimed that students’ attitudes toward podcasts varied depending on their previous experiences with various types of computer technologies. the use of podcasts also reduces students’ anxiety and creates a sense of belonging to a learning community, (chan & lee, 2005). our findings lend further support to the golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 24 findings of heilesen (2010) who claimed that students generally show very good attitudes towards podcasting and “reports of rejection of podcasting are rare” (p.3). although the studies above confirm the positive attitudes toward using podcasts, some others, contrary to our findings, have revealed no effect on students learning or attitude after using podcasts (weatherly, grabe & arthur, 2002; daniel & woody, 2010). fernandez, et al. (2009) in another study made judgments about the feelings, understanding, and the reactions of some participants who used podcasts during one semester. according to their findings, they stated that podcasting was not a substitute for traditional learning system in the participants' opinions; it just increased the participants' motivation. the use of podcasts to disseminate instructional materials online has elicited considerable interest among colleges and universities (dupugne, et al., 2009). an example is lee & chan’s (2007) study in which distance learners, who were studying an information technology subject, were given some podcasts for performing additional listening activities. at the end of the semester the results of the survey revealed that the learners had very positive feelings about their experience which is in line with the findings of the present study. conclusion the findings of the present study demonstrate that both uieg and lieg groups performed better in vocabulary and idiom learning after receiving the treatment. second, the treatment (i.e. listening to podcasts) was more effective for the improvement of upper intermediate learners than it was the improvement of lower intermediate learners, and third that the relevant treatment (i.e., the use of podcasts) was significantly welcome by the uieg and lieg learners. thus, the findings of the present study support employing new and dynamic ways of teaching idiom and vocabulary. in fact, it can be realized that teaching aids have become more varied since computer technology has the capacity to transfer files and sounds everywhere, every time. as such, the use of technology is more likely to leave a deeper impression on learners’ memory. the finding could also assist teachers to redefine their roles under multimedia context. they should no longer stick to the traditional way of teaching idiom and vocabulary, in which they try to explain every new word and idiom in great detail, often with examples found in dictionaries. practical implications could be drawn up concerning of instructional aids, and teaching aspects of idiom and vocabulary. thus, according to the results of this study, the use of podcasts should be advocated in all educational fields. it can be useful for software developers to design a soft-ware in which learners can easily find the podcasts in order to achieve educational purposes. the finding of this study would also help syllabus designers to include podcasts along with some instructions in their textbooks. references abdous, m., facer, b. r., & yen, c. (2012). academic effectiveness of podcasting: a comparative study of integrated versus supplemental use of podcasting in second language classes. computers and education, 58, 43-52. allan, s. (2007). podcasts and embedded audio to support language learning. warwick interactions journal, 30(2), 1-12. al-seghayer, k. (2001). the effect of multimedia annotation modes on l2 vocabulary acquisition: a comparative study. language learning & technology, 5, 202-232. ashton-hay, s., & brookes, d. (2011). here's a story: using student podcasts to raise awareness of language learning strategies. ea journal, 26(2), 15-27. blake, r. j. (2008). brave new digital classroom: technology and foreign language learning. washington dc: georgetown university press. chang, c. s., & millett, s. (2013). the effect of extensive listening on developing l2 listening fluency: some hard evidence. elt journal, 68(1), 31-40. daniel, d.b., & woody, w.d. (2010). they hear, but do not listen: retention for podcasted material in a classroom context. teaching of psychology, 37. 199-203. dupugne, m., millette, d.m., & grinfeder, k. (2009). effectiveness of video podcast use as a revision indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 tool. journalism and mass communication educator, 64, 570. fox, a. (2008). using podcasts in the efl classroom. tesl-ej, 11(4). ghabanci, z., & anbarestani, m. (2008). the effect of call program on expanding lexical knowledge of efl iranian intermediate learners. the reading matrix, 8(2), 40-56. gibbs, r.w. (1992). what do idioms really mean? journal of memory and language, 2(3), 34-55. honeck, r.p. (1997). a proverb in mind: the cognitive science of proverbial wit and wisdom. mahva, nj: erlbaum. hudson, r. a. (1980). sociolinguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press. hulstijn, j. h. 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(1991). vocabulary learning and teaching. in m. celce-murcia (ed.), teaching english as a second or foreign language (pp. 296-311). boston, ma: heinle & heinle. siribodhi, t. (1995). effects of three interactive multimedia call programs on the vocabulary acquisition of elementary level efl students (doctoral dissertation, university of kansas, 1995). dissertation abstract international, 56(09), 3552a. stanley, g. (2006). podcasting: audio on the internet comes of age. tesl-ej 9(4), 1-7. stockwell, g. (2010). using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: examining the effect of the platform. language learning & technology, 14(2), 95–110. weatherly, j., m. grabe, & arthur. (2002). providing introductory psychology students access to lecture slides via blackboard 5: a negative impact on performance. journal of educational technology systems, 31, 46374. wood, j. (2001). can software support children's vocabulary development? llt journal, 5(1), 166-201. xin, j. f., & rieth, h. (2001). video-assisted vocabulary instruction for elementary school students with learning disabilities. information technology in childhood education annual, 87-103. yeh, c. (2013). an investigation of a podcast learning project for extensive listening. language education in asia, 4(2), 135-149. young, d. j. (2007). ipods, mp3 players and podcasts for fl learning: current practices and future considerations. nectfl review, 60, 39-49. zimmerman, c. (1997). do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? an empirical study. tesol quarterly, 8(3), 223256. golyas akhavan tabatabaee & ehsan rezvani effects of using english podcasts on idioms and vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners 26 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria gboyega ayodeji aladesusi department of educational technology university of ilorin, ilorin nigeria email: aladesusigboyega@gmail.com apa citation: aladesusi, g. a. (2021). readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4339 received: 15-01-2020 accepted: 29-03-2021 published:31-04-2021 introduction information and communication technology (ict) has undergone various stages of innovations and inventions, and a new technology model known as cloud computing is one of them. in the presence of covid-19, several schools, colleges, and institutions are under lockdown or have been forced to provide online education. cloud computing offers an idyllic prospect to drop the expenses of higher education (zahoor, solomon, & muhammad, 2021). cloud computing provides an excellent platform for educators to improve their teaching practices and productivity. hence, there is a need for the proper integration of these new technological innovations into education to fully achieve its aim of global competitiveness. information and communication technology (ict) is a facilitator for change; change in working conditions, handling and exchanging information, teaching methods, learning approaches, scientific research, in accessing and disseminating information (fisseha, 2011; zahoor et al, 2021). information and communication technology tools used for learning amongst others include social media like youtube, facebook, e-learning, virtual learning, and cloud computing. information and communication technology (ict) has gone through different phases of development and is currently witnessing the emergence of a new technology paradigm called cloud computing (dahunsi & owoseni, 2015; duha, ibtisam, haider, & hussain, 2021). all over the world, people are adopting various technological inventions to suit their growing needs. newer technologies have necessitated changes in education with ranges of flexible ways of teaching and learning. information and communication tools enable learners to responsively manifest themselves since they have the liberty to publish their content, work, and materials online through wikis and blogs (ilodigwe, 2015). abstract: cloud computing is one of the newer trends in technological innovations. it is a subscriptionbased service in which learners and the general users have access to vast number of services such as storage, space, processing and networking resources. however, despite the numerous benefits of cloud computing for learning, there is need for proper awareness and reorientation of postgraduates towards the use of cloud computing for learning. this study investigated postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria. the objectives of the study were to: (i) investigate the readiness of postgraduates to utilize cloud computing for learning; (ii) examine the influence of gender on readiness of postgraduates to utilize cloud computing for learning. the study adopted descriptive research design, using quantitative survey method. six research questions and four hypotheses were answered and tested respectively. a total of three hundred and ninety-eight (398) respondents were randomly sampled. frequency counts, percentages and mean were employed to answer research questions while hypotheses were tested using t-test and analysis of variance (anova). the findings of the study revealed that: (i) majority of postgraduates (59.8%) are ready to utilize cloud computing for learning; (ii) no significant difference between male and female undergraduates on their readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. the study concluded that postgraduates are ready to utilize cloud computing resources for learning. thus, the study recommended that nigerian universities should encourage postgraduates to explore full benefits of cloud computing in other to improve their learning; among many others. keywords: ict; cloud computing; readiness; utilization and learning mailto:aladesusigboyega@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4339 gboyega ayodeji aladesusi readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria 2 newer technologies include various cloud computing resources, artificial intelligence, 3d printing, quantum computing, and machine learning amongst others. some of these emerging technologies tend to be tied to a particular industry, for instance, 3d printing is of great interest in the medical industry than other industries (interop research reports, 2019). consequently, cloud computing is an ict concept which emanates from terms and concepts from other existing computing paradigms such as utility computing, serviceoriented structure, grid computing among many others (geelan, 2009; quasim, mohammed, & godwin, 2021). cloud computing is a means of storing and accessing information over the internet with the use of your technological devices like personal computers (pcs), iphone, smartphone, and so on. cloud computing is a subscription-based service where users can get access to vast a number of services which include: storage space, processing, and networking resources. the cloud allows for the opportunity to access clients’ data at any time from anywhere, unlike the traditional computer setting which requires the same location for both the user and the data storage (warwick, garcia-perez, & odeh, 2015). recently, cloud computing services are progressively being offered by well-established it service providers such as google, amazon, microsoft, apple, yahoo, and salesforce.com (writer, 2015). cloud computing promises to deliver all it services on-demand whereby enabling learners to only pay for the specific number of resources they really use, or in other words, follow the pay-as-yougo pricing model (benton & negm, 2021; sachdeva, rana, kapoor, & shahid, 2011). cloud computing is considered as a promising technology to organizations that will improve their performance and overcome the excessive cost related to the information resources. cloud computing is a paradigm often portrayed and seen as a new technology but also widely accepted as an evolution of technologies such as client-server architecture, world wide web, and networking. it is a technology that has been enabled by the availability of broadband networks and inexpensive end-user devices as well as commodity computing nodes that can be simply interconnected and controlled (ahmed & omar, 2015). the word “cloud” is an abstract term that comes with numerous ranges of solutions. cloud computing is basically employing the use of third-party computing services which brings services to the user via the internet. however, it is termed cloud because data and information are stored remotely and delivered through a web-based connection to various users (aaron, 2018). cloud computing is a term which encompasses several services that are remotely controlled by a server, managed by a third party and accessed via the internet. cloud computing is a technology that provides a new way to unlimited computational resources and software applications by providing access to these resources and services at reasonable costs. cloud computing is a system for enabling omnipresent, easy, on-demand network access to a shared environment of configurable computing resources (for instance, networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be provided on time and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction (jaflah & zakaria, 2021; nist, 2011). cloud computing is a type of computing technology where fund is not needed to build and maintain information technology infrastructure. it requires borrowing the information technology facility from a third-party organization and access it through the internet. in other words, in a cloud environment where it is not required to buy any hardware and software to access resources thus it enables you to cut your investment on hardware resources and it maintenance team (gupta, kusuma, & viswanath, 2012). cloud computing is having great effects on how education works generally both in online courses and in traditional classrooms. some of the effects do not include purchase of expensive textbooks because cloud-based textbooks are available and digital content is significantly less expensive than printed content. also, no more use of outdated learning material because cloud-based materials are easy to update in real-time; so, students always have access to most current learning resources. no expensive software and hardware required using the software– as–a–service model of cloud computing. it also opens up a world of new possibilities for students, especially those who are not served well by traditional education systems (bhatia, 2014). adoption of cloud computing by higher educational institutions in nigeria is a way to change the educational dimension and services delivered to students (matt, 2011). a higher educational institution can reduce the cost of information communication technology equipment and indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 infrastructure by making use of cloud services to enhance the educational activities of the institutions. cloud computing works by changing the site of computing hardware to a remote site and distributing services globally (walker, 2018). cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics; scalability and elasticity which allows for surfing up and down quickly and easily to meet the demand of the users, agility which allows adding or expanding technological infrastructure resources for user’s flexibility, device and site independence which allows for users to use systems using a web browser regardless of their location or the device they use, multitenancy which allows for sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users, metered services allow the users to pay for only what they use, and on-demand self-service that allow users to sign up and receive services at will from cloud providers. cloud computing provides both learners and educational practitioners with a great number and variety of online applications that can be employed to support a wide range of learning scenarios (gonzalez-martinez, bote-lorenzo, gomez-sanchez, & cano-parra, 2015). these applications are usually web-based, accessible anywhere, anytime over the internet, thus extending the exposure time to learning of students (wu & huang, 2011). there are many cloud applications such as google apps, dropbox amongst others that are already extensively employed in education because they are common-place, user-friendly, and inexpensive tools that many students use in their daily life. lecturers may give them diverse usages as well. it allows lecturers to share course contents, presentations, and information with students. cloud computing can also assist lecturers to collaborate with each other and differentiate materials and instructions, to personalize learning and increase students’ achievements. for example, lecturers can use google spreadsheets to share points to award students for their classroom behavior (blood, 2011). gender differences in terms of teacher belief, teacher self-efficacy, and attitude towards computers is an important research field (sang, valcke, van braak & tondeur, 2010). sieverding and koch (2009) investigated gender differences in computer self-efficacy and revealed that women have lower computer self-efficacy than men. this finding was in line with the findings of koch, muller, and sieverding (2008) and ong and lai (2006). gefen and straub (1997), venkatesh and morris (2000), venkatesh et al. (2003), and wang and wang (2010) investigated the effect of gender on technology acceptance and determined that gender significantly moderated the effects of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use towards behavioural intention. studies found that men were more task-oriented and affected by perceived usefulness, while women were more affected by perceived ease of use which was related to their self-efficacy (venkatesh, et al., 2003; wang & shih, 2009). ayinde (2011) investigated the computer selfefficacy among teachers in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in niger state, nigeria. the study was undertaken by the researcher with a view to find out the gender influence and computer self-efficacy among teachers’ in niger state. three hundred and twenty-one teachers were asked to indicate their experience and level of proficiency in using computer, 96 teachers from primary schools, 123 teachers from secondary schools, and 102 from tertiary institutions. the data for the study were collected through perception of computer selfefficacy scale which has 20-items. the data attained were analyzed using independent t-test and anova. the findings showed that male and female teachers in secondary school have similar competence in the usage of computer. the male primary school teachers were more proficient in utilizing computer than their female counterparts. the female lecturers were more proficient in the utilization of computer than the male lecturers. this is contrary to chukwuemeka & aghara (2010) findings which showed that the female teachers having inadequate proficiency skills in using internet for teaching and learning process. readiness is the state of being prepared for or willingness to engage in a particular activity. fisseha (2011) identified factors that affect learning readiness to include attitude, motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy. there cannot be a successful study if the learner is not ready or willing to learn regardless of the learning resources being put in place. therefore, students need to be in a state whereby the willingness to use this technology can be acquired. readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s responsibility. since learning is an active process, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria 4 students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning since exhausted or in ill health’ students might not learn much. distraction from outside, responsibilities, interests, or worries, overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, affect students’ interest in learning. readiness also influences the enthusiasm of undergraduate students. the significance of cloud computing to education has been widely reported in today’s competitive market place (grossman, 2009 & somya, 2021). the realization of benefits that can be derived from implementing cloud services in education lead to their eagerness to adopt the technology. higher education institutions are among the sectors that are in need of innovative technologies in order to advance the quality of teaching, learning, and research (al-zoube, abou el-seoud, & wyne, 2010; hazari, north, moreland, 2019; laisheng & zhengxia, 2011). in this respect, educational institutions always look for novel technologies that will ease the teaching and learning process thereby enhancing student performance. cloud computing is one of the latest trends in computing which is reported to have great impact on the quality of teaching and learning in educational settings (hashim, hassan, & hashim, 2015; duha et al, 2021). the technology provides the students with flexibility, accessibility, and portability of educational materials anytime and anywhere (guoli & wanjun, 2010; kalagiakos & karampelas, 2011). additionally, the technology offers the students an opportunity to use various internet-based applications in an efficient, portable, and secured manner (kalagiakos & karampelas, 2011). however, the lack of cloud computing adoption in higher education institutions has been emphasized by researchers (tashkandi & i. al-jabri, 2015). despite the fact that the academic institutions in nigeria appear to be well aware of the need for cloud computing services, students’ readiness to adopt and use those cloud computing services remains a challenging task. hence, this study, readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria, specifically; (1) explore postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria, (2) determine gender difference on postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning, (3) determine postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning based on field of study. method the study adopted descriptive research of the survey type. it had been considered appropriate because descriptive research method involves the systematic collection and analysis of knowledge collected from an outsized population that helps to explain the characteristics of population or event as they seem supported the phenomenon into account for this study without external manipulations by the researcher. the population for this study was made from all undergraduate students in kwara state. the target population contains 9,319 postgraduate students within the three selected universities in kwara state. stratified sampling techniques was use to allocate various respondents in each school using israel model (2012). additionally, sampling is utilized in each school to select the 398 postgraduate students from the sampled universities to participate as the respondents during this study. research instruments the instrument for data collection is a researcher designed-questionnaire titled “postgraduates’ readiness for the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria”. the instrument is divided into three sections (a, b, and c): section a addresses the demographic data of the respondents; section b elicits information on postgraduate students’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria. the questionnaire responses for section b is rated on a 4-point likert scale mode: strongly agree (sa); agree (a); disagree (d); and strongly disagree (sd). validity and reliability of the instruments validity explains how well the collected data covers the actual area of investigation (ghauri & gronhaug, 2005). the instrument is validated for face and content validity by the researcher’s supervisor and three other lecturers within the department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. following the lecturers’ validation reports, some items of the research instrument are corrected, adjusted, and modified as directed to reinforce the validity. reliability concerns the extent to which a measurement of a phenomenon provides stable and consist result (carmines & zeller, 1979). reliability indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 is additionally concerned with repeatability. as an example, a scale or test is claimed to be reliable if repeat measurement made by it under constant conditions will give the same result (moser, 1989). pilot study is administered from a specific university in oyo state for reliability of the research instrument. the research instrument is found to be reliable at 0.94 for items on readiness at 0.05 level of significance, using cronbach alpha spss statistical tool. procedure for data collection the researcher obtained a letter of introduction from the head of department, educational technology, university of ilorin, to sought the permission from the acceptable authority within the sampled schools to facilitate easy administration of the questionnaires. the researcher read and explained the aim of the study to the participants. the respondents got sufficient time to answer the questionnaire. after which, the researcher personally collected the answered questionnaire and reviewed the qualified and sufficiently completed questionnaire. insufficient information or a doubtful answer like showing observable patterns of answer was removed for those particular items only. the researchers, through the assistance of the statistical analyst, then tabulated the data collected from the participants using microsoft excel and eventually process the data collected using spss (statistical package for social sciences). ethical consideration ethical consideration was maintained through the period of data collection and thereafter. the researcher ensured that respondents were not coerced to fill the questionnaire and respondents were allowed to participate voluntarily. also, utmost confidentiality and secrecy of the respondents was maintained during the administration, collation, and report of research findings. data analysis techniques the data collected were analyzed employing a descriptive and inferential statistics. descriptive design, consistent with bhat (2019), may be a research design that aims to explain the participant or a phenomenon of the study. moreover, it aims to answer the question which focuses on the demographic information of the study. it was to define respondent characteristic, data trends, and comparison of groups, validate existing condition and to duplicate research. to analyse the target of the study which were determining the characteristic of the participants with reference to socio demographic characteristics, readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria, descriptive statistics is used. moreover, the various specific statistical tools like frequency, percentage, mean, and variance are utilized so as to measure the quantitative variables to give an overview descriptive of the respondents in analyzing the information for socio-demographic characteristic, gender, and field of study. hence for the research questions, the researcher-designed-questionnaire was structured on a four-point likert scale, the selection rule was supported the mid-point of the dimensions 2.50. therefore, items with mean value of 2.50 and above are considered agreed or positive responses while items with below 2.50 were considered disagreed or negative responses. furthermore, to check the hypotheses, inferential statistics are employed hypothesis one is tested using independent t-test. independent t-test is wont to determine the difference of the mean of two groups which both groups are independent from one another. with this, using the independent t-test yield on answering the target of finding the difference between male and female postgraduates’ readiness to use cloud computer for learning. to test, hypothesis two is also tested with analyses of variance (anova). anova is used to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences between the means of three or more independent (unrelated) groups. hence using anova, the researcher is able to determine the difference among humanity and social science, management, natural science, science and technology postgraduate students’ utilization of cloud computing for learning. findings and discussion descriptive information on the biodata of respondents based on gender and areas of specialization are as reflected in tables 1 and 2. table 1. percentage distribution of respondents by gender gender frequency percentage (%) male 217 54.5 female 181 45.5 gboyega ayodeji aladesusi readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria 6 total 398 100% table 2. percentage distribution of respondents by field of study area of specialization frequency percentage (%) natural science 105 26.38 management science 132 33.17 human and social science 161 40.45 total 398 100% as shown on table 1, the percentage of male undergraduates that were sampled in the study were greater than the female undergraduate (54.5% > 45.5%). also, table 2 reflected that out of the total respondents, 105 (26.38%) were from natural science, 132 respondents (33.17%) were from management sciences, while 161 respondents (40.45%) were from human and social sciences. table 3 presents results on undergraduates’ readiness level to adopt and utilize cloud computing for learning. research question one: what is the postgraduate students readiness to use cloud computing for learning? table 3. undergraduates’ readiness to use cloud computing for learning s/no item sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%) mean score 1 i have installed the necessary applications on my computer for cloud computing. for example; opera mini, chrome, mozilla, and so on. 64 (16.1%) 238 (59.8%) 62 (15.6%) 34 (8.5%) 2.83 2 i have a webcam and microphone for simple multimedia participation in the cloud environment. 231 (58%) 67 (16.8%) 42 (10.6%) 58 (14.6%) 3.18 3 i have a reliable high-speed internet connection (wireless, cable, modem, etc.). 31 (7.8%) 257 (64.6%) 75 (18.8%) 35 (8.8%) 2.71 4 i have the web skills and mastery to use cloud computing resources for my learning. 69 (17.3%) 156 (39.2%) 103 (25.9%) 70 (17.9%) 2.56 5 i am comfortable and proficient at creating and saving different types of files in the cloud environment. 91 (22.9%) 191 (48%) 80 (20.1%) 36 (9%) 2.85 6 i am comfortable with locating materials, setting bookmarks, and downloading files from the cloud environment. 106 (26.6%) 168 (42.2%) 57 (14.3%) 67 (16.8%) 2.79 7 i can manage my study time efficiently while using cloud-based resources for learning or to complete assignments on time. 34 (8.5%) 88 (22.1%) 199 (50.0%) 77 (19.3%) 2.20 8 i am self-motivated to use cloud-based resources for learning. 62 (15.6%) 102 (25.6%) 166 (41.7%) 68 (17.1%) 2.40 9 i have the knowledge and skills for online relationships to relate well in a collaborative cloud computing learning environment. 42 (10.6%) 78 (19.6%) 201 (50.5%) 77 (19.3%) 2.21 10 if i cannot figure out something related to my study, i am comfortable asking an expert, my instructor, or classmates for help via email, discussion board, or chat. 57 (14.3%) 216 (54.3%) 72 (18.1%) 53 (13.3%) 2.70 grand mean 2.643 sa = strongly agree, a = agree, d = disagree, sd= strongly disagree table 3 shows that 59.8% of the respondents agreed that they have installed the necessary applications on their computer for cloud computing. an item with the highest mean indicated that undergraduates have a webcam and microphone for simple multimedia participation in the cloud indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 environment with a mean score of 3.18. followed by undergraduates are comfortable and proficient at creating and saving different types of files in the cloud environment with mean score of 2.85. undergraduates are comfortable with locating materials, setting bookmarks, and downloading files from the cloud environment with mean score of 2.79. item 3, 10, and 4 respectively indicated that undergraduates have a reliable high-speed internet connection (wireless, cable, modem, and so on), if undergraduates cannot figure out something related to their study, they are comfortable asking an expert, their instructor or classmates for help via email, discussion board or chat, undergraduates have the web skills and mastery to use cloud computing resources for their learning. however, items 8, 9, and 7 have mean score lower than the average benchmark 2.5 respectively. “i am self-motivated to use cloudbased resources for learning.” (m = 2.40), “i have the knowledge and skills for online relationships to relate well in a collaborative cloud computing learning environment.” (m = 2.21), “i can manage my study time efficiently while using cloud-based resources for learning or to complete assignments on time” (m = 2.20). cumulatively the grand mean of 2.643 > 2.50 indicated that undergraduates are ready to adopt and utilize cloud computing for learning. hypotheses testing based on research questions 2-3, research hypothesis 1and 2 were developed. the results related to hypotheses one and two formulated for the study in the objective of the study was as shown in subsequent tables. all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. hypothesis one: there is no significant difference between male and female postgraduates in their readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. table 4. t-test of male and female postgraduate readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning variable n x̄ sd df t sig remarks male 217 26.53 2.82 396 0.709 0.479 not rejected female 181 26.32 2.92 table 4 revealed that there was no significant difference between male and female undergraduates in their readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. this is reflected in the result, t (396) = 0.709, p = 0.479. that is, the result of t-value of 0.709 resulting in .479. the significant value was greater than 0.05 alpha value. hypothesis two: there is no significant difference among postgraduate students’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning based on their field of study. table 5. anova of postgraduate students’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning based on their field of study sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups .582 3 .194 1.499 .214 within groups 48.395 395 .129 total 48.977 398 table 5 revealed the anova of difference among postgraduates student’s readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning based on their field of study. the result revealed that “there was no significant difference among natural science, management science, and human and social science undergraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning” (f (3,377) = 1.499, p > 0.05). the null hypothesis is therefore accepted. discussion this study investigated postgraduate students’ readiness for the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria. research question one seeks to examine the postgraduate students’ readiness to use cloud gboyega ayodeji aladesusi readiness of the postgraduates on the utilization of cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria 8 computing for learning different items were tested and from the data gathered, it was revealed that majority of postgraduate students are ready for the utilization of cloud computer for learning. based on the items in the study which is consistent to the previous study of fisseha (2011) whose study identifies factors that affect learning readiness to include attitude, motivation, anxiety, and selfefficacy. the author stated that there cannot be a successful study if the learner is not ready or willing to learn regardless of the learning resources being put in place. research question 2 hypothesis 1 determined gender difference on postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. from the data analyzed, it was revealed that there was no significant difference between male and female undergraduates in their readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning, the mean value in table 2 also reveals that there is slight different in the male and female readiness to use cloud computing for learning. this is seen in the grand mean score. this conforms with sang, valcke, van braak & tondeur (2010). sieverding and koch (2009) whose study investigated gender differences in computer selfefficacy and revealed that women have lower computer self-efficacy than men. this finding is in line with the findings of koch, muller and sieverding (2008) and ong and lai (2006). gefen and straub (1997), venkatesh and morris (2000), venkatesh et al. (2003), and wang and wang (2010) investigated the effect of gender on technology acceptance and determined that gender significantly moderated the effects of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use towards behavioural intention. studies found that men are more task-oriented and affected by perceived usefulness, while women are more affected by perceived ease of use which was related to their selfefficacy (venkatesh, et al., 2003; wang & shih, 2009). research question 3 and hypothesis 2 which sought to determine postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning based on field of study. the findings in this study revealed that “there was no significant difference among natural science, management science, and human and social science undergraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning”. this finding does not conform with the findings of shakeel, muhammad and imran (2017) where it was revealed that there is a significant difference in the perception of students towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning base on area of specialization. conclusion this research examined postgraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning in universities in kwara state, nigeria. the result obtained from data gathered and analyzed in this study indicated that undergraduates are highly ready to adopt cloud computing into their day to day learning. more so, gender has no significant influence on readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. however, field of study has a significant influence on indergraduates’ readiness to utilize cloud computing for learning. references aaron, w. 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(2010). user acceptance of mobile internet based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology: investigating the determinants and gender differences. social behavior and personality, 38(3), 415. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2010.38.3.415 warwick, k., garcia-perez, a., & odeh, m. (2015). the impacts of cloud computing adoption at higher education institutions: a swot analysis. international journal of computer applications, 127(4), 1-9. writer, s. (2015). cloud through the ages: 1950s to present day. retrieved may 20, 2015, from http://www.thoughtsoncloud.com/2015/04/abrief-history-of-cloud-1950-topresent-day/ wu, c. f., & huang, l. p. (2011). developing the environment of information technology education using cloud computing infrastructure. american journal of applied sciences, 864-871. retrieved october 24, 2018 zahoor, a., solomon, m.n., muhammad, s., (2021). the criticality of information and communication technology and human capital in environmental sustainability: evidence from latin american and caribbean countries. journal of cleaner production, 286(1), pp.12-32. https://learn.g2crowd.com/cloud-computing http://www.thoughtsoncloud.com/2015/04/a-brief-history-of-cloud-1950-topresent-day/ http://www.thoughtsoncloud.com/2015/04/a-brief-history-of-cloud-1950-topresent-day/ indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 79 the effect of games on vocabulary retention yasmin shabaneh english department, faculty of arts, hebron university, palestine e-mail: yasminshabaneh82@gmail.com mohammed farrah english department, faculty of arts, hebron university, palestine e-mail: mfarrah@hebron.edu apa citation: shabaneh, y., & farrah, m. (2019). the effect of games on vocabulary retention. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 79-90. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1687. received: 28-12-2018 accepted: 19-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: learning english has become a necessity during this century. consequently, it is utilized in different institutions in palestine such as schools, universities, hospitals, etc. therefore, it is taught in schools by using different methods. thus, in order to comprehend the language efficiently, it has to be taught in creative and interesting methods and using games inside the classroom in one of these methods. the study aims to figure out the efficiency of using games inside classrooms and to answer the research questions. the study was conducted during the first semester of 2018/2019, in which 20 participants were enrolled. the researchers collected data using pretest; posttest and class observation. the study continued for two months. in that, students were introduced to unfamiliar vocabulary through games. the findings of the research revealed the efficiency of utilizing games in the educational process. accordingly, games help students to retain unfamiliar vocabulary, to associate new information with their surroundings and to develop their language and communicative skills. keywords: collaborative learning; educational games; enjoyment; motivation; vocabulary. introduction learning the english language has become essential to all people because of its dominance of all aspects of life. consequently, it is utilized in different institutions in palestine such as schools, universities, hospitals, etc. yet, learning this language relies on english classes at schools which results in graduating a number of preservice teachers who have pronunciation difficulties (shehadeh & farrah, 2016; jabali & abuzaid, 2017), spelling mistakes (alsaqqaf and busaidi, 2015), and writing troubles (rass, 2015). thus, improving the language skills of learners requires developing, modifying, or changing the approaches used at schools to teach this language (nuraihan & farrah, 2013; saha & singh, 2016). therefore, it is of importance to emerge novel teaching style and to focus on student-centered teaching methods, which would result in graduating students who are able to comprehend the language and to communicate efficiently. using games in learning environments is deeply rooted in several learning theories (interactionists theories, experiential theories). (1938) advocated learning experiences that encourage meaningful learning. according to him, real learning takes place if learners engaged actively with the content in a meaningful context.. likewise, kolb (1984) deems that experiential learning is a dynamic facet in engaging the learners. accordingly he believes that “learning is the process mailto:yasminshabaneh82@gmail.com mailto:mfarrah@hebron.edu https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1687 yasmin shabaneh & mohammed farrah the effect of games on vocabulary retention 80 whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p. 38). student-centered methods and strategies ought to be applied from early ages because children are curious by nature and self-reliant in discovering their surroundings. students-centered teaching, in fact, meets young learners’ genius which help students and teachers in the teaching-learning process (abuzahra, farrah, & zalloum, 2016). then, learners at this age are more creative, so teachers can deliver information in a diversity of simple, yet interesting and informative ways. using engaging activities increases maximizes interaction and collaboration among learners (farrah, 2011; farrah, 2014). unlike adults, young learners understand languages easily. when they are exposed to a language input for a period of time, they start making connections and communicating effectively. concerning the educational process, there are a few questions that need to be answered. first of all, does the traditional method of teaching fulfill young students’ needs, or creativity needs to be present to help students gain as much information as required? games are invaluable for practicing the four language skills. they maximize learners' motivation and interaction as they find opportunities to use language in meaningful contexts. therefore, the playing language games may contribute to meet some requirements of second language acquisition such as exposure, use, collaboration and motivation (willis, 1996). learners play games collaboratively in an entertaining learning environment. the learning process becomes enjoyable and interesting (saha & singh, 2016). different linguists and scholars dedicated their lives to both improve and simplify the language learning process for students through looking deep into the best possible methods and approaches to follow in this process: first, the grammar-translation method, the dominant method used in schools in palestine to teach the english language, is not regarded as the best teaching approach by many linguists. in fact, linguists and researchers failed to find any literature or theory that advocates the grammartranslation method or relates it to issues concerning linguistics, psychology, or educational theory. for example, richards and rodgers (2014) assert that grammartranslation method does not aim at teaching students the language itself, but teaching them about the language. in other words, this method does not serve in rendering students ability of comprehension or oral production of the language, but it might serve in teaching them the grammatical rules and some vocabulary. richards and rodgers (2014) found that this method serves best in teaching a language in which understanding the literary text is the main focus rather than improving the capacity of oral production or comprehension of the language. moreover, it creates frustration for students because, according to benoit (2017), it is very demanding on its behalf; it is based on translating whatever students learn directly into their native tongue. in simpler terms, students learn the grammatical rules of the target language and a great deal of written vocabulary and then translate into their native language to be able to memorize what they have learned. furthermore, the second approach is the communicative approach. according to celik (2014) this approach "does not constitute a method in itself", yet it frames the overall understanding of language teaching which might be carried out in different methods, or it can be perceived as ”principles about the goals of language teaching” richards (2006). this approach views language as a tool that people use in order to socialize. also, culture is considered an influential factor upon learners’ competence and personality. according to this method, to learn a language you must engage and communicate in it. so, the activities that can be carried out are limited only to the creativity of the teacher, learner, and the curriculum. as nunan (1989) demonstrates, the aims of this approach are to communicate, to indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 81 maintain relationships, to use the language in our daily activities to develop our communicative competence. in contrast to other approaches, this method is considered student-centered, where the teacher is only considered to be responsible for learners’ language needs (richards and rodgers 2014) which gives the student more space to be creative (yavuz, 2010) and confident (safraz et al. 2015). games, in all its forms, can be a major factor in the teaching process according to this approach because they fulfill the mentioned aims and result in a better understanding of the language and the learning process. in addition, active learning was introduced to the teaching process which is defined as ”any instructional method that engages learners in the learning process” (moore, 2016). in other terms, active learning refers to exposing learners to different activities (games, or internet-based teaching) that help them to interact with their peers, or teachers; develop higher thinking and not only act as information recipients. approaches that advocate active learning support the idea of makin connections between new concepts and existing ones to experience better understanding. in order to develop learners’ abilities, group work is encouraged (adams, 2016) where it allows students to exceed their progress and extend their mental models. this concept was invented in opposition to instructivism in which students are considered to be passive agents in the learning process (onyesolo et al. 2013) and that information is transmitted from the teacher or textbook to students without them critically or logically analyzing it. that is, active learning promotes untraditional classroom activities that include students experimenting and exploring new ideas and information through games, which offers better comprehension of new concepts and ideas. the english language consists of different aspects and each one is of its importance, yet a number of linguists such as widdowson (1989) and mckeown (2002) consider vocabulary to be the heart of the language. wilkins (1972) stated, “while without grammar little can be conveyed, without grammar nothing can be conveyed”. in other words, knowing grammar rules helps people to compose structurally correct sentences, whereas knowing the correct vocabulary helps people to communicate. ferreira (2007) suggests that people need to know 97% of the vocabulary in a text in order for them to gain an adequate understanding of it. this means that in order for people to express themselves, and be understood by others, both sides (senderrecipient )need to be acquainted with a sufficient amount of vocabulary. different scholars, linguists, and teaching approaches support untraditional teaching methods in which novel ways are applied inside and outside the classroom. these ways may include internet, online games or online assignments. it is to be mentioned that there is a consensus on the benefits of using games as a tool for teaching english language: first, games create an interesting and fun learning atmosphere (derakhshan & khatir, 2015 & lorenzutti, 2016 & quispe, 2016) in which students are motivated to learn and participate in class (khatir, 2015 & quispe, 2016). since games are based on actions rather than explanations, they capture attention and sustain motivation (schifter, 2013). according to garris et al. (2002) games succeed in increasing students’ interest in subjects which enhances their concentration during class. moreover, imagination and fantasy generally stimulate learners thinking. therefore, it is beneficial to use it and link it playing educational because if the imaginary is thoughtprovoking, then the content becomes stimulating. in addition to the mentioned above, games usually have a clear and specific goal, for this reason, they trigger critical attention and motivation (saha & singh, 2016). thus, whenever the outcome does not meet the aims of the game, learners would put more effort or attention, and attempt to reduce the fault and achieve what is required. yasmin shabaneh & mohammed farrah the effect of games on vocabulary retention 82 secondly, contextualized information stimulates students’ critical thinking, for whenever learners encounter new information, within the game, they link the information and situation together (sardone, 2010). also, when we use game-based teaching, we help creating and growing flexible individuals who are able to reason and adapt in real life situation (zirawaga et al. 2017). according to milczynski (2011), when learners play games, they learn to evaluate, synthesize, analyze and organize information. furthermore, when students are interested in the games and feel the sense of friendly competition, they “grasp the complexity of problem-solving” and become more encouraged to think of different ways to solve the game (mcdonald, 2017). thirdly, enjoyment is characterized as “the core experience of all entertainment media, including games” (quick et al. 2012). while playing games, learners do not think of their worries and escape daily routines, which gives them space to enjoy themselves (wechselberger, 2013). as stated by giannakos (2013), enjoyment measures how the game helps achieve the objectives of the lesson and the usefulness of the game. amusement, also, affects motivation (iten & petko, 2013). in other words, the greater the enjoyment that is experienced, the greater interest is invested in practicing a certain game. in addition to the fact that games produce feelings of passionate enjoyment (raba, 2014), delight is usually stimulated by the challenge which games provide to players (sweetser & wyeth, 2018). this feeling of challenge makes learners existed and eager to top their peers. in relation to what is mentioned above, games introduce friendly competition (derakhshan & khatir, 2015), and it encourages cooperative, group work and enhances group dynamic (milczynski, 2011). moreover, games help students make visual auditory associations between pictures and pronunciation (gruss, 2016). also, games in the learning process help students to retain vocabulary more quickly and easily (derakshan, 2015 & bavi, 2018). those researchers and many others clarify the benefits of using games in a language classroom. different studies were conducted regarding this aspect, in which scholars experimented the effect of using games as a tool for teaching english language vocabulary. for instance, gruss (2016) conducted a study to see the effectiveness of using games as a tool to teach vocabulary to young learners. the study involved 67 participants at the age of 6-7 who were chosen from different kindergartens. the researcher divided the participants into 3 groups (group a had 24 consisted of 24 students, group b consisted of 20 students and group c consisted of 23 students). there were three data collecting instruments 1. an observational sheet 2. vocabulary test 3. picture based survey. the study focused on three games which are “spider is coming”, a board with shapes and colors and a board game with colorful sheets. the study lasted one and a half months. the results showed a difference in performance among groups. the mistakes made by group a lowered as students played the games. the mistakes went from 63% (first game) to 38% (the second game), to 21% (the third game). group b results were somewhat similar to group a, the mistakes made by students were 60% (first game), 50% (second game), and 25% (third game). however, group c had different results. the percentage of mistakes was low at the first game 26%, yet it increased during the second game to 39%, for it to decrease again with the third game 26%. according to the analysis of this study, it is beneficial to use games in teaching where students make visualauditory associations between pictures and pronunciation. moreover, it is important to notice and explore what children like and don’t like most, and how they react to certain games to have the maximum effect as the educational process continues. quispe (2016) conducted a study in americana adventist school – juliaca city. 40 students of the 3rd year of primary school were randomly chosen for this research. the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 83 researcher divided the participants into two groups, control and experimental. the instrument utilized for the study was a vocabulary test (pretest, posttest) that was divided into six sections of overall 20 points. to analyze the results, the researcher used microsoft excel and found that both groups, control and experimental, scored from 0-10 in their pretest which indicates that all participants are beginners. also, the experiment group got an average of 4.9 and the control group got an average of 3.75 which means that the two groups started at merely the same average of vocabulary knowledge. the results of the posttest indicated that 40% of the students of the experimental group scored from 0-10, 25% students scored from 11-13, 35% students got from 14-16 and 0% got from 17-20, while in the control group 85% of the students got from 0-10, 5% of students got from 11-13, 10% of students got from 14-16 and 0% got from 17-20. based on this information, we can recognize that the experimental group’s vocabulary developed better than the control group. also, alemi (2010) directed a study related to this topic where 60 students were randomly chosen from a group of 100 third grade of junior high school students. they were divided into two identical groups; control and experimental. the instruments which were utilized to measure students’ level were a proficiency pretest which consisted of questions regarding vocabulary, structure, expressions and pronunciation and an achievement posttest which was similar to the pretest in its form. based on the findings of the research, games have been shown to have a positive effect on students’ performance, for they involve and engage the student in the learning process and draws connections between students and teachers. games help students develop associations for words which can later affect their other skills furthermore, benoit (2017) directed a research in which six teachers and 60 nonnative students from enrolled in sixth grade, from northwest georgia, participated in this study. the participants spoke spanish, french, russian, chinese, gujarat, and creole as their first language. the first instrument that was used in the study was the access to measure students’ english proficiency. the second instrument was the measure of academic vocabulary (mav) which is a modified vocabulary scale. the study lasted for almost two months. after the analyses of the results, they showed no significant difference in the performance of the control and experimental group. it was recommended to conduct similar studies but with a bigger sample of students to successfully measure the effect of games on students’ performance. the major problem of this study is to determine the effectiveness of using games in the educational process and its impact on learners’ lexical development. this research seeks to answer the following question: are there statistically significant differences in the performance of students in the pretest and posttest? this study contribute to the development of the educational system in palestine since the educational methods in this country have not changed over the last century. hopefully, this study helps teachers to apply untraditional teaching methods, student-centered techniques inside the classroom, that stand in opposition to the traditional, teacher-centered methods which are applied in schools in palestine. the results of this study is informative regarding whether games are beneficial or not in the educational process. method the researchers present in this section the design of the study, the participants’ characteristics, the instruments, and procedure. finally, they explain data analysis. this is a descriptive study. the data for this study was collected through pretests and posttests and class observation. the study was conducted at darassalam school in hebron, palestine. the study included 20 randomly chosen students (ten males and ten females). the participants were in the third grade (eight students) and in yasmin shabaneh & mohammed farrah the effect of games on vocabulary retention 84 the fourth grade (twelve students), and their ages ranged between eight and nine years old (m= 8.5). none of the students suffered from neither physical nor mental disabilities, yet, a male student, who is in the fourth grade, was observed to have minor concentration problems, where the participant got distracted easily, was not able to answer consistently; would go off topic in his response, and would not maintain eye contact. other than that, students, in general, were energetic and eager to attend and participate in class. in order to achieve the aim of this research, two instruments were used. the first instrument was class observation, in which the researchers observed students’ reactions toward games (which games they favored and which ones they did not like), and their performance, as individuals, inside the classroom. the second instrument was pretest and posttest. since participants were in the third and fourth grade, the researchers designed a pretest for each grade (see appendix a and b). furthermore, the test consisted of vocabulary which students had already learned, and it was divided into three questions of 20 overall points. for question one, students had to write the words in the box next to the suitable picture; it was of eight overall points. the second question consisted of six words, three words in arabic and three words in english, and students had to write the equivalent of each word in the other language; it was of six overall points. finally, the third question consisted of six pictures and next to each picture four words were written where learners had to choose the correct meaning; it was of six overall points. the form of the posttest was similar to that of the pretest. yet, unlike the pretest which was two versions, the posttest was one version only, consisting of vocabulary which was discussed during class in order to measure the effectiveness of games inside the classroom, the researchers approached the administration of darassalam school in hebron, talked to the principle, and got the permission to carry out the research in the school, on saturdays, once a week and for two months during the first semester of the academic year 2018/2019. in the first meeting, the researchers started the class by introducing themselves and talking about the nature of the upcoming five meeting. after that, they divided the class into two groups (thirds graders and fourth graders), distributed the tests for the third graders (see appendix a), (fourth graders were given drawing sheets at the same time, to keep them distracted). after third graders finished, tests were distributed to fourth graders (see appendix b), whereas third graders got the drawing sheets. the groups were given enough time to finish the test and hand back the papers. this whole process lasted, approximately 35 minutes. the posttest (see appendix c) was given by the end of the first semester of the academic year 2018/2019. students were given enough time, which was approximately 25 minutes, to answer the test. results and discussion the study aims to figure out the efficiency of using games inside classrooms. to help answering the researchers' question, a pretest and posttest were given to third and fourth grade students. the researchers used pasw statistics, formerly known as spss statistics, to analyze the collected data with the use of paired two samples t-test. table 1. paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation pre-test 10.9500 20 4.13553 post-test 14.8500 20 3.42245 table 1 shows the mean, standard deviation, standard error mean of the pre-test and post-test, and the number of participants. the mean of the pretest is of 10.9, the standard deviation is 4.1 and the standard error mean is 0.92. whereas the mean of the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 85 posttest is of 14.8, standard deviation equals 3.4 and the standard error mean is 0.75. the analysis of pretest and posttest show that, mean is -2.9, standard deviation is 2.07, and sig. (2tailed) = 0.001. according to the null hypothesis, if the p-value was more than .05, it means that there is no difference in students’ performance. on the other hand, the alternative hypothesis states that if the pvalue was less than .05, it means that there is a difference between the two groups in the post-test. in conclusion, the null hypothesis is rejected by the alternative hypothesis that is games inside the classroom to help students in learning english language. figure 1. the means for each questions in the pre-test and post-test in the pre-test, the mean of the first question was 5.90, the mean of the second question was 1.60, and the mean of the third question was 3.05. however, in the post-test, the mean of the first question was 6.15, the mean of the second question was 3.45, and the mean of the third question was 3.05. 5.90 1.6 3.05 6.15 3.45 4.45 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 question 1 question 2 question 3 m e a n means for each question in pre-test and post-test pretest posttest yasmin shabaneh & mohammed farrah the effect of games on vocabulary retention 86 figures 2. the points got by the students in the first question figure 3. the points got by the students in the first question in the first question (m=6.25, sd=2.02) that was out of eight, 5% of the students got 0-2 points, 40% of the students got 3-5 points; 55% of the students got 6-8 points. as for the post-test (m=6.15, sd=1.53), 0% of the students got 0-2 points, 35% of the students got 3-5 points and 65% of the students got 6-8 points. figure 4. the points got by the students in the second question figure 5. the points got by the students in the second question regarding the second question that is out of six, in the pre-test (m=1.6, sd=1.53) 80% of the students got 0-2 points, 20% of the students got 3-5 and none of the students got 6 points. in the post-test (m=3.45, sd=2.01) 30% of the students got 0-2 points, 50% of the students got 3-5 points and 20% of the students got 6 points. 5.00% 40% 55% pre-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6-8 points 80% 20% 0% pre-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6 points 30% 50% 20% post-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6 points 0% 35% 65% post-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6-8 points indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 87 figure 6. the points got by the students in the third question figure 7. the points got by the students in the third question concerning the third question, that is out of six, in the pre-test (m= 3.05, sd=1.36) 40% of the students got 0-2 points, 55% of the students got 3-5 points and 5% of the students got 6 points. where in the post-test (m=4.45, sd=1.32), 10% of the students got 0-2 points, 60% of the students got 3-5 points and 30% of the students got 6 points. as for observation, the researchers noticed some change in students’ behavior. for instance, children who were energetic from the beginning of the experiment remained the same, yet a number of children who were somehow shy and refused to participate at the beginning became more active towards the end. also, whenever learners were placed into groups and competed against each other, they would answer spontaneously. furthermore, students liked activities that involved them writing on the board more than others. after conducting this research for two months, the researchers came to the result that games inside the classroom have a positive effect on students’ vocabulary performance. according to the null hypothesis, if the p-value was more than 0.05, it means that there is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest results. yet, since in this research the p-value equals 0.001; this indicates the difference in learners’ performance. in other words, games affect learners positively. these results come in line with the findings of iten and petko (2013), gruss (2016) and others. regarding students’ performance in each question in the pre-test, the researchers found a huge difference between the performance in the first question in comparison with the second and third questions. in the pre-test, in the first question, students had high scores. this is most likely due to the pictures that were included in the question, which probably facilitated recalling the correct meanings of the words. although, the third question included pictures, students had lower scores. most students, if they did not choose the correct answer, they chose one that sounds similar to it. obviously, they could not differentiate the spelling of the given words. furthermore, students had the lowest scores in question two that did not contain any pictures. this clarifies that students face difficulty in connecting words to their meanings without the association of other factors. this is probably a result of the traditional education that depends on memorizing instead of linking new information to real life material or events. 40% 55% 5% pre-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6 points 10% 60% 30% post-test 0-2 points 3-5 points 6 points yasmin shabaneh & mohammed farrah the effect of games on vocabulary retention 88 as for question one, in the post-test, learners’ scores were similar to the pre-test; with a slight increase. nevertheless, there was a distinct increase in their performance that was clear in the second and third questions. even in question two, which did not include pictures, students were able to recognize and recall the correct meaning of words. this is a result of associating unfamiliar vocabulary with pictures, sounds, facial expressions, games, activities, etc. which emphasizes derakshan (2015) and bavi (2018) ideas about how games facilitate and help students retain vocabulary. likewise, activities that involved students’ getting out of their chairs and write on the board were the activities that students favored most. this is due to the fact that students do not like sitting in their chairs, yet they like to move around. also, whenever students were grouped, they would answer impulsively. this is probably because they were encouraged and felt secure in the sense that other students will help them if they made a mistake. this results in improving students’ speaking and listening skills. teamwork increases the dynamic in the class (milczynski, 2011), which makes students eager to participate and be active learners. conclusion the educational process is the process of receiving, absorbing and understanding these information. in order for students to keep and benefit from what they learn at schools, they have to receive it in an interesting manner or technique and associate it with their surroundings. games can provide these requirements. whenever games are used in classrooms, learners feel relaxed and calm (wechselberger, 2013). when a number of students play and participate in a certain activity, other students, who might be shyer, feel comfortable to contribute as well. moreover, games help developing students’ speaking, listening and communicative skills. also, games enhance team spirit which helps students socialize and interact with others. in addition, games provide a positive experience for teachers as well as students. they help lecturers to be creative in their teaching methods, and students to be active and creative in their answers. in other words, games help widen thinking in different aspects. games help students in shaping their intellect, enhancing their skills and absorbing information in an efficient manner. nonetheless, teachers have to notice which games students prefer. also, they have to learn how to present information efficiently through games and adjust activities according to the students’ age, abilities, or interests. games are a sufficient medium through which teachers can deliver information, yet they have to learn the correct way to do it. it is recommended to do further research on this topic on palestinian teachers; or students. it is also advised to lengthen the period of the experiment. moreover, the researchers recommend conducting the research on a bigger sample of participants in order to elicit more information about their performance and attitudes to improve the educational system and methods in palestine. references adams, m. 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(1996). a framework for task-based learning. london: longman. yavuz, a. (2010). enhancing creativity in the communicative language classroom through poetry as a literary genre. dil dergisi, 149, 4663 zirawaga, v., olusanya, a. & maduku, t. (2017). gaming in education: using games as a support tool to teach history. journal of education and practice, 8(15), 55-64. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=5933575240510826789&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&sciodt=0,5 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=5933575240510826789&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&sciodt=0,5 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=5933575240510826789&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&sciodt=0,5 safraz, s., mansoor, z., & tariq r. (2015). teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the communicative language teaching methodology in the call environment: a case study. procedia – social and behavioral science, 199, 730-736 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 79 a study of yemeni efl instructors’ perceptions on the role of icts in developing students’ communicative competence aref nassi abdu nasser university of abyan, yemen email: arefnassi1980@gmail.com wagdi rashad ali bin-hady hadhramout university, yemen email: wagdyrashad@hu.edu.ye sabri thabit saleh ahmed university of aden, yemen email: sabri.thabt.edu.r@aden-univ.net apa citation: nasser, a. n. a., bin-hady, w. r. a. & ahmed, s. t. s. (2020). a study of yem eni ef l instructors’ perceptions on the role of icts in developing students’ communicative competence. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(2), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3678 received: 01-05-2020 accepted: 10-06-2020 published:01-10-2020 introduction language learners are usually oriented with some purposeful considerations in mind for language learning. communicative competence is one of t he considerations. at this juncture, it can be said that the major aim for any learner learning/studying english is generally to achieve a good communicative competence in english (bin-hady, 2016a). however, such a competence in communication is hardly achieved especially in countries where efl instructors still use traditional teaching methods. in the yemeni context, it has been found that teachers neglected sub-elements of communicative competence like discourse, sociolinguistics, strategic competence, and taught the other elements traditionally (bin-hady, 2016a). efl instructors have good perceptions about the importance of communicative competence to t heir students although a great mismatch has been found between what the instructors believed in with what they did in the classroom (bin-hady; 2016a, 2016b). thus, for the lack of real practice in classroom and the instructors’ defect in helping students to reach intelligible level of communication, this is the right time for activat ing ict tools by which learners can compensate their ongoing learning of english as a foreign language abstract: this paper aims at exploring yemeni instructors' perceptions on t he role that icts play in developin g efl students' communicative competence components. the study pursued a quantitative researc h d e sig n a s a method for data collection. a closed -ended questionnaire was constructed, developed, and shared with 60 yemeni efl instructors using google forms. the validity of the questionnaire was checked by referees whereas cronbach's alpha was run to measure the questionnaire reliability (r=.86). spss 21st edition was used to analyse the data. the study revealed that yemeni efl instructors have positive perceptions on the role of u s in g icts in developing students' communicative competence. the findings also reported no statistically signific a n t differences in the instructors' perceptions of icts that can be found across the four c omponents of communicative competence. moreover, it was revealed that there are no statistically significant d iffe re nc es in the instructors' perceptions that can be attributed to gender across the components. this study enc oura ge s efl instructors to help their students to use the ict tools in developing their communicative competence. keywords: communicative competence; efl instructors; icts; language learning; language teaching. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3678 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 80 since these tools are regarded as useful aids for developing their communicative competence. the prominence of what is called as communicative language teaching along with the orientation of language learning towards communication as a main goal has led communicative competence to emerge towards the forefront of research in applied linguistics. prior t o this is chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence “the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language” and performance “the actual use of competence in concrete situations” (p.4). in this respect, chomsky unfolded what is called linguistic competence. later on, it has been recorded that hymes (1972) provided a systemat ic representation of what is called communicative competence where he advocated that language is not only related to acquiring what is termed as linguistic competence but also considered as a means for achieving communicative purposes. in effect, various models of communicative competence have been proposed. in canale and swain (1980) model, communicative competence has been conceptualized to include grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence whereas canale's (1983) model involves discourse competence as fourth component of communicative competence in addition to the three ones. on the other hand, bachman (1990) proposed a framework of communicative competence to include psychophysiological mechanisms in addition to language competence and strategic competence whereas celce-murcia, dornyei, & thurrel (1995) made a further extension of the frameworks of communicative competence to involve five components represented by linguistic competenc e, strategic competence, sociocultural competence, discourse competence, and actional competence. taking the four language skills into account, communicative competence has been conceptualized to involve the literacy skills and the oral skills within the proposed frameworks. in t his regard, alcón, as cited in belmonte and mccabe (2004), proposed a three-component model of communicative competence. in this model, the skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking are categorized under what is called psychomotor skills as a component of the communicative competence in addition to discourse competence and strategic competence. moreover, the communicative competence has witnessed sever al developments and presented in further frameworks depending on the conceptual reflections of some researchers and scholars in the field. for ins t anc e, usó-juan and martiníz-flor (2006) proposed a model of communicative competence integrating the four skills. they have also considered intercultural competence as one of the communicative competence components. hence, their proposed framework conceptualizes communicative competence as a construction of discourse competence which is considered as the central component constructed by the functions of the four skills. the other components, according to their framework, serve to construct discourse competence. thus, usó-juan and martínez-flor (2006) model is composed of five components, namely: discourse competence, linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, strategic competence, and intercultural competence. as a whole, communicative competence is conceptualized as a language knowledge and being used for communicative purposes with attention paid to its different components which are represented linguistically, socially, culturally, strategically, and so on. though it has been represented in variety of frameworks, the abovementioned models are considered of the prominent ones in the field. a salient remark among the reviewed models can be captured in that. the basic components of communicative competence are represented as linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. meanwhile, the other components represented in the frameworks can be interpreted as further extensions of these four main components, for instance, what has been considered as pragmatic competence, actional competence, and intercultural competence can be categorized under the sociocultural competence. another remarkable issue is also recorded in that, with the development of these frameworks, intercultural competence has been highlighted as a component of communicative competence. generally speaking, having such a brief account of communicative competence in this section is a very influential and helpful pathway towards embarking on the relational nature between ict and communicative competence. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 81 research in the use of icts in language learning has explored the effectiveness of icts on enhancing communicative competence. blake (2011) claimed that engaging in social networking leads to digital connection where language students feel comfortable to communicate with peers of t he targeted culture. this, in turn, "would enhance their digital communicative competence at the very last" (p.30). in this regard, it can be understood that digital competence has become an important aspect of the students' communicative competence. for gómez and vicente (2011, p.87), "the acquisition of communicative competences must also include the achievement of technological competences." research has found that using i ct is very influential to promote students' competence in english language and their quality of experienc e (ramak & ziabari, 2017). thus, students' technological competence aligns with their competence of using english language. for the development of linguistic competence as one of the mainstreams of communicative competence, kenning (2007) stated that electronic communication leads to the expansion of the linguistic competence since it brings people together from different backgrounds. the inclusion of icts in learning has led researchers to investigate the use of its tools for enhancing students' communicative language. li (2018) stated that cmc has become a tradition to promote learners' l2 communicative competence. similarly, peterson (2013) emphasized that technology provides opportunities for the development of communicative competence and chapelle (2003, pp.66-67) highlighted the importance of a further extension of pedagogical computer-assisted language learning (call) for it leading to the enhancement of "pragmatic knowledge and strategic competence", in addition to the linguistic competence represented by the linguistic items such as vocabulary and syntax. this implies that the involvement of such a kind of learning, i.e. call promotes communicative competence in general and linguistic competence along with pragmatic and strategic competences in particular. however, taillefer (2018, p.177) stipulated that online resources can be used as potentials to provide benefits if they are used carefully with thoughtful considerations to the way they will enhance "language skills and communicative competences". with a particular reference to intercultural competence, it can be stated that the use of ict has effects to prompt and promote intercultural communication. this is in line with nasser (2016, p.15), pointed out that the media "helps in promoting the intercultural competence of the interlocutors". furthermore, icts have also been considered as potentials for developing intercultural communicative competence. based on her teaching experience of intercultural competence, chiper (2013) reported that some ict resources can be used for teaching intercultural competence. similarly, telecollaboration, as an application of ict, has also highlighted its positive effects on promoting students' intercultural competence (chapelle, 2017; hauk, 2010; kenning, 2007). it has been noted that the use of the internet, online resources, and technologies represent a major contribution to the development of students' intercultural competence by providing opportunities of "engagement in authentic communication with members of other cultures" (o'dowd, 2008, p.1). many studies show ed positive attitudes of efl instructors on the role of icts in developing students' communicative competence. zekiye (2018) investigated teachers' attitudes towards computer technology in foreign language teac hing with the data gathered by using a questionnaire distributed to pre-service elt teachers at a state university. the findings showed that the teachers have positive views about the use of computer in language teaching. in addition, it was found that there is no relationship between participants' attitudes with their gender. prior to this, sulaiman (2017) conducted a study to investigate attitudes of iraqi english teachers toward educational technology in teaching english in baghdad primary schools. the study targeted 327 m ale and female teachers. the results showed that teac her s' attitudes towards using technology in language teaching were generally high with significant differences in the favour of male teachers. in the iranian context, mollaei and riasati (2013) investigated efl teachers’ perceptions of the technology use in their classes and factors that affect technology implementation in iranian language institutes. using a mixed method indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 82 research design and collecting the data from questionnaire and interviews, the findings revealed that teachers have positive attitudes regarding the use of technology and computer in their classrooms with no significant differences in their perceptions. in the yemeni context, ahmed et al. (2020) investigated south yemeni instructors' perceptions on the use of ict in english language instruction. the study used a questionnaire for collecting the data which were analysed quantitatively. the findings showed that the instructors have positive perceptions towar ds i ct in language instruction as they believed in its effectiveness in language learning and there were no significant differences in teachers' perceptions that can be attributed to the gender. it was also found that the use of icts by the concerned instructors in reality was low. aside from that, some studies also focused on the role of icts in developing students' competences in the four language skills and systems. gilakjani (2018) investigated teachers' views toward computer technology in teaching english pronunciation. he used a questionnaire to target 25 teachers and structured interviews with 15 teachers from two islamic azad universities of guilan, iran. the study showed that teachers wer e interested in using computer technology as it help s them in improving the quality of their pronunciation instruction. furthermore, pham and nguyen (2018) investigated teachers' perceptions of using powerpoint ict tool for vocabulary enhancement. they used mixed method study and targeted 60 teachers. their findings revealed that teachers perceive powerpoint as an effective instructional tool and there are no significant differences in their perceptions. with a reference to the four language skills, al-jarrah et al. (2019) explored the perceptions of esl teachers regarding the use of educational mobile applications to help esl elementary school students developing their language skills. using interviews for collecting the data and depending on the qualitative analysis, the findings revealed that the participants have positive perceptions of using educational mobile applications to develop the students' language skills. research in the field of ict use in language learning has emphasized the role of these technologies in enhancing students' communicative competence. for instance, strak'iené and baziukaité (2009) studied the application of ict in drama classes for the purpose of developing students' communicative competence. they carried out a case study on using ict in primary school in lithuania. the study found that ict combined with drama and language has improved the students' communicative competence. moreover, ponguta (2018) explored the use of icts for fostering colombian students' communicative competence. the study was conducted on a gr oup of second level students in a public university in sogamoso, colombia. it adopted action research where the data were collected by using questionnaires, observations and field notes for t he purpose of exploring the students' opinions after the activities they had taken. the study revealed that using icts in classes has positively contributed to the development of the students' communicative competence. particularly, the results explored that icts has fostered the students' oral production, building vocabulary, and motivation to learn and interac t in the target language. on the other study, modhish and al-kadi (2016) investigated the integration of internet in efl college instruction at taiz university. using a survey questionnaire for collecting the data from 20 instructors, the findings showed that internet plays an important role in efl teaching and learning. moreover, the study emphasized the significance of integrating internet in efl teaching and learning for it plays a vital role in enhancing learners' linguistic and communicative competences. gómez and vicente (2011) conducted a study of relational perspective to investigate the correlation between the use of information and communication technologies with students' communicative competence. adopting the quantitative approach using questionnaires for assessing the students' competencies, i.e. technological competence and communicative competence, they carried out the study on 20 students who are native speakers of german and studying spanish as a second language. the findings revealed that a study for six months learning spanish has increased students' competence in the use of ict along with an increase in their communicative competence. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 83 kung (2016) studied whether the development of media literacies leads to promotion of second language (l2) learners' oral communicative competence. the study was conducted on four students enrolled in a conversation class at a university in taipei, taiwan. the data were collected in an online networking environment. it was found that the development of students' media literacies led to facilitating their second language (l2) oral communicative competence. having a close look at the review of these studies discussed above, it can be c oncluded that they have given central emphasis to the influential benefits of icts in the enhancement of communicative competence as a whole without any operationalization of these benefits in rapport with its segmental components. however, the current study utilizes an analytic approach to investigate instructors' perceptions of the ict r ole in developing communicative competence across its different components as proposed in various frameworks. in assisting language learning and developing learners' communicative competence, ict plays an important role. researches in this area have been recorded with some diversity of trends as they can be seen from previous studies which have approached the issue holistically. in short, they investigated the role of ict in enhancing communicative competence as a whole (góm ez & vicente, 2011). however, it seems that the role of ict in developing the components of communicative competence in an analytical approach has not received the due attention of researchers in the field. therefore, this study is oriented to investigate yemeni instructors' perceptions of the role of ict in developing efl students' communicative competence across its different components. with the rapid widespread of technology in the recent decades, efl instructors and students begin paying attention to the uses of ict tools and technology applications in their teaching and english learning. numerous studies also showed that icts tools and technological applications play an effective role in developing language learning and make english learning more interesting and enjoyable (ahmed, 2019; al-jarrah, talafhah, & al-jarrah, 2019; kung, 2016, ponguta, 2018). many studies also reported the positive attitudes of efl instructors on the role of icts in developing students' communicative competence (ahmed, qasem, & pawar (2020); mollaei & riasati, 2013; sulaiman, 2017; zekiye 2018). however, although previous research showed that efl instructors perceived ict positively in developing these aspects such as phonological competence (gilakjani, 2018), lexical competence (pham and nguyen, 2018), and language skills (al-jarrah et al., 2019), there is still a gap in literature concerning how efl instructors perceive icts in developing the four main components of the communicative competence; namely linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. theref ore, this study is focused on filling the gap by providing a scientific study of how the yemeni instructors perceive icts role in developing the various components of the communicative competence and aims at investigating the role of ict in developing the communicative competenc e of efl learners as perceived by yemeni instructors. in line with this general aim, the s t udy addresses the following questions: 1. do efl instructors have positive or negative perceptions on the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence? 2. are there any statistically significant differences in the role of ict in developing efl students' communicative competence elements as perceived by their instructors? 3. are there any statistically significant differences in the role of ict in developing efl students' communicative competence across its components attributed to their instructors' gender? method the sample of the study consisted of 60 yemeni efl instructors. convenience sampling was followed due to different critical circumstances among which is the outbreak of covid-19. in convenience sampling, according to creswell (2012, p.145), "the researcher selects participants because they are willing and available to be studied". the sample included 40 males and 20 females. the distribution of the sample also showed a geographical diversity in terms of the universities where the instructors work. t hus, t he indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 84 sample included respondents from all the different parts of yemen as shown in table 1 below: table 1. the distribution of participant s a mon gst t h e yemeni universities university frequency percentage university of aden 25 41.7 hadhramout university 14 23.3 seiyun university 9 15.0 university of science and technology 2 3.3 hodeidah university 2 3.3 hajjah university 1 1.7 abyan university 3 5.0 ibb university 2 3.3 sana'a university 2 3.3 total 60 100.0 aligned with the research questions of the study, a close-ended questionnaire was constructed to collect the data on the role of ict in the development of efl students’ communicative competence as perceived by yemeni instructors. thus, a questionnaire for efl instructors was designed by the researchers themselves and used for collecting the data. it consisted of five parts where the first one was devoted for collecting demographic data and the other four parts were constructed to survey the instructors' perceptions of the role of ict in developing communicative competence. thus, these four parts of the questionnaire comprised twenty-eight items of five-point likert scale. these five points of the scale were formatted in a continuum of options (from 5 into 1) representing the respondent's degree of agreement or disagreement (5 for strongly agree and 1 for strongly disagree) pertaining to the role of ict. the second part of the questionnaire, including five items, was constructed with the focus on the linguistic competence, whereas the third one, comprising eight items, was concerned with sociocultural competence. the fourth part, consisting of six items, was built to represent the discourse competence, while the fifth one, having nine items, was designed to involve strategic competence at its central concern. all in all, the questionnaire was designed with due attention to the development of efl students' communicative competence as a whole through all its synthesizing components. the process of the questionnaire construction involved different stages. it was initiated by an extensive reading which the researchers made of the proposed models of the communicative competence in order to operationalize the core elements implied in each of the synthesizing competences. then, an in-depth discussion was held among the researchers regarding the element s elicited through the primary reading. during these stages, the first draft of the questionnaire was brought to the forefront. the draft of the questionnaire was then given to four referees w ho are expert in applied linguistics to check its content validity and face validity. their critical views and comments were taken into account regarding the construction of the questionnaire. it was through these stages that the questionnaire was constructed into its final draft. regarding the administration of the questionnaire, it was through the use of an online technology represented by the tool of google forms. thus, it was accessed from this applicat ion and then electronically sent to the respondents. the rationale behind using this online tool is that through the use of google forms, the data can be collected from as many respondents as possible through sharing the questionnaire via many possible platforms such as whatsapp, facebook, email, etc. with this respect, it was also borne in mind that it would be administered and distributed to yemeni instructors across the whole country. results and discussion this study applied quantitative research design with the descriptive analysis. it was particularly oriented towards analysing the numerical data collected by a questionnaire to investigate the perceptions of yemeni efl instructors regarding the role of ict in developing efl learners' communicative competence. as a starting point, the data were coded numerically and then processed through using spss application (version 21). based on the coding scheme of the data, the analysis involved the use of statistical calculations including mean scores and standard deviations. moreover, p-values were also calculated for the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 85 purpose of measuring whether there are statistically differences at the significance level (.05) in the instructors' perceptions. the data analysis targeted the role of ict in t he development of communicative competence as a whole and across its components represented by linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. the representation of these four competences was manipulated on the basis of following an eclectic approach of the different models proposed by theorists in the field of communicative competence (canale and swain, 1980; canale, 1983; bachman, 1990; celce-murcia et al., 1995; usó-juan and martínez-flor, 2006). the rationale behind the focus on these competences was centred on the fact that these were regarded as the comprehensive components where the others shared some kind of overlap. the questionnaire was sent to four efl professors to check its validity to achieve the objectives of the study and the clarity of its items. their comments and suggestions were taken into consideration in drafting the final version of the questionnaire. reliability of the data collection tool was a major condition for reaching findings and conducting a successful study. for this reason, this questionnaire was checked by using cronbach's alpha for its reliability as it was calculated as 0.862 which was considered highly reliable. the f irst question: in this section, the data analysis and the results are presented in line with the research questions. starting with the first research question which was formulated to address whether the instructors have positive or negative perceptions regarding the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence across its components. table 2 below represents the results that address its core requirements as follows: table 2. the role of ict in develo ping students' communicative competence the role of ict in developing: mean standard dev. linguistic competence 4.53 0.35 sociocultural competence 4.63 0.10 discourse competence 4.22 0.21 strategic competence 4.57 0.25 table 2 shows that efl instructors have positive perceptions on the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence. the instructors reflected very high perceptions in the role of ict tools in enhancing their students' components of communicative competence. all the mean scores were rated as 4.63 for sociocultural competence, 4.57 for strategic competence, 4.53 for linguistic competence, and 4.22 for discourse competence. the second question: as far as the second research question is concerned, table 3 repres ent s the results that address its requirements as it was formulated to search whether there are any statistically significant differences at the .05 level in instructors' perceptions of the ict role in developing students' communicative competence across its components. these results are represented in table 3: table 3. anova f test sum of squares df mean square f sig. the role of ict in developing efl learners' linguistic competence between groups .086 2 .043 .156 .856 within groups 15.648 57 .275 total 15.733 59 the role of ict in developing efl learners' sociocultural competence between groups .777 2 .388 1.524 .227 within groups 14.531 57 .255 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 86 total 15.308 59 the role of ict in developing efl learners' discourse competence between groups 3.581 2 1.791 2.690 .076 within groups 37.936 57 .666 total 41.517 59 the role of ict in developing efl learners' strategic competence between groups .668 2 .334 1.316 .276 within groups 14.472 57 .254 total 15.140 59 table 3 shows that anova f test was us ed t o compare the mean squares of the four competences. the sig. values are represented as .856 for linguistic competence, .227 for sociocultural competence, .076 for discourse competence, and 276 for strategic competence. all the sig. values are higher than .05 which means there is no any statistically significant differences in the efl instructors' perceptions on the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence across its elements. the third question: regarding the third research question which was formulated to address whether there are statistically significant differences in the instructors' perceptions on the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence across its components that can be attributed to gender. levene’s test for equality of variances was used to check the sample homogeneity. according to the table 4, three components of communicative competence are represented homogenously between the groups of males and females because the sig. values are higher than .05. i.e., .448, . 674, .431, except the third component which shows that the sample is not homogenous because sig. value is .030, so the t value for equal variance which is not assumed is used instead which means no sign value also .847. table 4. levene's test for equality of variances f sig t the role of (ict) in developing efl equal variances assumed .582 .448 .07 0 learners' linguistic competence equal variances not assumed .06 3 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' sociocultural competence equal variances assumed .179 .674 .31 1 equal variances not assumed .32 5 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' discourse competence equal variances assumed 4.94 1 .030 .75 9 equal variances not assumed .84 7 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' strategic competence equal variances assumed .630 .431 .43 7 equal variances not assumed .43 3 table 5 shows that t-test for equality of means was used to calculate whether there are any statistically significant differences in the perceptions of efl instructors on the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence across its four components at t r ibut ed to gender. the table shows that there are no any statistically significant differences between the opinions of males and females regarding the role of ict in developing students' communicative competence components as the sig. (2-tailed) values were .944, .757, .451, & .663 which were higher than .05. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 87 discussion as per the result of this study, the yemen efl instructors held positive perceptions of the icts role in developing students' communicative competence in english. it can be used as a suppor t to those studies appealing for the use of icts in language learning for its effective role in developing students' communicative competence. these findings are in line with gómez and vicent e (2011) in terms of ict role in developing students ' communicative competence, ahmed et al. (2020) in terms of teachers' perceptions of icts role in enhancing english learning, al-jarrah, et al. (2019) in terms of developing language skills, pham and nguyen (2018) in terms of enhancing lexical competence, gilakjani (2018) in terms of improving phonological competence. as previous studies dealt with teachers' perceptions of i cts in developing language skills and some elements of the communicative competences, especially those under linguistic competence, as well as making language learning more effective and enjoyable, this study has delved into the details of communicative competence, provided evidence from the yemeni instructors’ viewpoints and experience that icts play a crucial role in developing the various aspects of students' communicative competence in english. the study also revealed that no statistically significant differences in the instructors’ perceptions of the role that icts play in developing each component of the communicative competence which means that the concerned instructors perceive icts role is crucial and effective in developing all the four major components of the communicative competence, namely: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences. table 5. independent sample test gender n mean. si g. (2 tai le d) mean differ ence std. error differ ence 95% confidence interval of the difference low er upper the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' linguistic competence male 40 4.5300 9. 44 .010 00 .142 63 .295 50 .275 50 femal e 20 4.5400 .9 51 .010 00 .159 84 .337 00 .317 00 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' sociocultural competence male 40 4.6188 7. 57 .043 75 .140 58 .325 15 .237 65 femal e 20 4.6625 .7 46 .043 75 .134 45 .314 90 .227 40 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 88 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' discourse competence male 40 4.1583 4. 51 .175 00 .230 56 .636 51 .286 51 femal e 20 4.3333 .4 01 .175 00 .206 68 .590 01 .240 01 the role of (ict) in developing efl learners' strategic competence male 40 4.5944 6. 63 .061 11 .139 69 .218 51 .340 73 femal e 20 4.5333 .6 67 .061 11 .140 98 .224 50 .346 72 as far as the instructors’ perceptions of the role of icts in developing communicative competenc e in relation to their gender are concerned, the st udy shows no statistically significant differences that can be attributed to gender. this finding supports other studies conducted in this field such as ahmed et al. (2020), mollaei & riasati (2013) and zekiye (2018). on the other hand, it contrasts other studies that proved an influential role for gender in shaping instructors’ perceptions of icts in language teaching such as sulaiman’s (2017). conclusion this study delved into yemeni instructors' perceptions on the role of icts in developing students' communicative competence, focusing on its major components: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences. the study revealed high positive perceptions of instructors on the role of icts in developing students' communicative competence and reported that there are no statistically significant differences in the instructors' perceptions on the role of icts ac r oss the components of communicative competence. moreover, the study found that there are no any statistically significant differences in the role of icts in developing students' communicative competence attributed to gender. this study contributes to the communicative competence and icts literature and encourages upcoming researchers to explore the implementation of i ct s in enhancing students' communicative competence. this study has some limitations as it only pertained the yemeni instructors and did not touc h students' perceptions of icts role in developing their communicative competence. however, its results can be high value for both efl teachers and students in yemen and arab. moreover, the study used only the questionnaire as a data collection tool. the findings reported the instructors' perceptions on the effective role played by icts in developing students' communicative competence in english. it is hereby suggested for efl instructors to operationalize their positive perceptions on helping their students on ways to use icts for developing students' communicative competence. further studies are also recommended in yemeni and arab contexts to investigate students' perceptions of icts in developing their communicative competence. it is also strongly recommended to conduct experimental studies to assess the actual role that ict tools play in developing the various aspects of the communicative competence. references ahmed, s. t. s. 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(2017). prospects, benefits, challenges and constraints to the integration of information and communication technologies (ict) in english language teaching/learning. international journal of english language, literature and translation studies, 4(2), 249-255. strakiené, g. & baziukaité, d. (2009). integration of ict, drama, and language for development of children's communicative competence: case study in a primary school. informatics in education, 8(2), 281-294. sulaiman, o. i. (2017). the attitudes of english teachers toward educational technology in teaching english and their relation to the degree of its utilizatio n in primary schools in the governorate of baghdad. unpublished m.a. thesis. middle east university. jordan. taillefer, l. (2018). a business english course in the digital era: design and analysis. in r. muñozluna and l taillefer (eds). integrating information and communication tec hno log ie s i n english for specific purposes. (pp. 165-182). switzerland: springer international publishing, ag. usó-juan, e. & martínez-flor, a. (2006). approaches to language learning and teaching: towards acquiring communicative competence through th e four skills. in e. usó-juan & a. martínez-flor (eds). current trends in the development and teaching of the four sk ills (pp. 3-25). berlin and new york: mouton de gruyter. zekiye, ö. z. e. r. (2018). an investigation of prospective elt teachers' attitudes towards u sin g computer technologies in foreign language teaching. dil ve dilbilimi çalışmaları dergisi, 14(1), 328-34 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 l2 learners’ vocabulary development in incidental/intentional learning conditions: role of personality types mahmood hashemian english department, faculty of letters & humanities, shahrekord university, iran email: hashemin-m@sku.ac.ir apa citation: hashemian, m. (2020). l2 learners’ vocabulary development in incidental/intentional learning conditions: role of personality types. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(1), 27-36. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v3i1.3005. received: 02-02-2020 accepted: 11-03-2020 published: 01-04-2020 abstract: this study investigated the effect of incidental/intentional learning and the effect of personality types on participants’ vocabulary learning. the sample involved 69 l2 learners. after completing a vocabulary test, they were placed into 2 groups. both groups had to read 3 texts, with only the intentional group being informed about an upcoming posttest. some vocabulary activities were provided for the intentional participants, drawing their attention to word meanings. the incidental group, however, was required to answer some comprehension questions. the posttest and myers-briggs type indicator were administered after the treatment. results revealed that the intentional group outperformed the incidental one. the only personality dimension found to influence vocabulary learning was extroversion/introversion. it can be suggested that the intention to learn can encourage l2 learners to attend to the meanings of the words. moreover, the introverts were believed to have higher concentration and problem-solving ability. results can help l2 teachers reach a better understanding of vocabulary learning. also, an awareness of l2 learners’ individual differences can help teachers adjust their classes and adopt their materials accordingly. keywords: incidental vocabulary learning; intentional vocabulary learning; personality types. introduction learning vocabulary has always been one of the challenges facing l2 learners and is considered as a troublesome task by both l2 learners and teachers. as pointed out by schmitt (2008), it is no doubt that learning vocabulary is essential for language mastery. therefore, vocabulary learning plays a vital role in l2 learning. however, until recently, vocabulary learning had received little attention (wu, 2009). even in the communicative approach, the focus is on the communicative functions and the knowledge of lexicon comes next. in recent years, there has been an increasing number of studies on vocabulary learning (e.g., li, 2013; marashi & azarmi, 2012; nassaji, 2004). researchers have investigated different ways and techniques of teaching and learning vocabulary (lee, 2003; thornbury, 2003), including incidental and intentional learning. incidental and intentional learning are twolearning modes investigated in several studies (e.g., moradian fard, 2005; yali, 2010). incidental learning can be defined as “the type of learning that is the byproduct of doing or learning something else,” whereas intentional learning is defined as “being designed, planned for, or intended by teacher or student” (hatch & brown, 1995, p. 368). so far, there is still doubt regarding which type of learning is more effective. the present study was an attempt to further clarify the issue and contribute to the literature. personality is another issue that has been addressed in this study. recent research in the field of language learning has shown that l2 learners bring different learning styles and personality traits with themselves to the classroom and that individual differences can affect their academic achievement and language learning (e.g., carrell, prince, & astika, 1996; dewaele & furnham, 2000; qomarudin, 2010). pervin and john (2001) define personality as an individual’s characteristics that “account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving” (p. 4). there are inconsistencies in the findings of studies conducted on the role of personality, indicating a need to further examine the matter. therefore, the present study sought to answer three questions: 1. do incidental and intentional learning conditions affect l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test? 2. do personality types, as determined by mbti, have an impact on l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test? mailto:hashemin-m@sku.ac.ir mahmood hashemian l2 learners' vocabulary development in incidental/international learning conditions: role of personality type 28 3. do personality types, as determined by mbti, moderate the effect of the two types of learning conditions (i.e., incidental and intentional) on l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test? there are two popular views on what it means to learn a language—one holding that it involves years of intentional study and committing thousands of words and dozens of grammar rules to memory deliberately, and another view holding that much of the burden of intentional learning can be removed through incidental learning, in which the learner’s attention is focused on the meaning rather than on the form. the concept of incidental and intentional learning was mainly considered as a methodological aspect of research design when it first appeared in psychology and, later in sla, referred to “the presence or absence of an explicit instruction to learn” (hulstijn, 2003, p. 354). hulstijn (2005) has offered operational definitions for these two types of learning. according to him, in intentional learning mode, before a learning task, participants are forewarned that they will be tested afterward on their retention of a particular type of information. in incidental learning mode, however, they are not informed of such a test. in a study in 1981, shelton and newhouse found out that the learners who were exposed to the stimulus material in an incidental learning situation performed significantly better in a subsequent recall test than those who were simply instructed to learn the same material. in another attempt to explore the issue of incidental and intentional learning, moradian fard (2005) divided the participants into two groups. the members of the experimental group were required to read eight short stories, containing 40 target word, during 10-15 min of each class session. the control group was not given any treatment and only read a list of target words out of context. both groups were administered a posttest of the same words. according to the results, the experimental group outperformed the control group, indicating superiority for incidental learning. yan (2006), however, emphasized the same view konopak et al. presented in 1987. the participants were divided into two groups and each received one of the two treatments: learning vocabulary incidentally through reading and memorizing words in wordlists. the intentional learning helped the learners to learn more words in both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge; the incidental learning, however, resulted in better retention rates. in barcroft’s study (2009), however, the intentional group performed better on the posttest. both intentional and incidental groups were required to read an english passage containing 10 target words translated in the text. vocabulary recall was higher when explicit instructions to learn new words were provided. these findings are in line with marashi and azarmi (2012) and li (2013) who found out that intentional learning condition led to significantly higher retention than incidental learning mode. personality it is believed that having a deeper understanding of the concept of personality type can help to explain why l2 learners learn differently (wilz, 2000). in order to better understand individuals’ personalities, several questionnaires and inventories have been designed, including eysenck personality types and myers-briggs type indicator (mbti; eysenck & eysenck, 1964; myers, 1962). being the most widely used inventory, mbti originates from jung’s (1990) theory of psychological types. jung, a swiss psychiatrist, developed a holistic framework for explaining psychological differences among people and proposed sets of opposite preferences: extroversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, and feeling/thinking. later, briggs myers and cook brigs added another dimension to jung’s theory, namely judging/perceiving. different studies have been conducted on the effect of personality types on language learning, the results of which are inconsistent. in 1978, naiman frohlich, stern, and todesco carried out a study on personality variables and language learning, showing no correlation between extroversion and language test scores. his findings were quoted for two decades, but they were never challenged. myers and mccaulley (1985), however, found out a difference between extroverts’ and introverts’ learning preferences. according to them, extroverts prefer learning situations that involve social interaction and inductive approaches, whereas introverts tend to prefer learning situations in which they are alone or in small groups. myers and mccaulley (1985), however, found out a difference between extroverts’ and introverts’ learning preferences. according to them, extroverts prefer learning situations that involve social interaction and inductive indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 approaches, whereas introverts tend to prefer learning situations in which they are alone or in small groups. in 1998, grace conducted a study on the effect of personality on l2 learners’ vocabulary learning in ambiguous and nonambiguous contexts. as revealed by the results, the learners’ personality types made no difference in their vocabulary learning. marefat (2006) conducted a study aimed at investigating the effect personality might have on writing ability. mbti was employed to assess the learners’ personality types. according to the results, the only dimension showing significant impact was sensing/intuition. it was revealed that the intuitive learners outperformed sensors in their writing skills. in 2012, mansouri nejad, bijami, and ahmadi examined 30 l2 university students’ writing ability and its relationship with extroversion/introversion. they found no significant correlation between personality and writing skill. as illustrated above, research on personality types has been inconsistent and incongruent. therefore, more empirical studies are necessary to find more conclusive results. method a total of 91 intermediate iranian l2 learners, attending different english institutes in shahrekord (iran), were selected and required to take a standardized 300 d test of the nelson english language tests (fowler & coe, 1976) in an attempt to ensure their homogeneity in terms of their proficiency. afterwards, 69 learners who scored between 1 standard deviation below and above mean, consisting of 59 females and 10 males, were selected and divided into two experimental groups: incidental and intentional. the materials included the nelson english language proficiency test, a pretest, a posttest, three reading comprehension texts accompanied by related activities, and mbti. the first test employed was the nelson english language proficiency test in order to ensure the participants’ homogeneity in terms of language proficiency. this test includes 50 items, consisting of a cloze passage and multiple-choice items focusing on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. it took, at most, 45 min to administer the test, after which the scores were calculated. then, 69 learners were selected as the main participants. the second instrument was a 25-item multiple-choice vocabulary test designed by the researchers to examine the participants’ knowledge of the target words. the original test contained 30 items, testing the target words and six extra words. however, five items were removed after test validation. the test consisted of two parts: the first part requiring the respondents to fill in the blanks by choosing the best word that completes the sentence and the second part requiring them to choose the word that was closest in meaning to the underlined word. this test underwent expert judgment before administering. then, the validity and reliability of the test were measured, which will be elaborated on in the following. moreover, a parallel test was designed to measure the participants’ knowledge of the target words after the study. this test underwent expert judgment and a pilot study. as the result of the pilot study, the validity and reliability of the test were computed. as a result of validation, four items were removed from the posttest. one more item, which was not needed anymore, was deleted in order that it would be parallel to the pretest. four texts were selected from the book active skills for reading: book 1 (anderson, 2009) to be employed in the study, one of which was later removed after the pilot study. the titles of the three texts were the world oldest university, how do you celebrate, and internet hoaxes. the texts were presented to the participants. each text was accompanied by some activities. the participants in the incidental group were required to answer some comprehension questions, so their attention would be focused on the content of the texts. they were not informed about an upcoming test. the participants in the intentional group, however, were warned about the posttest, so they would focus on learning the target words. they were also required to perform vocabulary activities, focusing their attention on the words. in the last session, the posttest was administered to all the participants. the last instrument was the translated version of mbti employed to determine the participants’ personality types. mbti assesses individuals’ personality according to four categories: (1) extroversion vs. introversion, (2) sensing vs. intuition, (3) thinking vs. feeling, and (4) judging vs. perceiving. the instrument consists of 94 items, requiring the respondents to choose between two or three choices. the participants had to select the choices according to their preference toward the items. it should be mahmood hashemian l2 learners' vocabulary development in incidental/international learning conditions: role of personality type 30 mentioned that the reliability of mbti is reported to be .82 for introversion/extroversion, .84 for sensing/intuition, .83 for thinking/feeling, and .86 for judging/perceiving (woosley, 2001). in order to explore the first research question, the participants were placed into two groups. each group was assigned a different task, providing an appropriate condition for either incidental or intentional vocabulary learning. during the first session of the study, all the participants completed a pretest, taking about 15 min. the test was specifically designed by the researchers in order to check the participants’ knowledge of the target words. one week later, the first text was presented to the participants. the meanings of the words were offered to the participants in a marginal l2 gloss. the aim of the glossing was to help the participants understand the meanings of the unfamiliar words without needing to ask or look up in a dictionary and avoid any interruption in the process of reading. the participants in the incidental group were required to read the text and answer some questions, testing their comprehension of the text and drawing their attentions to its content. following hulstijn’s (2005) operationalization of incidental and intentional learning, the participants were not informed about the posttest. the participants in the intentional group, on the other hand, were required to do tasks which provided them with an intentional learning condition. for this purpose, the target words were in bold in the text. we warned the participants about an upcoming test on the bold-faced words. moreover, the text was accompanied by vocabulary activities. there were two forms of activities: one requiring the participants to complete sentences with appropriate words and one asking them to match the words with their definitions. the same procedure was done with the second and the third texts in the following sessions. immediately after the last text, the posttest and mbti were administered to all the participants. results and discussion after the experiment, the data obtained from the pretest, the posttest, and the mbti were fed into the spss program and several analyses of covariance (ancova) were run to examine the research questions (see table 1). table 1. analyses of covariance summary for first research question source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared group 25.626 1 25.626 11.455 .001 .163 extroversion/ introversion 13.985 1 13.985 5.745 .020 .089 sensing/intuition 9.634 1 9.634 3.841 .055 .061 thinking/feeling .178 1 .178 .067 .797 .001 judging/perceiving 6.287 1 6.287 2.451 .123 .040 group * extroversion/introversion 1.614 1 1.614 .815 .371 .014 group * sensing/intuitive .023 1 .023 .010 .921 .000 group * thinking/feeling 1.629 1 1.629 .724 .398 .013 group * judging/perceiving 1.855 1 1.855 .836 .364 .014 in order to explore the first hypothesis and to see the probable effect of the treatment, a oneway between-groups ancova was conducted (see table 1). the type of learning condition (i.e., incidental vs. intentional) was the independent variable and the scores on the posttest were the dependent variable. the scores on the pretest were also considered as the covariate to control for individual differences. prior to the analysis, the necessary assumptions were checked to ensure that there was no violation of necessary assumptions. the significance value for the levene’s test of equality of error variances was larger than .05, indicating that the assumption of equality of variances was not violated. the results of ancova indicated that after adjusting for pretest scores, there was a significant difference between the two types of learning (p=.001), revealing that the intentional group outperformed the incidental one. table 2 offers adjusted means for the two groups, respectively. the results of ancova are presented in table 1. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 table 2. estimated marginal means for incidental and intentional groups group n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental 32 8.759 a .266 8.228 9.290 intentional 30 10.057 a .274 9.508 10.606 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretest = 3.774. the results indicate superiority for the intentional learning condition. therefore, the null hypothesis below is rejected: h01: incidental and intentional learning conditions affect l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test. the purpose of the second research question was to explore the (probable) impact of different personality types on vocabulary learning, in general, without considering the effect of the incidental and intentional learning conditions. in order to do so, four ancovas were conducted to assess each dimension of personality. the following tables show the results of these statistical analyses. first, a one-way ancova was run to compare the extroverted and introverted participants in terms of their posttest scores. prior to the analysis, the necessary assumptions were checked. table 3 show adjusted means for the two personality types. as depicted in table 3, the numbers of the extroverts and introverts are 42 and 20. table 1 reveals that significant value is .020, which indicates the second null hypothesis related to the second question is rejected. therefore, it can be suggested that extroversion and introversion are influencing factors in vocabulary learning. table 3. estimated marginal means for extroverted and introverted groups group n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental 42 9.048 a .244 8.561 9.535 intentional 20 10.100 a .357 9.385 10.814 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.774. the purpose of the second analysis was to investigate the influence of sensing and intuition types on learning vocabulary. after checking the necessary assumptions, ancova was run, the results of which revealed that no significant difference was found between sensing and intuitive learners on their posttest scores (p = .055). as shown in table 4, the numbers of sensing and intuitive participants are 24 and 38, respectively, and the adjusted means for sensing the two personality types are 9.883 and 9.0. table 4. estimated marginal means for sensing and intuitive groups group n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental 26 9.883a .323 9.236 10.530 intentional 38 9.074a .257 8.560 9.588 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742. the next ancova aimed at comparing the thinking and feeling participants in terms of their vocabulary learning. table 5 shows that the number of the thinking and feeling participants are 34 and 28, respectively. according to the results of ancova, there was no significant difference between the two personality types (p = .797), suggesting that this personality distinction does not influence vocabulary learning. the adjusted mean scores for the thinking and feeling participants are 9.338 and 9.446, respectively: table 5. estimated marginal means for thinking and feeling group group n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental 34 9.338a .281 8.777 9.900 intentional 28 9.446a .309 8.827 10.065 mahmood hashemian l2 learners' vocabulary development in incidental/international learning conditions: role of personality type 32 the last analysis for the second hypothesis considered the judging-perceiving distinctions. the results of ancova (p = .123) indicated no significant difference between the judging and perceiving participants in terms of their posttest scores. as revealed in table 6, of the participants, 46 are judgers and 16 are perceivers and the adjusted means for judgers and perceivers are 9.576 and 8.845, respectively: table 6. estimated marginal means for judging and perceiving group a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742. as revealed by the results of the above statistical analyses, the null hypothesis below was rejected with regard to the extroversionintroversion distinction: h02: personality types, as determined by mbti, do not have an impact on l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test. the third research question aimed at investigating the interaction between personality and incidental/intentional vocabulary learning. in order to investigate the influence of personality types on the effectiveness of these two types of learning, four two-way ancovas were run in spss. the dependent variable was the posttest scores and the independent ones were personality types and the type of learning condition. the pretest scores were used as the covariate in this analysis. first, a two-by-two between-groups ancova was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the two learning conditions for the introverted and extroverted participants. as shown in table 4.1, the interaction effect (p = .371) was not significant, suggesting that introverts and extroverts do not respond differently to incidental and intentional learning conditions. the adjusted means and the number of the introverts and extroverts in each group are presented in table 7. table 7. estimated marginal means for third research question—extroversion vs. introversion a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742. afterwards, another two-way ancova was run to examine whether the sensing and intuitive participants respond differently to incidental and intentional learning conditions. the results of the analysis revealed a nonsignificant interaction effect (p = .921). therefore, being sensing or intuitive had not affected the posttest scores obtained by the participants in the incidental and intentional groups. table 8 presents the adjusted means for each personality type in each group. table 8. estimated marginal means for third research question—sensing vs. intuition a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742. group n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental 46 9.576a .236 9.103 10.049 intentional 16 8.845a .402 8.041 9.649 group type n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental extroverted 21 8.457a .318 7.820 9.094 introverted 11 9.292a .433 8.425 10.160 intentional extroverted 21 9.611a .307 8.996 10.227 introverted 9 11.150a .472 10.205 12.095 group type n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental sensing 5 8.990a .687 7.615 10.364 intuitive 27 8.716a .296 8.123 9.310 intentional sensing 19 10.122a .349 9.423 10.820 intuitive 11 9.945a .470 9.005 10.886 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 another ancova was carried out regarding the thinking-feeling dimension. the interaction effect was not significant (p = .398), indicating that the thinking and feeling participants did not respond differently to the two types of learning conditions. table 9 reveals the adjusted means for each personality type in each group. table 9. estimated marginal means for third research question—thinking vs. feeling group type n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental thinking 23 8.979a .318 8.342 9.615 feeling 9 8.218a .503 7.211 9.225 intentional thinking 11 10.081a .458 9.165 10.998 feeling 19 10.034a .344 9.344 10.723 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742. the last analysis aimed at assessing the influence of judging and perceiving on the effectiveness of the incidental and intentional learning. the results of the analysis indicated a nonsignificant interaction effect (p = .158). table 10 shows the adjusted means for the perceiving and judging participants in each group. table 10. estimated marginal means for third research question—judging vs. perceiving group type n mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound incidental judging 22 8.830a .318 8.194 9.466 perceiving 10 8.600a .476 7.648 9.553 intentional judging 24 10.266a .305 9.655 10.877 perceiving 6 9.225a .609 8.006 10.443 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretotalchanged2 = 3.7742 the four statistical analyses indicated that the fourth hypothesis was not rejected: h03: personality types, as determined by mbti, do not moderate the effect of the two types of learning conditions (i.e., incidental and intentional) on l2 learners’ performance on a vocabulary test. results and discussion the findings of this study, indicating superiority for the intentional participants, are in line with previous studies conducted by konopak et al. (1987), barcroft (2009), marashi and azarmi (2012), li (2013), and many other studies conducted in this regard. marashi and azarmi (2012) claimed that the superiority of the intentional learning mode was due to the deeper mental analysis of the words, which result in a better retention. they suggest that l2 learners exposed to an intentional learning condition perform better than those who are not encouraged to undergo such mental analyses. the significant gain of words in intentional learning can also be attributed to attention. the intentional group paid conscious attention to the words and their meanings, whereas the incidental participants’ conscious attention was directed on the content of the texts. in his input hypothesis, krashen (1989) argues that focusing attention on meaning is the necessary and sufficient condition for acquisition to occur. however, some researchers like ellis (1995) and robinson (1995) argue against this view and claim that attention to both meaning and form is required for vocabulary learning. the findings of the present study indicate that directing attention to meaning is hardly enough to learn the words in a single exposure. moreover, the participants in the incidental group may have focused their attention on the texts and have paid no or only peripheral attention to the meanings of the words. moreover, they may have disregarded the unfamiliar words entirely when they did not need them to comprehend the texts. therefore, some of the target words may have gone unnoticed. moradian fard conducted a study in 2005, the results of which were contrary to the findings of the present study. she argued that the incidental learning mode was more effective and helped the learners gain more words. however, she operationalized the intentional learning condition in a different manner than the one in the current mahmood hashemian l2 learners' vocabulary development in incidental/international learning conditions: role of personality type 34 study. the intentional group in moradian fard’s study had to read a list of target words and their l1 equivalents. the superiority of incidental learning could be attributed to the fact that the participants in the intentional group learned the words out of context. the second and third research questions examined the effect of personality types on the participants’ scores on the posttest. according to the results, extroversion/introversion was the only dimension which was found to have an impact on the participants’ test scores, without taking into account the learning modes. in both groups, the introverts managed to outperform the extroverts. this finding concurs with those studies by ehrman (1994), carrell et al. (1996), kiany (1997), and machnicka (2010), claiming the introverts to be better l2 learners. these studies have suggested that introverts have an advantage over extroverts with respect to learning, in general, and vocabulary, in particular. introverts possess a better concentration ability and are able to code new information more efficiently, leading them to a higher academic performance (machnicka, 2010). on the other hand, extroverts tend to act quickly and hastily and tend to be impulsive at solving problems, talkative, and distracted, which makes them more likely to achieve a lower academic achievement (hakimi, hejazi, & gholamali lavasani, 2011). these findings seem to be at odds with those studies which claimed that the extroverts were more successful than their introvert counterparts (e.g., dewaele & furnham, 2000; ghapanchi, khajavy, & asadpour, 2011; qomarudin, 2010). these researchers, as well as many others, concluded that extroversion is positively correlated with learning and suggested that extroverts are considered to be more proficient l2 learners. however, one point to consider is that most of these studies have examined the relationship between extroversion and l2 learners’ oral skills and proficiency. it has been stated in the literature that extroverts are sociable and open to new experiences, have a greater ability to deal with stressful situations, and possess better short-term memory in comparison with introverts (dewaele & furnham, 2000; ghapanchi et al., 2011). these characteristics cause extroverts to develop higher proficiency and perform better than introverts in situations which require face-to-face interactions. introverts, on the other hand, prefer situations with less pressure and stress. moreover, they are naturally good at long-term memory (hosseini naveh, kaipour, & soltani, 2011) and are able to concentrate their resources on a subtask (dewaele & furnham, 2000). introverts, however, perform more efficiently in tasks which require concentration and ability to analyze and solve problems. in such tasks, such as written activities, l2 learners do not have to act on the spur of the moment and have more time to retrieve information from their long-term memory. as a result, due to these facts, the tasks in the present study were more effective for the introverted participants than the extroverted ones. conclusion learning vocabulary in an l2 is a long and difficult process; therefore, improving vocabulary learning and teaching techniques should be a high priority issue in every l2 course. the present study was an attempt to examine the effectiveness of incidental and intentional vocabulary learning. the results indicated superiority for the intentional participants. as to the pedagogical implications of the findings, teachers and curriculum designers should provide opportunities for l2 learners to notice unfamiliar words and practice them in different activities. the other variable investigated in this study was personality. due to the fact that people with varying personality types perceive the world and interpret it in different ways, they may respond to the same situation differently. therefore, personality traits are believed to influence how people learn and what they learn (myres & myres, 1980). personality types are another variable explored in this study. the only significant difference was found between the extroverts and the introverts in learning the target words. although extroverts are believed to be more proficient learners, introverts have higher concentration and problem-solving ability and act more successfully on activities which offer more time to retrieve information from their long-term memory and to analyze received information. the present study could not take into considerations all the possible influencing variables and could not involve all aspects of vocabulary learning and personality. therefore, it is recommended that further research be conducted in order to cover other aspects as well as to examine and cross-check the results of the current study. future research can replicate the current research in order to examine the findings obtained indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 in the present study. however, it can involve a larger sample of l2 learners to check the generalizability of the results. moreover, the sample in this study consisted of l2 learners studying english at the intermediate level in language institutes. in order to broaden the scope of this study, further research can be conducted involving non-english language learning classes and learners of different proficiency levels. this study was an attempt to shed some light on intentional and incidental vocabulary learning and the effect of personality on these two learning modes; however, it was not devoid of limitations. the lack of time in language institutes hindered the researchers to increase the number of sessions, restricting the treatment to three texts only. future research can consider investigating the same questions and employing the same procedure with more texts and activities. in l2 research, input has been considered to be effective and helpful in l2 learning and in language programs. as the present study provided the participants with written input, other researchers can consider using oral input, which has been emphasized in recent research. in addition to input, output can be of crucial importance in making conclusions from the results. additionally, the participants were tested on their receptive knowledge, which is their ability to retain word meaning. in order to investigate l2 learners’ productive knowledge, they can be required to produce output through sentencemaking tasks or writing compositions. future research can consider the inclusion of different vocabulary learning techniques/approaches and examine their effectiveness in helping l2 learners overcome the challenge of dealing with a large number of unfamiliar vocabularies in any language. another direction for future research may involve different personality inventories, such as eysenck personality questionnaire (eysenck & eysenck, 1964), as well as other aspects of individual differences, including motivation, anxiety, language aptitude, language learning strategies, and so forth. this section was an attempt to suggest ideas for future studies to those researchers who are interested in l2 learning and applied linguistics. however, given the complexity of vocabulary learning and personality types, there is no end to the potential research that could be conducted in these areas in future. the findings of this study suggest that l2 teachers should be aware of different personality types and different teaching techniques that are most appropriate for each. it is advisable that l2 teachers adjust their classroom program in a way that involves a variety of teaching approaches and different types of tasks. they should inform l2 learners about their own personality and encourage them to utilize various learning strategies which are most appropriate for them. references alemi, m., & tayebi, a. 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(2006). effects of the incidental and intentional learning on vocabulary retention. unpublished master’s thesis, guangdong university of foreign studies, china. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 computer teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state aderonke kofo soetan department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: akdof2015@gmail.com amos ochayi onojah department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: haymoresonojah@gmail.com adenike janet aderogba department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com omotayo olabo obielodan department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: tayoobielodan@unilorin.edu.ng olanrewaju sulaimon ganiyu department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: ganiyuos@gmail.com micheal ayodele fakomogbon department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. e-mail: dele@unilorin.edu.ng apa citation: soetan, a. k., onojah, a. o., aderogba, a. j., obielodan, o. o., ganiyu, o. s.,& fakomogbon, m. a. (2020). computer teachers' awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(1), 1-10. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v3i1.3002. received: 25-01-2020 accepted: 21-03-2020 published: 01-04-2020 abstract: virtual reality is an emerging technology designed to provide interaction between a user and artificially generated environments. however, most teachers in nigeria are not aware of how virtual reality can be widely used for educational purposes. the study investigated (i) awareness of teachers towards the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose and influence of gender and experience on teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. 360 computer teachers were sampled from secondary schools across kwara state with the use of researchsdeveloped questionnaire. the findings established that virtual bicycle and 3d map world are the virtual reality facilities which most respondents are of aware for instructional purpose; and there was no significant difference between teachers’ awareness of vr for instructional purpose based on gender and experience. it was thus recommended that seminars and training could also be organised for teachers on how to use vr to facilitate their teaching in and outside the classroom environment. keywords: awareness; computer teachers; virtual reality; gender; experience; instructional purposes. introduction the impact of information and communication technologies (ict) on education is gaining its popularity across all sectors including the educational system. in order to fulfill the vision 2020 of nigeria, the educational system has to be transformed and driven by ict because the use of ict to facilitate the educational process saves time, money and energy. information and communication technology (ict) and information technology (it) can be used interchangeably. information can be seen as "idea" conceived in the human mind, while communication is the transfer of that information from the original source to the destination where it is needed with the intention to producing a change in behavior of the receiver (adekomi, 2014). thus, ict is becoming increasingly influential factor that could facilitate and speed up the transformation expected in education. ict is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer, and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well mailto:temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com mailto:tayoobielodan@unilorin.edu.ng mailto:ganiyuos@gmail.com aderonke kofo soetan, amos ochayi onojah, omotayo janet aderogba, omotayo olabo obielodan, olanrewaju sulaimon ganiyu, & micheal ayodele fakomogbon computer teachers' awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state 2 as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning (bhattacharya & sharma, 2017). the need for technological innovation has brought a revolution in development of technological application in education. this has contributed to the development of educational systems. educators are fast realizing that the use of computer assisted teaching and learning could be convenient for the users (ebrahimi, 2016). the growth of technologies is based on world’s development in all aspects. as a result, the need for the use of information communication technologies (ict) in teaching/learning is inevitable (idrus & salleh, 2017). the benefits of ict being nature-protecting, non-polluting, less energy consumption and above all, more human-friendly, it is applications are becoming indispensable parts of contemporary culture, spreading across the globe through general and vocational education (ogunlade, olafare, & udom, 2013). ict refers to computer centred tool adopted by individual to meet information processing need of an organization. ict incorporate facilities such as radio, video, television, computers, hardware and firmware, as well as approaches, practices, procedures, concepts and principles that are used in the conduct of information and communication activities as well as imparting knowledge to the learners. similarly, ict functions as a change agent on learning process, it impacted on place ‘when’ and ‘where’ to learn, improve quality of education and enhanced educational management (kaur, 2015). ict is all kinds of electronic systems that are used for broadcasting, telecommunications, all forms of computer mediated communication and can be used to make teaching and learning more effective (bridget & comfort, 2016). dede, salzman, & loftin, (2013) stated that vr is a technology designed to provide interaction between a user and artificially generated environments. this interaction is more natural, direct, or real than pure simulation technologies or other previous technologies. the major target of vr is involving the user in the artificial environment, in order to invent the fantasy of being in an environment that can be comprehended as a realistic place with sufficient interactivity to carry out tasks in a proficient and comfortable way. there are two main stilts that illustrate the vr experience from the physical and psychological point of view: immersion and presence. vr allows leaners to acquire knowledge and skills outside the four walls of their classroom without them really feeling the gap of not be in the conventional classroom system. virtual reality is a devise used to enable people to deal with information more easily. it provides a different way to see and experience information beside being used as a tool for model building and to enhance problem solving skills (lee & wong, 2016). vr is described as a cutting-edge technology that allows learners to step through the computer screen into a 3-d interactive environment. generally, there are two major types based on the level of interaction and immersive environment. the first category, known as immersive vr, is based on helmet mounted or immersive display technologies. the second category, nonimmersive vr, or, sometimes, desktop vr, presents images on a normal monitor and allows the user to interact with the computer-generated images. the reason for using this type of technology is the that the users can simulate any aspect of the real world and experiment safely as the digital prototypes do not pose any hazard. vr environments offer the capacity of limitless repetitions for training purposes and they are nondistractive, time and cost efficient. vr technology has been used in education to facilitate imparting knowledge and understanding as a learning aid along with traditional modalities in schools and colleges. abdullahi (2020) examined the determinants of virtual labs adoption among physics teachers in ilorin-west local government area of kwara state and established that physics teachers’ perceived usefulness and ease of use of virtual laboratory have positive influence on the adoption of virtual laboratory. the objectives of science and technology policy are in agreement with national objectives as stated under the section on the philosophy of nigerian education. these objectives include to increase public awareness in science and technology, to direct the science and technology efforts of the nation along well defined national goals e.g. self-reliance, to promote the translation of science and technology results into goods and services, to increase and maintain an indigenous science based on research and development and to motivate and create output in science and technology as basis of the nation (frn, 2014). awareness is to have knowledge about the existence of vr. teacher’s awareness to a great extent shape the format of instructions and learning that students will receive in a regular classroom. being aware about the recent technologies that can foster learning is indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 significantly essential for teachers to be able to be truly disseminate classroom instruction effectively. when teachers are aware and well informed about the use of vr for instructional purposes in computer studies, they feel more confident about the roles they need to play in the classroom. the awareness, knowledge and attitudes of the teacher also impact the effectiveness in the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose. similarly, msagati (2014) reported that lack of awareness and inadequate search skills were the major problems hindered academic staff from used of internet service garrison, (2017) concluded that awareness on the inclusion of vr in computer studies curriculum cannot be used interchangeably with awareness on the use by school teachers. teachers were not aware of the use of vr and then they are left with the option of the use of pictures as a means of instructional material. teachers who experienced low levels of engagement with educational technology at university will most likely perceive vr as not so important when they teach their own students. some teachers are aware of the use of vr but there is lack of opportunities for them to apply their technology skills learned during training. these issues affect not only the teaching aspect, but also the learning aspect in a technology-rich environment. some of these teachers attribute this problem to the lack of scheduled time by school authorities, inability of the school to procure virtual realities for instructional purposes. the issue of awareness of computer teachers discussed above parallels the teaching and learning process in computer studies. from the researcher’s previous experience, lack of good computer knowledge among some teachers has resulted in the technology (virtual reality) provided by some schools being underutilized. it is imperative that some teachers are aware of the technological capabilities provided by some secondary schools because they should live up to the new generation’s expectations. students are becoming more and more technology savvy (prensky, 2015). the aim of making learning take place with the use of materials in classroom situation encompasses the teachers’ instructional purpose. dede, salzman, and loftin, (2013) asserted that vr has been elaborated in the field of education due to the positive outcomes that have been reported in science, engineering, business knowledge application, and anatomy learning. however, vr might not work for all kinds of learning for different reasons: the suitability of content of the material to ve, learner characteristics, vr system effectiveness, teachers’ awareness of vr technology, and their perceptions toward adapting it. this study therefore aims to verify the users (computer teachers) awareness and perceptions towards the use of vr for instructional purposes. anaza (2017) noted that, gender differences in the use technology should be carefully examined, rather than merely demonstrating differences. the influence of gender in classroom utilization of technology also plays a major role in the selection, development and achievement of instructional objectives. van braak (2019) proposes that female students exude lower confidence or knowledge ability than males about using computers. among the factors that need attention in online assessment research are gender, level of education and computer usage level. on the other hand, rajasekhar, veena and kumar (2018) reported that there was significant difference on the preferred accessed of website among respondents based on gender. the inclusion of gender into attitude research as a factor is quite widespread for the simple reason that it may have a differential effect on results, complicating the plain interpretation of findings, favouring one over the other bahah and asil (2018). undoubtedly, the full participation of both male and female teachers in the use of virtual reality will increase the positive impact of these technologies thereby improving their job performance. however, maximizing such participation of male and female in using search engines can lead to gender inequity (united nations) (un, 2014). there is need to investigate if computer teachers use of technologies differ based on their gender. whether a digital gender gap persists, or is disappearing with the maturation and diffusion of ict is still under debate (leach & turner, 2015). furthermore, abdullahi (2020) deduced that ender does not influence the adoption of virtual laboratory for teaching among physics teacher. the findings of mahdi and al-dera (2013) revealed that there is no significant difference in ict use regarding teachers' teaching experience. the basis for all learning is experience, and usually the most effective type of learning is gained by concrete, direct, first-hand experience. sawchuk (2015) asserted that experienced teachers got better in motivating students to learn with electronic media and with classroom management, resulting in better attendance and fewer infractions. the experienced teacher, aderonke kofo soetan, amos ochayi onojah, omotayo janet aderogba, omotayo olabo obielodan, olanrewaju sulaimon ganiyu, & micheal ayodele fakomogbon computer teachers' awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state 4 however, realizes that the use of words alone cannot and will not, provide vivid learning experience. usang, archibong, aji, eyong, ukam and bassey (2018) noted that application of technologies in teaching and learning has raised education to a new phase by improving the quality of education in the world. vlastimir and dalibor (2019) also asserted that integrating ict into education has improve knowledge in the field of interpretation, not only in the learning process, but also for future professional activity. the use of the web as an educational tool has provided teachers with a wide range of new and exciting teaching experiences that are not possible in traditional classroom (nam & smith-jackson, 2017). good teachers are constantly introducing methods and devices that will make learning meaningful as teachers who use technologies are gradually replacing teachers who do not. experience refers to the nature of the events of someone or something undergone. the theoretical basis for this study is grounded on the theory of diffusion of innovations propounded by rogers (1995). this theory will help to establish if teachers who are aware of this virtual reality will accept or embrace the innovation. the theory of diffusion of innovations is used to describe the adoption or acceptance of a new innovation among several adopter groups. it incorporates the impact of social dynamics on technology adoption. lorenzo (2019) stated that experience is not interesting till it begins to repeat itself. experience is an event, act or thing that one has seen, done or felt. it can be a situations or job done for a long time or some action done by one repeatedly that has almost become part of one. the importance of technology into the teaching and learning process cannot be overemphasized. there is an urgent need to improve the quality of education to bridge the gap between developed and developing nations. technological advancements have created opportunities for the augmentation and or complete replacement of physical science laboratories in the teaching of science graduates. however, the acceptability and suitability of these alternatives have remained contentious issues and only the bravest and most liberal institutions have so much as dared to discuss let alone try to incorporate them in their curricular. there is a need, at this juncture, to explore the suitability and acceptability of virtual laboratories as potential alternatives or supplements to the expensive traditional physical laboratory facilities in the third world context. however, using virtual labs by teachers for teaching needs a high level of professionalism and commitment because it is new in this part of our world. by doing this there are certain things that will determine this usage by teachers such as training, environment, experience among others. mahmood, halim, rajindra and ghani (2014) reported that lack of exposure and expertise on part of teachers, forcing of teachers to use technology without giving them ample time to learn, acquire and apply the technology appropriately and lack of confidence among teachers which again is attributed to lack of professional training are the barriers to the utilization of internet facilities. ausburn and ausburn (2014) conducted a research on desktop virtual reality: a powerful new technology for teaching and research in industrial teacher education and established virtual reality will influence teachers job performance if effectively utilized. though the relevance of materials cannot be overemphasized, but teachers lack its application in the classroom and lack of fund to purchase relevance ones. soetan, onojah, alaka, and aderogba (2020) examined hearing impaired students’ self-efficacy on the utilization of assistive technology in federal college of education (special) oyo and established that technology enhances students’ self-efficacy beacuse motivating students with learnings, give them sense of belonging so that they could also partake in things around their vicinity effectively. although, there are studies conducted on teachers use of virtual reality for instructional purposes but most of it are in developed countries as this innovation is still very new in nigeria. also, none of such studies has been conducted in kwara state that the researchers are aware of. this research tends to fill this gap by investigating teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in computer studies. this research investigated the teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in computer studies. specifically, this study determined the awareness of teachers towards the use of vr for instructional purpose; influence of gender on teachers’ awareness of vr for instructional purpose and the influence of teachers’ experience on awareness of vr for instructional purpose. the following questions were raised to guide the study: 1. what is the level of awareness of teachers towards the use of vr for instructional purpose? indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 2. does gender influence teachers’ awareness of vr for instructional purpose? 3. how do teachers’ experience influence their awareness of vr for instructional purpose? the following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study: h01: there is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ awareness of vr for instructional purpose? h02: there is no significant difference between teachers’ experience and their awareness of vr for instructional purpose. method descriptive survey research design was used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena in this study. the population for the study consisted of all the computer teachers in kwara state. the study investigates the awareness of teachers on the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose in computer studies. purposive sampling technique was used to select the schools in the case study area. while simple random sampling technique was used to select a total of 360 computer studies teachers from the selected schools. a research-designed questionnaire was used to obtained necessary information from the respondent. the instrument that was used for this study was a researcherdesigned questionnaire. it consists of two sections, sections a and b. section (a) of the questionnaire sought or solicits for teacher’s demographic data which includes gender, teaching experience and name of school while section b generated items on teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in computer studies. ten different items were generated for this section. the response mode of yes and no was used for this section. an instrument is considered valid only when it measures truly and accurately what it intends to measure. in this case, content / face validity of the instrument was done by presenting it to the three professors of educational technology as an expert for clarity, appropriateness, and commensuration of the questions with the topic of the research and other necessary criteria to ensure validity and reliability of the instrument. the instrument was validated by three (3) other experts from the department of educational technology, university of ilorin for face and content validity and they perused it. their comments and corrections were used to produce the final draft of the research instruments. also, the instrument was trial tested on 20 computer studies teachers in secondary schools in orokam, benue state, the data collected was subjected to crombach alpha statistical analysis and the result was 0.80 on awareness. the researchers personally administered the questionnaire to the respondents after a letter of introduction was taking to the authorities of all the sampled schools for permission to conduct the study in their schools accordingly. explanation was equally done by the researchers on how to respond to the questionnaire before respondents were asked to respond to items and/or statement on the questionnaire. the questionnaire was administered to the purposively selected computer teachers in the selected schools. the completed questionnaires were collected by the researchers on the spot. this help in ensuring a high percentage of returns. the data taken from the respondents were carefully examined and scrutinized by the researcher. the careful distribution of the survey questionnaires was managed by the researchers. based on research ethics and to ensure high standards of professionalism, teachers’ consent were sought for through research consent forms that were presented to them. teachers participated voluntarily in the study and there was no coercion of any sort. the respondents were told to freely partake or withdraw at any time without any repercussions. also, confidentiality of the participants was not compromised in preventing insecurity that could be felt by any participant. responses from the respondents were calculated in percentages followed by detailed interpretation. research questions were analyzed using descriptive statistics of percentage, frequency and mean count while the hypothesis one was analyzed using independent sample ttest, while hypotheses two was analyzed using analysis of variance. the analysis was done through the aid of statistical package for social science (spss, version 25.0). results and discussion this section presents the results obtained from the data gathered based on research questions stated in the study as well as discussions of findings. the data presented provide a summary of the major characteristics of the respondents that were involved in the study. a total of 360 copies of questionnaires were distributed but 321 were retrieved, properly filled and was rendered valid amounting to 89.1% return rate. this was thus used for the analysis. demographic information aderonke kofo soetan, amos ochayi onojah, omotayo janet aderogba, omotayo olabo obielodan, olanrewaju sulaimon ganiyu, & micheal ayodele fakomogbon computer teachers' awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state 6 as displayed in table 1, the female respondents were more than their male counterparts. this was further shown in figure 1. table 1. demographic distribution by gender gender frequency percent cumulative percent male 120 37.4 37.4 female 201 62.6 62.6 total 321 100.0 figure 1. pie chart on respondents' gender table 2. demographic distribution by respondents’ years of experience years of experience frequency percent cumulative percent 0-5 years 111 34.3 34.3 6-10 years 201 62.6 97.0 11 years and above 9 3.0 80.8 total 321 100.0 figure 2. pie chart on respondents' years of experience the respondents’ years of experience was analysed as shown in table 2 and figure 2. it revealed that majority of the respondents have 610 years of experience. research question one what is the level of awareness of teachers towards the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose. table 3. teachers’ awareness of virtual reality s/n items aware not aware 1 conceptual design space (cds) 40 (37.3%) 67 (62.7%) 2 virtual bicycle 85 (79.4%) 22 (20.6%) 3 vitcher (i & ii) 15 (14.0%) 92 (86.0%) 4 virtual biplane 9 (8.4%) 98 (91.6%) 5 3d map world 56 (52.3%) 51 (47.7%) the level of awareness of teachers towards the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose was investigated and the result presented in table 3. it indicated that 37.3% of the respondents are aware of conceptual design space (cds), 79.4% of the respondents are aware of virtual bicycle, 14.0% of the respondents are aware of vitcher (i & ii), 8.4% of the respondents are aware of indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 3, issue 1, april 2020 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 virtual biplane and 52.3% of the respondents are aware of 3d map world. the finding established that virtual bicycle and 3d map world are the virtual reality facilities which most respondents are aware for instructional purpose. hypothesis one there is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in other to investigate whether there was significant difference between male and female teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose, t-test was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 significant level. table 4. t-test on significant differences between male and female awareness of vr s/n gender n mean std. dev. df t sig. (2tailed) remarks 1. male 120 1.56 .77 319 .61 0.87 accepted 2. female 201 1.66 .68 total 321 table 4 indicates that t (319) = 0.61, p = 0.87. this means that the stated null hypothesis was not rejected. this was as a result of the t-value of 0.61 resulting in 0.87 significance value which was greater than 0.05 alpha value. it was deduced that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. hypothesis two there is no significant difference between teachers’ experience and their awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. table 5. anova on significant difference on awareness of vr source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. decision corrected model 2.207 a 2 1.104 1.020 .763 intercept 1662.689 1 1662.689 1537.022 .000 experience 2.207 2 1.104 1.020 .763 accepted error 156.855 318 1.082 total 2397.680 321 corrected total 159.063 320 a. r squared = .042 (adjusted r squared = .038) table 5 presents the analysis of variance showing whether there is significant difference between teachers’ experience and awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. the result of the anova table presented that null hypothesis was accepted with f (2, 320) = 1.10; p > 0.05. this indicated that there was no significant difference between teachers’ experience and their awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. the findings established that virtual bicycle and 3d map world are the virtual reality facilities which most respondents are aware for instructional purpose. this support the findings of bhattacharya and sharma (2017) who stated that communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer, and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning. furthermore, garrison, (2017) concluded that awareness on the inclusion of vr in computer studies curriculum cannot be used interchangeably with awareness on the use by school teachers. lee and wong, (2016) defined virtual reality as a device used to enable people to deal with information more easily. it provides a different way to see and experience information beside being used as a tool for model building and to enhance problem solving skills. vr unlike other educational tools, focuses shifts from prescribed interaction with the learning environment to environment that permits the learner to engage in various types of interaction that the system is capable of supporting. it is also found that virtual reality has the potential of being used to meet the learning needs of individual students, promote quality of education, increasing self-efficacy and independence of learning among students. soetan, onojah, alaka, and aderogba (2020) recommended that schools should employ aderonke kofo soetan, amos ochayi onojah, omotayo janet aderogba, omotayo olabo obielodan, olanrewaju sulaimon ganiyu, & micheal ayodele fakomogbon computer teachers' awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose in kwara state 8 educational technologists that can facilitate effective use of assistive technology tools to supplement classroom teaching. the findings further established that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers’ awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. walter, hunt and knapp (2016) pointed out that virtual environments have reported gender difference in favour of male on a variety of performance measures. enoch and soker (2016) found male college students are more comfortable with online course components and that gender was one of the most powerful predictors of spatial knowledge transfer in virtual environments. this support the findings of punter, meelissen, and glas (2016) express the widespread gender gap in attitude and (perceived) competency in information literacy, but cuadrado-garcia, ruiz-molina, and montoro-pos (2018) found little difference, which may be a result of females’ frequent use of a virtual learning environment. furthermore, it was established in this study that there was no significant difference between teachers’ experience and their awareness of virtual reality for instructional purpose. terlecki and newcombe (2015) in their research concluded that males do not only perform at higher levels than females on tests of spatial and mental rotation ability, but also tend to have more spatial experiences. in support of this pujari (2017) stated that user friendly, lack of knowledge of various search engines and familiarity with search engines are some of the reasons in which users preferred one search engine over another. also, nam and smithjackson (2017) established that teaching experience influences their use of ict for learning. based on the findings of the study, the following implications can be drawn. the findings of this study have strong implication for teaching and learning process in nigerian schools. it is an indication that if virtual reality facilities are made available for teachers in secondary schools, it will boost their frequency of use of such virtual reality in the teaching and learning process in the secondary schools. internet has many benefits in academic cycle including provision of round-the-clock access to wide variety of information sources globally and the ability to discuss and share experience with colleague (nwokedi & nwokedi, 2017). if vr are made available to all teachers irrespective of the demographic characteristics in terms of gender, experience and qualifications, it will increase their perception thereby affecting teachers’ use of the technology for teaching. conclusion this research investigated the awareness of teachers towards the use of virtual reality for instructional purpose in computer studies. it was thus concluded that virtual bicycle and 3d map world are the virtual reality facilities which most respondents are aware for instructional purpose. there was no significant difference between teachers’ awareness of vr for instructional purposes based on gender and years of experience. with virtual reality, distance, time and other external measures is not a barrier for effective teaching and learning process. based on the findings and conclusion of this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. school administrators should encourage their computer teachers to use virtual reality for teaching computer studies. 2. seminars and training could also be organised for teachers on the usefulness of vr to facilitate their teaching in and outside the classroom environment. 3. female teachers should be encouraged to adopt vr for their teaching process as this could boost their job performance. acknowledgement our sincere appreciation goes to all school heads and computer teachers in kwara state and benue state for their cooperation and assistance in conducting this research. we also show our immense gratitude to the professors, readers and senior lecturers in the department of educational technology, their comments and corrections made the research instrument valid. moreover, the effort of all authors whose work were cited in this study is highly appreciated. lastly, the effort of roseline sotuminu, the ceo of bella events, whose contribution as a source of funding in carrying out this study is highly commendable. references abdullahi, z. o. 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(2014). measuring ict and gender: an assessment. united nation: united nations publication. usang, a. i., archibong, d. o., aji, e. e., eyong, c., ukam, e., & bassey, o. a. (2018). assessment of influence of student perception, knowledge and area of specialization on itc utilization for academic purposes in colleges of health technology, calabar. international journal of medicine and medical science, 10 (3), 36-41. van braak, j. (2019). factors influencing the use of computer mediated communication by teachers in secondary schools. computers & education, 36, 41-57. vlastimir n., & dalibor p., (2019). appraisal and review of e-learning and ict systems in teaching process in physica a. statistical mechanics and its application 513(1), 456-464. http://www.ed-week.org/ew/articles/2015/03/25%20/new-studies-find-that-for-teachers-experience.html http://www.ed-week.org/ew/articles/2015/03/25%20/new-studies-find-that-for-teachers-experience.html http://www.ed-week.org/ew/articles/2015/03/25%20/new-studies-find-that-for-teachers-experience.html indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 101 learning through learners: indonesian efl learners’ writing strategies experiences ira yuliani department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail: ira_yuliani30@ymail.com fahrus zaman fadhly department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia email: fahrus.zaman.fadhly@uniku.ac.id apa citation: yulianti, i. & fadhly, f. z., (2020). learning through learners: indonesian efl learners’ writing strategies experiences. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(2), 101-110. doi: https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3680 received: 09-05-2020 accepted: 01-07-2020 published: 01-10-2020 introduction writing is a productive skill, where people actually should produce language themselves through written text (harmer, 2007). some people assume writing as an enjoyable activity in which they can express ideas, thoughts and feeling into various media by using their knowledge that has been learned. it is in line with elbow as cited in brown (2007) that “writing is a transaction with words whereby you free yourself from what you presently think, feel, and perceive.” it means that people can enjoy themselves, have wonderful imagination, and can put their thoughts into words freely. however, some people including learners do not have same assumption on writing. in fact, there are still many learners feel frustrated in that activity. the result of one study entitled problems in writing for scholarly publication in english: the case of hongkong investigated by flowerdew (1999) showed that the learner s w ho have less facility of expression and less rich vocabulary feel frustrated and take longer time t o write. in the same way, nunan (2001) thought that writing is not only a kind of hands on behavior but also a kind of intelligence. nunan said that in this process, students may gradually cultivate their thinking abilities, including their divergent thinking, logical thinking, imaginary thinking, etc. thus, it drives an assumption that writing is a complex process as what ghaith (2002) stated that writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and ideas , and make them visible and concrete. flower & hayes (1981) also viewed writing as a complex cognitive skill, including a decision-making and a problem-solving activity. besides, zamel as cited in alnufaie (2015, p.408) also assumed “writing is as creative process by which writers discover and reformulate their ideas as they attempt to approximate meaning.” many writers often do abstract: this research focuses on writing strategies of efl learners in writing english text. it attemp t e d to address the following problems i.e. the most frequent writing strategies used and the differences writin g strategies used by male and female students. the data collected from questionnaires and in t erv ie w we re analyzed qualitatively based on oxford (1990) language learnin g theories. it was found that there were s ix categories of writing strategies used by the students in english text; memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensations strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. the result revealed that compensation strategies (18,7%) were the most frequent strategies used by b ot h ma le and female students in writing english text. it was also found that the female respondents used more varied writing strategies (70,9%) compared to the male ones but the male students was the highest user of affective strategies (66,2%). as the final points, the compensations strategies seem as the best help strategies used in writing english text that can overcome students’ limitation and the use of writing strategies depend on the students’ choice. hopefully, the next researchers who are interested in obse rvin g writing strategies can explore deeper and wider, especially in writing specific genre. key words: language learning strategies, efl learners, writing strategies mailto:ira_yuliani30@ymail.com https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3680 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 102 not know what they want to write beforehand and many ideas are only revealed when the writer has already started to write. then they moved backwards to revise and change words or structures before moving forwards and they repeated on doing this until they are satisfied with the final result. concerning to those activities in writing, one of the important factors that appear to play an important role in writing skill development is by using learning strategies. according to o’malley and chamot (1990, p.1), “learning strategies are illustrated as special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information.” oxford (1990) also defined that strategies are learning techniques, behaviors, problem-solving or study skills w hic h make learning more effective and efficient. oxford (1990) divided language learning strategies into two main categories i.e. direct and indirect strategies. “direct strategies are the strategies used directly in dealing with a new language and require mental processing of the language” (oxford, 1990, p.37). the direct strategies are also divided into three types; memory strategy (helps the learner to store new information in their memory and retrieve it later on), cognitive strategy (allows students to comprehend and produce language in different ways), and compensation strategy (used to compensate and help them to employ the language). as opposed to direct strategy, “the indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning through focusing, organizing, guiding, checking, coaching, encouraging, and cheering the direct strategies” (oxford, 1990, p.37). the three sets of indirect strategies are metacognit i v e strategy (used for arranging, planning, and evaluating one’s learning, e.g. over viewing and linking with already known material), af f ective strategy (regulates emotional behaviors and motivation), and social strategy (allows learner interaction with other people in the language learning process). in writing context, writing strategies might include strategies of free writing, planning, creating ideas, discovering meaning, group or pair works, considering audience, purpose, and context of writing revision, drafting, and proofreading (alnufaie, & grenfell, 2012). torrance, thomas, & robinson (2000, p. 182) also described writing strategy as “the sequence in which a writer engages in planning, composing, revising and other writing related activities.” this is in line with sundent (2007), stating that writing strategy is the technique us ed by the writer in order to make them write the ideas and think easily through prewriting, drafting, self-revising, peer revising, editing and publishing. indeed, in facing those stages , the learner really needs either direct or indirect learning strategies in writing process (oxford, 1990). all the explanation above ensures us that all people need to use strategies in writing. thus, in this study, the researcher wants to investigate t he learning strategies used by students that they think the most useful and helpful ones for them in writing english text in order to help those are frustrated in writing english. besides that, the researcher also wants to know the difference between female and male students in using t hos e strategies because gender can influence the use of strategy in learning process (hong-nam & leavell, 2006). thus, the research attempted to address the following research questions: 1. what are the most frequent strategies used by efl learners in writing english text? 2. what are the differences writing strategies used by male and female efl learners in writing english text? method this study employed qualitative research method. according to mack et al. (2005, p. 1), “qualitative research is a type of scientific research to understand a given research pr oblem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves.” concerning to the purpose of this study which are finding out the most frequent writing strategies used and the difference writing strategies used by male and female efl learners, the researcher used case study to make the study more focused on the exploration of phenomena that occurs in individual. gay, mills, & airasian (2012, p. 444) stated “a case study research is a qualitative research approach in which researcher focus on a unit of study known as bounded system.” i n t his study, the researcher explored the students’ writing strategies concerned in english text used by the efl learners in one senior high school in kuningan. in determining the participant, the researcher used purposeful sampling. according to creswell (2012, p. 206), “in purposeful sampling, researcher intentionally selects individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon.” lodico, spaulding and voegtle indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 103 (2010) added that purposeful sampling involves the selection of participants who have key knowledge or information related to the purpose of the study. thus, thirty nine students : twenty six female and thirteen male students, were chosen purposefully to be participants in this present study. they are students from one class who have interest in english. two data collections employed in this study are questionnaire and interview. the students were given a questionnaire in order to gain the data of students’ writing strategies. the questionnaire adapted from oxford (1990) consists of 40 items which are characterized int o six subcategories of six subscales: memory strategies (items 1 to 5), cognitive strategies (items 6 to 17), compensation strategies (items 18 to 21), metacognitive strategies (items 22 to 28) , affective strategies (items 29 to 35), and social strategies (items 36 to 40). they should fill the questionnaire by giving checklist below intensities column; always, often, sometimes, rare, or never; of each strategy item (enclosed i n appendix). these questionnaires were collected in the day after all questionnaires were contributed. the result of questionnaire was analyzed into three steps: calculating and analyzing the usage percentage of writing strategies, interpreting, and making conclusion using oxford (1990) theory about language learning strategies: memory strategy, cognitive strategy, compensation strategy, metacognitive strategy, af f ective strategy, and social strategy. the researcher calculated the percentage of each student’s writing strategy. the researcher counted the students’ intensities score in using memory strategy, cognitive strategy, compensation strategy, metacognitive strategy, af f ective strategy, and social strategy. the sum of the weights of all items chosen by the correspondents represent the individual’s total score. formula of percentage: p = x 100% (sudjana cited in muljanto, 2012) where: p = percentage of each strategy (%) f = sum of student’s answer n = sum of score criteria in interview process, six male and seven female students were interviewed. there were fourteen questions given to the selected respondents in interview process to complete t he data gained from questionnaire. the questions were developed mainly based on the questionnaire, tried to find out not only the reason for choosing certain strategies but also the possibility of using other writing strategies which are not mentioned in the questionnaire. to avoid difficulties faced by interviewee in answering the questions, all the interviews were conducted in indonesian and they were recorded. the result of interview was analyzed using meaning condensation method. according to kvale (1996, p.192), “meaning condensation entails an abridgement of the meanings expressed by the interviewees into shorter formulations. long statements are compressed into briefer statements in which the main sense of what is said is rephrased in a few words.” in this process, the researcher listened to the students’ interview that has been recorded and then started to write the result of interview in brief statements. after that, the researcher translated those statements into english and validated it to the supervisors. results and discussion after calculating and analyzing the percentage of data gained from questionnaires, it can be know n that all respondents used more than one strategy in writing english text. both male and female students used compensation, social, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and memory strategies in writing english. it was also found two findings related to the research questions. the most f requent writing strategies used in writing english text table 1 below illustrates the rank percentage of writing strategies used by all respondents in writing english text. table 1. the rank of writing strategies usage rank strategies average percentage 1. compensation 78,8 18,7% 2. social 74,4 17,7% 3. cognitive 70,8 16,8% 4. metacognitive 67,5 16,0% 5. affective 65,8 15,6% 6. memory 64,2 15,2% total 421,2 100% indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 104 the result showed that the most frequent strategy used by respondents in writing english text is compensation strategy (18,7%), followed by social strategy (17,7%), cognitive strategy (16,8%), metacognitive strategy (16,0%), af f ective strategy (15,6 %) and memory strategy (15,2%). it can be known that the average of all students in using compensation strategies is the highest which is 78,8. in compensation strategy, the students comprehended and wrote english text by choosing their favorite topic, using the similar and understandable words, guessing the unknown words in english, and giving time for checking their writing. the students’ writing strategies percentage calculated from questionnaires shows that the subject mostly used in compensation strategy was choosing f avorite topic and understandable words (28,46%) followed by using a similar english word known (24,39%), making short pause while writing (24,39%) and guessing word (22,76%). the strategy of choosing f avorite topic (28,46%) is the highest score in all strategy used. it means that from thirty-nine students, 28,46% of them chose this strategy with the frequency usage which is 175. the students preferred to choose their favorite topic and use understandable words in writing their text than topic from their teacher. they felt free to explor e their ideas into a sheet of paper if the topic or idea they should write is by their own. “i prefer choosing free topic because it can increase my mood to write. when my mo o d is good, i can explore the idea easily.” (s.39: female, interview) the different students’ ability in comprehending english also influences students to choose the topic by themselves. “writing text based on our ideas or topic is better than the topic chosen by the t e ac he r . it makes me eas ier in developing my text regarding my ability on that topic.” (s.20: female, interview) next, the strategies of using similar english word known in english and making short pauses while writing got equal percentage; it is 24,4%. the students used similar word in writing english when they cannot express their ideas in certain words. they did this strategy in order to make their written text can be understood by others. “when i didn’t know a certain word, i am used to writing that word in similar meaning. the essential point is what i want to share are understandable for the reader or listener.” (s. 27: male, interview) in writing process, the students also made short pauses to check what they have written so f ar. regarding to the purpose of writing i.e. making others understood, the students are used to checking their written text in the writing process. they checked weather the text made was readable then they continue to write when they felt satisfied. “i usually submit my task directly be ca use in writing process i myself usually re-read the paragraph i already have written before continue to the next paragraph. i do that activity to make sure if that paragraph is correct.” (s.19: male, interview) the last strategy that got fewest percentage on compensation strategy is guessing the word when they did not find the exact word needed, the percentage is 22,76%. writing is different from other language skills. in writing activity, guessing the word is not the first essential decision because different word will change the meaning. they rather look for the unknown words in dictionary or ask their friends than guess the word needed. there are only few students who guess the unknown word in writing. “in my experience, i am able to use english because i used to play video game, listen to english song, and watch english movie. at that moment, i started to guess the word i lis t e n e d and read. so, when i do not know about the word, i try to explore by guessing and using similar words.” (s. 10: male, interview) actually, the researcher assumes that those five strategies on social strategy are related each other. first, the students asked to their friend who they think have more knowledge than them. then, it can build the cooperation among them. they asked them to translate, asked their opinion on what they will write, and they correct their friends’ writing text. the second most frequent strategy used by the students in writing english text is social strategy indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 105 with the percentage is 17,7%. the existence of human as social creature encouraged students t o make interaction among others in writing englis h class. thus, this strategy is the second frequent used in writing english text. it is known that strategy of asking f or translating got the highest percentage, it was 22,9%, followed by cooperating with the prof icient user (21,5%), comparing the text with the other students (18,7%), asking the others f or correction (18,5%) and discussing the topic with other students (18,3%). the strategy of asking other students f or translating the unknown words considered to be a helpful way in the process of writing english text. it occurred because not all students are good in english. the students asked others that they think they have more knowledge than them; it can be the teacher or their friends that translate the unknown words in english. “my friend is smarter than me, i always ask him to translate the unknown word.” (s. 7: male, interview) the students asked for help to their friends because the teacher let them discuss in doing t h e task. besides, motivation given by teacher (like their written text will be read in front of class ) can force them to write good text. thus, t he r ole of teacher in this process influences the students’ behavior in writing. “i think reading our text in front of class is th e best helped activities in writing. yeah, my teacher always asks us to read our text in fro n t of class. she and our friends give commen t b y correcting the mistake. by doing this activity, it is like pressure for us that impulse ourselves t o write well because as usual human we will be embarrassed if our friends laughed a t o ur b a d writing. besides, this activity also can give t he other students idea, when they listen to students’ presentation it can motivat e t h em t o write the great idea like what the students re a d in front of the class.” (s. 10: male, interview) the second social strategy used by students is cooperating with prof icient user, the percentage is 21,5%. as what have mentioned above, when the respondents faced difficulty in writing english text, such as the unknown words, unrelated idea, etc. they tended to cooperate with the proficient students or the smarter students. “my seatmate’s language ability is better so when i don’t know some english words, i a s k her” (s.05: female, interview) after the respondents finished their writing english text, they used the strategies of comparing the text with other students (18,7%) and asking f or correction (18,5%). they are used to doing these strategies in order to limit the writing errors in their texts. “because of limiting time, i release that sometimes i write in hurry. by asking frie n d ’s correction i think it can decrease the error in writing” (s.10: male, interview) the percentages of comparing the text with other students (18,7%) and asking f or correct i on (18,5%) illustrated that only few respondents used these strategies. “i rarely asked my friends’ comment, i rather read my text myself to make sure that the idea i want to share is appeared.” (s.20: female, interview) the last strategy used on social strategy is discussing the topic with others bef ore starting t o write, the percentage is (18,3%). they discus sed with other students in order to give additional ideas about the topic on their text. “discussing about the topic help me in deciding if what i write is appropriate or lo g ic with the topic chosen” (s.39: female, interview) “by having discussion, i know whether what i will write relates to the topic and whethe r it is polite to be expressed in my writing or not.” (s.10: male, interview) the researcher assumed that these five strategies on social strategy are related to each other. first, the students asked to their friend who they think have more knowledge than themselves in which it can build the cooperation among them. they asked them to translate, asked their opinion on what they planned to write, and they corrected their friends’ writing text. the third frequent strategy used by the students in writing english text is cognitive strategy; the percentage is 69,6%. through cognitive strategy, the students did everything t o indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 106 make their written text good and understandable. table 1 showed the rank percentage of student s ’ cognitive strategies in writing english. students compared the text they have made with their draft. in doing this activity, the students also re-read the text to remedy the writing failures such as the poor idea or sentences in the text and reformulated the text when they were not sure about that. “i re-read my text to check the vocabulary, verb, the structure of text, and the coherence of the text. if i found the error, i corrected it before submitting it to my teacher.” (s. 5: female, interview) reading and collecting inf ormation about t he topic f rom dif f erent sources (8,78%) also were done by the students in writing. they usually d id this activity before writing the text and it even helped them in generating idea. “by reading a variety of relevant types of text, students can gain important insights both about how they should write and about the subject matter that may become the topic of their writing” (brown, 2007, p. 347). “if i did not know what to write, i would browse and read many references, internet or books. if there’s something interesting i wou ld set it on my idea.” (s. 39: female, interview) “when i do not know what to write, i u s u a lly look for references from others” (s. 26: male, interview) “imagination comes from the things we know, the more knowledge we have, the easier to create imagination and arrange our mind set. so, getting used to read many books can enrich our knowledge because reading others’ text means we can write our written text. the mo re books are read, the more ideas we get.” (s.10: male, interview) writing in foreign language made the students used thinking aloud (8,66%) strategy. i n this strategy, they should think not only how they generate and express their ideas into written text but also how they write them in foreign language. in writing, they usually do free writing to emer ge the idea. “writing abstractly helps me in generating ideas. i choose idea, think about t h e c o nc ep t, and try to get my body relaxed in order to make me focus ed in writing. sometimes i put the title first, but also sometimes i write the whole t e xt and then choose the appropriate title b a se d o n what i have already written) (s.07: male, interview) regarding the result of questionnaire above, it can be seen that from all cognitive strategy us ed, 8,54% of students commonly write the text directly in english and 7,16% of them write in indonesia then translate into english. they w ho wrote directly in english feels that this strategy is easier and simpler in writing process. it can help them writing the task fast. “writing english directly is simpler.” (s.26: male, interview) besides, the sentences’ organization of english and indonesia are quite different. students felt that writing the text in indonesia makes them difficult to translate into english. “writing directly in english is easier and simpler. writing in indonesian makes it more complex when i do not know the language structure and how to translate it into english properly.” (s.39: female, interview) we know that each student’s skill in comprehending english is different. thus, the students who feel they are not good enough in english need to write the text in indonesia beforehand. “writing in indonesian first, translation process even may be turn into learning process” (r.30: male, interview) in translating their text, the respondents used dictionary or other sources to translate their written text (8,48%) besides asking to other fiends as what mentioned in social strategies above. the last two cognitive strategies are reading books or good writers’ compositions to improve writing (6,87%) and writing and practice new expression repeatedly (6,57%). as it has already described above, the students usually read many references before writing the text. it means that they read and collect the relevant text when they are going to write even though in their daily activity, they rarely read the books from good indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 107 writer. they also barely do writing or practise new expressions in writing because they only hear and remember those expressions (without practice). the fourth common strategy used by student s in writing english text is metacognitive strategy. it was found that 16,0% of thirty-nine students used this strategy in writing english text. there are some strategies involved in metacognitive strategies. the first is re-reading and correcting the text. this strategy was mostly used by students on metacognitive strategy. this strategy was usually done after the students finished t heir writing. before submitting their final writing, the students usually re-read and corrected their text until they felt satisfied. they did this in order to minimize the error of their writing. “i usually submit my written text after rea d in g the text and being sure that the id e a i wa n t t o convey is expressed well.” (s.20: female, interview) the second strategy is checking the coherence and cohesion of the text (15,83%). while students re-reading their text, the students might be checking the coherence and cohesion of the text they made. if there were incoherent words , t hey corrected those errors. the third strategy is making sure that the t ext can be understood by the reader (15,28%). this strategy is done by the students regarding to the purpose of writing. of course, this strategy is related to the fourth strategy, thinking about the purpose of writing (14,85%) and the fifth strategy, paying more attention to the meaning than to the grammatical correctness (13,21%). they realized that what they have written should be understood by others. being successful in writing is when their text is readable and understood by others. “idea is important because it can genera t e t h e concept of what we are going to write. it means nothing when we are good only in grammar without knowing what to write. i also feel i a m successful in writing english text when o t h ers can read and understand my text.” (s.07: male, interview) the last two cognitive strategies used by the students are creating and organizing an outline f or the whole content (12,45%) and brainstorming or make several list of ideas bef ore writing process (12,34%). it means that only a few students usually make an outline and brainstorm their idea. it can be seen in the interview result. “reading many references and drafting are t h e activities that i did before writing. when we want to write, we should not be afraid to ma ke mistake and do not only focus on grammar which can make what we want to convey is not expressed well.” (s.39: female, interview) the reason in making outline or draft before writing is to make students easier in developing the idea. “the reason i write the points first is to organize the text and i only need to elaborate the points.” (s.33: female, interview) “to explore and make my imaginations appeared, i usually use the idea which appeared from brainstorming and then i write the points i planned to elaborate. then i consider the moral value that i can convey through the text i made.” (s.27: male, interview) affective strategies are the fifth common strategies used by the students in writing englis h text. the percentage is (15,6%). the students used this strategy to regain the idea for their writing by using humor, listening to music, putting my writing aside for a while to reconsider my thoughts with a fresh mind, listening to our body, self-motivating, giving reward and writing down their feelings in a language learning dairy. it can be known that using humor in learning process has the highest percentage of affective strategies, the percentage is (19,04%). it is followed by listening to music (16,26%), putting the writing text aside until having a f resh mind (15,37%), listening to our body (14,70%), motivating myself to keep writing (14,59%), giving myself reward or treat (10,13%) and writing down my f eelings in a language learni ng dairy (9,91%). the results above showed that the respondents like humor in learning process. they believed that relaxation comes from funny things like humor in the classroom. they also believed that listening to music can emerge their idea or topic for their text. “i enjoy writing in relax and quiet condition , for example, listening to music.” indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 108 (s.07: male, interview) “i usually watch movie, listen to music and reminisce about personal experience to explore and generate my imagination for writing.” (s.27: male, interview) affective strategies can form students’ creativity by relaxation or mediation. when the students feel relaxed, they can easily generate and think about the topic/ideas for their writing. “i usually write when i am in good mood. besides, i usually write the full text and give the title later in order not to limit my ideas ” (s.19: male, interview) besides, students also used strategy of putting aside my writing f or a while to reconsider my thoughts with a f resh mind (15,37%), followed by listening to their body (14,70%) while writing their english text. they believed that writing in fresh mind can make them enjoy writing the english text. thus, they do something they t hink it is useful to make freshen their brain. they als o think that their body condition influences the mood of writing. “if i was confused on what to write, i usually walk around while looking for inspiration or take a nap so i can be relaxed.” (r.10: male, interview) the respondents also used strategies of motivating myself to keep writing by saying positive statements (14,59%). sometimes, the students feel hard in doing their writing task, a lot of anxiety might come to each student while writing, especially in english text. thus, the students need to motivate themselves by saying positive statements such as come on, you can do it and go on. as what has already explained above, motivation can give contributions on the students’ desires to write the task. giving myself reward or treat when i write english well (10,13%) was also used by the students after they finished their writing. they might express their happiness after finishing their writing task by doing something they like. the last affective strategy which got less percentage is writing down my f eelings in a language learning dairy (9,91%). it means that only few students did this strategy in writing. the reason is they preferred express their feeling orally. “i prefer to share my experience orally.” (s.05: female, interview) the last strategy used by students in writing english is memory strategy. only 15,2% of students used this strategy in writing english text. they used this strategy when they dealt with vocabularies that they were familiar with in their writing. first, connecting the writing topic with the background knowledge is the strategy mostly used by the students (24,32%). it can be seen that in writing process, the students tended to connect their writing topic with their background knowledge which might come from their habit in reading different kind of books. “imagination comes from the things we kn o w, the more knowledge we have, the easier to create imagination and arrange our mind set. so, getting used to read many books can enrich our knowledge because reading others’ text means we can write our written text. the mo re books are read, the more ideas we get.” (s.10: male, interview) the second strategy that the students frequently used on memory strategy is classif ying words according to their grammatical category (23,85%). writing english text is related to grammar which is important in writing text. “i believe grammar is important in writing considering it can help the text to be understood well.” (s.36: female, interview) “grammar is important in english writing english, it can review my text whether it is already good or not.” (s.33: female, interview) the third strategy on memory strategy is memorizing and writing new english words (18,6%). in order to enrich their english vocabularies, the students try to memorize and write new english words in their daily life. they write those words and memorize them so it can be used in writing english text. having rich vocabulary makes them become good in writing. the fourth strategy on memory strategy is placing the new word into a context (17,01%). this strategy is related to the third strategy, when students find new english words, they write not only in word by word, but also put them into a indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 109 context or sentence so they can remember t hose words. the last strategy on memory strategy is revising the compositions by looking back to the last errors made (16,22%). the percentage illustrated that students rarely used this strategy in writing. in this strategy, the students revised their own text in order to remember the errors made in writing and how to solve those errors. from the first finding above, we can assume that all the respondents tended to employ compensation strategy in their writing, including selecting topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining word and using a circumlocution or synonym words which in line with oxford (1990) theory. it means that they prefer to break the limitation in writing english text. it has already known that the position of english in respondents’ country is as a foreign language where they only speak english in english classroom or when they need to speak english in certain time. thus, perhaps the compensation strategy is the most helpful strategy. the dif f erence writing strategies used by male and female students after knowing the total percentage of writing strategies used by all respondents, researcher then tried to classify the respondents based on the gender to know the difference of the strategies used in writing english text. thus, the researcher tried to explain the different strategies used by them. the results of classifying are illustrated in table 2 below. table 2. percentage of various writing strategy used between male and female no. strategy items percentage male female 1. memory strategy 63,40% 64,20% 2. cognitive strategy 67,70% 72,30% 3. compensation strategy 75,40% 80,60% 4. metacognitive strategy 65,10% 68,80% 5. affective strategy 66,20% 65,30% 6. social strategy 73,20% 74,30% average 68,50% 70,90% table 2 illustrated the percentage of overall strategies used by male and female students. it can be seen that female respondents are the m os t frequent user in the overall writing strategies. the percentage of female respondents is (70,9%) while the percentage of male respondents is (68,5%). this is in line with oxford (1990) that females are reported as the frequent overall strategy user than males in many studies (although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy). this finding als o was reported on the previous study (belen, 2012 ) that females have a significantly higher frequency of the use of writing strategies compared to males. the reason found in this study is because female respondents wanted to do everything perfectly and had score oriented. “most of females want to do ev erything perfectly including in english writing and th e y want to achieve good writing score, so they d o their writing task seriously.” (s.24: female, interview) “because male just write what they wa n te d t o without any consideration which is contrast with female whose full consideration.” (s.36: female, interview) “in my opinion, most of female are more motivated to get the best score. they are serious in writing the task, so their writing is well-organized. it is different with male who simply enjoy doing their tasks and does not care about the score, they only wanted to express their thought by their own way.” (s.10: male, interview) these students’ statements proved why female respondents most frequently used strategy in writing, but this situation was not found in t he use of affective strategies where female respondents are less frequently used the strategies compared to male respondents. the percentage of female respondents in using affective strategies is (65,3%) while the male is (66,2%). affective strategy is a strategy used in order to raise one’s emotion. while in this condition, affective strategy was used and used in making the students enjoy and have good mood in english writing. from the percentage above, it can be concluded that female respondents are seldom in making themselves enjoy in writing. “male students tend to be relaxed in doing their task. they like to joke around which is contrast with female students who are serious in d o in g the task.” “s. 30: male, interview” indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 110 “i think male students does not like to do things seriously, they prefer to write with things t he y enjoy with.” “s.05: female, interview” conclusion based on the data analysis at the eleventh grade students in one senior high schools in kuningan, some conclusions can be drawn; the eleventh grade students used more than one writing strategy when they wrote english text, the strategies used by the students were memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, af f ective strategies, and social strategies. the present study showed that the most frequently strategy used by the students is the compensation strategy (18,7%). this strategy helps students to break the limitation in writing english text. the strategy of choosing f avorite topic f or their writing (28,46%) which belongs to compensation strategy is the most frequently strategy used by students. it was influenced by the mood or students’ emotion in writing. these findings also showed that there are different percentages of strategy used by male and female. female used more various writing strategies compared to male. these finding strengthen the previous studies which found t hat female are more frequently users of strategies than male (oxford, 1990). on the other hand, it was also found that the male respondents reported used affective strategy more frequently than female. references alnufaie, m., & grenfell, m. 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(2001). second language teaching & learning. beijing: foreign language teachin g and research press. o’malley, j. m. &chamot, a. u. (1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition . cambridge: cambridge university press. oxford, r. (1990). language learning strategies: what every teacher should k now. new york: newbury house. sundent, g. (2007). improving student writing sk i ll s. huntington beach: shell education. torrance, m., thomas , g. v., & robinson, e. j. (2000). individual differences in undergraduate essay-writing strategies: a longitudinal s t u dy. higher education, 39(2), 181-200. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1003990432398 http://www.jstor.org/stable/356600 http://web.ntpu.edu.tw/ http://www.uhu.es/antonia.dominguez/virtualwriting/writing.htm http://www.uhu.es/antonia.dominguez/virtualwriting/writing.htm http://www.englishreview.web.id/ indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria michael olubunmi odewumi department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria e-mail: agbegilerebunmi2@gmail.com amos ochayi onojah department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria e-mail: haymoresonojah@gmail.com adenike janet aderogba department of educational technology, faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria e-mail: temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com apa citation: odewumi, m. o., onojah, a. o., & aderogba, a. j. (2019). postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(2), 1-12. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i2.1975. received: 04-06-2019 accepted: 05-08-2019 published: 01-10-2019 abstract: the study examines postgraduate students’ utilization of mobile technologies for learning and find out the differences in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study. the study was a descriptive method of the survey type. eleven universities across south-west, nigeria were involved based on accessibility. a total of 658 were sampled. researchers designed questionnaire was used for data collection. mean was used to answer the research questions while analysis of variance (anova) was used to test the hypothesis. a coefficient reliability of 0.87 was obtained on the instrument. the finding among others were that, the ph.d. postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies for learning and research more than other postgraduate students’ counter parts, and there was no significant difference among postgraduate student’ utilization of mobile technologies for learning and research purposes based on mode of study, with the p-value 0.79 which is greater than 0.05 alpha value. the study concluded that, the effective utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduates could be of immense benefit towards their learning within and outside the classroom settings and also facilitate their research knowledge and skills. it is however recommended among others that more orientation should be organized for all postgraduate students in other to bridge the gap in the differences between postgraduate students in their utilization of mobile technologies for learning. keywords: distance learning; education; full time; information and communication technology (ict); mobile technologies; part-time. introduction the resultant effect of education should cater for the needs of individual citizens and society at large because education is important for the development of any society. the importance of education to mankind cannot be underestimated, most especially in this global village dispensation of science and technological breakthroughs where learning can be implemented within and outside the classroom context. education is defined by chen, szyliowicz, lawson, mailto:agbegilerebunmi2@gmail.com mailto:haymoresonojah@gmail.com michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 2 oskar, and nakosteen (2019) as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. it is a major tool for which every society needs for its’ national socio-economic growth and development. this implies that no societies’ socioeconomic grows nor develops without embracing education and much emphasis on the learning concern. united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organizations (unesco, 2019) states that education is a human right for all throughout life and that access must be matched by quality. this concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating (chen, et al., 2019). as society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. rivero (2019) explains that twenty-first century learning is the master plan of how to generate innovative, relevant practices in education. this relevance of education to the societal development led to the policies framed by the federal republic of nigeria (frn, 2013) via the national policy on education, who stressed the importance of education as an investment for economic, social and political developments, an aggregate tool of empowerment for the poor and the socially marginalized groups, an effective means of developing the full capacities and potentials of human resources and as a development of competent work force through the acquisition of practical life skills relevant to the digital native society veritable means of developing sound intelligent learning societies, fit and relevant to the 21st century. a good education has the power to change a life however what is new is the demand for that change. education enables students to do the analysis while making life decisions. abdulkalman (2019) says that life gives various survival challenges for humans but education guide human to fight with failure and get success in life. having an education makes a person well informed about his rights and his responsibilities to exercise his power and be a good representative in all facets of life. education is the illumination to every man’s path. in every organization, including the educational system, information is always generated and stored in a particular medium before it is transmitted. the global challenge for education is not just about providing access, but also ensuring progress. while the process of generation and storage of this information is information technology, the process of its transmission to the intended audience or recipients is communication technology (pearson, 2019). according to oludotun (2015), ict is a generic term referring to technologies for collecting, storing, editing, and passing on information in various forms. communication is the process of transferring information from one person to another as well as from the sender to the receiver with encoding and decoding means. technology plays vital responsibility in transforming human living and its entire environment which has resulted in more meaningful living standard (sanni, amosa, & danmaigoro, 2018). technological advancement has been an integral part of human history, this evolution has led to a change in our day to day functioning and perhaps it is the greatest factor of change in the modern world. while never without risk, technological developments promise inventive solutions to the most crucial global challenges of our time (meyerson, 2015). efficient use of technology in education has changed the face of education, it has also created more educational opportunities because using technology in education unlocks educational boundaries. in a rapidly changing world, technologies are essential for an individual to easily access and apply information technology that has impact on the educational system. the new innovations of devices which are enhanced via technology are becoming more attracting, as it arrests and arouse users’ attention. integrating technology into the classroom begins when a teacher prepares lessons with indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 the use of technology in meaningful and relevant ways. uzuegbu, mbadiwe, and anulobi (2013) establish that technology can never replace the human mind, but it can help expand it. the benefits ensue from the use of technology in people’s lives are indescribable and immeasurable. it has been anticipated that technological literacy will soon become an essential requirement for people’s work, social, and even personal lives. also, it is no longer news that for both social and economic reasons teachers and students will need computer and communication technology skills to live effectively in a knowledge-based society (amajuoyi, 2012). successful incorporation of ict in teaching and learning essentially depends on teacher competency, availability of ict infrastructure and teachers’ adoption and embrace of ict in education (tedla & makgato, 2012). technology integration improves the learning environment for learners, enhances teaching in classrooms, offers administrative tools for teachers and administrators, escalates access to education and comprehensive education in schools, generates a communication platform, and provides a passport to acquisition of competitive edge in the global economy. integrating these technologies into educational system is increasing students’ academic performance. thus, any institutions that refuse to metamorphose with the trend of technology into learning may become less relevant in human capital growth and development in its economy. ict is an umbrella term which entails any communication device or application (nana, 2012). the adoption of ict in education is capable of empowering learners by transforming teaching and learning process from teacher-dominated or centered to learner-centered where teachers serve as facilitators of students learning’ pace. this transformation via ict will result in increased learning, and also create opportunity for learners to develop their creativity, problem solving abilities, information reasoning skills and other higher-order thinking skills (trucano, 2005). ict can also be regarded as gadgets through which information could be sought and accessed. the use of information and communication technology as a tool for enhancing students’ learning, teachers’ instruction, and as catalyst for improving access to quality education in formal and non-formal settings has become a necessity (yusuf & balogun, 2011). anthony (2012) describes ict as an elaborate set of applications and services use for producing, distributing, processing, transforming information (including) telecoms, tv and radio broadcasting, hardware and software, computer services and electronic media. ict is a versatile set of technological tools and resources used to communicate and manage information (amajuoyi, 2012). the impact of ict in education cannot be overstressed, it is interesting to note that ict eradicates problems concerning space and time. the following benefit will evolve from the use of ict in education: global access to knowledge, instant sharing of experience and best practice, self-paced learning, learning become interactive and joyful through multimedia tools, stimulations of experiential learning, opening windows for new thinking, an atmosphere of innovation, bringing excitement and motivation, prove and owing technology, feeling of in a way being ahead of time (bell & avis, 2016). in education, the roles of ict has been briefed as encouraging learners intellectual potentials through advanced order thinking, problem solving, enhanced communication skills and deep understanding of the learning tools and ideas to be imparted, promoting a reassuring, interactive teaching and learning environment by building broader learning communication. the use of ict in nigeria has become an integral part of our educational system from the early years to university level, and it has contributed greatly to the learning style of both the teachers and the students within and outside the classroom settings (daramola & omoyajowo, 2016). ict tends to play a michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 4 facilitating role in managing the increased flows of information associated with more autonomous learning environments. ict is currently seen to have the potential to facilitate changes in education that will allow future citizens to be better prepared for the information society (kennedy, 2013). ict is considered a critical tool in preparing and educating students with the required skills for the global workplace. it educates students so that they can continually adapt to a work world of continuous technological innovations, and makes it easier for students to access knowledge. mobile technologies refer to all forms of technologies that can be used to make learning easier and delivered in short time. jarvenpaa and lang (2005) define mobile technologies as handheld information technology and artifacts that encompass hardware devices, software interface and applications and communication network services. therefore, mobile technologies could be regarded as the combined integration of hardware like pdas, for examples palm pilot or handspring, mobile phones, and video game players, software like the applications that run on the device which include phone books, calendar programs and others with its operating system and networking that is, infrastructure that supports the transfer of information (bola, 2015). learning with mobile technologies are the exploration of handheld devices with wireless and mobile networks to facilitate, support, enhance, and extend the bandwidth of learning among postgraduates. issa, onojah, omoyajowo, aderogba, aboyeji, & giwa (2019) establish that postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies for their learning. the miniaturization of electronics and advances in battery technology have ushered an age in which it's possible to carry around what would once have been considered a supercomputer in our pockets. in just a couple of decades, smartphones, along with their bigger tablet brothers, have become indispensable and made it easy to stay connected to work, friends and family, wherever we may be. instead of going to a central thermostat in the house, you can reach into your pocket and set everything on your phone (groden-morrison, 2018). home security has been integrated with mobile technology as well. there are apps that have a video camera synced with your doorbell so you can see who is at your front door when the bell rings (quicksprout, 2019). home security cameras on the inside and outside of your home can all be controlled and monitored from mobile devices. there are even smart refrigerators that connect with mobile devices. this technology gives you the ability to see inside your refrigerator while you’re at the grocery store so you can see what you need to buy. postgraduate students need to be competent in utilizing ict tools in their learning system. this will boost their academic, research and other learning skills. ict is drastically altering the ways things are done in nearly every field of human activity (adeyanju, 2012). postgraduate education in nigeria comprises studying for academic and professional degrees, certificates, diplomas or other qualifications for which first degree is required. in nigeria, the postgraduate programme is operated in the university under the control of the postgraduate school (auriol, 2014). postgraduate students are expected to embrace the use of mobile technologies in their learning and research as this will enhance and increase their learning rates and research activities. postgraduate mode of study refers to the approach and basis at which postgraduate students run their postgraduate programme. in nigeria, the programme mode of study at postgraduate levels includes full time mode of study, part-time mode of study and distance learning mode of study. while the full time mode of study and part time mode of study is majorly being run by the conventional universities, the distance learning mode of study is majorly run by the national open universities and their respective centers. the use of electronic media for classroom instruction has its influence on the improvement of the standard indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 of teaching in the classroom by making concept been taught more concrete. the new innovations of devices which are enhanced via technology are becoming more attracting, as it arrests and arouse students’ attention. therefore, the limitation in the use of these technologies might jeopardize our learning system. the utilization of ict tools in teaching and learning has become imperative at all levels of education. this is because teaching cannot be adequately effective without the use of ict tools in schools in this 21st century (adebisi, 2013). the mobile technologies should not only be used for social chat alone, but it should be adopted into the teaching and learning process. ogunduyile (2013) notes some tertiary institutions have the electronic facilities but not maximizing its utilization. the use of mobile technologies in nigeria is still lagging behind compared to other developed nations in the globe. most students use the mobile technologies for social selfchat but not for learning (falade, issa, & alimi, 2016). hence the main purpose of the study is on postgraduate students’ mode of study and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in south-west, nigeria. specifically, the study examines postgraduate students’ utilization of mobile technologies for learning in south-west nigeria and find out the differences in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study. the study answers two research questions namely: 1). how do postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies in southwest nigeria? and 2). what is the difference in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students in south-west nigeria based on their mode of study? meanwhile, one null hypothesis is tested: there is no significant difference in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students in south-west nigeria based on their mode of study. method this study was a quantitative research. the quantitative research comprised descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental and experimental. this study adopted the descriptive study of survey type because it allowed for a multifaceted approach to data collection and analysis, it also helped to gather a large amount of data. it investigated the postgraduate students’ mode of study and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in south-west, nigeria. a researcherdesigned questionnaire was used by the researcher to obtain necessary information from the respondents. the population for this study comprised all postgraduate students in southwest, nigeria. postgraduate students were sampled across 11 universities in south-west, nigeria. stratified random sampling technique was used across the eleven universities and six hundred and fifty-eight (658) postgraduate students were sampled using research advisors (2006) model of sample size. the instrument used for data collection was researchers-designed questionnaire with sections a and b for demographic data of the respondents and their utilization of mobile technologies for learning respectively. four likert-scales of strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree was used as the response mode. to ensure the face and content validity of the questionnaire used in this study, instrument was vetted by the researchers and four professors and associate professors from the department of educational technology, and department of computer science for face and content validity, university of ilorin validated the instrument to determine the relevance and suitability of the instrument for the target population. their advice and suggestions were used to modify the items and ensure that the instrument was valid. it was pilot-tested at the university of ilorin through split-half method. the coefficient of reliability of 0.82 was obtained through cronbach alpha. the researchers presented a letter of introduction to the sampled schools to administer the questionnaire on the selected teachers having sought for the permission of the schools’ management and personnel michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 6 involved. the questionnaire was personally administered by the researchers following all ethical issues. the completed copies of the questionnaire were collected immediately from the respondents for further analysis. the respondents were not coerced while eliciting response from the respondents. there was no form of bias about their response and the respondents were not coerced. the respondents’ confidentiality and anonymity were also protected while eliciting responses. aspects such as the sample size the way the questionnaire is prepared, the formulation of questions, data analysis, margins of error, the process of selection of individuals, who should compose the sample, among others, are important and was taken into consideration in this study. data obtained through the questionnaire were subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. data collected were analyzed using mean and percentages. mean scores were used to answer research questions. hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested using t-test, while hypothesis 3 were tested using analysis of variance (anova). all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. data were coded and analyzed using (ibm spss) statistics for version 25.0. results and discussion research question 1: how did postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies in south-west nigeria? table 1. postgraduate students utilization of mobile technologies s/n items sa a d sd mean 1. mobile technologies can be used to search and store information regarding lesson to be learnt 331 (50.3%) 265 (40.3%) 62 (9.4%) 3.23 2. mobile technologies allow easy access to information for research 313 (47.6%) 328 (49.7%) 12 (1.8%) 5 (0.9%) 3.55 3. mobile technologies influence quick and better presentations. 257 (39.1%) 238 (36.2%) 120 (18.2%) 43 (6.5%) 2.65 4. the use of mobile technologies allows receiving of lectures anywhere and anytime. 193 (29.3%) 258 (39.2%) 107 (16.3%) 100 (15.2%) 2.87 5. the influence of mobile technologies results in competitive advantage compared other devices 201 (30.5%) 269 (40.9%) 143 (21.7%) 45 (6.9%) 2.90 6. the use of mobile technologies leads to increased classroom product quality. 101 (15.3%) 258 (39.2%) 209 (31.8%) 90 (13.7%) 2.56 7. use of mobile technologies gain significant skills and advantages in the learning process 93 (14.1%) 204 (31.0%) 300 (45.6%) 61 (9.3%) 2.59 8. mobile technologies allow for greater collaboration and promote group work 82 (12.5%) 201 (30.5%) 277 (42.1%) 98 (14.9%) 2.43 9. with mobile technologies, students’ progress and reports can be easily tracked 260 (39.5%) 245 (37.2%) 113 (17.2%) 40 (6.1%) 3.12 10. unlimited source of information is possible with mobile technologies 252 (38.3%) 237 (36.0%) 118 (17.9%) 51 (7.8%) 3.01 11. mobile technologies allow for global communication 373 (56.7%) 285 (43.3%) 3.34 12. assessing students’ performance can be done instantly with mobile technologies 171 (26.0%) 343 (52.1%) 144 (21.9%) 2.34 13. course curriculum can reflect real world data and real-time information with mobile technologies 189 (28.7%) 229 (34.8%) 240 (36.5%) 2.01 14. geographically isolated or economically disadvantaged students can benefit from access to online software or resources for learning with mobile technologies 401 (60.9%) 26 (4.0%) 178 (27.1%) 53 (8.0%) 3.22 15. using mobile technologies in learning makes learning addictive 176 (26.7%) 233 (35.4%) 198 (30.1%) 51 (7.8%) 2.88 grand mean 2.85 indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 table 1 presented the result on how postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies. the results indicated that mobile technologies can be used to search and store information regarding lesson to be learnt and mobile technologies allow easy access to information. the results indicated that 50.3% of the respondents strongly agree that mobile technologies can be used to search and store information regarding lesson to be learnt, 40.3% agreed with the statement while 9.4% of the respondents disagreed. it was revealed that mobile technologies allow easy access to information, 47.6% of the respondents strongly agreed that mobile technologies allow easy access to information, 49.7% of the total respondents agreed, 1.8% respondents disagreed while 0.9% of the total respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. mobile technologies influenced quick and better presentations and the use of mobile technologies allowed receiving of lectures anywhere and anytime. there were 257 (39.1%) of the whole respondents strongly agreed that mobile technologies influenced quick and better presentations, 36.2% of the respondents agreed, 18.2% disagreed, and 6.5% strongly disagreed. also, 29.3% of the respondents strongly agreed with the statement that the use of mobile technologies allowed receiving of lectures anywhere and anytime, 39.2% agreed, 16.3% respondents disagreed while 15.2% strongly disagreed. furthermore, the results established that the influence of mobile technologies results in competitive advantage compared other devices. the results established that 30.5% of the respondents strongly agreed that the influence of mobile technologies results in competitive advantage compared other devices, 40.9% respondents agreed, 21.7% respondents disagreed while 6.9% respondents strongly disagreed. the use of mobile technologies leaded to increased classroom product quality and also the use of mobile technologies gains significant skills and advantages in the learning process. the results further showed that 15.3% respondents strongly agreed with the statements that the use of mobile technologies leaded to increased classroom product quality, 39.2% of the respondents agreed, 31.8% disagreed, and 13.7% of the respondents strongly disagreed. mobile technologies allowed for greater collaboration and promote group work, 82 (12.5%) of the respondents strongly agreed with the statement which stated that mobile technologies allowed for greater collaboration and promote group work, 201 (30.5%) respondents agreed, 277 (42.1%) disagreed, and 98 (14.9%) respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. the use of mobile technologies gained significant skills and advantages in the learning process 93 (14.1%) strongly agreed, 204 (31.0%) agreed, 300 (45.6%) of the respondents disagreed, and 61 (9.3%) of the respondents strongly disagreed. with mobile technologies, students’ progress and reports can be easily tracked and postgraduate students could source for unlimited information with mobile technologies. postgraduate students believed that mobile technologies allow for global communication. with mobile technologies, students’ progress and reports could be easily tracked, 260 (39.5%) respondents strongly disagreed, 245 (37.2%) respondents agreed, 113 (17.2%) respondents disagreed, and 40 (6.1%) respondents strongly disagreed. assessing students’ performance could be done instantly with mobile technologies. postgraduate students agreed that course curriculum could reflect real world data and real-time information with mobile technologies. geographically isolated or economically disadvantaged students could benefit from access to online software or resources for learning with mobile technologies. furthermore, 171 (26.0%) respondents agreed that assessing students’ performance could be done instantly with mobile technologies, 343 (52.1%) respondents disagreed, while 144 (21.9%) respondents strongly disagreed. postgraduate students agreed that course curriculum could reflect real world data and real-time information with mobile michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 8 technologies, 229 (34.8%) disagreed, and 240 (36.5%) strongly agreed. the findings also established that 401 (60.9%) postgraduate students strongly disagreed that geographically isolated or economically disadvantaged students could benefit from access to online software or resources for learning with mobile technologies, 26 (4.0%) respondents agreed, 178 (27.1%) respondents disagreed, while 53 (8.0%) respondents strongly disagreed. there were 176 (26.7%) respondents strongly disagreed that using mobile technologies in learning makes learning addictive, 233 (35.4%) respondents agreed, 198 (30.1%) disagreed, and 51 (7.8%) strongly disagreed. using mobile technologies in learning makes learning addictive. the grand mean score on postgraduate students’ utilization of mobile technologies was 2.85. using a bench mark of 2.50 for 4-likert scale, since the grand mean score of 2.85 was greater than the benchmark, it could thus be deduced that postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies for their learning. research question 2: what was the difference in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study? table 2. difference in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduates students mode of study n mean remarks mean deviation full-time 315 3.51 utilized 0.00 part-time 115 3.46 utilized 0.05 distance learning 228 3.56 utilized 0.04 total 658 table 2 presented the difference in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on mode of study. the table indicated that of the 658 postgraduate students that participated in this study, 315 distance learning postgraduate students mostly utilized mobile technologies with a mean score of 3.56, 315 full-time postgraduate students’ utilized mobile technologies more with a mean score of 3.51, while 115 postgraduate part-time students had a mean score of 3.46. the difference in the mean gain of postgraduate students in their utilization of mobile technologies was very low. this indicated that postgraduate distance learning’ students utilized mobile technologies more than their full-time and part-time counter parts in south-west, nigeria. hypothesis there was no significant difference in the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students in south-west, nigeria based on their mode of study. table 3. utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students based on their mode of study source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model .657a 2 . 219 .350 .792 intercept 70.448 1 70.448 112.672 .000 mode of study .657 2 .219 .350 .792 error 2.501 655 .625 total 73.607 658 corrected total 3.158 657 a. r squared = .208 (adjusted r squared = -.386) table 3 showed the results on the significant difference in the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students based on their mode of study. it indicated that f (2, 658) = 0.35, p>0.05, which meant no significant difference existed indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 2, october 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 9 in the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students based on their mode of study. hence, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference in the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students based on their mode of study is hereby accepted. however, the marginal means on the differences in utilization are represented graphically in figure 1. figure 1: estimated marginal means on utilization of mobile technologies figure 1 presented graphically the estimated marginal means on the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students in south-west, nigeria based on their mode of study. it revealed that distance learning postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies the most, next full time and part time postgraduate students respectively but the differences are negligible. postgraduate students utilized mobile technologies for their learning. this study was in support of issa, et al. (2019) who established that majority of the postgraduate students in nigeria adopted mobile technologies for their learning. ferreira, moreira, pereira, and durão (2015) deduced that when mobile technologies were used as part of an effort to support the involvement of an active learning there was evidence that they could lead to increase students’ motivation and satisfaction. this was in support of the findings of saima, muhammad, muhammad, and maqsud (2015) who established that the easy access to new dimensions of technologies had placed the schools, teachers, and learners on a privileged place to follow rapid changes. there were differences in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study. in support of these findings, bola (2015) deduced that mobile technologies utilization varies based on some moderating variables of gender, specialization and so on. significant difference existed in the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students based on their mode of study. the findings of mahdi and al-dera (2013) revealed that there was no significant difference in ict use regarding mode of study. conclusion the study concludes that postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies for their learning. the effective utilization of the michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 10 mobile technologies by postgraduate students can be of immense benefit towards their learning within and outside the classroom settings and also facilitate their research knowledge and skills. there are differences in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study. the findings indicate that distance learning postgraduate students utilize mobile technologies more than their counterparts in full-time and part-time. this implies that differences exist in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on mode of study but the differences are not significant. based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are made: 1). postgraduate students should be encouraged to continue utilizing mobile technologies in their studies for both learning and research; 2). more orientation should be organized for full time and part time postgraduate students on the usefulness of mobile technologies in learning. this will enable to bridge the gap in the differences between postgraduate students in their utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on mode of study; and 3). workshops and seminars could also be organized for all postgraduate students in order to maintain their level of utilizing mobile technologies for learning and research without gap. references abdulkalman, a. p. j. 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(2018). technology education students, use of web-based instruction for learning: a case of university of ilorin, nigeria. association for innovative technology integration in education,1(1), 321-326. unesco. (2019). education transforms lives: global education 2030 agenda through sustainable development goal 4. retrieved on january 21, 2019 from https://en.unesco.org/themes/education uzuegbu, c. p., mbadiwe, h. c., & anulobi, j. c. (2013). availability and utilization of instructional materials in teaching and learning of library education in tertiary institutions in abia state. wudpecker journal of educational research, 2(8), 111-120. retrieved on january 21, 2019 from http://wudpeckerresearchjournals.org/wjer/pdf yusuf, m. o., & balogun, m. r. (2011). student teachers' competence and attitude towards information and technology: a case study in a nigerian university. contemporary educational technology, 2(1), 18-36. https://www.pearson.com/corporate/about-pearson/the-importance-of-education.html https://www.pearson.com/corporate/about-pearson/the-importance-of-education.html https://edtechdigest.com/2010/09/22/21-definitions-for-a-21st-century-education/ https://edtechdigest.com/2010/09/22/21-definitions-for-a-21st-century-education/ http://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015608228 https://en.unesco.org/themes/education http://wudpeckerresearchjournals.org/wjer/pdf michael olubunmi odewumi, amos ochayi onojah, & adenike janet aderogba postgraduate students’ study mode and utilization of mobile technologies for learning in nigeria 12 abstract: the study examines postgraduate students’ utilization of mobile technologies for learning and find out the differences in the utilization of mobile technologies by postgraduate students based on their mode of study. the study was a descripti... method results and discussion conclusion references indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english amin ali al mubarak department of english, faculty of language and cultural, university of al imam al mahdi, sudan e-mail: amino.last25@gmail.com apa citation: mubarak, a. a. a. (2019). strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 2(1), 114. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1679. received: 02-12-2018 accepted: 19-02-2019 published: 01-04-2019 abstract: this particular study investigates the problems found in the strategies adopted by students in translating certain lexical collocations of the islamic religious texts. for that purpose, a purposive sample of 41 b.a, english students enrolled in the academic year of 2017-2018 at the arts college had been selected as participants in this study. thus, the primary objective of the study is to determine if these sudanese students faced any problem when translating islamic religious collocations from arabic into english. therefore, the researcher employed the descriptive approach to identify the problems faced by students in using several strategies for translation. as for data collection method, a test, which consisted of specific lexical collocations terms, had been carried out to analyse the obstacles that the students faced when translating islamic religious collocations terms from arabic into english. hence, some main issues that were identified from the findings were reviewed in a wholesome manner and wherever possible, links were made to associate the themes to the literature examined, besides further extending the research scope via comparison with other literature in light of the finding. finally, some recommendations are given at the end of the research mainly for students to improve their skills in translating islamic lexical collocations from arabic into english. keywords: arabic; collocations; english; religious; translational. introduction translation has been the oldest form of communication devised by humans to convey ideas, thoughts, and culture especially to overcome the issue of understanding different languages. the needs for translation are expanding these days due to the rapid advancement of science, culture, and innovation. nevertheless, the process of translation has raised a number of substantial linguistic problems, including those related to context, grammar, and culture. besides, applying distinctive translation strategies is one of the apparatuses translators use in order to overcome issues and difficulties related to translation. saying that, religious collocations are among the prominent translation problems, especially where translation involves two differing languages like arabic and english, which display great variances in cultural and linguistic aspects. hence, the enthusiasm for the translation of collocations originates from their extraordinary significance in language. additionally, translation plays a fundamental role in the coherence aspect of the structure of a language. the translation of collocations, as one realizes, is an unending battle to match proper nouns with appropriate verbs, correct verbs with apt proper nouns, and suitable adjectives with proper nouns. moreover, translating religious collocations has been considered as a high-level challenge, especially for translation from arabic into english. this is because the translator’s deadlock arises from the fact that only two possibilities are available when translating religious collocations: first, the translator should be familiar with the terms, comprehend the sense of the terms, and be well acquainted with the target language version of it. second, the translator should be accustomed with the https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v2i01.1679 amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 2 term manifestations in the source language or its rendered equivalents in the target language. the present study investigates the issues that revolve around the problems faced by sudanese students when translating islamic religious collocations from arabic into english. the problem statement show that translation of religious collocations differs greatly from any sort of translation. it is a standout amongst the hardest kind of translation, as it needs a great deal more exactness, deliberateness, and mindfulness. however, the biggest problems lie in vanquishing ideational obstacles in translation, as well as in addressing the terms. furthermore, the need of deciphering islamic collocations from arabic into english has been an absolute necessity, thus gives a challenge for muslim translators in general. in addition, religious expressions are commonly utilized outside of the religious context through conversational, political, and various sorts of discourse to bolster non-religious causes. religious translation is the most dangerous type of translation because it manages unique and delicate writings – god's words. hence, an enormous problem lies in making translation of them into a target language. religious collocations posture difficulties to students because religion is an important institutional network that binds people to one another. therefore, a translator ought to acknowledge the variances between arabic ideas and convictions against western ones. indeed, arabic and english have unique linguistic systems; each possesses exclusive religious terminology. besides, the category of religious collocations in each language constitutes sovereign religious territory, in which a term in a religion in one language may vary from the meaning of the similar term in another language. in addition, the absence of congruency between the two unique religious expressions adds to the issues faced by translators. therefore, this study determines the strategies employed by b.a students at the arts college university of al imam amdahl sudan when collocations in religious texts are translated from arabic into english. while the objective is to explore the various strategies used by students due to the difficulties faced in translating collocations in religious texts from arabic into english. translating islamic religious items is indeed challenging. besides, it appears to be one of the most common difficulties and problems faced by translators. studies in the area of deciphering collocations from the source language to the target language have revealed that the correlation between strategies and errors is significant. simply put, erroneous renditions of collocations ascribed, in addition to other things, to the strategies that translators tend to utilize to handle the issue of translating religious collocations. dalby ( 1998 ) revealed that arabic and english languages have various settings and derive from differing language families, whereby the arabic is organized as an affiliate of the semitic family of languages, while english is a branch of the indo-european language family. the arabic in this research context, is defined as the representative language spoken in more than 15 countries in the middle east, whereas the english is an indo-european language and it is the representative language of england, the america, and a majority of the commonwealth nations. as such, both arabic and english syntactically display varied structures. for instance, arabic is for the most component, an artificial language. for instance, the nouns change for case, while the verbs change for mood. phonologically, arabic and english differ in phonemic lists. moreover, if one needs to measure the real obstacles that revolve around translation, one cannot dismiss the environmental space within the arabic and english settings, which presents as a gap between the arab culture and the english culture. jemiriye (2005) has pointed out that the correlations between religions, language, and culture are incredibly interconnected. religion based on culture is also closely related to language. besides, language relies on familiarity and one that is never knowledgeable can never be expressed in a language. every religious familiarity will consequently carry a religious language, thus a holy culture. the culture within which a religion is built paints the language and the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 very concept of the related religion, therefore, cannot be differentiated. furthermore, in the relationship between language and culture, a question always pops up: ‘which one contains the other?’ language expresses religion and culture, but at the same time, language is cultural. interestingly, there is religious language, religious culture, language culture, and culture of language. all these perspectives cover the interrelatedness of religion, language, and culture. more importantly, religion is a way of belief and devotion to full rights. besides, religion is the human seeking for god and his response to our plead. religion includes respect, faithfulness, personal commitment, and serving god with religious devotion. in fact, it resembles a system of belief and respect with multiple faces like spiritual and organizational. one can say that it is the professional perform or faith in the existence of supernatural powers or influences that control humanity, nature or destiny of a man. therefore, the culture is such a common expression whose usage extends across many academic disciplines. it is, hence, worthwhile to show the broad scope of culture seriously, but in a brief manner. the term ‘collocation’ is utilized broadly with various meanings by linguists. for instance, moon (1998) alluded to syntagmatic and paradigmatic connections of words. in another isolated approach, carter (2012) contended that collocation is the common cooccurrence of words within a particular span recognized to be four words to either side of the specified focal word or node. this stance is also known as the "frequency-based method,” which goes back to (firth, 1957). nonetheless, it has been improved considerably by halliday (1966) as collocation can be viewed as a sort of word-combination, most commonly as one that is static to some degree, but not in a wholesome manner. this outlook is also known as the "phraseological approach", which has been widely accepted by academics lengthily working in fields of pedagogy and lexicography, such as that of (cowie, 1981). the islamic religious item is linguistic-derived, a word or a string of words that is peculiar to a particular language and communicates it precisely (esposito, 2004). abdelwali (2007) asserted that is an item or a group of specific sounds that allude to a particular significance or implication. if one considers the islamic religious items as culture-specific concepts or culture-bound items, then these definitions need to be based on the viewpoints recommended by outstanding researchers in the field of translation, as well as linguistics. in addition, peter (1988) claimed that culture-bound words are uniquely “attached to the lifestyle and its appearances are peculiar to a group that uses a particular language as a tool of expression”. on the other hand, schwartz and rubel (2005) defined culturebound as “thoughts in any language that are unique to that language or to the culture linked to that language, which leads to a social gap between speakers of various languages.” meanwhile, in conjunction to religious lexical items, elewa (2014) has categorized them into three groups within the islamic setting: 1. unfamiliar islamic terms that are only utilized as part of islamic settings, for instance, alkhul’ (divorce for payment by the wife) and altaqiyyah (dissimulation). 2. wellknown islamic terms that are just utilized as part of non-islamic setting, for instance, alfat-h (liberation) and alwala’ (allegiance to muslims). 3. recognizable islamic terms that are utilized as part of non-religious contexts, however, do not clearly look as though they are used as part of some particular islamic route in the source text. ghazala (1995) categorized the islamic religious items into three groups: 1. new things that do not exist in the arabic language before islam, such as qur’an and affliction2. familiar arabic items that islam has given fresh ramifications, for example, hajj and salah 3. things that are now known and utilized as part of the arabic language, for instance, k‟aba the primary issue in translating collocation heavily relies upon finding the privilege lexical, as well as cultural equivalent, for such items. hence, one of the chief challenges faced by a translator of islamic religious items is to settle on which amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 4 cultural issues ought to take significance: the cultural aspects of the target language, the cultural dimensions of the source language, or perhaps, a combination of the two. for example, nida (1964) gave significance to the cultural aspects of the target text when emphasis was projected upon the semantic and the pragmatic nature of the meaning. he also contended against static or unchanged meaning of words. according to nida (1964), the practical nature inferred in the meaning of words is more significant, thus, the meaning of words could be conveyed through unique circumstance, which could be altered by the culture one adopts. in addition, claimed that cultural translation refers to “the translation, in which the content of the message is modified to fit in with the receptor culture, besides determining the information that is presented, but not linguistically verifiable in the original (nida, 1969)." therefore, one’s decision of a certain cultural strategy may result in sourceculture bound translation in the form of either foreignization or domestication. studies in the field of translating collocations from the source language to the target language have revealed that the relationship between strategies and mistakes is rather consistent. for example, scientists like al-khanji and hussein (1999), zughoul and abdul-fattah (2003), and bahumaid (2006) have broadly explored the procedures adhered either by english foreign language or by translators to overcome the difficulties encountered in translating collocations. al-khanji and hussein (1999) explored the nature of problems that students experienced in learning collocations, as well as the strategies utilized when the learners are incapable of translating lexical words accurately. in fact, the test comprised of 50 collocational terms that appeared as recurrence in textbooks and english courses. the outcomes demonstrated that the learners' inappropriate responses reflected three classes; one depended on their source language, such as literal transliteration, which is considered as a negative transfer. meanwhile, the second depended on target language semantic continuity, whereby the learners substituted a lexical item by another one with mutual individual semantic elements with it, whereas the third classification refers to lexical diminishment strategy. other than that, zughoul and abdulfattah (2003) carried out a study among english foreign language learners at the university level for both graduate and undergraduate levels. the researchers were determined to discover the capability of english foreign language learners in translating collocations, as well as the strategies utilized in producing arabic collocations. the results of the study revealed that the overall execution of the subjects in the target collocations had been unsatisfactory. nevertheless, twelve appropriate strategies had been determined and listed in conjunction to the objective of the study, which are: literal translation, avoidance, graphic ambiguity, overgeneralization, quasi-metaphorical similarity, assumed synonymy, derivativeness, imitation of literary style, idiomaticness, paraphrase and circumlocution, substitution, and finally, false target language assumption. meanwhile, bahumaid (2006) investigated the techniques that had been utilized by translators in rendering collocations, whose target language equivalents were obscure to them. the findings reflected that the translators did resort to many procedures. he carried out his study upon four arab university teachers who taught translation. the two-section translation test was comprised of thirty sentences on contextualized collocations of various sorts. the collocations that were selected for the test had been of the general kind so as "to make noise", while the others were connected with a particular register. the findings demonstrated that culture-bound and in register-specific caused enormous difficulty in translation, whereas collocations with severe implications were relatively easier to translate. moreover, the translators utilized certain strategies, for instance, using synonyms or near-synonyms, providing meaning of the collocations, attempting accurate renditions, and finally, avoiding translation all together. on the other hand, lörscher (1991) has alluded to translation issues experienced by indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 translators, even by the expert, as "transfer problems. such problems are ascribed to challenges in interpreting meaning carried by the mother tongue language text, and not by the lexical or semantic contrasts between languages. in addition, translation strategies are characterized as conscious procedures, which the subjects utilize to resolve translation issues and hurdles. accordingly, translation strategies have their beginning point in acknowledging an issue by a subject, and their termination in a possibly preparatory solution to the problem or recognition of the insolubility of the subject at a given point in time." shunnaq (1993) analyzed the subject of emotive language in translation, which highlighted the diverse angles on lexical incongruence in arabic-english translation due to the aspect of emotiveness in arabic. on top of that, he sorted numerous types of emotive expressions into (neutral), (-emotive), and (+emotive). next, he grouped the primary sources of emotive expressions into two: cultural expressions and figures of speech. in addition, he debated certain arabic lexical items, which are emotive by their inclination, and contended how emotive implication could become a method of management in the field of translation. additionally, shunnaq (1993) asserted that translating an arabic emotive expression is definitely not a simple job because it involves the connotative meaning that is exceptionally a challenge to convey. simply put, shunnaq (1993) concluded that since total consistency in translating arabic emotive expressions has always appeared as an impossible task; a translator has to resort to, footnote, paraphrase, exemplify, and gloss to preserve or retain the connotative meaning of the arabic emotive expressions. according to dweik and abu shakra (2011), the troubles and issues that translators commonly experience while deciphering lexical and semantic contextualized collocations in three arabic religious texts: the holy quran, the hadith, and the bible. they observed that the collocations displayed a noteworthy predicament among m.a. students pursuing translation program, especially when translating the collocations in religious texts. their study further revealed that translators did confront the glitches that emerge in lexical and semantic collocations. therefore, they suggested that translators of religious texts ought to be acutely aware of the nature of both lexical and figurative collocations. they highlighted that translators ought to understand the variances between arabic ideas and convictions, in comparison to western ones, besides evading literal translation by considering the context as a critical factor. other than that, chebbo (2006) claimed that translators of religious texts from arabic into english should consider several essential aspects while deciphering these 'sensitive' texts from arabic into english. the translation of arabic religious texts incorporates not just some issues at a linguistic level, with lexical and syntactic manipulation, as well as reformulation of concepts, but additionally, ideational obstacles that should intercede between the source text producer and reader. ivir (1987) proposed seven strategies: definition, translation, substitution, literal, addition, lexical creation, omission, borrowing, in conjunction to translation. meanwhile, hervey et al. (1992) suggested utilizing cultural borrowing, cultural transplantation, communicative translation, exoticism, and calque. newmark (1988) highlighted employing naturalization, transference, shift, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, and paraphrase through translation, or transposition, modulation, recognized translation, translation label, compensation, componential analysis, reduction, as well as expansion. the process of seeking for adequate collocations has to heavily consider exertion on the part of the translator, who ought to in any event attempt to give a target language translation, which is equivalent in both meanings and use of source language collocations. nevertheless, when translators fail in finding a corresponding target language equivalent to the lexical item in the source language, a few strategies are adopted as the amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 6 solution to the problems experienced. for instance, krings (1986) expressed their support towards translators who fall back on various strategies "if the idea of translation strategy is of an observational value, it should be connected to translation issues. this is because; strategies are developed when the translation cannot be carried out automatically.” on the other hand, garcia (1996) asserted diverse procedures for the translation are executed to accomplish a partially successful transfer when these problems in translation frequently get to be distinctly unavoidable. newmark (1989) acknowledged the issues that fellow translators have to face at various stages, and thus formulated certain strategies that could assist translators overcome these difficulties, whereby "the translator during the process of translation, is continually attempting to take care of a thousand little issues with regard to a vast one." hence, seeking for suitable collocations in translation is indeed a consistent struggle. these situations, nevertheless, can be settled if "translators rely on upon specific strategies, which might be very powerful when dealing with linguistic resemblances, however prompt to significant issues in case of cultural disparity”. in addition, peter (1988) has offered several techniques related to translation based on various understandings of strategies. these strategies are literal translation, word-for-word translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, free translation, adaptation translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. moreover, he stressed that communicative translation as a strategy where "a translator endeavors to render the exact contextual meaning of the source language in such a way that both content and language are promptly worthy and conceivable to the readership.” naudé (2002) provides the following assumptions for the translation of religion terms: a) translation of religion terms is a way of movement, which is similar to the translation of other terms, which belongs to a culture distant from the target readers in time and space. this means; the best translation approach available should be employed by the translators of religion terms. it also means the translators of religion texts should have sufficient translation capabilities; b) two conditions can result in an extreme difference between cultures. first, the deficient cultural background information makes it achievable to set up consistency between what is said and what is known. second, non-vocal and vocal behaviors do not suit because one that is nonvocal cannot be interpreted corrected; c) sacred texts cannot be handled similar to that with communicative meaning in modern societies for they vary in their social and cultural settings. therefore, the translation of theses text, by no means, can rely on equivalent standards; and d) translation consists of a series of resolutions made by the translator, bearing in mind the contradictory requirements between the source text and the source culture on one hand, and those of the target language and the target culture on the other, in light of the purpose of the intercultural communication. similarly, larson (1984) added that "terms that transact with the religious aspect of a culture are generally the most troublesome, both in the analysis of the source vocabulary, as well as in seeking for the best receptor language correspondence. the reason is that these words are impalpable and a large portion of the practices are so automatic to the point that the speakers of the language are not as aware of the various parts of meaning involved.” on top of that, ghazala (2002) recommended utilizing six sorts of equivalents to translate related islamic terms and expressions: explanatory equivalent, referential equivalent, functional equivalent, cultural equivalent, religious equivalent, and connotative equivalent. for example, the words “halal” and “haraam” have literal equivalents in english as “permissible” and “forbidden”. nonetheless, these equivalents do not convey the extra levels of social and religious meaning that arabic terms denote. this is because; the terms “halal” and “haraam” in the islamic culture refer to a wide number of practices and customs that are permitted (or not permitted) under the islamic law. furthermore, they refer to specific islamic indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 laws governing food and drinks. as such, translation of such terms just by providing their dictionary equivalents is yet again insufficient. method since this study had been carried out to determine the problems encountered when employing several strategies in translating islamic religious collocations from arabic into english. a test was designed to include a reasonable number of questions (i.e., 12 items) with simple structures. in the study, a test was conducted to determine if the participants could translate religious terms from arabic to english. the sample is comprised of undergraduate students who were enrolled in english language program during the second semester of 2016/2017 at arts college university of al imam amdahl sudan. hence, a sample of 41 undergraduate students majoring in translation had been selected to participate in the study. considering the intent of the survey was to determine the constraints in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english, recruiting a sample of undergraduate students majoring in translation would definitely fulfill this objective. a test was carried out to determine if islamic religion collocations had posed as a problem to students when translating from arabic into english. in this study, the number of students involved was 35. hence, several aspects like right translation, wrong translation, transliteration, incomplete meaning, and no answer were obtained and indicated in percentage for each category. results and discussion (cursed devil) م ِريدُ َشْيَطانُ figure 1 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement م ِريد َشْيَطان (cursed devil). of the 41 participants, forty-six percent gave the wrong translation to the collocation while only fourteen percent provide ,م ِريد َشْيَطان the correct translation. meanwhile, thirty-four participants used transliteration to render the collocation م ِريد َشْيَطان. however, twelve percent of the participants gave incomplete meaning, whereas four percent left blank answer. figure 1 describes the results from the translation test carried out among the thirtyfive participants. figure 1. frequency count of responses to the statement cursed devil (good and evil) َوالشَّرُ الخير figure 2 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement َوالشَّر الخير (good and evil). out of the 41 participants, forty-three percent of the participants translated wrongly, while forty-eight percent translated accurately for the collocation َوالشَّر الخير. other than that, seven participants used transliteration to render the collocation َوالشَّر الخير. however, one percent of the participants give incomplete meaning and blank answer each for the collocation َوالشَّر الخير. figure 2 portrays the results from the translation test carried out upon the thirty-five participants. amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 8 figure 2. frequency responses to the statement good and evil انِي الثَّي ِبُ married man who is an) الزَّ adulterer) figure 3 displays the frequency count of responses to the statement انِي الثَّي ِب married) الزَّ man who is an adulterer). from the 41 participants, sixty-three percent provided wrong translation, whereas only fifteen percent translated correctly for the collocation الثَّي ِب انِي meanwhile, twenty-one participants .الزَّ used transliteration to render the collocation انِيالزَّ الثَّي ِب . nonetheless, one percent of the participants offered incomplete meaning to the collocation انِي الثَّي ِب but none left the ,الزَّ question unanswered. figure 3 shows the results from the translation test of the thirtyfive participants. figure 3. the frequency responses to the statement married man who is an adulterer (to suppress rage) غيظا َكَظمَُ figure 4 presents the frequency count of responses to the statement غيظا َكَظمَ الثَّي ِب (to suppress rage). out of the 41 participants, eighty-three percent gave wrong translation, while only a mere five-percent translated correctly for the collocation َغيظا َكَظم. besides, fifteen participants used transliteration to render the collocation َغيظا َكَظم. nonetheless, seven percent of the participants gave partial answer to the collocation َغيظا َكَظم (to suppress rage), while none left the question blank. figure 4 displays the results from the translation test of the thirty-five participants. indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 9 figure 4. the frequency responses to the statement to suppress rage (abrogated hadith) اْلَمْنس وخُ اْلَحديثُ figure 5 exhibits the frequency count of responses to the statement اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث (abrogated hadith). from the 41 participants, sixty-eight percent gave wrong translation, while only five percent had provided the right translation to the collocation اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث. besides, fifteen participants used transliteration to render the collocation اْلَحديث nevertheless, eight percent gave .اْلَمْنس وخ incomplete meaning, whereas four percent of the participants did not provide any answer to the collocation اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث. figure 5 shows the results from the translation test of the thirty-five participants. figure 5. the frequency responses to the statement abrogated hadith (agony of death) اْلَمْوتُِ سكرة ُ figure 6 displays the frequency count of responses to the statement ال (abrogated hadith). from the 41 participants, fifty-four percent translated wrongly, while only four percent gave correct translation for the collocation اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث. besides, twentytwo participants used transliteration to render the collocation اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث. however, fifteen present answered partially, while five percent did not give any answer to the collocation figure 6 describes the results .اْلَمْنس وخ اْلَحديث from the translation test carried out upon the thirty-five participants. figure 6. the frequency responses to the statement abrogated hadith (alive and kicking) يرزق َحيَُّ figure 7 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement َّيرزق َحي (alive and kicking). out of the 41 participants, eightynine percent gave wrong translation, whereas only eight percent gave the correct translation to the collocation َّيرزق َحي. meanwhile, two participants used transliteration to render the collocation َّيرزق َحي. however, none gave partial meaning or blank answer for this collocation. figure 7 shows the results from the translation test of the thirty-five participants. amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 10 figure 7. the frequency responses to the statement alive and kicking (a torment ignominious) َمِهين َعذَابُ figure 8 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement َمِهين َعذَاب (a torment ignominious). from the 41 participants, a whopping ninety-two percent translated wrongly, while only three percent translated correctly for the collocation َمِهين َعذَاب. meanwhile, four participants used transliteration to render the collocation َعذَاب however, one percent gave partial .ق َمِهين meaning, but none gave blank answer for the collocation َمِهين َعذَاب. figure 8 describes the results from the translation test carried out upon the thirty-five participants. figure 8. the frequency of responses to the statement a torment ignominious (a terrific doom) َشِديدُ َعذَابُ figure 9 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement َشِديد َعذَاب (a torment ignominious). out of the 41 participants, seventy-two percent gave wrong translation, while sixteen percent translated correctly for the collocation َمِهين َعذَاب. meanwhile, nine participants used transliteration to render the collocation َشِديد َعذَاب. however, two percent gave partial meaning, whereas one percent of the participants did not answer. figure 9 describes the results from the translation test carried out upon the thirty-five participants. figure 9. the frequency responses to the statement a torment ignominious indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 (an awful doom) َعِظيمُ َعذَابُ figure 10 shows the frequency count of responses to the statement َعِظيم َعذَاب (an awful doom). from the 41 participants, eighty-five percent gave wrong translation, while only eight percent gave the right translation to the collocation َمِهين َعذَاب. meanwhile, four participants used transliteration to render the collocation َعِظيم َعذَاب. however, two percent gave incomplete meaning, while one percent did not provide any translation for the collocation َعِظيم َعذَاب. figure 10 describes the results obtained from the translation test that was carried out upon the thirty-five participants. figure 10. the frequency responses to the statement an awful doom religious expressions are an indispensable part of the muslim culture and they have a strong impact upon their daily life. thus, deciphering daily conversations, which are full of religious expressions, into english requires a comprehension of the cultural nuances of islamic expressions, as well as deep knowledge of the teaching of islam. besides, the findings showed that islamic religious collocations are in fact, the actual barriers for students to translate from arabic language into english language. furthermore, translators of islamic religious collocations should be extremely conscious of the variances between arabic language concepts and beliefs, as well as the english language. moreover, it is not always a simple job to do since most of the religious expressions are typically determined implicitly rather than unambiguously. in addition, a term related to religious circumstance differs from the meaning of a similar term in another situation because religious expressions are more expressive and enthusiastic. furthermore, the findings of the study that are related to the problems encountered by graduate students while translating islamic religious collocations from arabic into english showed that most learners found it difficult to achieve the equivalent effects of the cultural and religious terms used in the test. this outcome is in agreement to that claimed by newmark (1988), as he expressed that “the more culturally remote in time and space a content is, there is less corresponding effect, unless the reader is creative, sensitive, and saturated in the source language culture.” this finding also shares with that opined by aldahesh (2008), who found that inability to meet the correspondence is indeed a dire issue. the results demonstrated that adopting and deciding a suitable translation method was another problem that the students experienced. this is because; many students either utilized glossing or literal translation method without providing any footnote or explanation for the reader. it further demonstrates that in some cases, the learners depended on the guessing technique, which means, depending on the setting to decide the meaning. regardless of the significance of the unique situation, it might not be, unfortunately, helpful when it comes to religious expressions because religious terms, for instance, are most of the time used within a particular context. the findings showed that the students were highly influenced by their culture, as reflected in their translation. furthermore, cultural variances make the translation process a challenging task amin ali al mubarak strategies constrains in rendering islamic religious collocations from arabic into english 12 for fellow translators in general, and learners specifically. on top of that, the study revealed that the reason behind these issues is the lack of cultural awareness that play a major role behind these issues. this finding is in agreement with that of olk (2003), whose review portrayed that the learners were frequently in need of adequate knowledge about the british culture, which caused them to utilize inadequate renditions. however, the study revealed that unfamiliarity with translation strategies could also be an influential factor for these difficulties. the study revealed that the incorrect rendering of lexical collocations relied mostly on the various strategies adopted by the students in translating the intended collocations. the two most prominent strategies used by the learners were deletion and synonymy. sometimes, the students gathered some synonyms for lexical constituents that led to collocation clash, whereby the learners proved their lack of knowledge upon collocation issues in translation. besides, deletion and leaving collocation constituents translated were among the other criteria that displayed the lack of knowledge upon lexical collocations among students. furthermore, islamic religious collocations become a hindrance in the process of translation not only because they need serious search and acquaintance of the target language culture, but also due to the narrow choices of suitable approaches or methods to deal with them (saleh et al., 2011). in addition, the data analysis offers evidence that the students committed errors of lexical and semantic sorts when translating collocations of religious nature. incorrect translations are mostly ascribed to the participants' unfamiliarity with specific collocations in both the source language and in the target language, as well as their limited ability in recognizing collocations in their first language. the students also exhibited absence in collocation knowledge due to two factors. the first factor is related to the fact that collocations in religious texts have low occurrence in everyday language, so the translators do not frequently have adequate acquaintance to such categories. subsequently, the learners could not recognize two comparable lexical items in arabic and this particular disarray was reflected in their english translations, which is in agreement with the notion drawn by baker (1992). meanwhile, the second factor refers to the combination of lexical items within a given structure conditioned by certain semantic sorts, which limit the collocation choice of those items, which happens to be similar to the assertion made by bahumaid (2006). similarly, the terms that derive from the islamic religious collocation require cultural knowledge to be accurately comprehended to avoid glitches in translation. the complexities embedded in the translation of cultural concepts, as well as the variety of translation techniques applied to describe their sense via interpretation of the lexis from the arabic islamic religious collocations, had been examined. as a result, it was discovered that those problems emerged from several linguistic aspects, inclusive of the absence of the cultural concept in the target language, the various semantic fields of the islamic religious collocation terms in the source language and the target language, the loss of meaning, as well as the metaphorical meaning carried by many culturally associated terms. these variations point towards a cultural gap that makes the translation of cultural lexis a difficult task, which is similar to the findings reported by bekkai (2010). moreover, most of the translation problems faced by the students, as determined in this study, can be grouped under several factors, such as the cultural difference between arabic language and english language, the misuse of the literal translation approach, as well as the lack of one-to-one equivalents between arabic language and english language in terms of islamic religious collocation. additionally, when students were unfamiliar with the translation strategy known as omission, it was difficult for them to decide when or where to delete or add concepts in the target language. the results further emphasized the issues that revolve around islamic religious collocation faced by the students during the indonesian journal of learning and instruction volume 2, issue 1, april 2019 p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 translation process. for instance, they failed to give a suitable and the real meaning of the islamic religious collocation from the arabic language into the target language precisely, which affected the degree of translation quality, as the participants in this study obviously could not translate them successfully. in addition, translation is not an easy activity, which can simply be carried out by anyone. translators are always faced with confusing problems and complications while translating, which demand a certain capacities and competences on their part. it is important for translators to be more conscious and well accustomed with the cultural environment of the target language to produce meaningful translations. as such, the knowledge of a translator concerning the second language culture is considered as an indispensable requirement for successful translation within specific cultural concepts. conclusion this study has thrown some light on a topic related to arabic and english translation with special emphasis on the translation of islamic religious collocation. besides, the primary objective of this study has been to identify the problems encountered by some selected students when translating islamic religious collocation from arabic into english, which has been highlighted through a translation test carried out as a tool for data collection in this study. moreover, the findings of this research show that the students in this study faces a degree of difficulty in translating islamic religious collocation from arabic into english, which can substantially affect the level and the quality of teaching in the university, where this study has been taken place. in addition, the difficulties are faced by the students in translating the islamic religious collocations from arabic into english have been analyzed as the main objective in this study. thus, in order to attain the objective of the study, the researcher devises the research question to discover and to describe the experiences of the students while translating islamic religious collocations from arabic into english. consequently, the outcomes of this study are successfully answered the research question: “what are the difficulties the students faced in rendering collocations of religious texts from arabic language into english language?” as a result, many factors discovered to emerge as problems when translating islamic religious collocations of arabic into english. these include the fact that the student may possess poor knowledge of the target language in relation to religious collocation terms, as well as their lack of awareness upon the dissimilarities between the source and the target cultures. hence, they fail to display a decent understanding regarding the cultural contexts of another language. moreover, most of these islamic religious collocations represent implicit meaning embedded within the linguistic structures. as such, they are conventionally, culturally, and pragmatically associated, along with being peculiar to arabic. references abdelwali, m. 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(2003). translational collocational strategies of arab learners of english: a study in lexical semantics. babel, 49(1), 59-81. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 65 online learning for efl students in palestinian universities during corona pandemic: advantages, challenges and solutions mohammed farrah english department, faculty of arts, hebron university, palestine email: mfarrah@hebron.edu ghaida’ hatem al-bak ry english department, faculty of arts, hebron university, palestine email: ghaida.hatem98@gmail.com apa citation: farrah, m. & al-bakry, g. h. (2020). online learning for efl students in palestinian universities during corona pandemic: advantages, challenges and solutions. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(2), 65-78. doi: https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3677 received: 02-08-2020 accepted: 15-09-2020 published:01-10-2020 introduction e-learning is identified as courses that are conveyed through web to some places other t han the real classes where the educator is instr uc t ing in a non-virtual way and students can speak and interact with instructors or other students . while it is conveyed live, students can "electronically" raise their hands and communicate continuously. there are kinds of online lectures which have been pre-recorded and online lecturers w here educator or teacher consistently connects/speak s with students and make the evaluation notes as usual. it can be said that the significance of elearning is connected with the development of high education and its advancement through the improvement of techniques and instruction of new methods. according to abernathy (2019), “online learning is not the next big thing; it is the now big thing. significant global events are considered as the reason for any turning point in the invitations field. covid-19 will be the first cheerleader f or the of e-learning in the future. some people see the unplanned and rapid shifting to e-learning with no training because covid-19 will weaken the experience itself, while others believe that this hybrid system of education will explore multi-benefits from this process. wang tao, vicepresident of tencent cloud and vice-president of tencent education said that merging technology in education will speed up the educational process and make the e-learning integral component of the educational process. education has changed greatly for the surprising and rapid transformation to e-learning, that teaching is abstract: this study attempts to examine the perceptions o f efl students in palestinian universitie s a b out online learning advantages, challenges, and solutions during corona pandemic. moreover, it a ims to highlight the efficiency of online learning as an educational system which can be relied on to achiev e g o als of high educational institutions. the researchers investigated the current s i t uat io n o f o n lin e le a rn in g in palestinian universities during the covid-19 pandemic using a questionnaire. in the questionnaire, t he participants were 191 students (161 females and 30 males), and all of the participants have tried t h e o nlin e learning experience during this pandemic. 33% of them took online courses before, while 67% did n o t . t h e questionnaire was posted on 6 english clubs’ websites of 6 palestinian universities: birzet univ e rs it y , a nnajah national university, bethlehem university, hebron university, al-quds universit y, a n d pa le s tin e ahliya university. the investigation was concerned in pointing out the challenges facing the students during their online courses, in addition to finding out solutions in terms of involving stud ent s in t h e a sse ssme nt process. the findings confirmed the need to conduct change s and improvements regarding the implementation of e-learning in the educational process in order to help high ministries of education achieve more real success in spreading knowledge. the researchers concluded that there should be massive efforts in improving the technological infrastructure besides holding good training programs fo r b o t h s t ude nts a n d teachers. keywords: online learning; advantages; challenges; solutions. mailto:mfarrah@hebron.edu https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3677 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 66 taken through digital platforms. other companies are reinforcing capabilities to provide a one-stop store for students and teachers. for instance, a singapore-based collaboration suite called lark started offering students and teachers unlimited video conferencing time, real-time co-editing of work project, smart calendar scheduling, and auto-translation capabilities, amongst other features. to do this quickly and in time of cr is is , lark upgraded its engineering capabilities and global server infrastructure to guarantee a reliable connection. indeed, even before covid-19, there was at that point high development and selection in technological education, with a global sale reached $18.66 billion in 2019 and the total market for e-learning education expected to reach $350 billion by 2025. whatever the applications or the platforms used, no doubt that there is unusual strong usage due to the covi d19. because of covid-19 pandemic, higher education institutions over the world are starting to shift to distance education programs or online learning. students can learn from their rooms since they do not need to attend universities and training centers (knibel, 2001). bao (2020) stated that half a million international students turned to their homes to continue learning and to access the necessary materials. furthermore, according to unesco (2020), there are more than 1.5 billion children and youth in 188 countries around the world influenced by coronavirus outbreak. the educational institutions have reacted smoothly and well-accepted to e-learning. moreover, unesco (2020) added that most of the academic officials are now applying online education as a solution to the coronavirus cr is is . this great shifting includes all the world may imply the future which is becoming the present (donitsa-schmidt & topaz, 2018; filius et al., 2019; bao, 2020). this technological step may be a message for all the educational institutions to step into e-learning fields. the shifting process was different from one country to another, none of them was perfectly prepared, yet, the difficulty of shifting varies according to the technical side for each c ount r y. some universities during the past decade are gradually shifting their programs online and doing away with face to face delivery (bao, 2020). before the covid-19 pandemic, teaching format of blended learning was already used (dziuban, moskal & hartman, 2013). dr. am jad (2020), a professor at the university of jordan pointed out “i will stick to lark even after coronavirus, i believe traditional offline learning and e-learning can go hand by hand". blended learning makes it easier for some countries to fit in. however, a good education system is a prerequisite for progress and knowledge. this blended learning includes both online learning and traditional. however, online learning is limited to the text assignments, it does not include live learning and real interaction. there are many studies and reviews showed that online education can be used as a main system of education in the future. in the report of unesco (2020) & murphy (2020), the online system of education will be as effective as school-based methods in the future. so, by 2030 , technology will reshape the universities. ther e is a review that analyses more than 1000 learning researches which are done by the us department of education. they discovered that students w ho take their courses online outperform classroombased students across demographics as well as most subjects. another review showed that online students have the advantage of time with the evolvement of programs and technologies. thus, the gap between online students and classroombased students is likely to enlarge. some reports provided many reasons as to why students can learn effectively through online studies. so, they said students have more opportunities to think and to have more control over their studies. as stated by picciano (2017) and wang & hu (2019), successful online students are likely to be organized, initiative, and able to complete their works without close supervision. as maintained by bao (2020), lecturers help more during the implementation of e-learning. teachers can facilitate discussions at both gr oup and individual levels. they can respond to questions asked by learners, design appropriate assignments, and examine students’ learning. furthermore, lalani & li (2020) added that students recall 25-60% more material in online learning compared to 8-10% in a classroom. moreover, e-learning requires 4-60% less time. according to wang and hu (2019), e-learning is a helpful alternative for students and the researchers should study different ways of making it more interested in thinking and creation (donitsa-schmidt & topaz, 2018; garcia & badia, 2017). this reinforces the intellectual thinking in addition to individual perspectives and improvements. it is needed to learn the deep use of technology and its software. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 67 it is not easy to depend on online education due to technical issues, especially in developing countries. however, all humans have the right t o continue education in times of the disaster, crisis, and violence. this is based on the assumption that all students are treated equally and have access to education. if we look at countries which have limited technologies, we will find difficulties in adapting such systems in schools (sintema, 2020). as bao (2020) and filius et al. (2019) indicated that going completely online requires crucial planning and investments from all sectors, various studies have shown that even though there are examples of having plans for using online/distance learning during the pandemic, they are generally concentrated on smaller cases than a global crisis as covid-19 pandemic. some results of other studies showed that online teaching environments can be used successfully in higher education or school as long as a reliable technical environment and support are available. there are educational institutions that may be hesitated to apply different forms of online teaching. because of the fear of change, concerns about the technical reliability, workload issues, worries about student outcomes in the new environments, and other factors as stated by bacow et al. (2012), bolliger & wasilik, (2009), betts & heaston, (2014), and mcquiggan (2012), if the university has not previously taken the instructors and students through an online teaching training, they might not have enough resources including recording platforms on campus and at home to get the instruc tor to record and present the work in a way that c an be accessed by learners, then the online plan ends right there. so, before institutions decide to implement online teaching to teach in this coronavirus era, they should study this issue very well. it is not just about the ability of educational institutions to provide online learning, but also about learners who should have the accessibility to the internet, as having smartphones or lapt ops which not all students have. according to skulmowski (2020), the social lives of students in a university cannot be reduced and limited to a chat or a series of dir ec t message exchanges. biswas (2020) argued that an analysis based on students’ responses to social media proves that students do not face challenges because of the technical operational obstacles. instead, they have difficulties concerning the lack of a good learning attitude, discipline, or good learning environment during this time. through the study, it is noticed that one of the primary challenges in e-learning is to improve a sense of community. to find such a community, the findings indicated the importance of uplifting social interaction and collaboration levels (shlossberg & cunningham, 2016; wang & hu, 2019). bao (2020) showed that a paper of covid-19 effects on a chinese university observed that ignored factors, such as s peakers ’ body language, voices, and other aspects can barely be conveyed via text-based forms of elearning, to have an e-learning that achieves the educational objectives as the traditional one. it is essential to provide multimedia that achieves the semi-real interaction which is provided in the body language, the voice, and the teachers’ gestures. we, therefore, say the importance of both students and teachers come together to create an efficient and effective online community. so, technology is considered as a vital part of the e-learning process. although online teaching can present obstacles to the teachers since they need to acquire online teaching competencies in planning, employing, and evaluating the performance of their students, but providing teachers with sufficient training courses can help them to effectively carry out the courses through electronic delivery. there are numerous devices available with innovative tools for the teachers to access and to enhance learning for the students with diverse educational needs. barr and miller (2013) stated that the technology devices, des ign of the program, choices of teachers, responsive curriculum, and supportive stakeholders are essential and significant for the successful delivery of the lessons in the online environment . in that case, these support an opportunity for higher education institutions to expand the training of the teachers for online learning instruction as ludeman et al. (2009) comment ed that the training for the teachers can improve students’ learning in educational programming for teachers to facilitate the goals aligned to the learning goals. skulmowski and rey (2020) claimed that interactive learning media which permits a responsive plan of instruction yet interactively has been seen as a reason for the cognitive load. using video technology these days can be seen as an indicator of the interest in multimodal learning. as proof, the tools and the programs that provide online courses and the social sense https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hbe2.201#hbe2201-bib-0018 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 68 started to be strongly used after covid-19 pandemic. however, a large-scale study stated that seeing the instructor’s face in an educational video does not affect learning (kizilcec, bailenson, & gomez, 2015). this is an example of the misconception of trying to faithfully reproduce real world classes digitally and show that the digitalization requires university instructors to rethink their digital teaching. the aim should not be to recreate the “ritual” of classes digitally but to find efficient methods of providing students with information they need and opportunities to apply this knowledge. a few decades ago, technology advancement has been greatly increased. smith (2000) claimed that online learning offers getting rid of the temporal and spatial restrictions that are used in the face to face learning. research stated that elearning has been seen to increase the retention of information, and take less time which means the changes coronavirus have cause may stay. lee (2002) in his study said that using synchronous electronic meeting enhances learners’ communication skills. furthermore, warschauer (1999) and yang & chen (2007) pointed out t hat e-learning makes speaking skills fruitful for allowing students more equal participation than face-to-face interaction. many studies show t hat efl students are likely to take many advantages through e-learning. yang & chen (2007) and shuchi & islam (2016) mentioned that students can use online courses to earn english language skills which are speaking, reading, listening, and writing. al-menei (2008) illustrated that computer-assisted plays a great role in the english writing skills of saudi students. this study showed that the students who used computer programs to correct their paragraphs and to check their grammar have an important improvement in their writing skills in english as romeo (2008) stated that when learners listen and use complex sentences, they change their understanding and learning. moreover, yang & chen (2007) stated that e-learning helps student s to develop their ability in speaking english by communicating with others in virtual world, more than the traditional classes, for the environment of traditional classes which are full of arabic language dominance. in addition, virtual classes can have a very large number of students. this can affect their communication with the teacher negatively. so, students cannot be supplied with an apt environment for learning english. farzi (2016) noted that computers can set up to provide instructions to help students to correct their mistakes. moreover, some e-learning applications allow students to learn english promptly and get advantage of language assets. moreover, it can offer them participation in their pronunciation through verbal correspondence and recognition of the english language real environment (debski and gruba, 1999; yang and chen, 2007; alqahtani, 2016; al-hassan and shukri, 2017). yet, westbrook (2006) has contended blending elearning into the concentrating of efl is not conveying foreseen results. however, oecd data, one of the most challenges that impedes online learning is students with unavailable internet access. this gap is different from one country to another. f or example, 95% of switzerland students, nor way, and austria have technical support, however, only 34% have. many students around the w or ld are having challenges regarding technical support, especially poor country and developing ones. however, education is still an important right and a must for any student far from his / her conditions. we have to know the technology capacity of publishing the significance of knowledge and work hard to raise the efficienc y of higher educational institutions. education is the one thing which improves and enhances any country. bao (2020) commented on the reaction of t he shifting process to e-learning according to the technical infrastructure for each country. furthermore, many researchers showed the advantages of e-learning. wang and hu (2019) commented that e-learning is a great system for making a creative and outstanding student who has self-reliance, also e-learning requires less time. moreover, lalani and li (2020) added that student’s memory saves from the academic material more than in the traditional classrooms. some educational institutions feel afraid of using e-learning during this pandemic for the technical reliability and worries about students’ outcomes from the e-learning (bacow et al., 2012; bolliger & wasilik, 2009; betts & heaston, 2014; mcquiggan, 2012). while biswas (2020) indicated that students face problems which are complicated to them more than technical support. ananga and biney (2017) showed that the importance of identifying students’ technical status is more important that creating online courses. skulmowski (2020) has illustrated the importance of the social lives of students. there is an importance of offering a sense of indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 69 community and collaborative activates for students (shlossberg & cunningham, 2016; wang & hu, 2019). barr and miller (2013) talked about the importance of designing technological programs that goes with students and e-learning needs. while some researchers suggested solutions. ludeman et al. (2009) said that the training for the teachers can improve students’ learning in education. while skulmowski and rey (2020) illustrated that alternative media help students to adapt the knowledge through e-learning. the problem of this study is a result of the covid-19 pandemic which caused the rapid and unplanned transition of universities and educational institutions to e-learning as an alternative and only option to complete the educational process for students during covi d 19 pandemic. the sudden transition, therefore, caused a sense of general tension among efl students themselves of difficulties in providing the necessary technical support to complete the educational process. such as internet service, providing the right devices, and even technological skills. teachers have also faced similar problems due to the poor technological infrastructure of most universities as technical support as well as their weak technological skills . although some universities have relied on integrated learning in the previous years, yet, it still a bold and the only step in the shade of w hat is happening in the world. due to the importance of continuous learning process with higher standards in the palestinian universities, the research helps the higher educational institutions in palestine to design a high quality e-learning system that helps the competent authorities in the use of modern means to develop teaching english and develop students’ skills. secondly, this research results have benefits for other researchers by its solutions in addition to the recommendations to consider in their future researches. moreover, t o take the research results and students’ perceptions into consideration and to have an overall look through e-learning, this study highlights the poor technical support students in palestine. furthermore, it encourages the higher institutions to develop their technological field and to step forward through the technology. there are some limitations and gaps for this study which might highlight some points the future researchers may work on. first of all, t his study was performed on a relatively small population: only efl students in five palestinian universities in the west bank. that is because the study was done during coronavirus lockdown, which hindered the researchers’ ability to communicate with more students or to make qualitative research instruments, such as, interviews. as a result, social media sites were the only means of communication. in addition, this research does not investigate the perception of parents and instructors towards e-learning. as for the time factor, the researchers have conducted the research during the summer semester which was way shorter than normal semesters. there was not enough time to c ollec t more data and expand the targeted population in order to have a larger-scaled survey. this research is interested in shedding light on the advantages of using e-learning for efl students and to show the challenges faced by t he students during e-learning process. finally, to highlight some solutions that can solve the problems of the study. 1. what are the advantages for using e-learning for efl universities’ students? 2. what are the challenges that the efl universities’ students face while using elearning? 3. what are the possible solutions for solving the challenges that the efl students face? methodology the questionnaire targeted a sample of 191 students of both genders (84.3 females and 15.7 males of efl students from six palestinian universities which are: hebron university (48 students/25.1%), birzeit university (26 students/13.6%), bethlehem university (29 students/15.2%), an-najah national university (33 students/17.3%), al-quds university (27 students/14.1%), and palestine ahliya university (28 students/14.7%). the participants were f rom different levels of study and ranged as follows: first-year (4.7%), second-year (12%), thirdyear (19.9%), fourth-year (50.8%), and ma (12. 6% ) . moreover, the participants were graded according to evaluations systems: average system (50.8%), a.b.c… system (38.2%), and pass/fail system (11%). filling the questionnaire was optional to all participants. this study used a quantitative approach. in order to achieve the objectives of the study, a questionnaire was conducted as an instrument t o collect the data. the questionnaire consists of forty-five close-ended questions which is indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 70 answered in the form of five-point liker-scale and given to participants of efl students from five palestinian universities. participants answered the questions that range from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. the questionnaire is divided into three sections (advantages of e-learning, challenges and solutions). the questions were carefully chosen to know advantages, challenges, and solutions of applying online learning in efl programs in palestinian universities. the questionnaire is formulated using the likert-scale to indicate the degree of agreement and disagreement from 1-5 which are: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. it was formed using google forms. after that, the questionnaire was distributed through social media sites to participants with the needed instructions and clarification of its purpose and intended category to answer. responding was open on the 5th of july, and t he researchers received 191 responses, then responses were stopped on the 14th of july. after collecting the quantitative data, they were analyzed statistically using spss. the reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was tabulated. the result show s that the overall cronbach alpha coefficient of the questionnaire is very high (r = 0.91), indicating a high degree of internal consistency, and therefore presenting a considerably reliable instrument. the researchers examined the validity of the questionnaire and its content, and they edited its content to make it suitable and useful. results and discussion the following sections present the results of the demographic data in part one of the questionnaire, as it appears in table 1. table 1. the results of the demographic data valid percent cumulative percent university hebron university 48 25.1 25.1 birzeit university 26 13.6 13.6 bethlehem university 29 15.2 15.2 an-najah national university 33 17.3 17.3 al-quds university 27 14.1 14.1 palestine ahliya university 28 14.7 14.7 total 191 100.0 100.0 gender male 30 15.7 15.7 female 161 84.3 84.3 total 191 100.0 100.0 level of study first 9 4.7 4.7 second year 23 12.0 12.0 third year 38 19.9 19.9 fourth year 97 50.8 50.8 ma 24 12.6 12.6 total 191 100.0 100.0 have you taken any online courses before? yes 128 67.0 67.0 no 63 33.0 33.0 total 191 100.0 100.0 evaluation system average 97 50.8 50.8 a. b. c. d.... 73 38.2 38.2 pass/fail 21 11.0 11.0 total 191 100.0 100.0 this table represents the samples of the students, who respond in the questionnaire. the questionnaire covered six palestinian universities: hebron university (48 students/25.1%), birzeit university (13.6%), bethlehem university (15.2%), an-najah indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 71 national university (17.3%), al-quds university (14.1%), and palestine ahliya university (14.7%). the majority of the respondents are females which reflects the overall population of the palestinian universities. the overwhelming majority of students 191 (84%) are females, and 15% are males. furthermore, (67%) have taken online courses before, while (33%) have not. this gives a sense of variation in the perception according to the individual experience for each student with online learning. in addition to that, half of the students which are seniors (50%) illustrate that most of the english clubs’ pages in the palestinian universities are run by the fourthyear students. while just (4%) are freshmen, (12%) are sophomore, (19%) are junior, and (12%) are ma students. the following sections presents the results of part two of the questionnaire: table 2. correction k ey correction key very low 1 – 1.79 low 1.8 – 2.59 neutral 2.60 – 3.39 high 3.4 – 4.19 very high 4.20 – 5 question one: what are the advantages of onl i ne learning? this part used descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) for calculating the questionnaire items to examine the advantages of online learning from student’s perspective. this table contains 12 items. see table 3 for the calculated means of items and their standard deviation. table 3. the calculated means of items and their standard deviation advantages n mean std. deviation 9 e-learning improves students’ technological skills. 191 3.85 .917 6 e-learning is an appropriate solution to complete the educational process under the corona pandemic 191 3.80 1.077 4 recording lectures help me re-watch lectures i missed 191 3.77 1.177 8 elearning encourages collaborative activities and group work through social media applications. 191 3.69 .998 3 e-learning increases my self-reliance and urges me to do more research 191 3.55 1.049 12 e-learning learning offers effective communication tools 191 3.49 .983 11 e-learning provides me with a valuable learnin g experience 191 3.47 .999 2 participating in online courses increases my confidence. 191 3.39 .993 7 my instructors use new methods of teaching that are consistent with e-learning 191 3.36 1.076 10 i recommend adopting e-learning as an official met h o d recognized by both educational institutions and scientific research organizations 191 3.30 1.183 5 e-learning provides a good interaction environment between students and instructors. 191 3.08 1.076 1 all the courses i took can be effectively taught online 191 3.06 1.166 the table shows all the items got ratings between neutral and high. item number 9 gets t he highest rating (mean =3.85). this means that most of the students do not have enough proficiency to deal with technology and they are more agreed that e-learning improves their technological skills. as henry (2001) said that elearning is an appropriate system for learning, skills, and knowledge. item number (8) illustrates that elearning encourages collaborative activities and group work through social media applications indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 72 (mean=3.69). this means that c ollaborative activities which are one of the most vital teaching principles can be held easily through the virtual environment with the assistance of social media or even some social applications. this item supports e-learning to be considered as a fr uit f u l educational system. item number (3) indicates that most of the students agree on the fact that e-learning increases their self-reliance and urges them to do more research (mean=3.55). this shows that students notice that e-learning gives them the role of the scholar. letting students search for information on their own and do more researches helps them to think more critically which goes with the objectives of education. this makes t he educational process student-centered and highlights the importance of teacher role as a supervisor and facilitator. wang and hu (2019) confirmed that e-learning is helpful alternative for students and he asked researchers to study more ways of making e-learning more interesting on thinking and creation. donitsa-schmidt and topaz (2018) and garcia & badia (2017) illustrated that this reinforces the intellectual thinking and individual perspectives and improvements. item number (11) ‘e-learning provides me with a valuable learning experience’ (mean=3.47) shows that students consider their experience as a valuable one, which gives the sense of adapting with the new educational process. this gives a good prediction for the coming educational plans. item number (10) ‘i recommend adopting elearning as an official method recognized by both educational institutions and scientific research organizations’ (mean=3.30), which has a ‘neutral’ rating, shows that students have some sticking points with e-learning, although they consider e-learning in item (11) as a valuable experience. item number (1) gets the lowest rating, ‘all the courses i took can be effectively taught online’ (mean=3.06). it has a ‘neutral’ rating. this indicates that students believe that not all courses can be taught effectively online. that means there is a need to make an in-depth analysis on the criteria that makes a course acceptable to be taught effectively online, then t o find new strategies that may make courses able to be taught online effectively. question two: what are the challenges that students f ace in online learning? this part used descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) for calculating the questionnaire items to examine the advantages of online learning from students’ perspective. this table contains 18 items. see table 4 for the calculated means of items and their standard deviation. table 4. the calculation means of items and their standard deviation challenges n mean std. deviation 8 e-learning increased the size of assignments and the studying hours. 191 4.13 1.005 15 lack or slow internet connection 191 4.104 7 .95671 3 lack of concentration and some students are distracted using other social media. 191 4.08 .833 2 some instructors do not have the necessary s kills t o d e a l with e-learning. 191 4.08 .911 1 lack of reliable technical s upport for students. 191 3.97 .894 4 lack of real interaction 191 3.97 .978 10 e-learning reduces the outcome of courses with a practic al side (e.g. writing, tefl 2) 191 3.91 .933 6 some students do not possess the necessary technolo gic a l skills to enroll in online courses. 191 3.91 .893 12 lack of sufficient time for students with specia l n e e ds t o accomplish the assignments and exams 191 3.874 3 .99732 18 low quality of sound and picture 191 3.816 8 1.06767 7 recorded lectures encouraged some students not to atten d clas ses. 191 3.81 1.090 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 73 9 having other responsibilities (e.g. work, being housewife ) beside being a student affected negatively the e-learning. 191 3.81 1.085 11 lack of virtual library and resources that meet students’ academic needs. 191 3.785 3 1.11497 16 lack of reliable laptop/smartphone 191 3.785 3 1.05680 17 lack of a calm room to attend my online classes (noisy surrounding environment) 191 3.780 1 1.15340 13 evaluation was not done in a fair and objective manner. 191 3.727 7 1.08055 5 lack of timely feedback for students’ assignments. 191 3.72 1.082 14 evaluation methods (e.g. exams) were not accurate due t o easy means of cheating. 191 3.717 3 1.08272 all challenges’ items get high very high ratings. yet, the item number (8) gets the highes t rating, (mean=4.13). this illustrates that students face assignments tension which shows that instructors during their first experience with online courses do not take the overall stressful situation of students being at home during covid-19 pandemic into account. this highlights the need to use different evaluation tools with acceptable size in proportion to students’ situations. items number (15), (1), (18) and (16) get ‘high’ rating by students. ‘lack of slow internet connection’ (mean=4.10), ‘lack of reliable technical support for students’ (mean=3.97), ‘low quality of sound and picture’ (mean=3.81), and ‘lack of reliable laptop/smartphone’ (mean=3.78). these four items refer to the needed technical support for the high standard of e-learning in order to achieve the required learning objectives. e-learning is not just depending on supplying online courses, but also on offering the needed technical support for bot h teachers and students. these four items serious ly need to be taken into consideration. items number (3) and (7), ‘lack of concentration and some students are distracted using other social media’ (mean=4.08) and ‘recorded lectures encouraged some students not to attend classes’ (mean=3.81) show that next t o the challenge of poor technical support, they als o have lack of good ‘learning attitude’. students are facing difficulties to discipline themselves even with ignoring sync courses under the pretext of watching it later, or by using social media during the lecture. this result is in line with biswas’s (2020) study, who said that students have lack of discipline. these attitudes are subsumed under the fact that students did not adapt to the new educational environment. items number (2) and (6) ‘some instructors do not have the necessary skills to deal with elearning’ (mean=4.08) and ‘some students do not possess the necessary technological skills to enroll in online courses’ (mean=3.91) refer to the need and the necessity of organizing technical trainings for teachers and students to have the needed flexibility dealing with online courses. ‘baby boomers gen’ includes people who have been born between 1944-1964, those people are facing problems with the readiness of using modern technology in the learning process and dealing with it easily. students whether they were classified as ‘millennials’ or ‘x generation’ are considered better in using technology, yet, not with newly standard applications that need trainings to be used efficiently. item number (4),’lack of real interac tion’ (mean=3.97) show s that students do not find elearning suitable enough for interaction between lecturers and students. bailenson and gomez (2015) stated that seeing the instructor’s face in an educational video does not affect learning, this confirms the result of item (4) in the study. moreover, according to skulmowski (2020), it is hard to keep a sense of community during online courses. item number (5) ‘lack of timely feedback f or students’ assignments’ (mean=3.72). even this item is considered as a penultimate point, yet, it gets a ‘high’ rating that gives serious proportions. as bill gates (2013) said ‘we all need people who give us feedback. that’s how we impr ove’ . without the feedback, learners may finish their educational journey without knowing the weakness, this leads them to ‘own self-doubt’. furthermore, they cannot teach what they have learned effectively in the future. in long run, t his will affect the general knowledge of the country. item number (12), ‘lack of sufficient time for students with special needs to accomplish the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 74 assignments and exams’ (mean=3.87). this point shows that during the first e-learning experienc e, students with special needs do not get any planned support as giving them extra time to match their capacity. item number (14) is the last item in the challenges part, it says ‘evaluation methods (e. g. exams) were not accurate due to easy means of cheating’ (mean=3.71). this shows that cheat ing during e-learning exams is an easy mean, which refers to serious danger that students will not trust e-learning as an accurate system for their grades. in addition to that, a university degree is not also accurate enough to be adopted which leads to a useless university degree. universities need to use a surveillant system for students’ fairness. question three: what are some of the suggested solution f or the challenges that students f ace in online learning? this part used descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) for calculating the questionnaire items to examine the advantages of online learning from students’ perspective. this table contains 15 items. see table 5 for the calculated means of items and their standard deviation. table 5. the calculation means of items and their standard deviation solutions n mean std. deviation 9 training instructors on the various teaching me t h o ds a n d online delivery 191 4.2199 .88486 15 providing needy students with reliable smartphones/laptops 191 4.1780 .94018 2 developing a technical support unit in ev e ry e d uc at io nal institution to help students to overcome the technical difficulties. 191 4.1675 .81641 10 offering instructors the necessary technic a l s u pport t h at they need while teaching online 191 4.1571 .86842 11 grant students reasonable time to accomplish their assignments 191 4.1571 .89821 12 providing students valid contact details (mobile number, emails) of technicians who offer continuous technical support 191 4.1414 .92105 14 strengthening the internet infrastructure in palestine 191 4.1309 1.03550 13 establishing a virtual library with valid learning resources 191 4.1099 .95336 1 applying different teaching methods that promote meaningful interaction in the online environment 191 4.06 .977 6 identifying the technical situation of students -electronic devices, network speed 191 4.0524 .92189 8 training students to enable them to be equip ped wit h t h e necessary technological skills that is necessary for their online participation 191 4.0419 .88753 5 improving an observing attendance system for students and sending them notification if they were absent. 191 3.9529 1.08234 4 providing timely and an accurate feedback create an honest and trust relationship between students and instructors. 191 3.9476 .96102 7 developing online educational applications that prevent cheating trails. 191 3.8534 1.01540 3 using oral and analytical exams to make the assessment more reliable. 191 3.4555 1.23836 table 5 reveals that all of the items got high ratings which gives a sense of optimism that it may be possible for raising e-learning standards in the palestinian universities. item (9) ‘training instructors on the various teaching methods and online delivery’ (mean=4.21) shows that students notice that instructors face problem during elearning and the importance of training them in order to have more structured lectures. item number (2) ‘developing a technical support unit in every educational institution to help students to overcome the technical indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 75 difficulties’ (mean=4.16). students agreed on the necessity of offering technical support servic e in order to control over any technical problem that students face during their lectures, exams, etc. this illustrates that students in their fresh elearning experienced facing technical problems. item number (1) ‘applying different teaching methods that promote meaningful interaction in the online environment’ (mean=4.06) indicates that students’ new experience do not have enough teaching methods that explore the sense of interaction. moreover, that indicates that students notice the importance of teaching methods during the online lecture. item number (3) is considered as the last item, ‘using oral and analytical exams to make the assessment more reliable’ (means=3.45). this item shows that students agreed on using analytical exams in order to have more accurate and reliable results. moreover, they believe that the applied evaluation methods are not completely reliable. conclusion this study show s that the efl participants agreed on most of the advantages, challenges, and solutions that are included in the study. the results of this study indicate the advantages of using e-learning in the palestinian universities as turning students to be researchers, making students more confidence and have self-relianc e, improving their technological skills, and offering them valuable experience. secondly, the results indicate the challenges of using e-learning in palestinian universities. for example, the lack of technical support that the universities have, the need for training lecturers to improve their technological skills, the unreliable evaluation system, and the poor technological infrastructure. these challenges show the necessity of taking these results into considerations, and make a r eal step by solving the challenges, especially in developing the technological field in all the palestinian universities in order to go with the educational objectives. finally, the results show most of the suggested solutions are accepted by students, such as training students and teachers, using critical and oral exams, improving an observing attendance system, identifying the technical situation of students, and strengthening the internet infrastructure in palestine. this study show s that students have an overall positive attitude towards e-learning. however, the results of the study indicate that there are some challenges that decreased the effectivenes s of e-learning. as a result, the researchers recommend that educational institutions which implement e-learning should consider the following. 1. there are several teaching methods, yet not all of them are suitable for e-learning. thus, educational institutions should make training programs for instructors on the most effective teaching methods for online delivery. 2. during the teaching process, results show t hat there is a need to develop a technical support unit for both instructors and learners in order to overcome their continuous technical difficulties. 3. since education is the right of everyone and not all learners have the capability to afford reliable tools (e.g. laptops/smartphones) to follow up the e-learning, educational institutions should work on providing reliable means of using e-learning. 4. training students who do not have the necessary technological skills to uplift them t o a level that they can take better advantage and participate in e-learning since e-learning is developing at high speed, further research can be ongoing. other studies can complement the outcomes of this study, taking into consideration of the use of different types of qualitative research instruments in addition to including a wider population from other countries. moreover, perhaps future research c an be concerned in making an in-depth analysis of the suitable teaching methods, course design, and technological tools that should be adopted, and t o investigate whether these practices have helped elearning actualize students’ academic goals or not. furthermore, since the right of education is recognized as a human right for everyone, future studies can examine the effects of covid-19 pandemic on the education of students with disabilities and special needs. this kind of research may focus on their needs, especially t he technological ones and the kind of support they might need. finally, this study aimed to find out the perspectives and views of learners. however , other studies can investigate the perception of instructors and parents towards e-learning. references affouneh, s, salha s, & khlaif z (2020). designing quality e-learning environments for emergency remote teaching in coronavirus cris is. med sci,11(2), pp.1-3 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 76 al-meneai, a. 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(2020). contemporary education reform and national reinvention in post-independence ukraine: the national qualifications framework, bridging state and global perspectives. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 3(2), 51-64 doi: https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3682. received: 15-05-2020 accepted: 10-09-2020 published:01-10-2020 introduction the interconnected and often confusing concepts of internationalization, europeanization, and globalization (keeling, 2004; olssen, codd, and o’neill, 2004), which continue to be probed for their distinct meaningfulness (van der wende, lub, & huisman, 2002) form the policy backdrop for this paper about contemporary education reform in ukraine. the domain of education reform in any context presents a dilemmatic space (fransson & jan grannäs, 2013; honig, 1996; berlak & berlak, 1981) fraught with tensions and paradoxes (benperetz & flores, 2018), deriving from multiple understandings of policy. this is because the concept of policy is a noun in verbal garb; it is at once a product and a process (ball, 1994) although it is the dynamism of the process which interests scholars most and renders the concept more understandable in diverse policy settings (keeling, 2004; trowler, 2003). far from simply being textual artifacts within a chain of command, policies are snapshots of living experience with profound impact on individuals, communities, and societies. they delineate the action parameters of people, processes, and relationships by defining governance, risk, and compliance (shlager, 2007). they respond to new situations in history and so are never settled entities. for these reasons, policies are embedded in the daily lives of all citizens and this is why policies matter. this is especially true abstract: the concepts of internationalization, europeanization, and globalization form the policy backdrop for this paper about contemporary education reform in ukraine. the domain of education reform in any context presents a dilemmatic space fraught with tensions and paradoxes, deriving from multiple understandings of policy. policies are snapshots of living experience with profound impact on individuals, communities, and societies. they delineate the action parameters of people, processes, and relationships by defining governance, risk, and compliance. they respond to new situations in history and so, are never settled entities. for these reasons, policies are embedded in daily lives of all citizens and this is why policies matter, especially true of education policies which attempt to weave the development and future of each individual together. hence, a critical analysis of education policy, one which brings evidence and interpretation to bear on decision-making and social practice, can help to address a policy complex function in driving societal reforms. specifically, this paper sets out to investigate the national qualifications framework (nqf) of ukraine (2011), a policy technology which represents an undisguised neoliberal approach of the modern national curriculum system reform of ukraine. this is the example of “globalized localism” through the intermediation of the european higher education area (ehea) and ukraine participation in the bologna process. the author concludes that, in ukraine, the ‘already’ and the ‘not yet’ of education policy reform embodied in the nqf are held together in intimate tension; a governance-innovation tension, the hope of the further institutional democratization that will permit the nqf mechanism to include more voices and to actualize more equitable social development opportunities. keywords: national qualifications framework; education policy; bologna process; ehea; post-soviet; ukraine https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3682 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 52 of education policies which attempt to weave the development and future of each individual together. therefore, a critical analysis of education policy, one which brings evidence and interpretation to bear on decision-making and social practice, can help to address a policy complex function in driving societal reforms (fischer, 2003). specifically, this paper sets out to investigate the national qualifications framework (nqf) of ukraine (2011), a policy technology (ball, 2003) which represents an undisguised neoliberal approach to the reform of the modern national curriculum system of ukraine, according to borrowed notions about good or better practices around qualifications and quality education: the national qualifications framework is based on european and national standards and principles of quality assurance, takes labour market requirements, labour relations, promotion of national, and international recognition of qualifications obtained in ukraine, establishing effective cooperation between education and the labour market into account (adam, 2011). as being considered, this policy is an example of “globalized localism” (de sousa santos in dale & robertson, 2004, p.149) through the intermediation of the european higher education area (ehea) and ukraine participation in the bologna process, while the country continues to struggle to redefine and recontextualize itself as an independent nation. the intent and composition of the nqf in ukraine will be examined with several research questions in mind: 1. whose policy agendas are represented by the europeanization of higher education (he) in ukraine, and how has this been reflected in the formulation of the nqf? 2. how is the nqf, a reflection of the current role of the ukrainian state in education delivery? 3. does the nqf of ukraine attempt to address socio-economic and educational inequalities and where does it fail to do so? 4. how does the ukrainian experience compare with that of other post-soviet countries in the region? analytical approach to accomplish this critical exploration, the nqf of ukraine is examined from the perspective of the basic layered policy model (doherty, 2011; edd, 2006), pictured below in figure 1: figure1. basic layered policy model the basic layered policy model offers a discernible view of the main components of the policy process. this paper concentrated on the initiation phase or “agenda-setting” (hill, 2012), along with the policy making phase or “formulation” (hill, 2012), as they have been shown to be inextricably linked (hill, 1997). the layered model also serves as a broad foundation which can comfortably host other models whose specificities lend further insights into policy development across the initiation-formulation continuum. for example, the debated yet pragmatic stagiest policy cycle (lasswell, 1956) embodies continuous connections between phases. its value, including to the current research, lies in the fact that it acknowledges a problem that needs to be solved, the joint efforts at problem definition, and optimization of a resolution (howlett and ramesh, 1995). a more nuanced understanding has been proposed by trowler (2003) in the encodingdecoding scheme, whereby different interpretations, interests, and intentions related to the policy problem are expressed and formulated into a policy statement by policy makers. all these models describe how change is affected by policy making, as in the case of qualification frameworks aimed at education reform. in addition, important ideas that underpin the different factors precipitating and shaping policy, such as actor constellations and behaviour, triggering events, politics, economics, intended and indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 53 unintended outcomes, and other explanatory social phenomena (oakley, pesta, ciftci and blomberg, 2013; knoepfel, larrue, varone, & hill, 2007) arise from critical and policy systems theories. bowe, ball, & gold (1992) spoke about the interactive and interrelated contexts of influence (power) and text production, social mediation of influence, embedding of intentions, the compromises, and accommodations in the making of policy. according to considine (1994), policy systems theory helps to determine all the connections between phases (stages) and the different consequences of policy making over time. moreover, the time factor (or process history) in policy making reveals how change (or reform) is constituted (newton & van deth, 2010). in fact, the historical aspect of policy making is a vital component of policy learning (kushnir, 2019a; levin, 2010; zarkin, 2008), defined as "a tendency for some policy decisions to be made on the basis of knowledge and past experiences and knowledgebased judgments as to future expectations" (bennett and howlett, 1992, p.278). additionally, most theoretical explanations of the policy process focus on identifying what initiates policy making (or change). for example, kingdon (2003) placed emphasis on social crises or unpredictable events. important for this paper, all these different accounts stress in common the essential relationship between policy initiation and the larger context of society in determining how policy opportunities are identified. policy making, then, is responsive to and informed by various social, political, and economic events in which it takes place and actors to whom it is relevant. this is particularly applicable to the contemporary education policy in ukraine related to qualifications. a brief look at the history of qualifications frameworks provides further insight. the rise of qualifications frameworks the concept of qualifications as it is understood in terms of outcomes, derives from research in occupational psychology in the united states and later, from related approaches to measurement of teacher competence (young, 2003). by extension, the idea of a national qualifications framework is originated from the scottish 16+ action plan, established in 1984, and the national vocational framework rolled out across the uk in 1986 (young, 2003). investigation suggests that, from the start, most early qualifications frameworks were directly related to broader neoliberal public sector reform, focused on creating a market for education and training, so as to reduce the so-called ‘monopoly’ of public education institutions whose efficacy had been called into question (allais, 2010). these include the national vocational qualifications in england, northern ireland, and wales (young, 2009), the national qualifications framework in new zealand (strathdee, 2009; phillips, 1998), competence-based reform of vocational education in australia (wheelahan, 2010, 2009), and the south african national qualifications framework (allais, 2007c; 2007b). the early qualifications frameworks have influenced the spread of counterparts and competency-based training reforms throughout the world (allais, 2010). national qualifications frameworks reflect the internationalization (interrelation) and globalization (integration) of the vocational education and training (vet) agenda (hoff and hickling-hudson, 2011), and their importance is growing, particularly in the european training foundation’s (etf) partner countries (isced, 2011; chakroun, 2010). as a result, today, over 150 countries have developed or adopted national, regional, or transnational qualifications frameworks (cedefop, 2019). the attraction of outcomes-based qualifications frameworks as education policy can be explained by neoclassical economics which still infuses the academic and policy fields (allais, 2012). early ‘economics imperialism’, particularly, the notion of ‘human capital’, and later, the emphasis on market deficiencies which is thought to be caused by knowledge inequalities, help to clarify the pervasiveness of this policy (allais, 2012). to this end, qualifications frameworks have been seen as tools to improve the individual ability to make sensible choices about their investment in learning, and also the government ability to regulate and support markets in the delivery of education and training (allais, 2010). as an expression of neoliberalism, qualifications frameworks represent the pursuit of equality of opportunity, while learning outcomes conveyed in qualification policy documents are considered criteria against which governments can measure the quality of education provided (gilbert, 2013). in relation to human capital theory, qualifications frameworks identify indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 54 learners as ‘knowledge workers’, prioritizing and stratifying preferred types of knowledge in a knowledge economy (ke), as stated by allais (2012 in luhovy, 2011, p.10), “the set of basic competencies overarching the qualification levels in the nqf of ukraine are: [subject] knowledge, skills (application of knowledge), communication, autonomy and responsibility, [and] integration competence.” the frame of reference and point of departure for developing nqf in ukraine was the european qualifications framework for lifelong learning (eqf or eqf/ll) which had effect on april 23, 2008 by the recommendations of the european parliament and the council of the european union (hanf, 2015). the aim of these recommendations was to encourage member states of the eu to (hanf , 2015): (1) use the european qualifications framework as a reference tool to compare the qualification levels of the different qualifications systems and to promote both lifelong learning and equal opportunities in the knowledge-based society, as well as the further integration of the european labour market while respecting the rich diversity of national education systems; (2) relate their national qualifications systems to the european qualifications framework [by 2010], in particular by referencing, in a transparent manner, their qualification levels to the levels of the eqf, and, where appropriate, by developing national qualifications frameworks in accordance with national legislation and practice. as a translation device for “the transparency, comparability and portability of qualifications in europe” (pevec, nomden, & branco, 2016, p.5), the eqf is considered as the most advanced regional framework and has inspired nqf developments outside of eu member states (as in ukraine), notably in the ‘european neighbourhood’ (pevec, nomden, and branco, 2016). european neighborhood policy (enp) or “neighborhood europeanization” is germane to the current discussion, as it has been shown that when a neighboring (that is, non-member) country adopts, imports or embeds eu policy, the subsequent impact on domestic political systems is significant (gawrich, melnykovska, and schweickert, 2010). for instance, the conference entitled “the european qualifications framework: linking to a globalised world” which took place in 2009 at the european parliament was attended by representatives of ukrainian government and gave impetus to their efforts to develop their country’s qualifications tool to enhance and support mobility, as well as market ukraine’s education and train internationally (chakroun, 2010). this aligns with neoliberal ideology, whereby the main role of the state includes creating markets in previously nonmarket areas of society (gilbert, 2013; allais, 2012). the political economy motivation for modern education policy initiation and formulation in ukraine becomes more comprehensible when it is contextualized by the country’s recent history. nqf of ukraine policy background: a confluence of contexts policy and reform decisions in the post-soviet space have been rife with contradiction (sakwa, 2012). the post-soviet period has been marked by economic transformation or transition in former communist states located in parts of europe (and asia) in which new governments have aimed to create free-market oriented capitalist economies (havrylyshyn, meng, and tupy, 2016). craig and cotterell (2007) described this process in terms of the messiness of change and continuity. in most countries of the former eastern bloc that followed the fall of communist-led governments in 1989, the communist parties split into two factions: a reformist social democratic party and a new less reform-oriented communist party. the newly created social democratic parties were generally larger and more powerful than the remaining communist parties (orlowski, 2001). this shift in political dominance is well-illustrated by the case of ukraine which has progressed to its seventh democratic president and through each of their distinct political cultures since declaring independence in 1991. immediate past president, petro poroshenko, whose government was in power since the euromaidan revolution in 2014, increased the focus on external markets, particularly in the eu, where he had established his first business (coyle, 2018). in line with this vision, his minister of education and science since 2016, liliya hrynevych, one of the founders of the ukrainian centre for educational quality assessment, concentrated on external independent assessment and qualifications parity at the national level (verkhovna rada, 2019). it is not indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 55 insignificant that the new law on education in ukraine, which showcases the national qualifications framework, was ratified in september of 2017, just days after the ukraineeuropean union association agreement came into full force (eeas, 2017). contemporary discourse which theorizes internationalized education policy shifts in ukraine discusses these developments in terms of “the rationalities of ‘catching-up’ europeanization” (fimyar, 2010). the earlier law of education in ukraine was one of the longest-standing pieces of legislation, adopted in 1991 at the time of the country’s proclamation of independence and formal secession from the soviet union. efforts were made to modernize the education system, including a national education program introduced in 1993 that focused on the decentralization of schooling, lifelong learning, and education for personal development (fimyar, 2010). however, these efforts remained largely unrealized (shandra, 2017). the possibility of change appeared more likely immediately following the 2014 euromaidan revolution, when the ministry of education and science invited the selected teachers, academics, experts, and students to help drafting a new law which aimed to account for contemporary realities (shandra, 2017). the conceptual principles of the law stated that “the new educational standards will be based on, but not limited to, the recommendations of the european parliament and of the european council, on key competencies for lifelong learning….” (mesu, 2016, p.10). thereafter, the education sector in ukraine began to experience sweeping and long-awaited reforms rooted in the conviction that they would contribute to internationally oriented transformation (kahkonen, 2018). these included building a new, innovative national qualifications system (nsc) with the assistance of the european education foundation (eff) and diverse stakeholders, both internal and external (the world bank, 2018). it is within this context that the national qualifications framework was elevated to the top of the state education agenda. echoing the eqf, the nqf of ukraine comprises eight (recently reduced from an original 11) fixed qualification levels from one (“basic general knowledge, understanding of the simplest concepts about yourself and the environment, the basics of safe behavior”) to eight (“conceptual and methodological knowledge in the field or on the border of fields of knowledge or professional activity”) (cabinet of ministers, 2020). although the nqf was to be phased in over three periods (2016-2018, 2019-2022, and 2023-2029), implementation has been uneven or delayed, particularly in the area of professional qualifications and their credentialization (balaniuk, 2020; nychkalo, 2017). in an attempt to address the situation regarding professional qualifications, the ministry of education and science recently opened discussion with its twenty international partners about the level descriptors for professions in order to harmonize them with the international standard classification of professions isco-08 (balaniuk, 2020). it has been observed that nation-states form and develop their identities in relation to others (verger and novelli, 2012; crofts wiley, 2004). hence, the contemporary emphasis on harmonized national qualifications frameworks can be considered as the successful emulation of practices elsewhere (pang, 2005). the political decision in ukraine to develop nqf is indicative of the effects of globalization on education policy, whereby states reorganize their priorities to make them more competitive (dale, 1999). this became clear in 2008 when, at a conference of education ministers from six bologna process countries, as well as three observer countries, the next ukrainian education minister revealed details of the supranational dynamics of influence (verger and novelli, 2012) involved in the development of contemporary ukrainian education policy. she reported that in 2003, ukraine officially declared its intention to reform its system of higher education according to european standards by submitting its membership application to the bologna process (hrynevych, 2008). then, in 2005, the country formalized its obligations to reform its system of he according to the standards and recommendations of the ehea by signing the bologna declaration (hrynevych, 2008). the case of ehea sway in ukraine serves as an example of what has been termed ‘governance without government’ (rosenau, 1992). the ehea originated in 1998 through the signing of a joint declaration in paris (at the sorbonne) by ministerial representatives of france, germany, italy, and the uk regarding a common frame of reference for the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 56 european higher education system (ehea, 1998). the sorbonne declaration was affirmed through the bologna declaration (1999), signed by 29 countries (now numbering 48), all of whom were interested in a more competitive european higher education area (ehea, 1999). the prevailing influence of the ehea on ukraine's education policy in general and the nqf in particular stems from an even longer and more storied politicaleconomic history dating back to 1991, when the next, newly independent state expressed its interest in establishing relations with european union and eventually seeking membership in there (mfa, 2012). the objectives of the association agreement between ukraine and the european union which followed, proved to be conducive to the introduction of qualifications-related reforms, including convergence in tertiary education, as well as the implementation of national frameworks to advance transparency and recognition of skills based on the eu model (deij, 2019a). this is evidenced by the terminology prefacing the nqf of ukraine’s qualification levels:  qualification: the official result of evaluation and recognition received when a competent authority has established that the person has attained competencies (training results) according to given standards.  qualification level: the structural unit of the national qualifications framework that is determined by a certain set of competencies that are typical for the qualifications of the given level.  competence: the ability of a person to perform a certain type of activity expressed through knowledge, understanding, skills, values, and other personal qualities.  learning outcomes: competencies (knowledge, understanding, skills, values, and other personal qualities) which are acquired and / or can be demonstrated after the completion of training. the nqf references to align ukraine’s vocational training with current eu vet work through the european qualifications framework mentioned earlier, the european credit system for vet (ecvet) and the european quality assurance reference framework for vocational education and training (eqarf) (deij, 2019a). these alignments have helped to give the ukrainian nqf its form, the initial level of professional (vocational) education through to qualification for junior bachelor of arts, ba, ma, phd (cabinet of ministers, 2020), as well as its central place in education reform. the apparatus established to support the harmonization of local nqfs with that of the ehea is the network of higher education reform experts (heres), a pool of advisors assigned to the modernization of higher education in countries neighbouring the eu (sphere, 2015). these transnational advisors provide their services in contract with the education, audiovisual, and culture executive agency of the european commission (sphere, 2015). their role is to assist in developing policies and to encourage reforms within individual countries, as well as to train local stakeholders, compose reports and other official documents, and to advise institutions and policy makers (sphere, 2015). these international organization activities localized in ukraine are a reflection of the way in which europeanization is at once a response to and a conduit of globalization (rosamond, 2003). in addition, the ehea acts through various subinitiatives, such as the tuning educational structures in europe program, which directly impacted the formation of the nqf of ukraine (pálvölgyi, 2017). the tuning program commenced in the year 2000 as a project to link the political objectives of the bologna process (and, at a later stage, the lisbon strategy) to the higher education sector (pálvölgyi, 2017). over time, tuning has developed into a process to (re-) design, develop, implement, evaluate, and enhance quality in first, second, and third cycle (bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral) degree programs (education and culture dg, 2019). while the tuning process was established to encourage convergence and common understanding, rather than uniform degree programs, in reality, it has been a significant driver of uniformity which is presented as a key element of the successful reform of education in the countries participating in the bologna process (education and culture dg, 2019). in the case of ukraine, the role of the state in coordinating this hegemonic uniformity represents a carryover from soviet times but in a new iteration: indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 57 as manager of external and internal forces with similarly vested interests in education. in ukraine, the ministry of education and science is the main policy body as both originator and main promoter of the nqf (deij, 2019a). its key partner is the ministry of social policy, whose responsibility is to validate non-formal and informal learning, as well as occupational standards (deij, 2019a). however, since the beginning of the nqf drive in the country, a range of macro and meso level stakeholders has been involved in its initiation and development: the cabinet of ministers, the ministries of economic development and trade, regional development, finance, culture, and agriculture, as well as the verkhovna rada (parliament), the national academy of pedagogical sciences, the academy of sciences, the institute of the modernization of education, the state employment service, the vet research institute, regional training and methodological centres, the federation of employers, the institute for professional qualifications, the chamber of industry, professional associations, economic clusters, sector committees, leading business enterprises, the state railways, trade unions, universities, ngos, and other training providers (cabinet of ministers, 2010). the representatives of these bodies, who form an interdepartmental working group, participate regularly in meetings about the nqf (deij, 2019a). the agents of the ehea are involved in closely monitoring and consulting at these meetings (hanf, 2015). note that the above-mentioned federation of employers actively lobbied the ministries of education and social policy to formulate the nqf as soon as ukraine entered the bologna process (deij, 2019b). in addition, the federation successfully advocated for the establishment of the national qualifications agency (nqa) to oversee the framework (deij, 2019b). this aligns with the conclusions of knoepfel et al. (2007) concerning actor impact on substantive elements of public policy during the first two stages of its development. as well, such stakeholder involvements and influences along with and alongside government bodies suggest a partial relaxation of traditional top-down power relations in the modern politics of ukrainian education (kushnir, 2019b). from a critical analysis standpoint, they exemplify foucaultian governmentality, whereby the state in this analysis is only one authority and policy that becomes a “social artefact” (mckee, 2009, p.468). as emphasized by rose and miller (1992), in such an arrangement, policy makers work with other actors to link what is seen as desirable with what can be realized by translating political ambitions into something considered more broadly practical. however, representatives of students and student unions, parent councils, and local community and activist organizations have not been a major part of the consultation and collaboratory design of the nqf (rashkevych, 2014). the literature about ukrainian policy making states that a cooperation gap between the central bodies of policy making and civic organizations has a long history (protsyk, 2003). also, dissident voices have not been heard (rashkevych, 2014). in fact, the ensued identification of the nqf as a reform priority and the policy document was not uncontested (rashkevych, 2014). there was opposition from traditionalists, who are components of any policy making environment, and whom the nqf represented a paradigm shift in education policy for (adam, 2011). provocative questions arose which was spoken to the challenges presented by localizing external priorities (ball, 2007): what does the nqf aim to reform regarding qualifications that ukraine actually needs (or does not need)? what structural and processual changes are needed in he to accommodate the european three-cycle framework and to improve its uptake as it is still poorly understood in ukraine? is the nqf mechanism capable of recognizing informal and non-formal learning in a country where these types of learning activities have been given little consideration in the past and now? and finally, should all educational standards be based on professional (occupational) criteria that is set out in competences? (adam, 2011). in addition, educational inequality among young people of different social backgrounds in ukraine has not been factored into education policy making in general and the formulation of the nqf in particular (oksamytna and khmelko, 2007). for example, research notes that factors which influence the complex post-secondary education decision-making of orphans and children in state care (there are over 100,000 in ukraine) include peer pressure to attend vocational school indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 58 (completing only basic qualification levels), teacherdirected versus teacher-encouraged decisions, and informed independent decisions stymied by structural constraints (korzh, 2013). current policy discourse surrounding education in ukraine exemplifies a form of educational product or commodity which overlooks education as a living socio-cultural experience (korzh, 2013). knowledge is valued as objectified, measurable, and transferable. as a result, the sign value of qualifications promotes the prestige attached to higher levels of accreditation (brancaleone and o'brien, 2011). these value assumptions frame social opportunity and educational needs unproblematically, in terms of equally accessible ‘upskilling’ potential, and they obscure social difference (brancaleone and o'brien, 2011). from a post-structuralist perspective, this troubling phenomenon of performativity (ball, 1990) has been referred to "the hegemony of competencybased training" (mckay, 2004). comparing the experiences of neighbouring countries the situation is similar among some of ukraine’s neighbors. for example, bologna has accelerated and reinforced the market-oriented trend in romanian higher education, having side effects on numerous social issues (dobbins and knill, 2009). romanian policy makers tend to view the bologna process as a means of changing the functioning of universities and bringing them in line with the demands of globalization and the economy knowledge. (shtompel, 2014; fimyar, 2008). hence, a new system of accreditation inspired by bologna guidelines was established in 2006 (dobbins and knill, 2009) and nqf followed in 2013 (deij, graham, bjornavold, grm, villalba, christensen, & singh, 2015). research relating to a range of countries in the eu indicates some thorny issues in common. significantly, the implementation of the bologna process and other european education standards does not guarantee solutions to problems with the labour market and innovation development (duľová spišáková, gontkovicova, hajduova, 2016; oleksiyenko, 2016; štimac and šimić, 2012). understanding how different education systems generate or mitigate social inequalities in education illuminates how societies negotiate change. this is particularly true of central and eastern european (cee) countries (kogan, gebel, and noelke, 2012; iannelli, 2003). comparing a number of these countries, it is found that the relative advantage of having more educated parents is stronger in the eastern european countries than in nordic european countries. this prevailing situation in eastern europe has had a profound impact on agenda setting favouring nqfs, notwithstanding persistent social access inequalities (kogan, gebel, and noelke, 2012; fimyar, 2008; oksamytna and khmelko, 2007). another important factor contributing to the maintenance of social inequality in such cee countries, as the czech republic, croatia, serbia, slovenia, hungary, poland, and russia, is stratification within the post-secondary education sector, which has been exacerbated by the requirements outlined in qualifications frameworks (kogan, gebel, and noelke, 2012). in sequentially organized university systems (three-cycles based on nqfs), access to higher cycles continues to be more selective (noelke et al., 2012). a study on russia, for example, described a strong culture of valuing formal education in that country; even regulatory frameworks specify that qualifications must be linked to formal education and training (allais, 2011). as novoa (2002) has pointed out, the notion of ‘employability’ redefines unemployment as a learning problem that can and should be solved by individuals. the qualifications-based learning paradigm, like employability, is set up to blame individuals who fail to take advantage of opportunities, fail to invest in themselves, and fail to climb the qualifications ladder. a fundamental of difficulty that underlies on all these conditions are the key concepts contained in qualifications frameworks. although it is described as essential components, it is widely recognized that the terms ‘learning outcomes’ and ‘competence’ are used in different ways in different countries and contexts (brockmann, clarke, and winch 2008; cedefop, 2008; bohlinger, 2007). as a result, the extensively referenced international standard classification of education (isced), which defines these terms from a ke stance, creates challenges for subjective interpretation based on local country social conditions, which in turn contributes to confusion and disagreement at the initiation and formulation stages of qualifications frameworks, and delays in indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 3, issue 2, october 2020 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 59 their implementation (shtompel, 2014). conclusion as presented in this paper, the state continues to serve as the institutionalizing force of globalization in ukraine, a neoliberal knowledge economy based european social model which helps to explain the complexity of introducing nqf in the country. intended as a democratic emancipation narrative, the nqf of ukraine is nonetheless, ultimately, about conformism. given that the goal of ongoing reforms in ukraine is to realize the aspirations of recent independence and civil society movements, it is ironic that the policy process of the nqf has nevertheless resumed a mostly top-down distribution of decision-making in education. what remains to be seen is if the newly-established national agency for quality assurance in higher education is able to actualize a more inclusive, collaborative and transparent public policy consultation process, as promised by its newlyappointed chair (kyiv mohyla foundation, 2019), since this would have a ripple effect on the workings of its close partner, the national qualifications agency, which is administers the nqf. it has been argued that contemporary education reform in ukraine, particularly in regarding to recognition conventions, is currently undergoing transformation. the initiation and formulation process of the nqf has become an essential pillar of this new architecture. however, the policy making agenda in this area is hampered and contested, both in terms of the understanding of higher education as a public or personal good and in terms of the role of national identity in education policy formulation (zapp and ramirez, 2019). significantly, there is little empirical evidence to back claims made for national qualifications frameworks, their rapid dispersion notwithstanding (allais, 2010). notably, those which have been successful do not emphasize learning outcomes over learning programs and have ensured a broadbased vetting process (allais, 2010; raffe 2009b, 2009a). as part of the tertiary education policy repertoire, nqfs are complex, dynamic, and evolving policy instruments that touch on important power relations in each country, whereas official reports about them tending to be political documents designed to convey a consensus (allais, 2011). this has been the case in ukraine and other countries struggling with their soviet past. policy makers, driven by economic imperatives, find themselves challenged by the multidimensional complexity of social reality on the new road to democracy (fischer, 2003). from the viewpoint of policy borrowing, the consequence is that the policy borrower often does not see the social problems as the case in ukraine. for example, the borrowed prestige of credentialization inherent to qualifications frameworks essentially reduces the individual to a set of skills to be maximized; the higher the individual’s qualifications, the more they are worth (a form of meritocracy). the main dilemma for former communist countries is that their traditional bureaucratic methods work poorly in higher education reform (oleksiyenko, 2016; soltys, 2015). another problem is that deeply embedded elite and social values make it difficult to bring new ideas into countries with very different cultures, although outward organizational forms may indicate some policy adoption (elliott and tudge, 2007). as a result, in ukraine, the ‘already’ and the ‘not yet’ of education policy reform embodied in the nqf are held together in intimate tension, a governance innovation tension (oleksiyenko et al., 2018), the hope being that further institutional democratization will permit the nqf mechanism to include more voices and to actualize more equitable social development opportunities. references adam, s. 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(2008). organisational learning in novel policy situations: two cases of united states communications regulation. policy studies, 29(1), 87–100. doi:10.1080/014428707018480 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 e-learning utilization to improve the students’ learning achievement at telkom university bandung fetty poerwita sary economy and business faculty telkom university, indonesia e-mail: fettyps@telkomuniversity.ac.id adhi prasetio economy and business faculty telkom university, indonesia e-mail: adhipras@telkomuniversity.ac.id milleniartha moslem economy and business faculty telkom university, indonesia e-mail: milleniarthamoslem@student.telkomuniversity.ac.id apa citation: sary, f.p., prasetio, a., & moslem, m. (2021). the influence of e-learning utilization and motivation on learning achievement in e-commerce courses at telkom university bandung. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), p p . 4 9 5 4 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 2 5 1 3 4 / i j l i . v 4 i 1 . 4 3 4 4 received: 04-01-2020 accepted: 11-02-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction e-learning is something that we cannot avoid any more today. since internet is getting faster, it can accommodate the e-learning synchronously and asynchronously. the learning can facilitate both students and lecturers. according to adeed (2018), there are three important pillars for instilling learning methods for millennials to be ready to face the industrial era 4.0, namely: first, increasingly diverse literacy sources including digital, technology and human literature, as well as extra-curricular; second, hybrid learning method, that is learning that can be done online; third, life-long learning. the phenomenon of elearning or online learning is currently an alternative learning method that can be provided to students. this learning method in line with the characteristics of millennial generation. this generation is different with the previous generation in which based on the results of a abstract: the covid-19 pandemic has influenced many aspects in indonesia, including education. now, the method of teaching and learning in all levels of education is forced to implement the online learning. telkom university has prepared previously by establishing the center of e-learning and open education (celoe) and developing the celoe learning management system (lms) that would be used by all students and lecturers. telkom foundation also provided e-learning grants for the lectures to prepare their courses conducted online two years before the pandemic struck. therefore, during the development process, not all courses were ready to be used online. there were also trials and errors that were needed to make it better and perfect. therefore, this study aimed to analyze the utilization of e-learning whether it affected the students’ learning achievement. for this research, the sample and population of this study are 88 international class students who take e-commerce courses that has implemented lms celoe. the data were processed through computer assistance using the spss21 program and simple regression analysis techniques. the results of this study indicate that the variable x (e-learning utilization) has no effect on student achievement, e-learning has not encouraged students to study independently and according to students, e-learning has not saved overall education costs. the students still felt comfortable if they learnt directly with the lecturers, saw the figure of the lectures who taught them, asked, and discussed things they did not understand directly. therefore, efforts are still needed to make students aware that learning is a necessity and must exist within themselves and should adapt to the new way of learning. meanwhile, for the lecturers, they must still get the training in relation to design an interesting method in delivering the material to maximize the use of elearning. keywords: e-learning; motivation; learning achievement. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4344 fetty poerwita sary, adhi prasetio, & milleniartha moslem the influence of e-learning utilization and motivation on learning achievement in e-commerce courses at telkom university bandung 50 study conducted by the boston consulting group (bcg) with the university of berkley in 2011 in the united states regarding the usa, millennial generation are as follows: 1) they prefer to read through their smartphones; 2) millennials are required to have social media accounts as a communication tool and information center; 3) millennials prefer cell phones over television. watching a television show is now no longer an entertainment because anything they can find on mobile phone (prasasti & prakoso, 2020). to support the learning characteristics of this generation which are the characteristics of current students, we can apply information and communication technology (ict) in education sector in indonesia today, such as by implementing the e-learning program because currently it does not only rely on what in the classroom but also how to explore and use the various learning resources needed. the benefits of e-learning are: 1) flexibility in choosing the time and place to access material and study; 2) an opportunity for learners to independently control the success of learning; 3) cost efficiency that can be put into three categories. first, cost efficiency for the administration of the organizers; second, the efficiency of providing physical and learning facilities and third, cost efficiency for students which covers the cost of transportation and accommodation. meanwhile according to pranoto (2009), the use of e-learning to support the implementation of the learning process can increase student absorption of the material being taught, increase active participation of students, improve students' self-study abilities, improving the quality of teaching and training materials, improve the ability to display information with information technology devices, which is difficult to do with ordinary devices. from these benefits, e-learning requires students to be able to study independently, access course materials, and communicate in discussion forums with lecturers, do practice questions, and interact with fellow students in completing course assignments. increasing learning achievement cannot be achieved quickly and easily, it requires time and a long process. one way that can be done is to increase learning achievement gradually from time to time during the learning process of each semester. learning achievement that gets better gradually will have a strong and lasting impact on students. based on the description above, the researcher wants to find out whether e-learning can be used to develop effective and efficient learning by utilizing ict facilities and infrastructure. the use of e-learning in the teaching and learning process is expected that it can improve learning achievement (ibrahim and suardiman, 2014). therefore, from the above phenomena, the researcher is interested in conducting a study to reveal whether e-learning utilization influences students’ learning achievement at telkom university. e-learning e-learning is a combination of two words, namely e which stands for electronic and learning. therefore, e-learning is the learning that is using the help of electronic tools. according to hamdani in sary & prasetio (2021), e-learning is the use of computer technology, networks, and the internet in the distance learning process. learning that uses internet access in the process or is also called web-based learning. e-learning allows students to learn via computers in their respective places, without having to go to class. e-learning is often understood as a form of web-based learning that can be accessed from the internet. e-learning materials do not have to be distributed online, either via local networks or the internet. off-line distribution using cd/ dvd media also includes e-learning patterns. according to hamdani (in sary & prasetio, 2021), there are several definitions related to e-learning as follows: blended learning/ hybrid learning caulfield (2011) defines blended learning as a program that reduces 'face-to-face time' which is replaced by time spent outside the traditional classroom. meanwhile, according to garrison & vaughan (2008) blended learning is a good blend of online and face-to-face learning experiences. in this learning design, traditional face-to-face learning classes are combined with web-based online learning and / or computer-mediated learning or other smart devices. schemes and learning times inside and outside the classroom are arranged in such a way as to get the advantages of each lesson. blended learning is often also referred to as hybrid learning, which in principle is to utilize the strengths of face-to-face learning and online learning as well as cover the weaknesses in each learning. face-to-face learning has advantages and cannot be replaced by distance learning, and vice versa. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 51 distance learning e-learning allows students to gain knowledge without having to physically attend a class. students can be anywhere, while the lecturers and lessons that are being followed are in other places, other cities, and even other countries. interactions can be executed online and in real time or offline or achieved. students receive instruction through online classes, video recordings, video conferencing, or any other audio/visual technology medium. learning with computer devices in general, the device is equipped with a multimedia device with a cd drive and an internet connection or a local intranet. by having a computer connected to the internet, students can participate in e-learning. the number of students who can participate is not limited by class capacity. formal vs informal learning e-learning can include formal and informal learning. formal e-learning, for example learning with a curriculum, syllabus, subjects, and tests that have been arranged and compiled based on a schedule agreed upon by the related parties (elearning managers and students). learning that is supported by experts in their respective fields. even though it is provided only through a computer device, e-learning is actually prepared, supported, managed by a team consisting of experts in their respective fields, namely (1) subject matter expert (sme), in this case the content creator, (2) instructional designer (id), whose task is to systematically design sme material into e-learning material by incorporating elements of teaching methods, (3) graphic designer (gd), converting text material into graphic form to be studied, (4) experts in learning management system (lms), manages the system on the website, which regulates the traffic of interactions between teachers and students and between students. learning achievement to be able to support the success of learning in higher education, there are several factors that play an important role. these factors are grouped into internal factors and external factors (ginting in martoredjo, 2013). the internal factors that influence the success of the study are intelligence, talent, interest and attention and motives. in addition to internal factors, there are also external factors that can affect the success of the study. those are social factors such as college friends, family, boarding friends, and society. another thing that has an important role in studying in college is motivation. student motivation to study in higher education plays a very important role in achieving the highest achievement in higher education. good achievement can only be achieved by studying diligently. willingness to learn is reciprocally related to learning success. a great willingness to learn becomes a support to achieve success. on the other hand, perceived success will increase the willingness to continuously develop themselves (ginting in martoredjo, 2013). meanwhile, according to tu'u (2004), learning achievement is the result that someone achieves when doing certain tasks or activities. learning achievement can be a benchmark for students in evaluating their learning efforts. learning achievement shows the value of learning outcomes for each individual student. students who get poor grades show low learning achievement, therefore these students are motivated to improve to get better grades in the next opportunity. there are also students whose grades are not bad, but their scores are not satisfactory, so it cannot be said that their learning achievement is high. in addition, there are students who get good grades who show high learning achievement, with good grades the students concerned will be motivated to be able to maintain their achievement. it can be concluded that student learning achievement is a student benchmark that shows the learning process and learning outcomes within a certain period assessed from its cognitive aspects. these results can be addressed through the value or number of the evaluation results in the form of daily tests or semester exams conducted by the lecturer on students. research model the model to be tested in this research can be seen in the following figure. figure 1. research model method the population and sample of this study are 88 fetty poerwita sary, adhi prasetio, & milleniartha moslem the influence of e-learning utilization and motivation on learning achievement in e-commerce courses at telkom university bandung 52 students. the research instrument used is a questionnaire consisting of 5 statement items consisting of 5 statements of the use of e-learning variables using a likert scale. after the data is collected, the validity and reliability are tested. the spss results show that all items are valid where the sig. (2-tailed) have a value of 0.000 <0.05 and are reliable where cronbach's alpha value is 0.845 > 0.6. in addition, the items of this statement have also met the normality, multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, and glejser tests where all these test results show that they have fulfilled all the classical assumptions for regression. the type of this research is descriptive research. descriptive research presents a detailed picture of a special situation, social setting, or relationship. meanwhile, the quantitative descriptive method approach is used to explore and clarify the problem being researched by describing the variables relating to the problem and the unit under study quantification. in this writing, the research object chosen by the researcher is the mbti student of the faculty of economics and business, telkom university who took e-commerce courses in the even semester 2019/2020. meanwhile, variable y, namely learning achievement is measured based on the ecommerce grade obtained by students at the end of the semester using normal reference assessments with the following conditions: table 1. normal reference assessment course score value (csm) grade score m + 1,2s < csm a 7 m + 0,6s < csm ≤ m + 1,2s ab 6 m < csm ≤ m + 0,6s b 5 m – 0,6s < csm ≤ m bc 4 m – 1,2s < csm ≤ m – 0,6s c 3 40< csm ≤ m – 0,6s d 2 csm ≤ 40 e 1 m = mean grades of class students with csm > 40; s = standard deviation of the class values with csm > 40 the data is processed through computer assistance using the spss 21 program using multiple regression analysis techniques to determine whether the e-learning utilization influences learning achievement at telkom university bandung. findings and discussion the results of the study based on the student response questionnaire to variable e-learning utilization showed that variables x was in good categories, that is 71.3%. as for the statement items "learning by utilizing e-learning saves the cost of education as a whole" got the lowest score, namely 62.4% with the following details: table 2. item description question items percentage e-learning utilization learning by utilizing e-learning saves time in the learning process 73.4% learning by utilizing e-learning reduces the cost of traveling to campus 76.9% learning by utilizing e-learning saves overall education costs. 62.4% learning by using e-learning has trained me to be more independent in gaining knowledge. 69.9% learning by utilizing e-learning in reaching a wider geographical area 73.9% table 3. results of data processing coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.297 .423 5.425 .000 pemanfaatan e-learning -.032 .029 -.186 -1.090 .281 a. dependent variable: learning achievement indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 53 meanwhile, based on table 2, variable x (elearning utilization) has no influence on learning achievement because the sig value is 0.281> 0.05 where the linier regression equation is as follows: y = 2.297 0.032x based on data analysis and hypothesis testing that has been done, it is known that there is no significant influence between the e-learning utilization on learning achievement. this research is supported by wahyuningsih in sari (2020) which states that students who learn with e-learning are half times less likely than students with conventional methods. the use of e-learning may not influence learning achievement due to several things. the results of this study are also in accordance with the results of research by nisa (2002) which stated those several things are, for example 1) internet access; 2) lack of consistency of lecturers in mentoring in online classes. learning by means of e-learning is a relatively new way of learning for students. therefore, intensive mentoring needs to be carried out by lecturers, especially in guiding and giving responses in online discussions. this is also supported by nursalam in khoir, murtinugraha, & musalamah (2020), that says elearning also has many disadvantages such as 1) lack of interaction between teachers and students or even between students themselves; 2) the tendency to ignore academic or social aspects and instead make business/ commercial aspects grow; 3) the teaching and learning process tends towards training rather than education; 4) the changing role of the lecturers from previously mastering conventional learning techniques, is now also required to know learning techniques that use ict (information, communication, and technology); 5) not all places have internet facilities (perhaps this is related to problems with the availability of electricity, telephones, or computers); 6) lack of human resources who master the internet; 8) lack of mastery of computer languages; access to adequate computers can be a problem for students; 9) students can be frustrated if they cannot access graphics, pictures, and videos because of inadequate equipment, 10) availability of infrastructure that can be met; 11) information may vary in quality and accuracy so guidance and inquiry features are required, and the last 12) students can feel isolated. therefore, since there are still disadvantages faced by not only students but also lecturers, and the students who came from different background such as economic, ict literacy, etc., can be the obstacles in the teaching and learning process. conclusion based on the results of research and data processing, it can be concluded that the use of elearning is still not a factor that increases student learning achievement. this is because the system used was sometimes down, the internet was unstable, for example when they accessed the quiz, suddenly they were out the system because the signal was lost. they could not submit the assignment or accessed the material. and so on. students were also still inexperienced in using elearning with lms. it turns out that experience is a factor that influences behavior in adopting new technology. according to students, they preferred to do assignments from lecturers together. they felt secured because they could communicate, asked, and got the answer right away. with the lecturer in the class, they were more motivated, because the lecture could directly remind and guide them about the homework, quiz, etc. students were also more active in the class, and the class was more regular for them. so that, the concept of elearning, in which the students are expected to be independent learners, has not been felt and implemented by all students. in addition, according to some students, there was still no evidence that the use of e-learning was more cost effective because there is still no reduction in tuition fee, and they still must subscribe internet. references adeed, p. (2018). tiga pilar menanamkan metode pembelajaran generasi milenial. retrieved july 18, 2020, from https://siedoo.com/berita11628-tiga-pilar-menanamkan-metode garrison, r. & vaughan, n. d. (2008). blended learning in higher education: framework, principles, and guidelines. wiley publisher. ibrahim, d. s. & suardiman, s.p. (2014). pengaruh penggunaan e-learning terhadap motivasi dan prestasi belajar matematika siswa sd negeri tahunan yogyakarta. journal.uny.ac.id khoir, h. m., murtinugraha, r. e., & musalamah, s. (2020). pengembangan media pembelajaran e-learning berbasis moodle pada mata kuliah metodologi penelitian (studi pada program studi pendidikan teknik bangunan, fakultas teknik, universitas negeri jakarta). jurnal pendidikan teknik sipil (jpensil), 9(1), pp. 54-60. martoredjo, n. t. (2013). meningkatkan prestasi belajar di perguruan tinggi dengan https://siedoo.com/berita-11628-tiga-pilar-menanamkan-metodehttps://siedoo.com/berita-11628-tiga-pilar-menanamkan-metodefetty poerwita sary, adhi prasetio, & milleniartha moslem the influence of e-learning utilization and motivation on learning achievement in e-commerce courses at telkom university bandung 54 mengembangkan kecerdasan emosional. humaniora,.4(2), pp.1093-1104 nisa, l. c. (2002). pengaruh pembelajaran e-learning terhadap hasil belajar matakuliah statistics mahasiswa tadris bahasa inggris fakultas tarbiyah iain walisongo. jurnal phenomenon, 2(1), pp.7-26. prasasti, s. & prakoso, e. t. (2020). karakter dan perilaku milineal:peluang atau ancaman bonus demografi. onsilia jurnal ilmiah bk, 3(1),pp.10-22. https://ejournal.unib.ac.id/index.php/j_consili a pranoto, a. (2009). sains dan teknologi. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. sary, f. p. & prasetio, a. (2021). pengaruh pemanfaatan e-learning terhadap motivasi dan prestasi belajar pada mata kuliah ecommerce di universitas telkom bandung. edum journal, 4(1), pp.29-39. https://edum.unwir.ac.id/index.php/edumjour nal/article/view/75 sari, w. f. & kurniawati, t. (2020). pengaruh motivasi belajar dan pemanfaatan e-learning terhadap prestasi belajar mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan ekonomi. jurnal ecogen, 3(1), pp.176-184. http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/students/index.php/p ek/index tu’u, t. (2004). peran disiplin pada prilaku dan prestasi siswa. jakarta: grasindo indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 63 students’ and teachers’ perception of the implementation of e-learning: indonesian cases pupu saful rahmat university of kuningan e-mail: poesya59@gmail.com apa citation: rahmat, p. s. (2021). students’ and teachers’ perception of the implementation of e-learning: indonesian cases. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp.63-68. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4346 received: 27-01-2020 accepted: 19-02-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction the development of information technology can improve performance and enable various activities to be carried out quickly, precisely, and accurately so as to increase productivity. in addition, the development of information technology has also influenced many areas of life, one of which is the field of education. the development of information and communication technology has brought enormous changes to the advancement of the world of education. along with these developments, learning methods have also experienced many developments, both personal learning methods, learning media or the learning process. the form of the development of information technology that is applied in the world of education is e-learning (electronic learning). e-learning is a technological innovation that has a very large contribution to changes in the learning process, where the learning process is no longer only listening to material descriptions from the teacher but students also carry out other activities such as overcoming the limitations of time and space between students and teaching staff, accessing learning materials every time and repeatedly, increasing the quantity of students, being able to communicate with fellow students, students with teachers, or other groups outside the school institution, for example via the web, chat, and email. with e-learning, students can learn teaching materials that can be visualized in various formats or forms that are more dynamic and interactive or students will be motivated to be further involved in the learning process. e-learning or online learning can be done by combining several types of learning resources such as documents, images, videos, and audio in learning. the learning material can be used by students by watching or reading. learning resources like this are the main capital in developing online learning. because, if the teacher packs learning as attractive as possible and in accordance with the characteristics of students, then the learning objectives can be achieved even in online activities. e-learning is structured with the aim of using an electronic or computer system abstract: this study aims to provide information about teachers’ and students’ perceptions learning implementation based on e-learning which has been conducted at vocational high school karya nasional (karnas) in kuningan regency on july december 2019. this study used a survey method with likert scale 1-5. the population in this study are 50 students and 50 teachers of vocational high school karnas. the instrument used is a questionnaire to capture the perception of students and teachers on the learning implementation based on e-learning at school which has been applied at school. reliability of the results obtained from the calculation value of r 0.97 for the questionnaire distributed to the teachers and r 0.99 for questionnaire distributed to the students. the results of students and teachers perceptions study learning based on implementation of e-learning at vocational high school karnas based on teachers respondent answers to perceptions of infrastructure aspects indicator showed 3.86 as the mean value. on the perception of the education management aspects indicators showed 3.61 as the mean value. in the perception of human resources aspects, the mean value is 3.51. based on students respondent answers perceptions of the infrastructure aspects indicator showed 3.84 as the mean value. in the perception of the management aspects of education indicators, the mean value is 3.47. in the perception of human resources aspects, th mean value is 3.79. based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that learning based on implementation of elearning in vocational high school karnas is not well, because the internet conection are sometimes slow and disconnected, there are some teachers and students who do not understand about information technology and communication, also do not understand the procedure of learning implementation based on e-learning, and there are still some students who do not have a laptop / net book thus hindering the learning process. keywords: perceptions; e-learning; learning outcomes https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4346 pupu saful rahmat students’ and teachers’ perception of the implementation of e-learning based learning: indonesian cases 64 so that it can support the learning process. allen (2013) stated that e-learning is an educational system or concept that utilizes information technology in the teaching and learning process. here are some definitions of e-learning from various sources: (1) distance learning process by combining principles in the learning process with technology (chandrawati, 2010). (2) the learning system that is used as a means for the teaching and learning process is carried out without having to meet face-to-face between teachers and students (ardiansyah, 2013). according to rosenberg (2001), the characteristics of e-learning are network, which makes it able to quickly repair, store or retrieve, distribute, and share learning and information. the characteristics of e-learning according to nursalam (2008) are: (1) utilize electronic technology services, (2) take advantage of the advantages of computers (digital media and computer networks), (3) using self-learning materials and then storing them on the computer, so that they can be accessed by lecturers and students anytime and anywhere, (4) utilizing the learning schedule, curriculum, learning progress results, and matters related to educational administration can be viewed at any time on the computer. as for the benefits of e-learning are: (1) flexible: e-learning provides flexibility in choosing the time and place to access the trip, (2) independent learning: e-learning provides an opportunity for learners to independently control the success of learning, (3) cost efficiency: elearning provides cost efficiency for the administration of the organizers, the efficiency of providing physical facilities and facilities for learning and cost efficiency for students is the cost of transportation and accommodation. furthermore, pranoto, et al. (2009) stated that the benefits of e-learning are: (1) the use of elearning to support the implementation of the learning process can increase students' absorption of the material being taught, (2) increase active participation of students, (3) increase active participation of students, (4) improving students' independent learning abilities, (5) improving the quality of teaching and training materials, and (6) improve the ability to display information with information technology devices, which is difficult to do with ordinary devices. each method and technique has its advantages and disadvantages, as in e-learning, the advantages of e-learning is it provides flexibility, interactivity, speed, and visualization through the various advantages of each media. according to l. tjokro (2009), e-learning has many advantages, namely: (1) more easily absorbed: using multimedia facilities in the form of images, text, animation, sound, and video, (2) much more costeffective: no need for instructors, no need for a minimum audience, can be anywhere, can be anytime, and cheap to reproduce, (3) much more concise, meaning that there are not many class formalities, straight to the point, subjects as needed, and (4) available 24 hours/day – 7 days/week: that mastery of the material depends on the enthusiasm and absorption of students, can be monitored, and can be tested with e-test. learning with the e-learning model requires more additional equipment (such as computers, monitors, keyboards, etc.). according to my experience in the field that have applied e-learning in our classroom using e-learning for several years that the disadvantages of e-learning are as follows: (1) lack of interaction between teachers and students or even between students themselves, (2) the tendency to ignore academic or social aspects and instead make business/commercial aspects grow, (3) the teaching and learning process tends towards training rather than education, (4) the changing role of the teacher from previously mastering conventional learning techniques, is now also required to know learning techniques that use ict (information, communication, and technology), (5) not all places have internet facilities (perhaps this is related to problems with the availability of electricity, telephone, or computer), (6) lack of human resources who master the internet, (7) lack of mastery of computer languages, (8) access to adequate computers can be a problem for students, (9) students can be frustrated if they cannot access graphics, pictures, and videos because of inadequate equipment, (10) availability of infrastructure that can be met, (11) information may vary in quality and accuracy so guidance and inquiry features are required, and (12) students can feel isolated. talking about perception, according to retnoningsih and suharso (2005, p.759), "perception is a response or direct discovery of an absorption process of a person knowing some things through his five senses." meanwhile, according to slameto (2003, p.102), "perception is a process that involves the entry of messages or information into the human brain". through perception, humans are constantly in touch with their environment. this relationship is carried out through the senses, namely the senses of sight, indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 65 hearing, touch, taste, and smell. the same opinion is also expressed by walgito (2010, p.5), "perception is a process that is preceded by sensing, namely the receipt of a stimulus by the individual through the senses or also called the sensory process.” according to toha (2003), the factors that influence a person's perception are internal feelings, attitudes and individual characteristics, prejudices, desires or expectations, attention (focus), learning processes, physical conditions, mental disorders, values and needs as well as interests, and motivations. the second is external: family background, information obtained, knowledge and needs around, intensity, size, opposites, repetition of motion, new and familiar things or unfamiliar objects. at karnas vocational high school, it has been three years of implementing e-learning-based learning in the normative, adaptive, and productive subject groups. based on the observations done, there are several problems in the implementation of e-learning-based learning, namely the internet network is already available but the internet access speed capacity is less than optimal, this can be seen in the internet network that suddenly disconnects or is slow when it is accessed simultaneously, and there are still some students who do not have laptop. thus hampering the teaching and learning process, teachers, and students still do not understand what, how, and the concept of e-learning-based learning due to lack of socialization and some preparations that must be made before implementing e-learning-based learning so that teachers and students find it difficult to implement or apply e-learning-based learning to students in the learning process. in this regard, the readiness of teachers and students is more important because if the teachers and students are not ready to implement e-learningbased learning, the implementation of e-learningbased learning will not work as expected. for this reason, teachers and students are expected to be able to prepare for the implementation of elearning-based learning, because teachers and students have a very important role in implementing e-learning-based learning. with the implementation of e-learning-based learning, it is expected to improve the quality of learning for teachers and students. based on the explanation above, the researcher is interested in conducting this research with the aim of knowing the perceptions of students and teachers on the implementation of e-learningbased learning at karnas vocational high school which has been implemented within a period of three years. method this study used quantitative research with the instruments as data collectors. the procedures taken in making the questionnaire are as follows: (1) determine the indicators that form the basis for the preparation of statement items and create a grid of research instruments. (2) develop a questionnaire design and then consult with the supervisor for suggestions, opinions, and improvements. then the actual questionnaire is made. the questionnaire contains respondent data and questions. the two data collection tools are used in this study, the filling can be done by filling in and putting a check list ( ) in the available column. in each question item the respondent can choose one of the 5 alternative answers provided. of the five alternative answers for positive statements, each is given a score of 5 for strongly agree, 4 for agree, 3 for undecided, 2 for disagree, and 1 for strongly disagree, and for negative statements are given a score of 5 for strongly disagree, 4 for disagree, 3 for undecided, 2 for agree, and 1 for strongly agree. (3) conduct a pre-test to 10 teacher respondents and 10 student respondents to test the validity and reliability of the research instrument. after analyzing the test results, the validity level was obtained, 16 invalid statements were obtained from 34 valid statements for teacher questionnaires and for student questionnaires, 3 invalid statements were obtained from 22 valid statements. from the pretest that has been carried out, both questionnaires have a reliability value, which is obtained (rxx) = 0.96 for teachers and (rxx) = 0.98 for students, it can be said that the value has a high reliability value because it is located between 0.80 1.00. after the instrument is declared valid and reliable, then the actual research is carried out on the sample used as the respondent. findings and discussion based on the calculation of data about the perceptions of students and teachers on the implementation of e-learning-based learning at karnas vocational high school, it is known that: (1) the average value for the indicators of the infrastructure aspect in the teacher's questionnaire results has a value of 3.85 and the student's questionnaire results are 3.83. (2) the mean value for the indicators of the education management aspect in the teacher's questionnaire results has a pupu saful rahmat students’ and teachers’ perception of the implementation of e-learning based learning: indonesian cases 66 value of 3.60 and the student's questionnaire results are 3.46. (3) the average value for the indicators of the human resource aspect in the teacher's questionnaire results has a value of 3.50 and the student's questionnaire results are 3.78. table 1. research result indicator sub indicator indicator average score teacher students aspects of infrastructure personal computer (pc) 3,86 3,84 computer network components computer network server classification multimedia equipment access schedule aspects of educational management aspects of material substance 3,61 3,47 aspects of learning communication display aspects of learning design aspects of human resources general knowledge of computers 3,51 3,79 knowledge of the internet skills in operating developing teaching materials increasing effectiveness and efficiency based on the results of research on student and teacher perceptions of the implementation of elearning-based learning at karnas vocational high school in kuningan, it can be concluded that in the infrastructure aspect there is already the availability of supporting media such as personal computers (pcs) / laptops, lcds, and projectors during the process of implementing e-learningbased learning. the internet network is available and can be accessed in all areas of the school environment, but if it is accessed simultaneously there are still obstacles, namely the internet network is sometimes slow and disconnected, then the classification of the school's computer network server already has a standard hard drive and a standard processor. then the website provided by the school to implement e-learning-based learning can be accessed for 24 hours or login/logout at any time whose access schedule is set by the server. based on the results of research on student and teacher perceptions of the implementation of elearning-based learning at karnas vocational high school on indicators of education management aspects, it can be concluded that the application of e-learning-based learning is classified in the good category because the sk-kd is clearly stated, the learning objectives are in accordance with the skkd, learning materials are in accordance with the curriculum 2013 and ktsp, learning materials are not in accordance with learning objectives, instructions are clear and easy to understand in the application of e-learningbased learning, subject matter is in accordance with the ability level of students, sample questions are in accordance with learning objectives, practice questions are in accordance with learning objectives, the exercises made allow students to have competencies beyond the expected basic competencies, contain topics according to indicators, learning materials are presented in full, contain learning activities related to the needs of students, the material presented has a hub. in conjunction with other materials, the sentences used are simple sentences, some teaching materials are innovative and the material presented is in accordance with scientific rules. based on the results of research on student and teacher perceptions of the implementation of elearning-based learning at karnas vocational high school on the indicators of the human resource aspect, it can be concluded that in the implementation of e-learning-based learning there are still some teachers and students who do not understand information and communication technology, do not understand the procedures for implementing e-learning-based learning, therefore teachers and students should be given training on information communication technology and training on procedures for implementing elearning-based learning. conclusion based on the results of the research that has been explained regarding the perception of students and teachers on the implementation of e-learningbased learning at karnas vocational high school as a whole, it has not been going well as seen by the internet network which is sometimes slow and indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 67 disconnected and there are still some teachers and students who do not understand information and communication technology and also do not understand the procedures in the implementation of e-learning-based learning. based on the results of follow-up research that can be given are as follows: good cooperation is needed between school principals, teaching staff, students, and information communication technology managers so that the implementation of e-learning-based learning can run optimally so as to improve student learning achievement and evaluation is needed routinely once a month about the use of information and communication technology in the implementation of e-learningbased learning at karnas vocational high school. references allen, m. (2013). guide to e-learning. canada: john wiley & son. ardiansyah. (2013). rancang bangun website e learning. pt. rineka cipta. chandrawati, s. r. (2010). pemamfaatan e-learning dalam pembelajaran. jurnal cakrawala kependidikan, 8(2), pp.101–203. l. tjokro, s. (2009). presentasi yang mencekam. jakarta: elek media komputindo. nursalam. (2008). pemanfaatan elearning dalam pembelajaran. jakarta: salemba medika. pranoto, a., et al. (2009. sains dan teknologi. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. retnoningsih, a. & suharso. (2005). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. semarang: cv. widya karya. rosenberg, m. j. (2001). elearning strategiesfor delivering knowledge. mc. graw hill: new jersey. s ratih, m. e. (2011). persepsi mahasiswa dalam penerapan e-learning untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan (studi kasus pada universitas islam indonesia) [skripsi]. fakultas ekonomi universitas pembangunan nasional jawa timur. slameto. (2013). persepsi dan evaluasi pendidikan, cetakan ke-4. jakarta: bumi aksara sugiyono. (2015). statistika untuk penelitian. bandung: alfabeta toha, m. (2003). perilaku organisasi konsep dasar dan aplikasinya. jakarta: grafindo persada. walgito, b. 2010. pengantar psikologi umum. yogyakarta. cv andi. pupu saful rahmat students’ and teachers’ perception of the implementation of e-learning based learning: indonesian cases 68 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ wirting skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung) icha amalia department of english education, universitas kuningan, indonesia email: ichaamalia518@gmail.com dadang solihat department of english education, universitas kuningan, indonesia dadang.solihat@uniku.ac.id endang darsih department of english education, universitas kuningan, indonesia endang.darsih@uniku.ac.id apa citation: amalia, i., solihat, d., & darsih, e. (2022). the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung). indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 5(1), 23-30. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i1.5873. received: 16-01-2022 accepted: 25-02-2022 published: 30-04-2022 introduction english is a subject that delivers its skills into four categories: listening, speaking, reading, and writing (hashim, yunus, & hashim, 2018). writing skill is an important aspect of language learning refers to the process of encoding words. writing might be difficult for some people some students can speak english fluently and confidently, although since they have difficulties in conveying their ideas in writing. it cannot be denied that writing is a complex skill because the students need to comprehend spelling, grammar, sentences, vocabulary, and structures as the units in writing. however, there are a lot of problems faced by the students relating to writing comprehension. they could not convey their ideas clearly in writing because they had limited vocabularies, low proficiency, use of correct grammar in writing, and were less motivated in learning english. these factors made them difficult to express their ideas through writing. consequently, teachers need to find the best approaches to make the students easily in learning writing and make them enjoy when they are engaged in writing activities. an alternative media that the teachers can use is a game-based learning platform. abstract: the research aimed to find out whether or not there is an effect of using kahoot application in improving students’ writing skills. the method used in this research was quantitative method with a quasiexperimental design. the population of students at the second grade was 134 students of senior high school 1 luragung with two sample classes which have 12 students in each class. both classes are assigned into experimental and control class. in obtaining the data, the researcher conducted pre-test, treatments, and posttest. the treatment was given to the experimental class 4 times assissted by kahoot application. meanwhile, in control class there is no treatment given. the teaching was assisted by google classroom. the result of the data showed that the mean scores of the experimental class pre-test and post-test rater 1 was 56.44 and 78.66 from rater 2 was 56.58 and 79.75. on the other hand, the mean scores of control group pre-test and post-test rater 1 was 50.55 and 68.00 from rater 2 was 52.00 and 67.83. the students’ better achievement toward writing ability can be seen on the mean score from descriptive statistic of the post-test the experimental class rater 1 and 2 was 67.85 higher than the mean score of post-test in the control class which was 59.58. it can be concluded that, the students who got treatment using kahoot were higher than the students’ from the control class. kahoot application given a positive effect on the students’ writing skills and also the effective online learning during covid-19 pandemic. keywords: writing skill; kahoot. icha amalia, dadang solihat, & endang darsih the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung) 24 furthermore, since the end of 2019, the world has been rocked for corona virus or covid-19. hence, the entire system that runs like a government, the economy, including education in indonesia are disrupted. as of march 15, 2020, the president of republic indonesia, adopted a policy of temporarily closing the teaching and learning process at schools and universities urged them to study at home, and replacing them with online learning to break the chain of viruses. this challenge for all of the teachers, especially english teachers how to teach writing during pandemic covid-19 and make the learning activities are enjoyable and interested in the students. nowadays, almost teenagers prefer going along with the smartphone to spend time as well as learning english. especially, during the current pandemic situation which requires learning to be carried out online. so that, the role of technology and e-learning models are very much needed to achieve effective learning and teaching activities. based on the fact, modern learners are very much engaged with technology and that education can not ignore the idea that games can be one of the platforms of learning. digital games that can be used for education are evolving rapidly. kahoot is one of the well-known game-based learning platforms that are very user-friendly for both educators and learners. according to kapuler (2015), listed kahoot is one of the top 100 new online apps to use in the classroom. kahoot came in at number 36 on the list of apps rated for their effectiveness and usefulness for teaching and assessing students in the classroom. added jhons (2015) kahoot is a popular e-learning tool that can easily be used and helps in students' engagement and activeness in learning. kahoot is a free online learning platform that has gained wide acceptance in learning and it is based on current user-centered use. furthermore, kletnikov, popovski, & tomova (2019) state it is a free student-response tool for administering quizzes, facilitating discussions, or collecting survey data and it is a game-based classroom response system played by the whole class in real-time. hence, acquah & katz (2020) state game-based learning is one of the best approaches to be an effective tool. it tends to create more engagement compared to another approach because it stimulates the verbal and visual components in learning. through this study, the researcher applied kahoot application as the effective e-learning of teaching writing during pandemic covid-19. therefore, this research is entitled ''the effect of kahoot application in improving students' writing skill''. based on the rationale of the study above, the problem of study is formulated as: is there any effect of using kahoot application in improving students’ writing skills? therefore, this particular study aimed at finding out whether or not there is an effect of using kahoot application in improving students writing skills. the definition and theories which are related to the variables of this research divided into five parts those are, writing (definition writing and writing components), teaching writing (writing assessments, kahoot application and google classroom). in writing, the main product is a written text the main function of writing is for communication by langan (2005) one as a writer should be able to make their readers understand the message they convey. thus to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings clearly and effectively, the understanding of the graphic system is not enough, the writer requires knowledge of grammar and the art of using rhetoric such as arranging words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs to produce a well-written text. in writing, the writer must also master the rules of vocabulary, spelling, grammar, morphology, and syntax. therefore, many learners think that writing is difficult. kahoot is one of game-based learning platform as a part of digital learning media that can tests students’ knowledge of course content. the game is free and userfriendly for both teachers and student. furthermore, kahoot is a simply requires a multimedia tool to participate the quizzes contain questions that have up to four possible choices, and questions can contain various multimedia contents such as pictures or videos (siegle, 2015). kahoot's features offer the ability to earn points, engaging sound effects, and motivational music (wang & lieberoth (2015). this feature of kahoot can attract students' participation and makes the learning process fun. research also suggests that kahoot's audio and music create a positive learning experience for the users that encourages participation (wang & lieberoth (2015). in this reseacrh the classes were assigned into experimental and control class, the treatment was indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 given to the experimental class 4 times assissted by kahoot application. meanwhile, in control class there is no treatment given. the teaching was assisted by google classroom. negara (2018) google classroom is an online application promoted by google for schools intended to facilitate teachers in assorting, creating, share, collect and valuing the task in a paperless way, and assess student assignments complemented by automatic document storage in this researh the teaching assissted by google classroom was applied in the control class, the reseacher create lessons, upload the subject video provide students with the ability to distribute the assignment to submit feedback quickly. however, both of them had a similar characteristics for example, in joining the online class there two modes to join the online class via application by inserting code or just by link that teacher shared, the application is free. there is no cost for creating, playing and sharing the online class, we can add some videos material and picture also the teacher can assessing. furthermore, the teaching assisted through these two application can applied in online class with a similar characteristics. method the method used in this research was quantitative design with a quasi-experimental study. there two sample classes which have 12 students in each class. both classes were assigned into experimental and control class. in obtaining the data, the researcher conducted pre-test, treatments, and posttest. the treatment was given to the experimental class 4 times assissted by kahoot application. meanwhile, in control class there is no treatment given. the teaching was assisted by google classroom. it was supported based on the table 1 that showed the design of nonequivalent control group by freankel and wallen (2009). table 1. nonequivalent control group design class pretest treatment posttest a experimental class o1 x o2 b control class o3 4 o4 (fraenkel & wallen, 2009) description: o1 : pretest in experimental class o3 : pretest in control class x : treatment assissted by kahoot application the treatment was given to the experimental class 4 times assissted by kahoot application a pretest was conducted in two classes, such as the experimental class and the control class. in the pretest, the sample students were taken from the xi grade of science 1 and 2. they were given to make a personal recount text about ‘’online learning experience’’ a post-test it is done as similar in the pre-test, by giving the writing test to make a personal recount text about ‘’holiday’’ for the students in two classes such as experimental class and control class it is to see if the students did their best and knew the students’ progress in writing skills after being taught assissted by using kahoot application. in assessing the students writing ability on kahoot application reproduced by them. the researcher assessed the students work by writing criteria, the researcher used an analytic scale of students’ writing rubric from jacob, et al.’s (1981) p 115-116. there 5 element in this rubric : content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mecanism. the researcher calculates all the results of the pre-test and post-test by seeing the scale of the rubric from jacob, et al.’s (1981) p 115-116. the score was from two raters the researcher as the rater 1 while the rater 2 by mrs. fristi the english teacher from sman 1 luragung. results and discussion results table 2. the results of kahoot treatment no n subject percentage 1 12 descriptive 53,09% 2 12 recount 53,10% 3 12 procedure 58,97% 4 12 announcement 59,52% table 2 showed a description the results of kahoot material scores obtained in each treatment. based on the table there is 4 materials used in this research, namely: descriptive text, recount text, procedure text, and announcement text. t h e t e a c h e r can download this scoreboard to his or her computer. the following picture is the data related to students score of experiment class: icha amalia, dadang solihat, & endang darsih the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung) 26 picture 1. the students’ score of experiment class using kahoot the result of pre-test and post-test from the experiment class, it showed that the lowest score of pre-test from rater 1 was 46 and the highest score was 67. and the lowest score of post-test was 72 (good) and the highest score was 88 (excellent). the average mean of pre-test was 56.44 and posttest 78.66. while, the lowest score of pre-test from rater 2 was 49 and the highest score was 67 hence, the lowest score of post-test was 71 (good) and the highest score was 88 (excellent). the average of pre-test from rater 2 was 56,58 and the post-test was 79,75. picture 2 presents the results of the scores from the control class. picture 2. the students’ score of control class using google classroom the result of pre-test and post-test from the control class, it shows that the lowest score of pretest from rater 1 was 41 and the highest score was 60. and the lowest score of post-test was 60 (fair) and the highest score was 82 (excellent). the average of pre-test was 50,55 and post-test 68.00 while, the lowest score of pre-test from rater 2 was 42 and the highest score was 64 hence, the lowest score of post-test was 60 (fair) and the highest score was 86 (excellent) the average of pre-test from rater 2 was 52.00 and the post-test was 67,83. it can be concluded that the data in experiment and control class from rater 1 and 2 the students who got treatment using kahoot was higher than the students’ from control class. picture 3 showed the data that has been obtained in the pre-test and post-test of the two groups. picture 3. descriptive statistics based on the table the data above present whether the minimum score of control class was 41.50 meanwhile the maximum score is 80.50. the mean was 59.58. after getting treatment students’ used the kahoot application, the results display the minimum score of experiment class is 47.00 meanwhile, the maximum score was 88.00. the mean was 67.85. furthermore, the students’ have an improvement score in the experiment than the score in the control class of the students’. the following picture presents the inter-rater reliability between the 2 raters, how strong the level of agreement between them. picture 4. inter-rater reliability the result of the coefficient is 0.911. based on the table landis and koch (1977) that the reseacher used as a reference above, the coefficient indicates that the level of inter-rater reliability of the two raters in the experimental pre-test is "almost perfect". testing assumptions of ancova picture 5 showed the distributionn of pretest and post-test in both group are normally distributed. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 picture 5. normality (sig>0,05) it can be seen that the sign results from the pretest experimental class 0.46 (sig. >), pre-test control class 0.383 (sig. >), post-test experimental class 0.718 (sig. >), and post-test control class 0.463 (sig. >). it can be concluded that each data, both of data in the experimental class and in the control class, is the normally distributed. so that, the assumption of normality test has been fulfilled. the following table presents the research data from two or more data distributions have the same variances or not and shows the variances in each population would be the same. picture 6. homogeneity (sig>0,05) to calculate the homogeneity test, the researcher used the levene statistic test. the result of the value of sig. is 0.55, which is higher than 0,05. therefore, it can be said that based on both classes are homogeneous and the homogeneity assumption is fulfilled. picture 7 showed the relationship between covariate (pre-test) and independent variables. picture 7. homohogeneity of regression (slope) (sig>0,05) based on the picture, the sig value of class *pre-test is 0.201 > 0.05. there is no relationship between covariate and independent variables. it conclude the assumption of homogeneity of regression (slope) has been fulfilled. the following picture presents the linearity relationship between the covariate (pre-test) and the dependent variable. picture 8. linearity test (sig <0,05=) in this data the researcher used the pre-test value as a covariate, so what the reseacher marked is the pre-test variable. and the value of sig = 0.001 < 0.05. it can be concluded that there is a linear relationship between the covariate and the dependent variable so that, the assumption of linearity of the relationship between the covariate and the dependent variable has been fulfilled. table 11 showed the result hypotheses test of ancova. picture 9. ancova test (sig <0,05 = ho rejected, h1 accepted) the purpose of ancova is to find out and see the effect of treatment or treatment factors on the dependent variable by controlling other variables. after all the assumptions are fulfilled, then hypothesis testing using ancova can be done. what we see is the results of sig. class variable, its showed, sig = 0.001< 0.05. it conclude that, ho is rejected and ha is accepted “there is a significant different improvement in students’ writing skill between students’ who use kahoot application and google classroom. the following picture presents the last assumtion related to parameter estimates. icha amalia, dadang solihat, & endang darsih the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung) 28 picture 10. hypothesis testing (parameter estimates) the hypothesis testing of this study is as follows: (1) (ho): there is no effect of using kahoot application in improving students writing skills. (2) (ha): there is an effect of using kahoot application in improving students writing skills. to find out whether or not kahoot is effective in improving student’s writing skills, we look at the output parameter estimates. it can be seen as the result of the class variable sig. and sig = 0.001< 0.05. it conclude that, ho is rejected and ha is accepted there are an effect of used kahoot application in improving students writing skills. discussion the aimed of this research is to find out whether or not there is an effect of using kahoot application in improving students writing skills. the treatment was given to the experimental class 4 times assissted by kahoot application. meanwhile, in control class there is no treatment given. the teaching was assisted by google classroom. it can be identified through the result of pre-test and posttest experiment class and control class. the minimum score of control was 41.50 meanwhile the maximum score is 80.50, the mean score was 59.58. after getting treatment students’ by use the kahoot application, the results display whether the minimum score of the experiment is 47.00 meanwhile the maximum score is 88.00. and the mean score was 67.85, for the lowest score of post-test in the experiment was 71 (good) and the highest score was 88 (excellent). while the lowest score of post-test in the control was 60 (fair) and the highest score was 86 (excellent). hence, the data in the experiment and the control class from rater 1 and 2 the students who got treatment using kahoot was higher than the students’ from control class. the distinguish benefit between kahoot and other game-based learning platforms is the one who provides the explanation or the questions is the teacher, the application only designs and makes it more beautiful. furthermore, we can add some videos music, picture and whatever you want, the quiz game can be done not only individually but also in teams at the end of this game the teachers’ can see the score of the students’ that make the teacher easier to measure the understanding of the students’ after they write and complete and arrange the text. however, both of them had a similar characteristics for example,there two modes to join the online class via application by inserting code or just by link that teacher shared, the application is free. there is no cost for creating, playing and sharing the online class, we can add some videos material and picture also the teacher can assessing through these two application. conclusion based on the findings and discussion in the previous chapter, the researcher found that the result of this research shows a statistically there is an effect the teching was assisted by kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill. the students’ better achievement toward writing ability can be seen on the mean score of the posttest of the experimental class rater 1 and 2 was 67.85 which was higher than the mean score of post-test in the control class which was 59.58. meanwhile, in control class there is no treatment given. the teaching was assisted by google classroom. the students in the experimental can fill the quiz after watching the video material, this minimizes cheating on each other’s answers also the correct answer will automatically appear after the students’ choose the answer. the quiz game can be done not only individually but also in teams kahoot presents a fun and challenging way to engage modern learners in learning. second, during the treatment kahoot application helping the students explore their ability in writing through a deeper understanding of conceptual knowledge by the material through the quiz. kahoot quiz game questions may include multimedia visuals such as pictures and videos to further engage students. (dellos, 2015) students get to earn points for answering questions correctly and quickly. kahoot's features offer the ability to earn points, engaging sound effects, and motivational music. this feature of kahoot can attract students' participation and makes the learning process fun. research also suggests that kahoot's audio and music create a positive learning experience for the users that encourages participation (wang & lieberoth (2015). moreover, the students become an active participation and interest when the teacher shares the link of kahoot learning. while the students in indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 the control class that only got google classroom link which was usually used by the teacher in online class during the pandemic situation were not interest in learning activity. the students’ in the control class got little bit low post-test scores than a post-test scores of the experimental class. it can be concluded that the kahoot application is able toward students writing skills. most of the xi grade students’ in the experimental class had better development in post-test scores than their score in a pre-test. the result of this research indicates that the used kahoot application provides a significant difference toward students’ writing skill of what they found knowledge about language use, vocabulary, mecanics organization and how to make good content. means that, kahoot application can toward improving students’ writing skills at xi grade students at sma negeri 01 luragung 2020/2021. references acquah, e. o., & katz, h. t. (2020). digital game-based l2 learning outcomes for primary through highschool students: a systematic literature review. computers & education, 143. dellos, r. (2015). kahoot! a digital game resource for learning. instructional technology. fraenkel, j. r., & wallen, n. e. (2009). how to design and evaluate research in education (7th ed). new york: mc graw hill company inc. hashim, h. u., yunus, m. m., & hashim, h. (2018). (2018). language learning strategies used by adult learners of teaching english as a second language (tesl). tesol international, 39. jacobs, h. l., zingraf, s. a., wormuth, d. r., hartfiel, v. f., & hugher, j. b. (1981). testing esl composition: a practical approach. rowley: newbury house publishers, inc., 115-116. johns, k. (2015). engaging and assessing students with technology: a review of kahoot! delta kappa gamma bulletin. 81(4), 89. kapuler, d. (2015). top 100 sites and apps of 2014 teach & learning. . technology & learning, 35 (66), 14-16. kletnikov, n., popovski, o., & tomova, a. (2019). kahoot! foster students’ engagement, enhance classroom dynamics, assess and improve overall students’ learning. proceedings of papers, 24. langnan, j. (2005). college writing skills with reading. (6th ed). new york: the mcgraw-hill companies inc. siegle, d. (2015). technology: learning can be fun and games. gifted child today, 38(3),, 192–197. wang, a. i., & lieberoth, a. (2015). the effect of points and audio on concentration, engagement, enjoyment, learning, motivation, and classroom dynamics using kahoot!. in conference: 10th european conference on game based learning 2016. at paisley scotland. icha amalia, dadang solihat, & endang darsih the effect of kahoot application in improving students’ writing skill (quasi experimental design at sman 1 luragung) 30 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria amede lucky faculty of education, national open university of nigeria, lagos e-mail: lamede@noun.edu.ng apa citation: lucky, a. (2022). influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 5(1), 1-8. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i1.5868. received: 01-01-2022 accepted: 28-02-2022 published: 30-04-2022 introduction globally, education is fast embracing digital learning in the curriculum. digital learning is a shift from the traditional approach of teacher-directed didactic to modern methods where computer technology plays a momentous role, thereby improving the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of teaching, learning, research and educational management. digital learning is basically the use of information and communication technologies (icts) to enhance and support learning teaching and research (eteng & ntui, 2009). its methods including the integration of the world wide web, multimedia, information search, electronic libraries, and remote learning. in this digital age, teachers must deal with the challenge and developmental opportunities of how to appropriately use information technology and how to integrate various educational materials into course design and teaching methods (rosenberg, 2001). electronic learning popularly referred to as e-learning is increasingly becoming acceptable in institutions all over the world and more students taking part in it (oecd, 2009). amede (2016) counseled that information technology can contribute immensely to quality education for youth development and economic transformation: the world is advancing at a rapid rate. events have moved to the electronic stage with the computer at the centre. this development has brought a lot of innovation and revolution into teaching and learning. the 3r’s (reading, writing and arithmetic) which forms the nucleus of the old system of education has witnessed series of literacy reforms. the world is now in the age of information technology or computers age; hence, there is a need to keep abreast with time. one of the ways of achieving this is through the introduction of computer education in our institutions of learning (ajibade, 2006). in recent years, due to advancement of computer technology, the concept of computer assisted instruction is now more prevalent, and has become a trend (yang & wang, 2001). computer-assisted abstract: this study examined the influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria. it was delimited to apapa local government area (lga) of lagos state. three research questions guided the study. the descriptive survey design was utilized for the study. the population consisted of all primary schools’ teachers in apapa lga of lagos state. simple random sampling technique was used to select ten primary schools, while purposive sampling method was employed in choosing 15 primary schools’ teachers in each of the sampled school in apapa lga of lagos state. the instrument used to obtain information was the questionnaire titled: computer assisted instruction inventory (caii). the data collected were collated, coded and analyzed, using descriptive statistics and mean rating because of their appropriateness to the study. the investigation reveals that: the influence computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools and the level of the awareness was indeed low. there were enormous challenges facing the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa lga of lagos state. base on the conclusion reached, the following recommendations were drawn: governments and school authorities should make effort to provide computer in schools and ensure of effective usage in teaching and learning. teachers’ should be made to be aware of the importance of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools. government should provide computer assisted instruction services in primary schools and that government should provide solutions to the challenges of computer assisted instruction services in schools. keywords: computer assisted instruction; primary education; primary schools’ teachers. amede lucky influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria 2 instruction (cai) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place. cai refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. cai programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's understanding. cai uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. the computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum. the characteristics of cai provide stimulation from different channels such as words, pictures, sounds, animation, and images, and can frequently help students use learning functions of different sensory organs to achieve the learning objectives. in designing digital learning, scholars emphasize that learning ideals rather than computer technology should lead the design of a computerized learning environment (yang & wang, 2001). the need for digital learning has now become important more than ever before as the objective of education in nigeria as defined in the national policy on education (2004) includes the provision of high level manpower for national development and this is to be achieved through its programme of teaching, learning and research. digital learning can help children in developing their literacy and innumeracy skills, while also building information communication and technology skills for life and work (cilip, 2005). cai brings with it several potential benefits as a teaching/learning medium. with self-paced learning, learners can move as slowly or as quickly as they like through a programme. if they want to repeat some task or review some material again, they can do so as many times as they choose. the program will not tire or complain about repetitions. learners can skip over a topic if information is already known, making the learning process more efficient. with self-directed learning, learners can decide what they want to learn and in what order. in spite of the bright prospect of digital learning in the country, it is so worrisome that there are some hurdles militating against the effective use of the educational technology in nigeria. with selfaccess programmes, learners can be left on their own and may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available. on the other hand, there may be too much direction from the computer if classroom methods are transferred to the computer. folorunso, ogunseye & sharma (2006) and resnick (2002) indicates that mass unawareness, low computer literacy level and cost were identified as critical factors affecting the acceptability of digital learning by students and teachers in nigerian. according to schulmeister (2006), experience proved that the benefits of digital learning could not be fully taken advantage of, expectations could not be met and that technology often was used to simply reinforce outmoded approaches to learning. resnick (2002) criticizes that even though information communication technology is applied in education, the approaches to teaching and learning remain largely unchanged. various barriers to computer assisted instruction in nigeria schools have been identified to include: poor infrastructure, epileptic power supply, lack of electricity, lack of trained personnel, poverty, inadequate funding and limited or no internet access (aladejana, 2007; jegede, 2005). there is non-availability of internet access in some institutions because of the recurrent cost of bandwidth. inequality of access to technology is the challenge of digital divide existing among the student in nigeria institutions (omofaye, 2007). thus, some of them are unable to afford computers due to the relative cost to the average income of workers in the country (ajadi, salawu, & adeoye, 2008). the cost of accessing the internet in nigeria is still on the high side, some students find it a challenge to afford (arikpo, osofisan, & usoro, 2009). humans are multi-sensory creatures. the more senses through which we receive information, the easier it is to remember. according to fletcher (1990), people remember 20% of what they hear, 40% of what they see and hear and 75% of what they see, hear and do. the fact that the computer can exercise various senses and present information in a variety of media can enhance the learning process. there are evidences supporting the introduction and use of new technologies in instruction. the world bank (2004) opined that icts should be considered within education for the purpose of reforming curriculum, reinforcing teaching/learning and to improve leaning. the un secretary of state (2005) speaking on the role of technology in education said we must ensure that information and indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 communication technologies (icts) are used to help unlock the doors of education. as a result, millennium development goals (mdg’s) came up with this policy “to co-operate with the private sector, to make available the benefits of new technologies, especially icts to increase educational opportunities and unlock the door of education. as a result of this, new technologies are being disseminated into educational institutions at a rapid rate. for the new technologies to be effectively utilized, teachers at all levels need not only to be proficient in the technologies but must also be well versed in its effective integration into their instruction. the major area nigeria could meet this expectation is the teacher’s preparation in the new technologies. computers have been provided in many institutions in nigeria by government, school proprietors and philanthropists with the sole objective inculcating technological skills on students. no doubt, such gestures are indeed noble and genuine. however, to maximize computer skills and efficiently utilize them to the development of individuals and the society, it is important to commence such adventure at an early age. this necessitated this study to determine the influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria. computer assisted instruction is a giant attempt at integrating digital learning into instruction in school to enhance effective learning in schools, especially at the on primary education level. nigeria is not yet fascinated by the potential of technology to enhance teaching and learning. many of our schools are lagging behind in integrating technology into instruction. most parents cannot afford to provide computers for their wards, school proprietor manage schools without computers and internet facilities, and governments leave school library ill-equipped. lack of digital technology limit students from attaining their full academic potentials thereby denying the nation of much needed human capital. no doubt, computer assisted instruction has numerous advantages individuals and the society. it provides stimulation from different channels such as words, pictures, sounds, animation, and images, can frequently help students use learning functions of different sensory organs, and achieve the learning targets. teaching pupils without the use of computer mediation is tantamount to graduation half backed students that will be incompatible with requisite skills to fit into the much overwhelmed digital world of work. this study therefore focused on the influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria the study explored the influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in apapa local government area of lagos state. specific objectives include to: (1) evaluate the extent to which computer assisted instruction would influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. (2) ascertain the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. (3) determine the challenges faced in the utilization of computer assisted instruction in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. the following research questions are: (1) to what extent does computer assisted instruction influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? (2) what is the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? (3) what are the likely challenges in the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? method this study adopted a descriptive survey research design because data was collected from participants in the area of study. the rationale for using this method was that, it seemed to be most efficient method to gather data directly from the school for this research and also due to the fast pace of the research project, convenience and quick return of data. the population consisted of all primary school teachers in apapa local government area of lagos state. simple random sampling technique was used to select ten primary schools while purposive sampling method was employed in choosing 15 primary schools’ teachers in each of the sampled school in apapa lga of lagos state. the instrument used to obtain information was the questionnaire titled: computer assisted instruction inventory (caii). the questions designed by the researcher were basically of closed end questionnaire which gives the respondents sets of amede lucky influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria 4 alternatives whereby the respondents were allowed to choose the answer that is most appropriate to them. the instrument was divided into 4 sections: a, b, c and d. section a is the biographic information, b contains items on computer assisted instruction, c deals with variables on awareness of computer assisted instruction while section d constitutes aspects of the questions on challenges facing computer assisted instruction. the questionnaire was a 4 likert style questionnaire; strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. the score for the questionnaire followed this pattern: strongly agree 4points, agree 3points, disagree 2 points and strongly disagree 1 point. the validity of the instrument was determined by presenting the questionnaire to an expert in research so as to test its validity and make corrections were necessary. the reliability of the instrument was determined by administering it on a sample of 30 students in agege local government area of lagos state which was not part of the original sample population. the data from the tests were analyzed with the cronbach alpha statistics. the coefficient of reliability was estimated at 0.81 which was suitable for the studies. the instrument was distributed and administered by the researcher. the purpose and intent of the research was well explained and copies duly distributed. all respondents were given adequate time to fill in the questionnaire and were at no time under any form of duress. the researcher was very patient in waiting for respondents to supply valuable responses and also to ensure a high rate of returns of which a rare 100% was achieved. the collected data, during analysis, was expressed in tabular forms. besides, basic frequency tables, descriptive statistics and mean rating were utilized in data analysis, as this would be of help in clarifying results and making comparisons. the data was processed and analyzed using microsoft excel and the spss statistical analysis software. the weighted mean of 2.5 was used to evaluate the statistics. results and discussion results research question 1: to what extent would computer assisted instruction influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? table 1. descriptive statistics on the extent to which computer assisted instruction would influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state s/n items n sum mean std. deviation 1 computer-assisted instruction is used by teachers to present the instructional materials. 150 160.5 1.07 .91 2 computer-assisted instruction helps teachers to monitor the learning outcomes. 150 156 1.04 .19 3 computer-assisted instruction is a tool that aid assessment 150 170 1.08 .33 4 computer-assisted instruction helps teachers to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of teaching and learning. 150 154.5 1.03 .70 5 computer-assisted instruction assists teachers to improve the quality of research 150 249 1.66 .87 6 computer-assisted instruction frequently help students use learning functions of different sensory organs to achieve the learning objectives 150 163.5 1.09 .66 7 computer assisted instruction provides stimulation from different channels such as words, pictures, sounds, animation, and images to achieve learning targets 150 168 1.12 .45 8 computer-assisted instruction enables teachers to device effective teaching methods 150 151.5 1.01 .53 9 computer-assisted instruction helps teachers to improve the quality of effective teaching methods 150 288 1.92 .25 10 computer-assisted instruction enables teachers to provide course design 150 153 1.02 .84 total 1500 1814 1.20 .57 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 the result in table 1 above shows descriptive statistics on the extent to which computer assisted instruction would influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. the analysis revealed the total sum of participants to be 1814 with a mean score of 1.20 while the standard deviation is .57. going by the norm of the scale (caii), the table means score of 1.20 falls below the weighted mean score of 2.5. it could be concluded that the extent to which computer assisted instruction influenced learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state is indeed low. research question: 2 what is the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? table 2. mean rating on the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state s/n rating items n sum mean std. deviation 1 i seldom use computer assisted instruction in teaching and learning. 150 250.05 1.67 .92 2 i am not acquainted with computer assisted instruction. 150 246.00 1.64 1.11 3 computer assisted instruction is strange to me. 150 282.00 1.88 1.04 4 i am not aware of computer assisted instruction. 150 214.05 1.43 .92 5 i have not heard of computer assisted instruction. 150 247.00 1.65 .78 6 computer assisted instruction is a new concept to me. 150 208.05 1.39 .76 7 computer assisted instruction is not part of our school curriculum. 150 244.05 1.63 .84 8 computer assisted instruction is a foreign concept. 150 211.05 1.41 .92 9 i cannot defend computer assisted instruction. 150 228.00 1.52 .925 10 i am not knowledgeable about computer assisted instruction. 150 220.05 1.47 1.11 total 1500 2350.3 1.57 .93 table 2 revealed the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. computer assisted instruction is a new concept to me has the lowest value of 1.39, followed by computer assisted instruction is a foreign concept (1.41) and i am not aware of computer assisted instruction (1.41) while the tops item on the list is computer assisted instruction is strange to me (1.88), followed by i seldom use computer assisted instruction in teaching and learning (1.67). the table means score of 1.57 is lower than the weighted mean of 2.5. the implication is that the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state is very low. research question 3: what are the challenges faced in the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state table 3. descriptive statistics on the challenges faced in the utilization of computer assisted instruction in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state s/n rating items n sum mean std. deviation 1 cultural considerations 150 84.00 2.90 .92 2 learners attitude 150 107.00 3.56 .57 3 learners environment 150 115.00 3.81 .380 4 inadequate information 150 112.00 3.83 .50 5 internet accessibility 150 114.00 3.80 .41 6 poor funding/poverty 150 109.00 3.67 .49 7 computer anxiety 150 114.00 3.82 .41 8 software challenges 150 112.00 3.79 .50 9 poor infrastructure 150 117.00 3.94 .305 10 learners background 150 105.00 3.56 .94 amede lucky influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria 6 knowledge/computer literacy total 150 1122.00 37.40 2.39 table 3 above portrays the challenges faced in the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state, as indicated by the high mean scores of 37.40, which were above the scale average of 20. infect, the higher mean score of the challenges was poor infrastructure (3.94), inadequate information (3.83), followed by computer anxiety (3.82) and learners’ environment (3.81) while the least mean score was item 1 (2.90) which is cultural considerations. the implication is that there are enormous challenges facing the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. discussion this study is focused on the influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in apapa local government area of lagos state. research question 1 sought to determine the extent which computer assisted instruction influence learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? the outcome of the study revealed that computer assisted instruction would influence on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state was indeed low. this finding agreed with the viewpoints of schulmeister (2006). according to him, experience proved that the benefits of digital learning could not be fully taken advantage of, expectations could not be met and that technology often was used to simply reinforce outmoded approaches to learning. resnick (2002) criticizes that even though information communication technology is applied in education, the approaches to teaching and learning remain largely unchanged. research question 2 was: what is the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state? the findings revealed that the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state was very low. this outcome agreed with folorunso, ogunseye, & sharma (2006) and resnick (2002) who indicated that mass unawareness, low computer literacy level and cost were identified as critical factors affecting the acceptability of digital learning by students and lecturers of nigerian universities. the outcome of research question 3 indicated that there are enormous challenges facing the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. this outcome agreed with aladejana, 2007; jegede (2005) who asserted that barriers to computer assisted instruction in nigeria schools have been identified to include: poor infrastructure, epileptic power supply, lack of electricity, lack of trained personnel, poverty, inadequate funding and limited or no internet access there is non-availability of internet access in some institutions because of the recurrent cost of bandwidth. inequality of access to technology is the challenge of digital divide existing among the student in nigeria institutions (omofaye, 2007). thus, some of them are unable to afford computers due to the relative cost to the average income of workers in the country (ajadi, salawu, & adeoye, 2008). the cost of accessing the internet in nigeria is still on the high side, some students find it a challenge to afford (arikpo, osofisan, & usoro, 2009). counsellors should use their lofty positions in the school system to encourage and motivate teachers to undergo professional development in computer skills. they should regularly ensure the induction of new teachers through orientation and organize seminars, conference and workshops for old ones. these programmes when effectively and judiciously implemented would help to build teachers capacity in computer assisted instruction. conclusion the study explored the influence of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state. the outcome of the study revealed that the extent to which computer assisted instruction influenced learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state is indeed low. the level of awareness of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local government area of lagos state is very low and that there are enormous challenges facing the utilization of computer assisted instruction on learning in primary schools in apapa local indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 government area of lagos state. however, governments and school authorities should make effort to provide computer in schools and ensure of effective usage in teaching and learning. references ajadi, t.o., salawu, i.o., and adeoye, f.a. (2008). elearning and distance education in nigeria. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 7(4), article ajibade, a. (2006). effects of interactive instructional compact disc package on the performance of english language learners in schools of science in osun state. unpublished ph. d. dissertation, faculty of education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife. aladejana f. (2007). implications of ict and nks for science teaching: whither nigeria. retrieved in october 7th, 2018. amede, l. (2016). quality education for youth development and economic transformation: implication for counselling, academic journal of counselling and educational psychology, 2(1), 132-145. a publication of tai solarin university of education, ijagon, ijabu-ode, ogun state. arikpo, i. i., osofisan, a., and usoro, a. (2009). bridging the digital divide: the nigerian journey so far. international journal of global business, 2 (1), 181-204. cilip. 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(2005). evolving a national policy on distance education. an agenda for implementation today, 8(3). oecd, (2009). creating effective teaching and learning environment. first results from talis (on-line). available at;www.oecd.org/education/school/ /43023606.pdf. pp.22-90 retrieved on; 12.08.2018. omofaye, j. o. (2007). challenges facing ict infrastructure and successful online education in africa. ramazan b. (2005). the effectiveness of computerassisted instruction in teaching introductory statistics. educational technology & society, 8 (2), 170-178. resnick, m. (2002). rethinking learning in the digital age. online. url: http: //web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/wef.pdf (retrieved on october 7th, 2018). rosenberg, m.j. (2001). e-learning: strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. mcgraw-hill, new york. schulmeister, r (2006). elearning: einsichten und aussichten. münchen; wien: oldenbourg verlag. retrieved on october 7th, 2018. sharma r, ekundayo m. s. (2009). beyond the digital divide: policy analysis for knowledge societies. journal of knowledge management, 13(5), 373386. world bank development report (2004). un secretary of state: making services work for poor people. speaking on the role of technology in education. retrieved on october 7th, 2018.from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/109 86/5986 license: cc. yang, y. y., & wang, h. p. (2001). multimedia and web-based constructive mathematics learning system for children with mild disabilities. taiwan: nation science council. mcgraw-hill companies inc. retrieved on october 7th, 2018. amede lucky influence of computer assisted instruction on primary education in nigeria 8 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 55 listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students dede purwanto the department of english education, university of kuningan email: azharpurwanto@gmail.com fahrus zaman fadhly the department of english education, university of kuningan email: fahruszf@gmail.com wulan rahmatunisa the department of english education, university of kuningan email: wulan.rahmatunisa@uniku.ac.id apa citation: purwanto, d., fadhly, f. z., & rahmatunisa, w. (2021). listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp.55-62. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4345 received: 29-01-2020 accepted: 28-02-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction listening plays an important role in communication as it is said that of the total time spent on communicating. it assumes a vital part in language classrooms as it gives input for listeners. the skill is viewed so momentous since they are central to get a language. language input is acquired through listening. thus, language is gained mostly through accepting understandable information and listening capacity is the basic constituent in achieving unequivocal language input. any sort of learning containing language learning verily cannot happen without understanding sources of inputs and comprehending. there are a lot of definitions of the term “listening”. hamouda (2013) said that listening skill is very important in acquiring understandable input. learning does not occur if there will not be any input. gilakjani and ahmadi (2011) expressed that listening has an important role in the communication process. they argued that out the four main areas of communication skills called listening, speaking, reading, and writing, listening is the most important of all. efl learners have serious problems in english listening comprehension due to the fact that universities pay more attention to english grammar, reading, and vocabulary. listening and speaking skills are not important parts of many course books or curricula and teachers do not seem to pay attention to these skills while designing their lessons. most teachers take it for granted and believe that it will develop naturally within the abstract: listening is viewed so momentous since they are central to get a language. listeners often do not handle listening tasks in an effective way utilizing these strategies successfully. this study investigates the listening barriers as well as listening strategies used by intermediate and upper intermediate college students. the purpose of this study are determining the listening barriers faced by those intermediate and intermediate students and presenting the listening strategies used by those intermediate and upper intermediate students in order to overcome its barriers. within the qualitative method undertaken of this research, the result has classified the listening barriers faced by intermediate, they are: (a) accents, (b) lack of concentration, (c) speed, (d) lack of vocabularies, and (e) unclear speakers’ statement. meanwhile, the upper intermediate’s barriers are accents and lack of vocabularies. moreover, in order to overcome the issues, those students used several strategies that mostly for both intermediate and upper intermediate levels use these strategies, such as: (a) reading, (b) focus, (c) predicting, and (d) find the keywords. the result undertakes to increase efl learners’ consciousness of these difficult areas in listening that are suitable and effective actions. therefore, those efl learners will be able to adopt several strategies in terms of listening. keywords: listening comprehension; listening barriers; listening strategies mailto:azharpurwanto@gmail.com mailto:wulan.rahmatunisa@uniku.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4345 dede purwanto, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students 56 process of language learning. brownell (2010) stated that one of the reasons for the opinion that listening is a skill that tends to be neglected is the feeling among language teachers that this skill is automatically acquired by the learner as he learns to speak the language. listeners often do not handle listening tasks in an effective way utilizing these strategies successfully. they are not aware of listening strategies. bozorgian (2014) pointed out that less successful language learners do not have the knowledge needed to select appropriate strategies. goh (2010) emphasized the importance of these strategies by arguing that learners’ awareness is related to effective learning in all learning contexts. bozorgian (2014) drew attention to the specific context of l2 listening and claimed that strategies have a direct and positive influence on listening performance. graham (2017) and griffiths (2013) also indicated that one of the distinctive features differentiating successful listeners from unsuccessful ones is their use of listening comprehension strategies and they supported the idea that analyzing the role of these strategies in l2 listening helps listeners to approach the listening task more effectively. there have been a great number of studies of the use of strategies in learning listening and its contribution to listening comprehension and proficiency that have been increasingly taken in the last few decades. some of researchers investigated how strategy of learning could influence the learners’ listening skill development and assured that more studies are needed to increase learners' awareness of strategies used in listening. as reception processes and strategies of the spoken language are a relatively unexplored field of study, the focus of this study is to analyze the mental steps involved in the reception strategies of listening. the first study conducted by ghoneim (2013), he determined several strategies faced by advanced and intermediate participants encountered the same problems with different percentages, and activated three groups of processes. the advanced group students used top down strategies more than the intermediate ones. second study conducted by gilakjani & sabouri (2016), they defined that teachers are aware of students’ learning difficulties they can help them develop effective listening strategies and finally solve their difficulties in listening and improve their listening comprehension abilities. another study comes from saraswaty (2018), she revealed that students’ learning difficulties may enable efl teachers to help students develop effective learning strategies and ultimately improve their english listening abilities. further study from namaziandost, ahmadi & keshmirshekan (2020), they argued that the relationship between listening problems and strategy used among the learners was significantly relevant. the outcomes totally insinuate that it is paramount for teachers of a second language to be aware of the various listening problems that are among listeners so as to enable them to use the proper strategies. in this paper, the researchers focused on the strategies of listening comprehension used by efl learners in intermediate and upper intermediate learners that are represented by the fourth year of english department students at university of kuningan. hence, this research is to identify the learners’ listening comprehension problems when listening to oral texts. this research is intended to increase efl learners’ consciousness of these difficult areas in listening so that becomes suitable and effective actions. therefore, those efl learners are able to adopt several strategies in terms of listening. the specific research questions within each area are outlined below: (1) what listening comprehension barriers are confronted by selected students? (2) what listening comprehension strategies are employed by the selected students? method in order to reach a reliable identification of participants' listening processes and strategies, the current research uses the qualitative method to study the problem. qualitative research is studies that investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials (fraenkel & wallen, 2012). a qualitative approach investigates human behavior which is always bound to the context and portraying the meaning that is constructed by the participants involved in particular social settings or events. in conducting this research, content analysis is the appropriate design to apply in this research. content analysis is a technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way, through an indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 57 analysis of their communications (fraenkel & wallen, 2012). besides, the realization of content analysis is known in indirect interaction with others. that is why content analysis presents some advantages. according to fraenkel & wallen (2012) some of the advantages are: a researcher can observe without being observed, since the contents being analyzed are not influenced by the researcher’s presence. the researcher can delve into records and documents to get some feel for the social life of an earlier time. the logistics of content analysis are often relatively simple and economical with regard to both time and resources as compared to other research methods. lastly, the data are readily available and almost always can be returned to if necessary or desired, content analysis permits replication of a study by other researchers. site and participants the present research is conducted on two groups; 3 upper intermediate learners of english as a foreign language and 3 intermediate ones. the participants are students in the fourth year of the english department in the faculty of education. the participants are selected on the basis of their listening proficiency level. a test is administered to the participants to divide them to advanced level and intermediate level. the test is distributed under the standard of cefr as the international standard for assessing language according to cambridge language assessing. therefore, here are the continuous variables: (1) those who have intermediate and upper intermediate level of listening skills that will be assessed by cefr cambridge language assessment, (2) gender: male and female, and (3) age: >20 years old. data collection techniques in order to measure the validity and accuracy the data, the researcher uses listening comprehension test and interview. cefr listening test description the test consists of 16 multiple choice questions based on two listening passages. based on the results of the test, participants are divided into advanced level and intermediate level. the current research adopts graham’s (2017) method of dividing skillful and unskillful learners. the advanced participants are the top three students whereas the intermediate participants are the bottom three ones that accessed online on www.examenglish.com/leveltest.com. interview interview is the main data collective techniques in this research. in order to gain the further information data regarding the live experienced towards the phenomenon, interview considered as the techniques of data collection in phenomenology research. interview defined as a qualitative research technique which involves conducting individual interviews with a small number of participants to explore their perspectives on particular idea, program or situation. the purpose of this technique is to explore the data deeper (cresswell, 2014). in this research, however, the interview is conducted in order to gain the information on how those participants face several barriers in listening comprehension and how they manage its barriers within the strategies they select during the listening test. in this stage however, the interview is conducted in indonesian. as noted in the earlier section, all interviews and observations are being documented. findings and discussions listening comprehension barriers that are confronted by selected students during the process of listening comprehension, various factors may affect learner listening ability. lists of general factors have been identified while the role of specific factors has also been examined. some factors that have been the focus of research include speech rate, lexis phonological features, and background knowledge. other issues have also been related to listener difficulties. these range from text structure and syntax to personal factors such as insufficient exposure to the target language, and a lack of interest and motivation. table 1. participants’ listening test result no participants test results level 1 participant 1 c1 upper intermediate to advance 2 participant 2 c1 upper intermediate to advance http://www.examenglish.com/leveltest.com dede purwanto, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students 58 3 participant 3 c1 upper intermediate to advance 4 participant 4 b2 intermediate 5 participant 5 b2 intermediate 6 participant 6 b2 intermediate table 2. listening barriers faced by intermediate students no participants test results listening barriers 1. participant 4 b2 1. accents (p4:int:i:2-3) 2. speed (p4:int:2:3-4) 2. participant 5 b2 1. hardly to focus (p5:int:i:2-3) 2. lack of vocabulary (p5:int:i:3) 3. participant 6 b2 1. speaker didn’t describe clearly (p6:int:i:2-3) table 1 and table 2 reveal some listening barriers in english. the data shows that students at lower levels – intermediates have various barriers compared to higher levels – upper intermediates. according on table 1, there are five barriers of listening in english. they are: (1) accent, (2) speed, (3) lack of concentration, (4) unclear statements from speakers, and (5) speakers did not describe clearly. this is quite different compared to the upper intermediate level which only has two barriers, most of which deal with accents and vocabularies. accent most students both at the intermediate level and at the upper intermediate level feel that the accent is the main difficulty because they are familiar with other accents that are more familiar, american accents. accent expressed that too many accented speeches can lead to an important reduction in comprehension. according to goh (2002), 66% of learners mentioned a speaker’s accent as one of the most significant factors that affect listener comprehension. unfamiliar accents both native and non-native can cause serious problems in listening comprehension and familiarity with an accent helps learners’ listening comprehension. buck (2001) indicated that when listeners hear an unfamiliar accent such as indian english for the first time after studying only american english will encounter critical difficulties in listening. this will certainly interrupt the whole listening comprehension process and at the same time an unfamiliar accent makes comprehension impossible for the listeners. “ketika mendengar vocab baru. apalagi tadi pada test tadi banyak british accent, jadi agak susah, karena aku terbisa dengan dari film atau lagu itu american accent jadi agak susah adaptasi ke british accent. kadi susah untuk ditebak ini artimya apa.” (barriers come when i heard new words. in line with the test, it had british accent. so it was hard for me since i get used to american accent which i’m familiar in films or songs. thus it was difficult for me to be familiar in british accent so it was hard to guess the meaning.) (p1.up-int:2-3) “aksen speaker dan dari kejelasan dari speakernya. kadang ada yang keceptan juga.” (speakers’ accents and the clearness of the speakers. speed sometimes.) learners should be familiar with the cultural knowledge of language that has a significant effect on the learners’ understanding. if the listening task involves completely different cultural materials, then the learners may have critical problems in their comprehension. it is the responsibility of teachers to give background knowledge about the listening activities in advance. lack of vocabularies listening texts containing familiar words would be very easy for students. if students know the meaning of words this can arouse their interest and motivation and can have a positive impact on the students’ listening comprehension ability. a lot of words have more than one meaning and if they are not used appropriately in their appropriate contexts, students will get confused. unfamiliar words, difficult grammatical structures, and the length of the spoken passages are the most important factors that cause problems for learners’ listening comprehension. clarity, lack of interest, and the demand for complete answers to listening comprehension questions are the serious difficulties of students’ listening comprehension. there are four sources for listening comprehension problems. they are the message, the speaker, the listener, and the physical environment. further, the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 59 listener, speaker, medium, and environment factors are the main components that affect listening comprehension. “vocab saya itu masih lemah, karena engga semua vocab saya ngerti. karenga jangankan listening tapi reading aja saya sering mendapatkan kata kata yang tidak paham.” (my vocabularies are still poor – i have not known all vocabularies. i am incapable to comprehend not only in listening but also in reading.) speed the level of students can have a significant role when they listen to long parts and keep all information in their mind. it is very difficult for lower level students to listen more than three minutes long and complete the listening tasks. short listening passages is an easy listening comprehension for learners and reduce their tiredness. speed can make listening passage difficult. if the speakers speak too fast, students may have serious problems to understand l2 words. in this situation, listeners are not able to control the speed of speakers and this can create critical problems with listening comprehension. there are some barriers to effective listening comprehension process. first, listeners cannot control the speed of speech. the biggest problem with listening comprehension is that listeners are not able to control how quickly speakers talk. second, listeners cannot have words repeated and this can cause critical difficulties for them. students cannot replay a recording section. teachers decide what and when to repeat listening texts and it is very difficult for teachers to know whether or not their learners understood what they have heard. third, listeners do not have rich vocabulary knowledge. speakers may select words that listeners have not been familiar with. “aksen speaker dan dari kejelasan dari speakernya. kadang ada yang keceptan juga.” (speakers’ accents and the clearness of the speakers. speed sometimes) students’ problems in listening comprehension and found that the factors which facilitate or hinder listening are speech rate, vocabulary, and pronunciation. in terms of speaker factor, it is revealed that ‘clarity’ was the main cause of efl listening difficulties. as to listener factor, ‘lack of interest’, ‘the demand for full and complete answers to listening comprehension questions’ were the two main difficulties encountered by efl students. the difficulty of listening comprehension to four sources: the message, the speaker, the listener, and the physical setting. the factors influencing listening comprehension and directly related to efl listening into four inter-relating categories: listener, speaker, medium, and environment factors. five major listening difficulties: speed, a cluster of sounds difficult for segmentation, obsession with the chinese translation, association of sounds with words and meanings, and idiomatic expressions. gohh (2010) identified four listening factors, they are listener factors, speaker factors, stimulus factors, and context factors. she indicated that “efl proficiency” is the most important listener factor for efl listening problems. it implies that students’ difficulties may directly result from their deficient linguistic knowledge. however, goh (2010) indicated that the most common problem is “quickly forget what is heard (parsing).” similarly, in the most difficulty in listening for taiwan’s students was “forget the meaning of the word (perception).” theoretical explanations of listening comprehension provide us with clues about the problems which learners face when they listen to a spoken text. these insights cannot, however, account for exhaustive explanation of these problems. to locate the sources of listening comprehension, we need to consider the discourse itself in the context of the classroom. listening comprehension strategies that are employed by selected students the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. this background information activates a set of expectations that assist the listener to interpret what he has heard and anticipate what he will hear next. these are listener based on: (1) practice by using some entertaining medias (books, songs, films, videos), (2) focus, (3) find the keywords, and (4) predicting. reading it is obvious that students differ in their learning styles and ability, therefore, teachers should adopt and adapt listening materials that match their students’ interest and background since the listening materials only become stimulating and dede purwanto, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students 60 motivating them when they are slightly challenging to what they have already known and suit their interest. providing different kinds of input, such as lectures, radio news, films, tv plays, announcements, daily conversation, interviews, storytelling, english songs, and so on. focus the biggest problem with listening comprehension is that listeners are not able to control how quickly speakers talk. they cannot have words repeated and this can cause critical difficulties for them. students cannot replay a recording section. teachers decide what and when to repeat listening texts and it is very difficult for teachers to know whether or not their learners understood what they have heard. further, listeners do not have rich vocabulary knowledge. speakers may select words that listeners do not know them. find the keywords when listening, it is also possible to get the ‘whole picture’ but with one crucial difference: information comes in a sequence. however, in that sequence of information, there are content words (the nouns, adjectives, and verbs) that can help the listener to form that picture. we often call this listening for gist. use keywords or key phrases help to understand the general ideas. for instance, the word "new york", "business trip", and "last year" can be assumed that the person is speaking about a business trip to new york last year. this may seem obvious, but remember that understanding the main idea will help to understand the detail as the person continues to speak. predicting depending on the context – a news report, a university lecture, an exchange in a supermarket – it can be often predicted as the kind of words and style of language the speaker will use. the prior knowledge of the world helps to anticipate the kind of information that likely to hear. moreover, the prediction topic of a talk or a conversation, all the related vocabulary stored in our brains is 'activated' to help us better understand what we are listening to. conclusion based on the first research question that concerns on listening barriers faced by intermediate and upper intermediate level, it can be concluded that the intermediate’s barriers are: (a) accents, (b) lack of concentration, (c) speed, (d) lack of vocabularies, and (e) unclear speakers’ statement. meanwhile the upper intermediate’s barriers are accents and lack of vocabularies. moreover, in order to overcome the issues, those students used several strategies that mostly for both intermediate and upper intermediate levels use these strategies such as: (a) reading, (b) focus, (c) predicting, (d) find the keywords. references azmi, b. m., celik, b., yidliz, n., & tugrul, m. c. (2014). listening comprehension difficulties encountered by students in second language learning class. journal of educational and instructional studies in the world, 4(4), 1-6. bozorgian, h. & alamdari, e. f. (2018). multimedia listening comprehension: metacognitive instruction or metacognitive instruction through dialogic interaction. recall, 30(1), 131–152. bozorgian, h. (2014). the role of metacognition in the development of efl learners’ listening skill. international journal of listening, 28, 1-13. brownell, j. (2010). listening: attitudes, principles, and skills (4th ed.). boston, ma: allyn & bacon. buck, g. (2001). assessing listening. cambridge: cambridge university press. creswell, j. w. (2014). research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches 2nd edition. california: sage publications. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches 2nd edition. california: sage publications. fraenkel, j. r., wallen, n. e., & hyun, h. h. (2012). how to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). new york: mcgrawhill. ghoneim, m. n. m. (2013). the listening comprehension strategies used by college students to cope with the aural problems in efl classes: an analytical study. journal english language teaching, 6(2). canadian center of science and education. gilakjani, p.a & sabouri, b. n. (2016). learners’ listening comprehension difficulties in english language learning: a literature review. journal english language teaching, 9(6). canadian center of science and education goh, c. (2010). listening as process: learning activities for self-appraisal and self-regulation. in n. harwood (ed.), english language teaching materials: theory and practice. cambridge: cambridge university press, 179–206. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/content-words http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/content-words indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 61 graham, s. (2017). research into practice: listening strategies in an instructed classroom setting, language teaching, 50(1), 107–119. griffiths, c. (2013). the strategy factor in successful language learning. bristol: multilingual matters. hamouda, a. (2013). an investigation of listening comprehension problems encountered by saudi students in the el listening classroom. international journal of academic research in progressive education and development, 2(2), 113-15. maftoon, p. & alamdari, e. f. (2016). exploring the effect of metacognitive strategy instruction on metacognitive awareness and listening performance through a process based approach, international journal of listening. namaziandost, e., ahmadi, s., & keshmirshekan, h. m. (2020). listening comprehensions problems and strategies used by intermediate efl learners. journal of english literature and cultural studies (jelcs journal), 2(3), pp.2667-6214. oxford, r. l. (2011). teaching and researching language learning strategies. essex, uk: pearson longman. pourhosein, g. a., & ahmadi, m. r. (2011). a study of factors affecting efl learners’ english listening comprehension and the strategies for improvement. journal of language teaching and research, 2(5), 977-988. rahimirad, m. (2014). the impact of metacognitive strategy instruction on the listening performance of university students. procedia—social and behavioral sciences, 98, 1485–1491. rahimi, m., & katal, m. (2012). metacognitive listening strategies awareness in learning english as a foreign language: a comparison between university and high-school students. procedia— social and behavioral sciences, 31, 82–89. rossman, g. & rallis, s. f. (2012). learning in the field: an introduction to qualitative research (3rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. saraswaty, r. d. (2018). learners’ difficulties & strategies in listening comprehension. english community journal, 2(1), pp.139–152. universitas muhammadiyah palembang. vandergrift, l., cross, j. (2015). replication research in l2 listening comprehension: a conceptual replication of graham & macaro (2008) and an approximate replication of vandergrift & tafaghodtari (2010) and brett (1997). language teaching, 1-10. vandergrift, l., & goh, c. m. (2012). teaching and learning second language listening: metacognition in action. new york, ny: routledge. yeldham, m., & gruba, p. (2014). toward an instructional approach to developing interactive second language listening. language teaching research, 18, 33–53. dede purwanto, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa listening comprehension study: difficulties and strategies used by college students 62 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 abstract: this research aims to see the implementation of open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking skills of elementary school students ausubel's open-ended learning model is very appropriate to be applied to improve students' critical thinking ability, and this is following the objectives of the open-ended approach based on meaningful learning. the formulation of the problem in this study is how to develop, implement, and influence and impact of the application of the open-ended approach on social studies learning to improve students' critical thinking ability. the method used is research and development. the study sites are four elementary schools in tarakan city, while the subjects of this study are teachers and high-class students (grades 4,5 and 6) using purposive sampling technique. the results of this study indicate this approach is appropriate to use based on the assessment of peers, expert lecturers, and teachers, effectively improving students' critical thinking skills seen from the application during the learning process that is the average value of the experimental class students is higher by 83.33 than the average control class students an average of 80.07 in the final model validation test. it can be concluded that open-ended learning model based on meaningful learning in social studies learning to improve students' critical thinking skills in the city of tarakan can effectively improve the critical thinking skills of primary school students in the city of tarakan. keywords: open-ended approach based on meaningful learning; social studies learning; critical thinking ability. the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability ahsan sofyan university of borneo tarakan email: ahsan@borneo.ac.id apa citation: sofyan, a. (2021). the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp.11-18. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4340 received: 12-01-2021 accepted: 02-03-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction education is recognized as being able to instill new capacity for all people to learn science and skills so that productive human beings can be obtained. this is in line with winarso & hardyanti (2019) that education is an important role in the quality of human life. as stated by notika (2018), especially in today's global era, intense competition cannot leave little room for us to improve the quality of our education. education is also believed to be a vehicle to expand universal access and mobility in society both vertically and horizontally. it is through education that humans, in this case, students get the ability to manifest themselves and function fully by personal abilities in society, and with these abilities, students can participate in building a nation and state civilization. these goals and expectations can be realized if education is not only directed at the mastery and understanding of concepts or materials but on improving students' thinking abilities and skills by involving real student activities. one of the students’ thinking skills needed to be improved is critical thinking. as stated by nio, sukestiyarno, waluya, rochmad, isnarto, & manullang (2017), critical thinking is one aspect of the quality of educational attainment in the context of the nation's intellectual life and character development. according to al-mubaid (2014), critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. nelson (2013) adds that critical thinking needs to be integrated and emphasized in the curriculum so that students can learn the skills and apply it to improve their performance and reasoning ability. according to kowiyah (in afifah & agoestanto, 2020), teachers can improve students' critical thinking skills with one of the strategies namely through the activities of asking open-ended questions to students or commonly referred to as the open-ended approach. moreover, tuna & incikabi (in koriyah & idris, 2015) state that critical thinking is needed in mailto:ahsan@borneo.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4340 ahsan sofyan the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability 12 order to be success. however, in reality, students’ critical thinking is still low. this is due to teacher center application rather than students center which makes students not involved in learning classroom (sakti, hartanto, & dharmayana, 2016). besides, one indicator of student success in learning is an innovative teacher's teaching ability. this is in line with sapta, pakpahan, sirait (2019), that the choice of learning approach becomes very important and must be adapted to students' thinking abilities. another opinion is stated by rhosyida, trisniawati, & putrianti (2018) that the main principle of learning is to provide a great opportunity so that students can develop the ability to think and manage this capability so that there is a meaningful learning. the intended innovations are: first, the teacher is able to design learning strategies to improve the ability of individuals to work together to build social interaction in the surrounding environment that is able to communicate well with a sense of empathy; second, the teacher is able to design learning strategies using learning approaches that are appropriate to the learning environment of students. as stated by kayaoğlu & sağlamel (2013), to create such an environment, the teachers should be primarily attentive to students‘ interests and needs, and also organize teaching activities with students by providing opportunities to students. learning systems and strategies that are thought to improve students' critical thinking skills are the application of the open-ended learning approach, which is a learning that emphasizes the students' efforts to arrive at the answers rather than the truth or accuracy of the answers alone, students are faced with a problem having more correct answers from one, the teacher does not limit the way students solve, on the contrary, the teacher gives the discretion to search for and use various approaches to the problem. this is supported by ibrahim & widodo (2020) that open-ended problems help students develop and demonstrate critical thinking skills, even if the results are not optimal. moreover, fatah, suryadi, sabandar, & turmudi (2016) argue that the openness which is classified into three types; the process is open, end products are open, and ways to develop are open, can improve students’ critical thinking skills. this is supported by gisbtarani & rianasari (2021) that openended problems could provide students with a rich experience in interpreting problems and also allowed students to produce various solution methods. thus, as a follow up, research needs to be done to see the improvement of students' critical thinking skills, one alternative is to use the open-ended learning approach, in social studies elementary school learning, in terms of the development of social abilities, students are able to establish relationships with peers because at this age, it is powerful peer bond so it is considered sufficient to have a general basis of knowledge as a learning capital and apply it to the community later. as notika (2018) argues that open-ended approach is an approach with the nature of openness, so it can more freely develop student communication skills. based on the description above, there are several problems that arise, among others: how is the implementation of the open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking skills of elementary school students? method this research is a research and development or "research and development" (r&d). this research was conducted in april to december 2018 in the fifth grade sdn 016, sdn 045, and sdn 018 in the city of tarakan. the research subjects consisted of subjects of feasibility/validation, limited trials, and extensive trials. the subject of the feasibility trial consisted of three peers, three expert lecturers, and three fifth grade teachers. subjects for expert trials included three peers, one media expert lecturer, one material expert lecturer, one instrument expert lecturer, and two primary school class with five teachers. the subjects of limited trials are 23 fifth grade students of sdn 016 coastal of tarakan city. the subjects of extensive trials are 34 fifth grade students of sdn 018 as the control class, and 23 fifth grade students of sdn 045 as the experimental class. the sampling technique uses a purposive technique. the development procedure used in this study uses ten steps proposed by borg and gall (1983). the intended procedure includes 10 (ten) stages, namely (1) a preliminary study, (2) planning, (3) development of an initial product draft, (4) initial trials, (5) revision of results, (6) extensive trials, and (7) refinement of more comprehensive trial results, (8) model validation test, (9) refinement of final validation results, (10) dissemination and implementation. in the preliminary study stage, literature studies, field observations, and interviews with the fifth-grade elementary school teachers are carried out. in the planning stage, an analysis of indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 the structure of content, material, concepts, and learning objectives are carried out. the initial product preparation phase includes the preparation of learning tools in the form of lesson plans, standardized test questions, questionnaires, and assessment instruments. the devices arranged in the future, referred to as the initial product (draft one). the product validation stage includes the initial product assessment by three validators (peers, expert lecturers, and fifth-grade teachers). the results of the assessment and comments on draft one are then used for product revision to produce draft two. the limited test phase is carried out by testing draft two on a limited scale, as many as 23 students — limited trials using the experimental design of one group pretest-posttest design (sugiyono, 2012). the results of the limited trial were subsequently used for the revision of draft two to produce draft 3. the broad trial phase consisted of the trial draft three in the experimental class and compared with the control class that used learning tools that were already in school. extensive trials using a quasi-experimental method with a non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design, which is a modification of sugiyono (2012). the results of extensive trials are used for revision of draft three so that the final product is then distributed and further applied through the dissemination stage. data collection techniques in this study include techniques for measuring critical thinking skills, including standardized tests and observations. the instruments used to collect data are divided into three types, each of which is used to meet the criteria of eligibility (validity), practicality, and effectiveness. the instrument for measuring aspects of eligibility uses a product validation sheet. the instrument to measure practicality consisted of an observation sheet on the implementation of the lesson plan and student questionnaire responses to the learning model, standardized tests, and the learning process. instruments to measure effectiveness consist of instruments to measure critical thinking skills in the form of standard questions and observation sheets, as well as instruments to measure aspects of knowledge in the form of questions in social studies material. data analysis in the form of comments, suggestions, and revisions during the trial process is analyzed descriptively qualitatively and concluded as input for revising the product being developed. data analysis techniques in the form of expert response scores (product eligibility), student response scores, lesson plan implementation scores, and scores critical thinking skills. analysis of product validation results and student responses data analysis techniques for model validation learning is done with the following steps: (1) tabulate all data obtained from the validators for each assessment item available in the assessment instrument, (2) calculate the average total score of each component by using formula 1, and (3) change the average score into a value by category. reference for changing the five-scale score according to sukardjo (2012) is presented in table 1. table 1. convert actual scores to scale of five score range (i) value category x̅i + 1,80 sbi<x a very good x̅i + 0,60 sbi < x ≤ x̅i + 1,80 sbi b well x̅i 0,60 sbi < x ≤ x̅i + 0,60 sbi c enough x̅i 1,80 sbi < x ≤ x̅i 0,60 sbi d less x ≤ x̅i 1,80 sbi e very less information: x̅i = average ideal score = ½ (ideal max score + ideal min score) sbi = the ideal standard score deposit = 1/6 (ideal max score ideal min score) x = actual score in this study, the learning model is said to be feasible to use for trials if the results of the assessment of each learning device are at least in the excellent category with a b. findings and discussion in connection with students’ critical thinking abilities, the following results are described in measuring students' critical thinking skills, whose results are presented in the following table 2. ahsan sofyan the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability 14 table 2. limited tryouts of students' critical thinking skills test limited trial 1 2 n mean std n mean std pre-test 34 65.2 3.23 23 66.91 2.93 post-test 34 75.76 3.26 23 84.86 3.91 based on table 2, it can be seen that in a limited trial on the mean (mean) of 65.20, experienced an increase in a limited trial 2 of 66.9. as for the post-test in the limited test 1, the mean (mean) was 75.76 and experienced an increase in the limited trial 2 with a mean 84.86. the increase in the limited trial phase 1 and limited trial 2 is in the medium category, this is because the teacher has just begun testing the open-ended learning model based on meaningful learning ausubel which according to the teacher is still rigid in the implementation of the class, so the learning process in the class has not been running in accordance with what is expected to implement the learning model in the learning plan. at this stage, the initial thinking ability of teachers and students about social studies material with ausubel's open-ended learning model has begun to develop, but teachers and students are required to develop thinking skills that originate from social studies learning with open-ended models based on learning ausubel meaningfully to improve thinking skills critically used as a reference in social studies learning, so it needs to be fixed at a limited test stage. the findings of the limited test 1 and limited test 2, aspects of the ability to think subsequently improved in the form of providing learning resources in the form of questions about open problems that are happening and are associated with social studies learning material being studied so that students are able to reconstruct learning materials both individually and in groups, this is expected to have an impact on students' thinking abilities at a full test stage. at the full test stage, the implementation process was carried out in three elementary schools in tarakan city, north kalimantan province, namely more full trials, one at sdn 018, more full two at sdn 016, and more full three at sdn 045. descriptions of more full trial results are presented in table 3. table 3. more full trials 1, wider 2 and 3 test more full trials 1 2 3 n mean stdv n mean stdv n mean stdv post-test 34 81.76 4.22 32 81.40 3.07 28 82.75 3.39 it is referring to table 3. it is identified that for a full trial, one a mean of 81.76 was obtained, whereas in the broader trial 2 obtained a mean of 81.40 from a full trial two continued with a broader trial three and a mean obtained from the test results from students' critical thinking skills of 82.75, meaning there is an increase from before; this shows that the teacher has begun to understand how to implement the open-ended ausubel’s learning model. this implementation can work well because before entering more full trials, teachers are educated on how to develop social teaching strategies using the open-ended ausubel’s learning model to improve students' critical thinking skills. findings obtained when implementing the test model are limited, meeting it back to the teacher. some notes developed in social studies learning use the open-ended learning model based on ausubel's meaningful learning theory, including; the teacher is trained on how to find open problems that are happening in the community, how to relate these problems to the social studies learning material in accordance with the skkd, the teacher is given several concepts and strategies for teaching social studies, then the teacher is trained on how to learn meaningful strategies and how to discuss and solve open problems together. at the fuller trial stage, the results of the mentoring or briefing conducted intensively to the teacher have had an impact on significantly increasing students’ critical thinking skills, this can be seen from the comparison of the results of the limited post-test 2 where the average results of the students' critical thinking ability tests are at achievements of 81.40 whereas in trials broader 3 the average post-test of students was at achievements of 82.75. based on the results of an increase in students' critical thinking skills at the full testing stage 3, the researcher decided to proceed to the final stages indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 of the model of learning model validation testing. it can be illustrated that the final model validation test was carried out at four different schools namely: sdn 018, sdn 016, sdn 045, and sdn 029, wherein each school the researchers used two classes namely one class as an experimental class and one class as a control class to implement the final model. the final stage in the development of this ausubel open-ended learning model, namely; the final model validation test, aims to improve students' critical thinking skills on aspects of critical thinking, creative, innovative, and soluble aspects. the validation stage of the final model was designed using the pre-test design post-test control group experimental design. improved aspects of students' critical thinking skills at the final model validation test stages are illustrated in table 4. table 4. validation test final model aspects of students' critical thinking skills (class experiments) test validation test final models (experiments) 1 2 3 4 n mean stdv n mean stdv n mean stdv n mean stdv pre test 32 73.40 4.80 28 72.85 5.10 24 65.58 2.93 21 74.66 3.70 post test 32 81.40 3.07 28 82.75 3.39 24 80.33 5.14 21 83.33 3.35 table 5. validation test final model aspects of students' critical thinking skills (control class) test validation test final models (control) 1 2 3 4 n mean stdv n mean stdv n mean stdv n mean stdv pre-test 27 71.66 4.70 20 66 2.31 23 74 4.35 28 72.82 5.36 post-test 27 75.88 3.20 20 74.5 3.64 23 77.43 2.17 28 80.07 2.90 the table 4 and 5 show the results of students' critical thinking skills tests involving two learning groups, where the experimental group already used the open-ended learning model based on ausubel's meaningful learning theory and the control group used the usual learning model. in the final model validation test 1, the average post-test of the experimental group reached 81.40 higher than the control group, which was an average of 75.88. differences in the average test of students' critical thinking skills in the final model validation test 2, where the average post-test of the experimental class was 82.75 while the control group was 74.5. an increase also occurred in the final model validation test 3, where the average results of the experimental group test on the final validation test 3 averaged 80.33 higher than the control class which obtained an average of 77.43, then an increase also occurred in the final model validation test 4, where the average post-test of the experimental class was 83.33 higher than the control class which obtained an average of 80.07. based on the overall results of the final model validation test, it was found that there were differences in the average test results of students' critical thinking skills, where the experimental class had higher average scores compared to the control class. this is because the experimental class is a class that has been trained both in terms of teachers and students when implementing the open-ended learning model based on ausubel's meaningful learning theory while the control class implementing the open-ended ausubel learning model is also developed through integration into the lesson plan (rpp). thus, this has an impact on improving students' critical thinking skills in social studies learning by applying open-ended learning models based on meaningful ausubel learning. to be more explicit, it can be seen in figure 1. the average graph of students' critical thinking skills. figure 1. average graph of students' critical thinking skills ahsan sofyan the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability 16 figure 1 explains that in the final model validation test there are differences in aspects of students' thinking ability between the experimental class and the control class, where the experimental class has increased in the final model validation test, while the control class in the final model validation test does not significantly increase the ability aspect students' critical thinking. the occurrence indicates that, on average, the experimental class using the open-ended learning model based on ausubel's meaningful learning is better in terms of increasing students' critical thinking skills than the control class who did not use the open-ended learning model based on ausubel's meaningful learning. in more detail, to see the differences in social studies learning outcomes using the openended ausubel learning model on aspects of students' critical thinking abilities, a statistical test was carried out using the spss test assisted by version 24. the results of the first stage (preliminary study), in the form of interviews, field surveys, and literature studies. the results of interviews and field surveys show that learning was conducted in an interactive lecture and learning activities were still teacher center, the learning process did not use worksheets, and the dominant learning source used was one of the publisher's textbooks — literature study results by reviewing the curriculum. the following are the results of the validation of the final model of the critical thinking skills of elementary school students, out of 105 elementary students from 4 schools spread across the city and village / coastal city of tarakan. data on critical thinking skills of students from 4 different elementary schools in the city of tarakan above can be found differences in the average ability refers to the location of the school (urban vs rural) in the city of tarakan, north kalimantan province. however, that it should be noted that in order to test the average difference between the two data groups, it is necessary to test the assumptions beforehand (normality and homogeneity test) so that the selection of test types or statistical formulas become appropriate. for this reason, each statistical analysis below is presented in two assumptions tests and one statistical test in the following order: normality test, homogeneity test-t / mann whitney u test. normality test statistical hypothesis h0 = normal distributed data h1 = data is not normally distributed significance level %5 test criteria h0 is rejected if sig (p-value) analysis results urban student data table 6. urban student data one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test trk_city trk_rural n 60 45 normal parametersa,b mean 82.0333 81.7333 std. deviation 3.27273 4.60928 most extreme differences absolute .291 .183 positive .291 .097 negative -.134 -.183 test statistic .291 .183 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .000c .001c a. test distribution is normal. interpretation because sig values for urban students = 0,000 < 0.05 and sig values for rural students = 0.001 < 0.5, it can be concluded that data from the two groups of students are not normally distributed. variant homogeneity test statistical hypothesis h0: the second variant is homogeneous data h1: the second variant of the data is not homogeneous significance level %5 decision-making criteria h0 is rejected if sig < a analysis results indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 table 7. test of homogeneity of variances levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 2.979 7 32 .016 interpretation trk_kota because value of sig = 0,016 < 0,05 means the second variant of the data is not homogeneous mann whitney u test because the data is not normally distributed, a non-parametric statistical test was chosen, the mann whitney u test, as follows: statistical hypothesis h0: there is no difference in the distribution of critical scores between students in urban areas and students in rural areas. h1: there is a difference in the distribution of critical scores between students in urban areas and students in rural areas significance level %5 decision making criteria h0 is rejected if sig test results table 8. test statistics critical_results mann-whitney u 1312.000 wilcoxon w 3142.000 z -.250 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .803 a. grouping variable: class interpretation because sig = 0.803 > 0.05, h0 is accepted, meaning that there is no difference in the proportion of critical scores between students who study in urban areas and students in rural areas. next, to find out the difference in critical average scores between elementary schools in cities and primary schools in villages, the interpretation is as follows: the t-test (independent t-test) because the data is normally distributed, then the independent t-test is chosen, as follows: statistics hypothesis h0: (there is no difference in the average critical score between students in the city and students in the village) h1: (there is a difference in the average critical score between students in the city and students in the village) significance level %5 decision-making criteria h0 rejected if the value of sig test result table 9. independent samples test independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed ) mean differe nce std. error differe nce 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper critical results equal variances assumed 4.022 .048 .390 103 .697 .30000 .76912 -1.22536 1.82536 equal variances not assumed .372 75.513 .711 .30000 .80662 -1.30669 1.90669 interpretation because the value of sig = 0.048 > 0,05, then h0 is accepted, meaning there is no difference in the average critical score between students in the city and students in the village. ahsan sofyan the development of an open-ended approach based on meaningful learning in social studies to improve the critical thinking ability 18 conclusion based on the aims of the research and analysis of the results of the research development, it can be concluded that: (1) the open-ended learning model based on meaningful learning in social studies learning to improve students' critical thinking skills in elementary schools in tarakan city is feasible based on the assessment of peers, expert lecturers, and teachers, (2) open-ended learning model based on meaningful learning in social studies learning to improve students' critical thinking skills in the city of tarakan can effectively improve the critical thinking skills of primary school students in the city of tarakan seen from the application of learning models in the learning process during research i.e. the experimental class students were higher than the control class students. the results of this study are expected as input for teachers in finding alternative ways of learning to create a situation that is conducive to the learning process. the results of this study are expected to motivate teachers to modify the way they teach. for further researchers, the results of this study are expected to be one of the bases and input in developing research through the open-ended learning approach. references afifah, s. a. & agoestanto, a. (2020). mathematical critical thinking ability in solving open-ended questions viewed from students’ curiosity. unnes journal of mathematics education, 9(1), 36-42. doi: 10.15294/ujme.v9i1.38099 al-mubaid, h. (2014). international journal of advanced corporate learning, pp. 34-37. borg, w. r. & gall, m. d. (1983). educational research: an introduction, fifth edition. new york: longman. fatah, a., suryadi, d., sabandar, j., & turmudi. (2016). open-ended approach: an effort in cultivating students’ mathematical creative thinking ability and self-esteem in mathematics. journal on mathematics education, 7(1), 9-18. gisbatarani, j. i., rianasari, v. f. (2021). analysis of creative thinking abilities of prospective mathematics teachers in solving and posing quadrilateral open-ended problems. indonesia mathematics education, 4(1), p. 26-37 ibrahim, i., & widodo, s. a. (2020). advocacy approach with open-ended problems to mathematical creative thinking ability. infinity, 9(1), 93-102. kayaoğlu, m. n., & sağlamel, h. (2013). students’ perceptions of language anxiety in speaking classes students’ perceptions of language anxiety in speaking classes. journal of history culture and art research, 2(2), 142–160. https://doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v2i2.245 koriyah, v. n. & idris, h. (2015). pengaruh openended terhadap prestasi belajar, berpikir kritis dan kepercayaan diri siswa smp. pythagoras: jurnal pendidikan matematika, 10(1), 95-105. nelson. (2013). an impact of critical thinking on performance in mathematics among senior secondary school students. lagos state iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme),3. pp. 18 http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosrjrme/papers/vol-3%20issue5/d0351825.pdf?id=7370 , nio,t. h., sukestiyarno, y. l., waluya, b., rochmad., isnarto., & manullang, b. (2017). study on critical thinking skills basic prospective students primary school teacher. international journal of contemporary applied sciences, 4(1), 54-70. notika, m. h. (2018). development mathematics teaching-instrument learning using open-ended approach to improve mathematics communication ability and independent learning student. advances in social science, education and humanities research (assehr), 285 rhosyida, n., trisniawati, putrianti, f. g. (2018). open ended approach: an exploration of critical thinking skill. ictsi sakti, d. p., hartanto, dharmayana, i. w. (2015). pengaruh pendekatan open-ended terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis matematis siswa sekolah menengah kejuruan. triadik, 15(2), 1-8 sapta, a., pakpahan, s. p., sirait, s. (2019). using the problem posing learning model based on open ended to improve mathematical critical thinking ability. journal of research in mathematics trends and technology, 1(1), 1215 sugiyono, (2009). pendekatan penelitian pendidikan, pendekatan kuatitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d. bandung: alfabeta. winarso, w. & hardyanti, p. (2018). using the learning of reciprocal teaching based on open ended to improve mathematical critical thinking ability. eduma,8(1). indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 students perspective on asynchronous and synchronous type of elearning at ban oom school thailand ervi ananda ayu rahmadani english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, university of muhammadiyah, gresik email: erviananda_18403@umg.ac.id ribeh najib muhammad english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, university of muhammadiyah, gresik email: ribeh@umg.ac.id apa citation: rahmadani, e. a. a., & muhammad, r. n. (2021). students’ perspective on asynchronous and synchronous type of e-learning at ban oom school thailand. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(2), pp. 11-16. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v4i2.5199 received: 11-05-2020 accepted: 12-07-2021 published: 01-10-2021 introduction learning in the classroom has several supporting features that the function for the success of students and teachers in learning, also direct interaction, direct feedback, and train students' skills in socializing. it is called f2f (face-to-face) learning (altıner, 2015). however, students do not always enjoy this opportunity. for example, when there is problem such as a global pandemic or a natural calamity that forces schools to close and lessons to halt, it will be difficult for students to carry out face-to-face learning as usual (white, ramirez, smith, & plonowski, 2010). as a real example, the world has experienced a disaster together, namely covid-19 which has an impact on several human activities such as examples of the teaching and learning process. to reduce the spread of the virus, many schools were closed for several months. changes in the educational system are prompting institutions to use online learning, remote education, correspondence education, external studies, flexible learning, and massive open online courses. the identical situation exists in the united states. e-learning has been implemented, including digital and distance learning choices, which are acceptable and necessary to support students' educational continuity during the covid-19 pandemic (national center for immunization and respiratory diseases (ncird), 2021). however, the teaching and learning process still must be carried out in order to save the nation's generation. in this study where the teacher comes from indonesia and teaches students in thailand, the teaching and learning process cannot be done offline and must be done with e-learning. in thailand, e-learning has become one of the national information technology policies, set by the ministry of science and technology. this elearning aims to provide more meaningful and abstract: during covid-19 pandemic, the main focus of education is distance learning. especially for learning strategy. in this research, the researcher used two strategies; synchronous focuses on e-learning using zoom and asynchronous using video material. researchers used two of strategies to measure which strategy is more effective to assist students in facilitating e-learning process. the process also aimed to reach students and teach them from home during quarantine. this paper examined students' perceptions of elearning using synchronous (zoom) and asynchronous (video material) at ban oom school of thailand. the students have experience of implementing the strategies 4 (four) months during e-learning. there are 25 students participated on the learning process. the study used quantitative and qualitative design with triangulation approaches, with the analysis instrument being a questionnaire with likert scale questions. according to the findings of the observations, there are three activity factors (communication, learning materials and the learning process). the analysis instrument is a questionnaire consisting of likert scale questions. the findings from the questionnaire showed positive answers to all the three factors. the students agreed that they can communicate easily. it shows that students have a high perspective on synchronous learning with various advantages compared to asynchronous learning where learning by watching videos that sent by the teacher and cannot interact directly if there are something is not understood by the students. keywords: students’ perspective; asynchronous and keyword synchronous; e-learning. ervi ananda ayu rahmadani & ribeh najib muhammad students’ perspective on asynchronous and synchronous type of e-learning at ban oom school thailand 12 useful (panyajamorn, suanmali, kohda, chongphaisal, & supnithi, 2018) to improve student learning the quality of education in an area that affected by a natural disaster or pandemic, causing students' difficulties in face-toface learning. adoption of online learning, on the other hand, is fraught with difficulties. a distinct problem that educational institutions in thailand must face is that "the language learning environment in thailand pushes students to memorize; this is in sharp contrast to the online education strategy that exists in students' motivation and self-regulation" (ngampornchai & adams, 2016). by this opportunity and coincide the current conditions, ban oom school was one of the participates in the success of education in that area so as not to be left behind. in taking advantage of the opportunity, ban oom's teachers conduct the lessons first and foremost in learning foreign languages (english). over the years, advances in computermediated communication technology have made expanding classrooms to online students more affordable and functioning very well (wang & wiesemes, 2012) learning in such an environment is commonly referred to as mixed synchronous learning (conklina, oyarzun, & barreto, 2017) or synchronous learning in a distributed environment (warden, stanworth, ren, & warden, 2013). in greece, we piloted a research with two elementary schools linked by interactive video conferencing. the kids participated in both intergroup (from two schools) and intragroup (from the same school) collaborative activities. it should be noted that all of these studies were conducted with students at two fixed locations only (i.e., a local classroom and a distance learning center), and some of the existing studies have explored how to engage online students located at multiple sites (wang, huang, & quek, 2018). studying on multiple sites definitely presents a varied learning experience and challenge for online students. therefore, the teacher uses a new method, namely uploading learning materials to the learning management system and letting students download and study on their own asynchronously. this method can be said to be good and effective if it is applied temporarily, but it is not good if the class takes place continuously (warden et al., 2013). online learning focuses on internet-based courses that are available both synchronously and asynchronously. synchronous learning is a type of learning that involves direct interaction between students and teachers through the use of online tools such as conferences and online chat. likewise, researchers use synchronous learning by conducting distance learning f2f activities that utilize online platforms such as zoom and massager. here students can interact directly with the teacher even though they are not face-to-face offline and students can also receive the material clearly because the teacher takes the time to share and interact with students about the material presented. however, this synchronous learning has several obstacles for ban oom school students where sometimes the signal is bad and also does not have a smartphone so that there are some students who cannot take synchronous classes because in the synchronous class itself all information will be conveyed directly and only once, if there is an interference signal, often students cannot receive information clearly. asynchronous learning is a type of indirect (not simultaneous) learning that employs an autonomous learning technique. in asynchronous learning, the process is facilitated by streaming media, social media, email, discussion boards and here critical thinking is encouraged as the learner has more time to reflect, interact with content and process information conditions (narayan, 1976) that are most convenient for them. they can utilize activities in various ways such as individually, in pairs, teams or groups. asynchronous learning, on the other hand, has a complementary and supportive role for elearners in the development of learning communities (narayan, 1976). in short, both are useful delivery tools to aid learning, especially in contexts where face-to-face teaching is limited or impossible (shamsudin, hashim, & yunus, 2019). the influence of student perceptions has been emphasized in studies examining the quality of blended learning (wright, 2017). for example, an extensive meta-analysis study found that students' positive perceptions of blended learning were associated with significantly higher scores, and concluded that teachers using mixed learning should understand students' perceptions of online learning and how it supports global learning. student satisfaction with online lessons has been studied extensively, and some researchers believe it plays an important role in determining the success of call. this paper reports on a study examining students' perspectives on distance learning using synchronous and asynchronous methods. method indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 13 the data of this paper were collected from elementary school students in ban oom loei thailand where they were in grade 6 elementary school. this study explores how students perceive the application of distance learning using synchronous and asynchronous methods. researchers applied blended e-learning because they want to know the effectivity of both learning strategy. therefore, researchers conducted a research of the perception of students in elearning with the approach used is mix method. the study used quantitative and qualitative design approaches, with the analysis instrument being a questionnaire with likert scale questions, dichotomous questions, and close-ended questions. qualitative data content responses to close-ended questions. this research was conducted at the ban oom school in phu lhuang district, loei province, thailand. the students consisting of grade 6 in total 25 students were invited to complete the survey and responses were received from 25 (response rate 100%). results and discussion general preferences and learning types general preferences and modes of learning, more students demonstrate a general preference for synchronous learning (face to face via zoom) of the 25 respondents, 18 students or 72% indicated a preference for asynchronous (through video conference) with a total 5 students or 20% of students. in addition, 2 students, or 8% of the total sample, is indicated preference for students who agree with both types of lessons. table 1. general preference synchronous face to face via zoom and asynchronous through video material (n=25) preference lesson number of students percentage synchronous (face to face via zoom) 18 72% asynchronous(through video material) 5 20% both types of lessons 2 8% the reasons given by students for their preference questions reveal some common statements. students showed a preference for regularly scheduled classes, in the synchronous showed 72% the following themes were mentioned in the reasoning of the respondents (categorized and arranged by prevalence). preference for asynchronous (video material), which counts for 20% of students fall under the categories of convenience, comfort, or fun, and skill enhancement (in order of prevalence). the last is the percentage of students who chose both of that lesson, the number showed 8%. currently, e-learning can be synchronous or asynchronous according to the needs of distance learning education systems. it is estimated that the application of synchronous and asynchronous can be a reference for educators in choosing a learning model according to their needs and most importantly as a supporter of distance learning so that it can run well and make it easier for teachers and students (öz & kayalar, 2021). synchronous distance learning makes virtual education into a new dimension by bringing together students and teachers in different places but in the same time, with synchronous learning classroom conditions can be said to be more effective because students can interact directly with the teachers (kantar, i̇bili, bayram, hakkari, & doğan, 2008). in summary, students prefer synchronous learning (by zoom), with the reasons that they gain a better understanding, more effective, more teacher’s guide and help, more detailed explanation, also the class becomes more interesting and alive. the opportunity of interaction or clarifying grammatical explanations with teachers and also the lessons that are conveyed can be enjoyed and absorbed well. several previous studies have indicated that asynchronous education, for example, is not as successful as face-to-face instruction (choe, scuric, eshkol, cruser, arndt, cox, toma, shapiro, levis-fitzgerald, barnes, & crosbie, 2019). poor course design, poor supervision, and poor pedagogy in online teaching are possible factors leading to poor learning outcomes and low enthusiasm for this format (choe et al., 2019). lesson types and student motivation the results for close ended questions about student motivation and different lessons generally revealed that that students feel more motivated during asynchronous learning (by video material). tabel 2. motivation and lesson types of asynchronous learning (n=25) likert scale response (%) ervi ananda ayu rahmadani & ribeh najib muhammad students’ perspective on asynchronous and synchronous type of e-learning at ban oom school thailand 14 there are three aspects that showed the students and teacher activity during observation. the aspects are: communication, materials, & study process. communication. by the factor of communication, there is no participant responded with satisfaction when they are treated by asynchronous learning. the result of the data above showed by the statement number 2, 5, 6, & 10 that the students who had perception on asynchronous are effective on communication (0% strongly agree & 0% agree). they could not interact with the teacher, they only watched the video material that sent by the teacher. lesson material. the next factor is about lesson material that the students use on this learning. by the data above showed that students easily to get the lesson materials by asynchronous learning (8% agree). students easy to get the material because they can play the video more than 2 times. study process. in the asynchronous learning, students can understand the lesson given by video material because without teacher guidance they can look the video many times. it showed by the data there are 12% students who strongly agreed with this learning. the results of close ended questions about student motivation and different lessons reveal in general that students feel more motivated during synchronous (by zoom). tabel 3. motivation and lesson types of synchronous learning (n=25) indicator items statement strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree n % n % n % n % motivation higher for asynchronous lesson(video material) 1. i get announcement or reminder communicated in asynchronous learning. 0 0 15 60 10 40 2. i can communicate easily in spoken communication with my teacher in asynchronous learning. 0 0 14 56 11 44 3. i get feedback on my learning progress from my teacher in asynchronous learning. 0 0 18 72 7 28 4. i can ask and answer questions with my teacher in asynchronous learning. 0 0 12 48 13 52 5. i can communicate and discuss the lessons easier and better with my classmates in break out meeting. 0 0 19 76 6 24 6. i can communicate and discuss the lessons easier and better with my lecturer in one screen compared to online meeting 0 0 16 64 9 36 7. communication with my teacher in one screen of meeting is the same as communication in face-to-face meeting. 0 0 11 44 14 56 8. i can understand the lessons given in asynchronous learning 3 12 0 10 40 12 48 9. i can get the lesson materials easily in asynchronous learning 0 2 8 13 52 12 48 10. i can have an ice breaker in asynchronous learning. 0 0 8 32 17 68 likert scale responses (%) item statement strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 there are three aspects that showed the students and teacher activity during observation. the aspects are: communication, materials, & study process. communication based on the factor of communication, most of the participants responded with satisfaction of synchronous learning. more than 70% of participants agreed that they could communicate on one screen with the teacher also their friend by break out room. the result of the table shows that learning activity using synchronous which exactly focus on communication, students are able to communicate with the teacher, it showed the number inside of the table (72% strongly agreed, 24% agreed). in addition, learning activity using synchronous can transfer the lessons easier also easier in sharing with their friends in break out meeting. it showed the number of the table (72% strongly agreed & agreed, 24% agreed). students also can communicate privately when they need to ask something or they need to talk with the teacher by room chat during learning activity, the number by the table showed (64% strongly agreed & 32% agreed). (48% strongly agreed & 52% agreed) shows that with synchronous learning students can also carry out activities before the material is delivered, greet each other during break time, and communicate freely when the teacher has not entered the zoom room. lesson material the next factor is about lesson material on this learning. the question was about how the access to the learning material. (60% strongly agreed & 40% agreed) that the students easily to get announcement by the teacher. the roles or the instruction that informed to the students during learning activity. (56% strongly agreed & 36% agreed) that student easily got a feedback when they made mistakes or had something to fix on their works, so they had a good progress during the way of learning. by synchronous lesson student also easily to get the material when the teacher delivered the material, direct explanation makes the student focus on what the teacher said also explained. this statement proved by the students’ number of statement (52% strongly & 48% agree). study process n % n % n % n % motivatio n higher for synchron ous 1. i get announcement or reminder communicated in synchronous learning. 15 60 10 40 0 0 2. i can communicate easily in spoken communication with my teacher in synchronous learning. 18 72 6 24 1 4 0 3. i get the feedback on my learning progress from my teacher in synchronous learning. 14 56 9 36 2 8 0 4. i can ask and answer questions with my teacher in synchronous learning. 16 64 9 36 0 0 5. i can communicate and discuss the lessons easier and better with my friends in break out meeting. 18 72 6 24 1 4 0 6. i can communicate privately by room chat with my teacher and my friend during learning activity. 16 64 8 32 1 4 0 7. i can collaborate with my friend on the break out room. 15 60 10 40 0 0 8. i can understand the lessons given in synchronous learning. 16 64 9 36 0 0 9. i can get the lesson materials easily in synchronous learning. 13 52 12 48 0 0 10. i can have an ice breaker in synchronous learning. 12 48 13 52 0 0 ervi ananda ayu rahmadani & ribeh najib muhammad students’ perspective on asynchronous and synchronous type of e-learning at ban oom school thailand 16 during synchronous learning student could ask and answer with the teacher. when they cannot the teacher explanation and they should understand the lesson, they could ask the teacher about what the missing lesson she/he had. it shows from the number of students’ statement (64% strongly agreed & 36% agreed). 60% strongly agreed & 40% agreed that students collaborate learning with their friend by break out room and they can share the lesson with their friend in group that providing by the teacher. conclusion the finding of this study indicate that synchronous learning can be said more effective than asynchronous, it can be seen from the results of students’ questionnaires where previously students have been treated using 2 strategies, synchronous by zoom and asynchronous by video material. synchronous learning has been proven by the large number of students who are motivated to learn face-to-face on one screen with the teachers and classmates. from this statement, it was proven that 76% of students’ stated synchronous learning is more effective than asynchronous, meanwhile 24% preferred asynchronous learning by video material. in the results of the table interview of synchronous, there are 3 types of questions, there are communication, lesson material, and study process. in communication, students showed they are more motivated by synchronous learning using zoom. it can be proven by the percentage of students, 72% of students said direct communication with the teacher can facilitate the entry of the material. references altıner, c. (2015). perceptions of undergraduate students about synchronous video conferencebased english courses. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 199(4452), 627–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.589 choe, r. c., scuric, z., eshkol, e., cruser, s., arndt, a., cox, r., toma, s. p., shapiro, c., levisfitzgerald, m., barnes, g., & crosbie, r. h. (2019). student satisfaction and learning outcomes in asynchronous online lecture videos. cbe life sciences education, 18(4). https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.18-08-0171 conklina, s., oyarzun, b., & barreto, d. (2017). blended synchronous learning environment: student perspectives. research on education and media, 9(1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1515/rem-2017-0004 kantar, m., i̇bili, e., bayram, f., hakkari, f., & doğan, m. (2008). software and content creation on distance education systems. conference proceeding. istanbul university press, 4793, 334-343. narayan, a. d. (1976). inheritance of body eight and rate of gain in japanese quail. british poultry science, 17(5), 513–523. national center for immunization and respiratory diseases (ncird). (2021). implementation of mitigation strategies for communities with local covid-19 transmission. cdc, 1. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019ncov/community/community-mitigation.html ngampornchai, a., & adams, j. (2016). students’ acceptance and readiness for e-learning in northeastern thailand. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-0160034-x öz, r., & kayalar, m. t. (2021). a comparative analysis on the effects of formal and distance education students’ course attendance upon exam success. journal of education and learning, 10(3), 122. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v10n3p122 panyajamorn, t., suanmali, s., kohda, y., chongphaisal, p., & supnithi, t. (2018). effectiveness of e-learning design in thai public schools. malaysian journal of learning and instruction, 15(1), 1–34. shamsudin, h., hashim, h., & yunus, m. m. (2019). integration of asynchronous and synchronous gameplay to improve pupils’ vocabulary. creative education, 10(12), 3101–3106. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2019.1012234 wang, q., huang, c., & quek, c. l. (2018). students’ perspectives on the design and implementation of a blended synchronous learning environment. australasian journal of educational technology, 34(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3404 wang, r. l., & wiesemes, r. (2012). enabling and supporting remote classroom teaching observation: live video conferencing uses in initial teacher education. technology, pedagogy and education, 21(3), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2012.719397 warden, c. a., stanworth, j. o., ren, j. b., & warden, a. r. (2013). synchronous learning best practices: an action research study. computers and education, 63, 197–207. white, c. p., ramirez, r., smith, j. g., & plonowski, l. (2010). simultaneous delivery of a face-toface course to on-campus and remote offcampus students. techtrends, 54(4), 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-010-0418-z wright, b. m. (2017). blended learnings student perception of face-to-face and online efl lessons. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i1.6859 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 interactional modification language used by the teacher in english classroom in mts pui cikaso elin marlina university of kuningan email: marlinaelin66@gmail.com dadang solihat university of kuningan email: dadang.solihat@uniku.ac.id nida amalia asikin university of kuningan email: nida.amalia.asikin@uniku.ac.id apa citation: marlina, e., solihat, d., & asikin, n. a. (2021). interactional modification language used by the teacher in english classroom in mts pui cikaso. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp.41-48. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4343 received: 15-01-2020 accepted: 10-03-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction in the learning process, interaction between a teacher and students are a crucial matter. as loewen & sato (2018) said that interaction plays a crucial role to develop communication skill for learners. in line with arguelles & rosa (2016), the study stressed on the importance of teacher-student interaction in language learning and teaching in which the teacher directs and guides the students to have the best understanding through his/her clarifications. as a result, active interaction with their teacher in a modified input condition works better for participants in comprehending new vocabulary words. based on amin (2015), interaction between teacher and students in the language classroom are bounded with each other. both of them are dependent on each other. karima, suherdi, & yusuf (2017) professed that classroom interaction as the main source of student`s input ought to be comprehended in consideration of better language acquisitions. it means that what teacher said is very influential for student’s comprehension. in relation to classroom interaction, teachers play important roles as language input providers and language models to be imitated by the students in teaching and learning classroom. it cannot be denied abstract: this research aims at knowing the types of interactional modification language used by the teacher in mts pui cikaso based on pinter’s theory (2017) and also finding out the students’ responses toward interactional modification. qualitative research design is applied in this research. the subject of the data is an english teacher and the students of class vii b mts pui cikaso. the data are collected through observation, interview, and questionnaire. during observation, the researcher uses mobile phone to record the learning process by putting the phone in the corner of the class to get clear visualization. the observation is conducted 8 times (8 meetings) where every meeting spends 40 minutes. interview used to support the data about teacher’s opinion while using interactional modification language. meanwhile questionnaire is used to support the student’s responses. the data are analyzed both qualitatively. the findings revealed that the teacher used 5 types of interactional modifications: 1) repetition; 2) confirmation check; 3) comprehension check; 4) clarification request; and 5) reformulation. while for the students’ responses, it showed that the students gave correct responses, incorrect responses, and no response. however, the students admitted that interactional modification language can help them to comprehend material well. it shows that 85% of the students responded positively toward interactional modification used by the teacher. in addition, the interactional modification is being responded negatively by 15% of the students. finally, the researcher concluded that the use of interactional modification language is needed to keep studentsteacher interaction run well. keywords: interactional modification; student’s comprehension; student’s response mailto:marlinaelin66@gmail.com mailto:dadang.solihat@uniku.ac.id mailto:nida.amalia.asikin@uniku.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4343 elin marlina, dadang solihat, & nida amalia asikin interactional modification language used by the teacher in english classroom in mts pui cikaso 42 that a teacher in teaching carries out some specific communicative acts, such as lecturing, asking and responding questions, explaining, and giving direction or instruction (nurpahmi 2017). based on the researcher’s experienced in the internship program at one of senior high school in kuningan, most of the students still have difficulties to comprehend what the teacher said especially when they communicate in the learning process. they tend to not respond when teacher asked questions, because they think the teacher used complicated sentences. as pinter (2017) said, when a breakdown or misunderstanding is judged by the speaker, they might simply ignore it and just carry on talking. several factors were cited as a source of students’ poor performance in english; these include a lack of appropriate teaching methods and techniques, a shortage of instructional resources, a shortage / lack of qualified english language teachers, a poor teaching and learning environment in the classrooms, and a limited home-supporting environment (united republic of tanzania, 2010; komba, kafanabo, njabili, & kira, 2012; mosha 2014 as cited by mhandeni & mohamed (2016)). therefore, appropriate method is needed. the teacher should have many ways to make students comprehend what is taught. this can be achieved through methods, techniques, models, approach, and other ways customized with the material. when a teacher is wrong in choosing ways in the learning process, finally it will influence student’s comprehension. in teaching process, the teacher must not give equal treatment between young and adult learners. different level students need different ways. considering that english is a foreign language, especially for young learners, of course they will face difficulties in inputting comprehension when teachers uses the sentence that students assume as complicated difficult sentence in learning process. it means it does not rule out the possibility of communication breakdown. thus, to make their students get input comprehensible, the teacher will use some strategies. sundari (2017) stated that teachers as a key holder of classroom communication, play prominent roles to stimulate language production. one of strategy used by the teacher is interactional modification language. albargi & al-ghamdi (2017) supported those statement from their findings, they revealed that the efl student comprehension was highest under the interactional-modified condition and was lowest under the unmodified condition with linguisticallymodified text in between. linguistic modification has a positive impact on learners’ comprehension of reading material, and that interactional modification has a stronger impact on facilitating learners’ comprehension. furthermore, due to the reason above, the researcher investigated the types of interactional modification language that teacher used as one of the ways to make students comprehend the communication, and how the student’s responses. method the method that researcher used is qualitative approach. according to rojabi (2020), qualitative research is a research that has elaborating characteristic, researchers are allowed to dig deeper information on research object without relying on numerical measurements. meanwhile, aspers (2019) defined that qualitative as an iterative process in which improved understanding to the scientific community is achieved by making new significant distinctions resulting from getting closer to the phenomenon studied in this research, the researcher used descriptive qualitative design. as prasetyo (2016) professed that descriptive qualitative research has aim to reveal events or facts, circumstances, phenomena, and variables that occurred during the research by presenting what actually happened. this study interprets and describes the data related to the current situation, attitudes and, views that occurred in a society, the conflict between two or more situations, the relationship between variables that arise, the differences between existing facts and their effect on a condition, and so on. the researcher uses descriptive qualitative method, because the research aims to explore the teacher strategy in the classroom using interactional modification language, where the result was displayed in the form of description. the results show us what types of interactional modification language that teacher used in speaking, listening activities, and how the students’ responses. thus, this method is appropriate with the research. the main data of this research is obtained from observation, questionnaire, and interview at one of junior high schools in kuningan, which is mts pui cikaso. the observation is conducted to get the data about the types of interactional. due to the pandemic indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 situation, there is a time reduction from 40 minutes into 20 minutes / 1-hour lesson. another data gets from questionnaire and interview. the questionnaire is used to get data about the students’ responses, and interview is used to support observation data related the types of interactional modification used by the teacher. the data are qualitatively analyzed based on theory the types of interactional modification proposed by pinter (2017). the steps are as follow: 1) data collection, the researcher collects the data from observation by using the video recording to collect the teacher’s and students’ utterances. the phone as media for recording is placed at the back or in front of the class to get the clear visual of the teacher’s movement in interacting with the students. while the camera records the activity, the researcher takes notes related the activity in the class using classroom observation transcript. from observation, the researcher know the types of interactional modification used by the teacher and student responses. after conducted observation, the researcher shares the questionnaire and interview. those data are changed from audio/video form into transcript. 2) data reduction, after transcribe observation data, the researcher classifies the type of interactional modification language used by the teacher into a table, complete with its utterances. the utterances that researcher found during the observation, are summarized and put in the table 1. meanwhile, for the students’ responses that the researcher used can be seen in table 2. table 1. teacher’s types of interactional modification language and student responses (elshadelin, & mardijono 2017) no types of interactional modification language utterances students responses notes c i nr notes: c: correct response i: incorrect response nr: no response table 2. the student’s responses towards interactional modification (elshadelin, & mardijono 2017) tim sr confirmation check clarification request comprehension check repetition reformulation dq rq repetition rsu rou c i nr notes: tim: teacher’s interactional modifications sr: students’ responses dq: display question rq: referential question rsu: repetition of self utterances rou: repetition of other utterances c: correct responses i: incorrect responses nr: no responses the data show descriptively about how the students’ response toward interactional modification, whether they are correct, incorrect, or no response for each types. 3) data display, after all the data are obtained, the researcher presents the result in conversation form from each type of interactional modification used by the teacher and students’ responses. the researcher also counts the number of the use of interactional modification distribution. 4). the conclusion is delivered by the description that after the data of types of interactional modification language is classified based on pinter’s (2017) theory and also how the student’s responses. elin marlina, dadang solihat, & nida amalia asikin interactional modification language used by the teacher in english classroom in mts pui cikaso 44 findings and discussion based on the result from classroom observation, the teacher used these type of interactional modification; 1) repetition, 2) confirmation check, 3) comprehension check, and 4) clarification request, 5) reformulation. repetition during observation, the researcher found some types in repetition that teacher used in learning process. there are repetition request, repetition of selfutterances, and repetition of other utterances. the explanation from those types is as follows: repetition request the teacher asked to the students to repeat what she said, to make the students know how to pronounce the words or phrases correctly. the example is shown below: t: “oke semuanya, ulangi apa yang miss katakan. hi!” (ok all, repeat what i say. hi!) ss: “hi” t: “hi” t: “hello” ss: “hello” t: “how are you?” ss: “how are you?” from the conversation above, the teacher asked the students to repeat what the teacher has been said, by saying “ok all, repeat what i say. hi!”. the teacher wanted the students to pronounce the greetings. repetition of self-utterances the teacher used this type of repetition in order to repair, retain, and clearance the information or what she has been said. due to its reason, the students would comprehend more. the example is shown below: t: “the point is asking how are you, but that so… formal. so formal. very formal. like that. but, if only from you to your friend “how do you do?” it cannot be used.” from the conversation above, the teacher repeated what she said. she repeated her utterances by saying “but that so… formal. so formal. very formal.” this aimed to emphasize the utterances, thus the students have a better understanding in the function of “how do you do?”. repetition of other utterances the teacher used this type of repetition by repeating some words or paraphrase from the students in order to make sure what students said and their answer is true. also to develop the topic of conversation. the example is shown below: t: “for instance you… meet someone for the first time, usually what do you say?” s: “greeting, hi hi” s: “introduce self” s: “shake hands” t: “alright, when you meet someone for the first time, usually you greet them…” we can see from the conversation above, the teacher asked to the students while explaining the material, the teacher emphasized that student’s answer was already correct by repeating what students said. confirmation check this type is used by the teacher to confirm that what teacher heard is correct. in this type, the teacher asked the students to repeat their previous utterances, because she could not hear the students’ utterances clearly due to the noises in classroom. also, the teacher repeated the student’s previous utterances with rising intonation to make sure what she just heard. auquilla, camacho, & urgilles (2019) stated that they entail repetition of all or part of the interlocutor’s preceding expression, and they can be answered by a simple positive or negative confirmation, such yes or no. the example is shown below: t: “what time, iksan?” s: “9.00 until 12.00” t: “9.00 until 12.00?” s: “yes” in the conversation above, the teacher asked the students, but the teacher could not hear the students’ utterances, then the teacher ensured it by asking “9.00 until 12.00?”, then the student said “yes” to confirm that the teacher heard correctly. comprehension check this type is used by the teacher to check whether the students understand the material. also, to check the students’ knowledge related the material. in this research, the researcher found 2 types of comprehension check. according to william, inscoe, & tasker (2014), there are 2 types of comprehension check. the first is display question and the second is referential question. but, in this research, the teacher only used display question while learning process as the explanation that shown below: indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 display question display question was used by the teacher when the teacher wanted to check the student’s understanding, whether or not they have understood the material that has been explained. in this type, the teacher has already known the answer. the example as shown below: t: “lukman, if you meet me at 10.00 am, how did you greet?” s: good morning the conversation above shows us that the teacher checked one of student’s comprehension by asking to the students “lukman, if you meet me at 10.00 am, how did you greet?”, the students answered correctly by saying “good morning” and it show us that the student comprehended the material. clarification request abijo, azeez, & odinko (2020) said that clarification request is a classroom interaction pattern for expansion of input in detail for students learning. this entails asking for more clearly stated information. this type was used by the teacher when she wanted the students to explain some points further or to clarify/revise their previous utterances, due to the students’ answer was not satisfied for her. also, the teacher felt that the students’ answer has not been correct yet. this type can help the student’s aware their mistakes. thus, the example of the clarification request is described below. t: “when meet or when you go home?” s: “go home” t: “when you meet or go home?” s: “go home” t: “hm? you sure?” s: “uh, right when we meet” t: “when meet” the conversation above shows us that the students answered incorrectly the question from the teacher. then the teacher tried to reassure the students by saying “hm? you sure?” to make them answered correctly. the student corrected her wrong answer and changed it to the correct answer after the teacher requested for clarifying to her. reformulation the teacher used this type when explaining the material by generating information, building on what the student already knows, giving imagery related the material, and making links with the experiences of the students. the teacher modified language by offering synonyms and alternatives, gave examples related daily lives. reformulation was used by the teacher to make students easily comprehend what she just said. the example is shown below: t: “okay enough. take a look here. in indonesia, usually ... at 11 o'clock. it's already said afternoon well, usually. but actually, after midday it is noon. but before dzuhur it is actually still early. but ... it’s a habit for us, usually at 11 o'clock it is bright, if at 11 o'clock it looks bright, usually it is like being called the...” ss: “ternoon.” from the conversation above, we can see that the teacher reformulated her sentence when explaining the material. the teacher explained the time of “afternoon” from what time to what time. in order to make the students understand the situation, the teacher gave an example of the situation in indonesia to describe “afternoon”. besides that, the teacher reformulated the sentence with another way. while telling the story, the teacher reformulated the sentences with offering synonyms and antonyms, made links with the students’ experiences, built on what the students already know and used some body gestures. the example is shown below: conversation 1 t: “ok good. near the hole, there is a shovel (generates information). shovel mean is sekop. he had dug up (gesture dug like hold a shovel), apa ini? sedang apa?” ss: “menggali” conversation 2 t: “ok… have you ever dig the gold? (make links with the experiences of the students) kalian pernah mengubur emas? hebat yah emas saja saking banyak nya sampe di kubur. ok continue... he had dug up (dig gesture like hold a shovel) a hole… and used to bury the gold…. look, where is he burry the gold? (build on what the students already know) dimana sih dia mengubur emas nya itu” ss: “bawah pohon” t: “under the tree… near the tree… in is garden (generates information). tree, pohon. kalau banyak pohon biasanya dimana?” the use of interactional modification can help the students to comprehend the material. as cited by munandar (2019), vivian indicated the elin marlina, dadang solihat, & nida amalia asikin interactional modification language used by the teacher in english classroom in mts pui cikaso 46 conversational frame such as “we have been talking about”, “now... i will talk about...”, “well…”, “now let’s”, and “so”. these utterances were aimed at emphasizing and giving the points to the learners of what they had learnt and what they would learn in the classroom. as well, they provided explicit cohesive clues allowing the students to follow the teacher’s speech easily. meanwhile, for the response, the students gave 3 responses. the correct, incorrect, and no responses. the table and explanation are as follow: table 3. the student’s responses towards interactional modification (elshadelin & mardijono, 2017) tim sr confirmation check clarification request comprehension check repetition reformulation dq rq repetition request rsu rou c       i     nr   the students’ correct responses this is where the students answered correctly as the teacher expectation. the explanation is as described below: t: “apa tadi bilang apa? how are you jawab nya apa? i am…” s: “fine, and you” t: “i’m fine, and you?” the conversation above shows us that the teacher tried to confirm it to the students. the teacher could not hear the student’s utterances, and asked “apa tadi bilang apa? (what did you say?) how are you jawabnya apa (how do you answer “how are you”?)? i am…” to get the answer. and the students answered correctly by saying “fine, and you?”. the students’ incorrect responses this is where the students answered the question not in line with the teacher expectation. the explanation is described below: t: “what about “tas kamu”?” s: “bag you” t: “bag you? same as “bag i”” s: “bag ...” conversation above show us that teacher wanted to confirm to the students’ utterances. first, the teacher asked to the students what is “tas kamu” in english, but the students answered incorrectly. then, teacher tried to confirm to the students by saying “bag you? same as bag i”, the student could not answer correctly when teacher tried to confirm to him by saying “bag…” the students’ no responses this is where the students had no responses when the teacher asked questions. the explanation is described below: t: “abi, come on bi, how do you spelling your name?” ss: “…….” t: “you spell your name? how? spell your name!” in conversation above, the teacher asked to the student to spell his name, but the student did not give respond or stayed silent. below is a table of the number of occurrence of each type of interaction modification used by the teacher. table 4. interactional modification occurrence types of interactional modification number of occurrences percentage confirmation check 5 1,81 % clarification request 24 8,66 % comprehension check 147 53,07% repetition of self-utterances 3 1,08 % repetition of other utterances 60 21,66 % repetition request 25 9,03 % reformulation 13 4,69 % total 277 100% indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 conclusion the research concludes that in order to improve student’s comprehension the teacher need to use interactional modification. the teacher used 5 types of interactional modification. the first is repetition that can help the students to comprehend what teacher said. the second one is confirmation check. this type was used by the teacher to confirm what teacher heard is correct. the third is comprehension check, to check student’s comprehension towards the material. the fourth is clarification request that can help the students aware their mistakes. the last type is reformulation to make students easily comprehend teacher’s explanation. it is also in line with student’s responses. there are 3 responses in this research. the first is correct responses. the students give correct responses to all types used by the teacher, there are confirmation check, clarification request, repetition, comprehension check, and reformulation. the students’ correct answer means that they understand teacher’s question and also the material. on the other hand, the students give incorrect answer toward confirmation check, clarification request, and comprehension check. this means that students cannot answer question from the teacher correctly or the student’s answer is not in line with the teacher’s expectation. the last, students give no response toward comprehension check and repetition. this is where the students have no responses when the teacher ask questions. in conclusion, the use of interactional modification language can make the students comprehend better the material, as we know that each type has its respective functions which aim to make it easier for students to comprehend the material. references abijo, j. a., azeez, f. a., odinko, m. n. 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(pp 304-322). new york: routledge. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 15 inappropriate behaviours in mainland public and private primary schools of lagos state, nigeria: need for counselling services john o. oparaduru faculty of education, national open university of nigeria, jabi-abuja, nigeria email: oparadurujohn@gmail.com augustine c. ukwueze faculty of education, national open university of nigeria, jabi-abuja, nigeria email: acukwueze@gmail.com apa citation: oparaduru, j. o., & ukwueze, a. c. (2022). inappropriate behaviours in mainland public and private primary schools of lagos state, nigeria: need for counselling services. indonesian journal learning and instruction, 5(2), 15-22. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i2.6842 received: 12-06-2022 accepted: 11-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction in nigeria, the public and private primary schools are the institutional bodies responsible for the training of young ones within the age bracket of 6 and 12 years. this age is a critical period of human development that runs into pre-adolescent stage when a lot of developmental changes take place (oparaduru, 2021). children of cause acquire almost all their life long experiences at this stage with related developmental and attention seeking challenges which need to be handled carefully to avoid destroying them in the course of building them. oparaduru (2021) opined that, school is the hallmark of progress for effecting change and growth. therefore, anything that could hinder the expected goals of its establishment should not be encouraged. pertinently, it is on the basis of this, that government is making education a top most priority to ensuring that every person`s goal is achieved. inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools, a major concern in mainland area of lagos state, nigeria, refer to behaviours that are not acceptable in society especially in institutions where learning takes place. this is because behaviours can easily be modified in schools if a very comfortable environment is provided. in a situation where inappropriate behaviours in schools at very tender age are at an alarming rate and little or nothing is done about them to ensure that they are curbed, raises a very big question and concern to the entire populace. obi et al. (2022) opined that some of the problems encountered in nigerian school system include inappropriate behaviours like truancy, deviancy, delinquency, aggression, and loitering in the streets within the hours that children abstract: this study examined inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools across mainland area of lagos state, nigeria using a survey research design. the population of the study comprised all the pupils in both public and primary schools in mainland area of lagos state. through random sampling from randomly selected schools in lagos mainland, 53 male and 95 female respondents were respectively selected for the study. an instrument called childhood misbehaviour inventory was constructed and validated to obtain the data used for the study. research questions were answered using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) while the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using t-test statistics. it was found that inappropriate behaviours in mainland schools among pupils are bullying, lateness, not paying attention in the class, hatred for teachers, noise making, truancy, walking out of the class during lesson without permission, and sleeping in class. the study also revealed that these inappropriate behaviours in primary schools are as a result of lateness to class by teachers, child abuse, and poor parenting styles, peer influence, sibling rivalry, poverty, unconducive environment and poor parental care among others. the study recommends that counselling should be introduced and made compulsory for all primary schools in lagos mainland as a panacea to incessant cases of inappropriate behaviours among the pupils in primary schools so as to catch them young to exhibit appropriate behaviours. keywords: inappropriate behaviours; students; public schools; private schools; counselling services. john o. oparaduru & augustine c. ukwueze inappropriate behaviours in mainland public and private primary schools of lagos state, nigeria: need for counselling services 16 ought to be in school studying. others are truancy, vandalism, gang-fighting, stealing, and lying as common forms of inappropriate behaviours among teenagers. ibuchin in oparaduru (2021) identified a number of deviant behaviours that are prevalent in our schools irrespective of their level such as; examination malpractice, truancy, bullying, lateness to school, stealing, drug abuse, cultism, sex offences and absenteeism. otubo and okanumeonah (2022) listed stealing, truancy, disobedience, insubordination, lying, fighting, cheating, lateness, rudeness, destructiveness, sex offences, cruelty, smoking and drinking of alcohol as common behaviour problems among boys and girls in schools. several experts believe that the above forms of inappropriate behaviours are consequences of varying factors. for example, oparaduru (2021) listed some of the causes of deviant/inappropriate behaviours such as family background, mass media, peer group, and societal factors. obikoya and bright (2022) outlined such factors of inappropriate behaviours as culture, school and religion. for lawan and hassan (2022), moods of teachers, system of the rule employed by the school and quality of teaching skills are factors that impinge upon pupils` behaviour. thus, inappropriate behaviours among primary school pupils is a manifestation of lateness of teachers to school or class, poor communication skills, poor teaching, child abuse at home, overindulgence, parenting style of being tough, parents not being interested in the education of their children, parents condoning whatever their children are doing, lack of discipline in the house, lack of behavioural control, and keeping bad friends. it is well known that inappropriate behaviours increase with age and gets to the peak during adolescence (moffitt) in omoegun et al. (2019). biological changes (hormonal changes and neurological development) could account for this in addition to the influence of social environmental factors like the growing importance of peers, widening gap between pupils` personal lives and interests, school environment, social factors (poverty and neglect), and inappropriate parent-child interactions relate to behaviour problems in children (omoegun et al., 2019). in the opinion of susan (2018), inappropriate behaviours in a child stem from a variety of environmental, emotional and biological issues in a child’s life. teens with learning and attention issues may be more likely to engage in risky behaviours like alcohol and drug abuse or sexual offences. some suggestions that may make teens less likely to be involved in inappropriate behaviours include making rules and sticking to them, allowing the teen to make decisions, providing structure and routine for them, getting to know the child`s friends, helping the child to find a mentor, and allowing the child to realize that you care about him/her (oparaduru, 2017). in a study, oparaduru (2017) used cognitive restructuring and self-control techniques to foster adaptive behaviour, among students in imo state, nigeria. he, therefore, recommended both cognitive restructuring and self-control as viable therapies in handling students who manifest maladaptive behaviours but concludes that self-control therapy was more efficacious. on the other hand, the use of restorative discipline as an alternative to corporal punishments in nigerian schools which involves providing appropriate consequences that encourage accountability for students` misbehaviours through collaborative exercises between pupils and teachers. however, inappropriate behaviours are endemic problem in nigeria which has become resistant to solutions proffered over the years as observed. several efforts have been made by various governments in handling issues relating to maladaptive behaviours in nigeria especially among school children. for example, the war against indiscipline (wai) of 1984 which went through several changes and brought the present national orientation agency (noa) in nigeria was the effort put in place by the federal government to fight indiscipline and other inappropriate behaviours in broader perspectives but to no avail. unfortunately, instead of having positive results, the reverse seems to be the case (oparaduru, 2017). a typical nigerian child is swimming in the ocean of negative values and misbehaviours like indiscipline, secret cult, examination malpractices, bribery and corruption, greed and laziness/idleness among others. due to modern technology, peculiar problems that are quite unexpected from adolescents rear their heads to the amazement of the school authority. for instance, when two secondary schools fight during sporting activities, sports hooliganism or other forms of unhealthy rivalry may occur. it is often amazing to see the type of ammunitions that such schools possess. some carry sharp knives, daggers and pen-knives hidden under indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 their uniforms. these days, inter school fights usually found in secondary schools have also spread to primary schools. this worrisome situation deserves attention from the cradle of our educational system, the primary school level to discover and checkmate all forms and causes of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools across mainland area of lagos state, nigeria. it is quite imperative to state that the problems associated with the changes in children at primary school age cannot be over emphasized and left unattended. however, there seems to be a hand full of literature in this regard as most people (oparaduru, 2017; makinde and oparaduru, 2018; omoegun, okoli and oparaduru, 2019; oparaduru, 2021) focused more on people in post-primary institutions. this gap, therefore, brings this study to fore with the view to investigate the inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools across mainland area of lagos state, nigeria and the need for counselling services to be employed to remedy some of these inappropriate behaviours in primary schools. this is premised on the fact that the rate at which nigerian children are exposed, indoctrinated and manifest obvious activities at a very tender age is massively alarming. it is reasoned that these inappropriate behaviours at tender age are the sources of the escalating cases of terrorism and banditry in nigeria today. the following research questions were raised to guide the study. (1) what are the forms of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools? (2) what are the causes of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools? (3) what are the possible solutions to the challenges of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools? the following null research hypotheses were also raised to further guide the study. (1) there is no significant difference in the forms of inappropriate behaviours in public and primary schools. (2) there is no significant difference in the causes of inappropriate behaviours in public and private schools. (3) there is no significant difference between the solutions of the inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools. method the study employed the survey research design to sample the opinions of the respondents on the forms, causes and possible solutions of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools across mainland area of lagos state, nigeria with five public and five private primary schools randomly selected. lagos mainland here is limited to lagos island local government area of lagos state. out of the total population of 2,081 primary school teachers and parents in lagos mainland, 77 parents were randomly selected from public primary schools whereas 71 parents were selected randomly from private primary schools through their children and wards from the ten pilot schools for the study. in all, a total of 148 subjects were used for the study. the instrument used for the study is called childhood misbehaviour inventory (cmi). the cmi was constructed, validated and administered to the respondents. originally, the instrument had sixty items that were scaled down to forty-nine by an expert each in measurement and evaluation and guidance and counselling respectively after rigorous validation of each statement. the section a of the instrument sought for information on the biodata of the respondents whereas sections b and c sought for the respondents` perceptions on inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools respectively with four response categories as most often, often, rarely and not at all, which were assigned 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. section c has in the same way, four response categories as strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree that were assigned 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively too. final copies of the instrument were administered to twenty teachers of cubic royal nursery and primary school, lagos state who were not part of the study on two different occasions after an interval of two weeks. the scores were subjected to cronbach alpha analysis and a value of 0.87 was obtained to attest to the reliability of the instrument. copies of the instrument, childhood misbehaviour inventory (cmi) were given to the sampled population in each school to fill and return through research assistants. some randomly selected pupils were also given the instruments to give to their parents to fill and return to the research assistants that distributed the questionnaire in each school. out of 110 given to public primary schools, 77 of them were properly filled and used whereas john o. oparaduru & augustine c. ukwueze inappropriate behaviours in mainland public and private primary schools of lagos state, nigeria: need for counselling services 18 71 copies out of 98 copies sent to private primary schools were also properly filled, returned and used for the study. in all, 148 copies of the instrument provided the information on the data needed and used for the study. the statistics used for the study is descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) to answer the research questions where a value of less than 2.5 means rejection and a value of 2.5 and above means acceptance of the item as a form or relative cause of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools. similarly, the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using inferential statistics (t-test). results and discussion the results of the study after detailed analysis are as presented in tables 1 to 5. table 1. responses of public and private schools on forms of inappropriate behaviours s/no. items respondents decision public school private school mean std. mean std. 1 violent disruption of classes. 1.86 0.87 1.72 1.14 rejected 2 bullying of younger and weaker ones. 2.45 0.78 2.17 0.92 rejected 3 stealing of other pupils` property. 2.91 1.24 2.50 0.99 accepted 4 destruction of school property. 2.30 0.86 2.09 0.90 rejected 5 stealing of school property. 1.57 0.58 2.18 0.94 rejected 6 refusal to follow instructions. 2.29 0.79 2.35 1.08 rejected 7 loitering in "prohibited" areas. 2.04 0.95 2.27 1.13 rejected 8 violent disruption of classes. 2.48 0.65 2.00 1.13 rejected 9 withdrawal from interaction with others. 2.22 1.61 1.73 0.62 rejected 10 eating in the class. 2.91 0.90 2.56 0.85 accepted 11 chewing in the class. 2.52 0.97 2.50 0.99 accepted 12 talking out of turn. 2.78 0.95 2.64 0.98 accepted 13 making unnecessary noise. 3.00 1.13 2.87 1.03 accepted 14 immoral advances towards the opposite sex. 1.65 0.76 1.91 1.16 rejected 15 participation in examination malpractices. 1.96 0.95 2.45 1.23 rejected 16 cheating in classwork. 2.96 1.12 2.64 1.15 accepted 17 insulting teachers. 1.61 1.17 1.82 1.11 rejected 18 writing dirty things on walls. 2.73 1.29 2.59 1.47 accepted 19 fighting. 3.09 1.00 2.52 0.83 accepted 20 pitching mates during class. 2.73 1.29 2.59 1.47 accepted 21 truancy. 2.22 0.93 2.45 1.08 rejected 22 telling lies. 3.09 0.96 2.61 0.87 accepted 23 dodging classwork. 2.30 0.76 2.18 1.19 rejected 24 running in the corridor. 3.06 0.90 2.61 0.92 accepted the data in table 1 indicate that pupils in primary schools engage in stealing of other pupils` property, eating in class, chewing in the class, talking out of turn, making unnecessary noise, cheating in class work, writing dirty things on walls, fighting, pitching mates during classes, telling lies, and running in the corridor. it is also observed from the table that the forms of inappropriate behaviours in public primary schools are replicated in private primary schools with insignificant variations. table 2. responses on causes of inappropriate behaviours from public and private primary schools s/no. items respondents decision public school private school mean std. mean std. 1 lateness of teachers to class. 2.35 1.00 1.91 0.90 rejected 2 poor teaching. 2.30 0.98 2.27 1.14 rejected 3 child abuse at home. 3.17 0.87 2.91 1.24 accepted 4 autocratic style of parenting. 3.78 0.96 2.55 1.08 accepted indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 5 permissive style of parenting. 3.04 0.81 2.64 1.07 accepted 6 democratic style of parenting. 2.61 0.97 2.45 1.08 accepted 7 poor school administration. 2.70 1.20 2.56 1.07 accepted 8 overindulgence by parents. 2.96 0.69 2.45 1.08 accepted 9 disorganized or broken home. 3.52 0.58 3.09 0.90 accepted 10 use of corporal punishment. 2.30 0.91 2.45 0.89 rejected 11 disallowing caning. 2.83 0.87 2.50 0.78 accepted 12 influence of peers. 3.30 0.91 3.00 0.85 accepted 13 sibling rivalry at home. 3.00 0.78 2.82 0.83 accepted 14 poverty at home. 2.78 0.98 2.55 0.99 accepted 15 bad environment. 3.74 1.65 2.73 0.96 accepted 16 influence of films and movies. 3.65 0.48 3.00 0.85 accepted 17 lack of teachers` support. 2.70 0.86 2.91 0.79 accepted 18 presence of over aged pupils. 2.07 0.75 2.09 0.74 rejected 19 poor parental education. 2.83 0.87 2.56 0.88 accepted 20 high living standard/affluence. 2.74 0.74 2.55 1.30 accepted 21 no counselling in the school. 3.09 1.72 2.67 0.86 accepted 22 poor parental care. 3.17 0.76 2.82 0.72 accepted 23 corruption in the society. 3.26 0.90 2.77 0.86 accepted 24 inheritance from parents. 2.70 0.75 2.66 1.34 accepted 25 poor classroom management. 2.35 1.00 2.27 1.05 rejected the data in table 2 show that inappropriate behaviours in both public and private primary schools are caused by child abuse at home, autocratic style of parenting, permissive style of parenting, democratic style of parenting, poor school administration, overindulgence by parents, disorganized or broken home; disallowing caning; influence of peers; sibling rivalry at home; bad environment, influence of films and movies, lack of teachers` support, lack of counselling in primary schools, corruption in the society, and inheritance from parents. responses from the respondents are in support of the above claims as the main causes of inappropriate behaviours among pupils in public and private primary schools. table 3. possible solutions to inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools s/n items mean std decision 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 plan ahead mentoring get to know them show appropriate level of dominance exhibit a good level of cooperation give clear instructions show love and care consistency keep the pupils busy reward good behaviour counselling physical punishment 3.31 3.07 3.09 3.18 3.22 3.28 3.24 3.28 3.14 3.08 3.18 2.57 .772 .710 .713 .783 .727 .727 .794 .756 .744 .733 .747 1.04 accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted accepted the data in table 3 show the possible solutions to the inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools. from the above table, it could be observed that possible solutions to inappropriate behaviours include planning ahead, mentoring, getting to know them, showing appropriate level of dominance, exhibiting a good level of cooperation, giving clear instructions, showing love and care, consistency, keeping the pupils busy, rewarding good behaviour, counselling, and giving appropriate and commensurate physical punishment where need be. table 4. the t-test result on the forms of inappropriate behaviours in primary schools respondents number mean std df sig. decision public 77 31.13 4.66 146 0.71 significant private 71 30.86 4.22 john o. oparaduru & augustine c. ukwueze inappropriate behaviours in mainland public and private primary schools of lagos state, nigeria: need for counselling services 20 the information in table 4 shows the degree of freedom (146) with significance level (0.71). by this result, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the forms of inappropriate behaviours in public and private schools is hereby rejected. it is an indication that a significant level of differences exists in the forms of inappropriate behaviours that are exhibited in public and private primary schools in nigeria. table 5. the t-test result on the causes of inappropriate behaviours in public and private schools respondents number mean std df sig. decision public 77 37.44 4.26 146 -.571 not significant private 71 37.89 5.21 the data in table 5 indicate that the degree of freedom (146) of (-.571) significance level is less than 0.05 per cent level of significance. from this result, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the causes of inappropriate behaviours among public school pupils and private school pupils is hereby accepted. this implies that the causes of inappropriate behaviours could be seen from the same perspective both public and private primary schools in nigeria. discussion it is quite imperative to state here that inappropriate behaviours are fundamental issues in human society. the prevalence of maladaptive behaviours among young children these days get stronger as they grow into adulthood. this study discovered that at the primary school level, children do not get involved in violent disruption of classes, stealing of school property, loitering in ‘prohibited” areas, immoral advances to the opposite sex pupils. this assertion is in supported of the work of oparaduru (2017) which opined that maladaptive behaviours exist among secondary school students. this could be attributed to the unchecked inappropriate behaviours in primary schools which will also manifest in secondary schools. the study also revealed that primary school pupils engage in talking out of turns; making unnecessary noise in the class, cheating in class work; fighting, telling lies, and running along the corridors. this revelation is in consonant with the position of oparaduru (2017) which in addition to the above maladaptive behaviours, include others like disobedience, lateness, rudeness and cruelty as children grow older. furthermore, this study revealed that inappropriate behaviours in both public and private primary schools are caused by child abuse at home, permissive style of parenting, broken homes, poor peer influence, sibling rivalry at home, poverty, bad environment, influence of films and movies, high living standards/affluence, and poor parental care (table 2). without mincing words, it was autocratic parental styles, poor school administration, overindulgence by parents, disallowing caning, lack of teacher`s support, poor parental education, lack of counselling in primary schools, and inheritance from parents that are responsible for inappropriate behaviours in primary schools (both public and private). this revelation is in agreement with the findings of arfasa and weldmeskel (2020) which stressed the above variables as serious precursors of children`s inappropriate behaviours in primary schools. in addition to the above, it was found that despite some marginal variations, there is a significant difference in the forms of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools (table 3) and no significant difference in the causes of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools (table 4). there are possible solutions to the challenges of inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools. this could be achieved through concerted efforts to ensure that there is avoidance of child abuse, parents should discourage both autocratic and permissive styles of parenting, encouragement of good and favourable school administration, introduction of caning in schools, stable homes in families; healthy peer-grouping, good environment free from all forms of corruption, good parental care, and provision of counselling services in primary schools. it is quite clear that this consensus position about the forms, causes and possible solutions to inappropriate behaviours in public and private primary schools in line with the position of oparaduru (2017) which revealed that which maladaptive behaviours exist among young people. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 need for counselling services counselling is a “helping” relationship. it is the process of assisting individuals to cope with life situations (sakiz & saricali, 2019). it is a relationship of trust whereby the counsellor who is regarded as a specialist assists an individual to evaluate himself and his opportunities, make a feasible choice in the light of unique characteristics and opportunities, accept responsibility for his choice and initiate a course of action that is in line with his choice (obikoya & bright, 2022). at the primary school level, counselling focuses on identifying developmental needs of pupils; and identifying and modifying maladaptive behaviours among them. counselling provides opportunities for socialization skills, counselling of parents and teachers, prevention of inappropriate behaviours, and appropriate ways of managing adjustment challenges through individual and group counselling techniques; role playing and modelling. hence, the findings of this study identified several counselling needs of primary school children. most children in nigerian primary schools are prone to several forms of maladaptive behaviours that are caused by several factors. counsellors, therefore, should see this as a pressing responsibility and a call to professional task to save these tender children from being destroyed. this could be through referral services, interaction with parents and teachers during school “open day” school programme, orientation, and helping pupils to imbibe the acceptable attitudes, norms, values and acceptable behaviours necessary for adjustable growth and developments in society. this is necessary because primary school children are easily deceived through learning of any behaviours that they may come across since many of them are in their formative stage at this level. hence, counselling becomes paramount and very proactive in order to prevent them from being engrossed with behaviours that are maladaptive in nature. with the cooperation of the school heads, teachers and parents, the possibility of getting this achieved will be quite feasible. conclusion inappropriate behaviours are as old as man and have eaten deep into the fabrics of the larger society. this study revealed various forms of inappropriate behaviours in primary schools. some of the well pronounced ones include talking out of turns, making unnecessary noise in the class, cheating in class work, fighting, telling lies, and running in corridors. these inappropriate behaviours are mainly caused by child abuse at home, permissive style of parenting, broken homes, poor peer influence, sibling rivalry at home, poverty, bad environment, influence of films and movies, high living standards/affluence, and poor parental care. without mincing words, others include autocratic parental styles, poor school administration, overindulgence by parents, disallowing caning, lack of teacher`s support, poor parental education, lack of counselling in primary schools, and inheritance from parents. having identified some of these forms of inappropriate behaviours and their causes in public and private schools, it becomes imperative to state that one of the possible solutions is the provision of counselling services in primary schools with professionally trained counsellors. their services will proactively mitigate the already existing negative situations in their behavioural life styles. in furtherance to this, the following are the recommendations of this study: (1) guidance and counselling services should be provided in both public and private primary schools as proactive and reactionary measures towards inappropriate behaviours in primary schools. (2) there should be regular orientation and enlightenment programmes in primary schools for parents, teachers and care givers to sensitize them on the benefits of guidance and counselling services. (3) practicing teachers in primary schools should be encouraged to take up programmes in counselling, which will make them to serve as teachers and mentors to the pupils due to the scarcity of professional counsellors in nigeria. (4) government should provide cost waiver or scholarship awards for those going into guidance and counselling programme in various institutions of higher learning in order to get many people trained and readily available to handle issues associated with inappropriate behaviours in primary schools. references lawan, m., & hassan, u. (2022). assessment of religious tolerance among students of yusuf maitama sule university, kano: implications for counselling intervention. the counsellor, 45(1), 91-103. makinde, b. o., & oparaduru, j. o. 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(2017). effectiveness of cognitive restructuring and self-control on proneness to maladaptive behaviour among selected senior secondary school student in imo state, nigeria (a published phd thesis, university of lagos, lagos, nigeria). retrieved from https://ir.unilag.edu.ng oparaduru, j. o. (2021). deviant behaviours in schools: implication for counselling. international journal of educational research, 8(1), 1-7. otubo, f. a. & okanume-onah, a. v. (2022). counsellors’ perception on counselling strategies for effective citizenship in ebonyi state, nigeria. the counsellor, 45(1), 294-310. susan, w. (2018). what are the causes of bad behaviours in a child? retrieved from https://www.hellomotherhood.com/what-arethe-causes-of-bad-behavior-in-a-child 4449225.htm on 03/10/2021. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 a morpho-syntactic error analysis of university students’ argumentative writing hana dhiya ulhaq department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan email: hanadhiyaulhaq@gmail.com yayan suryana department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan email: ysuryana2017@uniku.ac.id nida amalia asikin department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan email: nida.amalia.asikin@uniku.ac.id fahrus zaman fadhly department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan email: fahrus.zaman.fadly@uniku.ac.id apa citation: ulhaq, h. d., suryana, y., asikin, n. a., & fadhly, f. z. (2022). a morpho-syntactic error analysis of university students’ argumentative writing. indonesian journal learning and instruction, 5(2), 23-28. http://10.25134/ijli.v5i2.6844 received: 19-06-2022 accepted: 21-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction writing activity is a process of obtaining, editing, selecting, organizing, and interpreting information, taking into account grammar and spelling (balta, 2018) university students face the same problem in implementing writing skills because of the lack of vocabulary mastery and language use in line with mukarromah, beratha, artawa, & budiarsa (2019) that low rank of indonesian university and international publications indicate that university students lack writing competency, alisha, safitri, & santoso (2019) agree university students had a significant problem with writing skill because of their poor vocabulary and language uses. writing a text still has complex issues caused by the learning process of writing a text. liunokas (2020) claims that argumentative text requires empirical research where the students need to collect the data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. furthermore, critical activity is implemented in writing argumentative text, since constructing arguments needs some stages starting from the basic idea as a planning stage and then being developed into a few points in paragraphs as drafting stages, editing, and final draft. abstract: the research aims are to identify the morpho-syntactic errors in argumentative text writing by university students at the english department of kuningan university and find out the difficulties that students face in writing argumentative texts. a descriptive qualitative is used through the instruments of document analysis and interviews. the subject of this research was 5 students of the english education department who were in the second semester. the result of the document analysis showed that the errors in using prepositions as the most frequent error at 6 errors (25.24%), errors in using verbs group at 4 errors (16.5%), the third place of errors are errors in using articles and errors in word order, and errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns for 3 errors (12.5%), errors in using tenses and errors in using adverbs for 2 errors (8.3%), the next is errors due to lack of concord for 1 error (4.16%) and the last is errors in using conditional sentences for 0 error. moreover, the difficulties that students face in writing argumentative texts based on interviews were: language features, grammar, vocabulary election, writing strategy, personality background, study background, and the environment including learning sources. the errors were found in writing argumentative texts because these factors affected the student's performance in writing argumentative texts. keywords: argumentative text; error analysis; morpho-syntax. hana dhiya ulhaq, yayan suryana, nida amalia asikin, fahrus zaman fadhly a morpho-syntactic error analysis of university students’ argumentative writing 24 the argument is another way to clarify and persuade the readers and it’s valid when it is supported by the evidence and the theory as stated by ario (2020), an argumentative can be as proof or a reason to make the statement, the research’s result, and the facts become more trusted and valid. students need to make sure the ideas and the theories are related in making the original written text with conclusion implications. besides critical activity, there are other aspects needed such as grammar rules and structure rules to make the text easier to understand, present the idea properly, and the valid arguments. research has shown the learners' first language, both the indonesian language or certainly considered one among indigenous languages certainly has one of a kind guidelines as compared to the english language (purinanda & sutrisno, 2022) however, indonesian students aren’t native english; they frequently face difficulties and commit errors in writing an argumentative text, to overcome these difficulties nadya & muthalib (2021) claimed that error analysis suggested fixing and improving the writing skill, error analysis also considered many educators to be an integral part of the teaching-learning process because it can be the best tool for describing and explaining errors (aqel, 2017) from the previous issues, teachers need to overcome and help the students’ errors in writing a text by making a proper lesson plan, teaching strategy, teaching method, and determining students’ level of english skills, teachers are suggested to use the error analysis. irmayana, pricilia, & siregar (2020) state error analysis is a study that covered the umbrella of linguistics, and the major focus of error analysis is to demonstrate that learning errors contribute to our understanding of the processes underlying second language acquisition (keshavarz, 2012) the unacceptable forms by the second or foreign language learners are being analyzed to find the substantiation of the process so that the learners’ level and the learners’ needs can be a guide to designing the proper materials and teaching techniques. error analysis is divided into two branches namely theoretical and applied, in theoretical focus on investigating the psycholinguistic or the nature, reveals the process and the factors that influence the process that is made by foreign language learners and second language learners, and in the applied focus on finding out the therapy for the learners. based on the background, it’s formulated are the following questions: (1) what kinds of morpho-syntactic errors are found in writing argumentative texts? (2) what difficulties did students face in writing argumentative texts? method this study used a descriptive qualitative method to describe the kind of errors and the students’ difficulties in writing argumentative text, in line with leavy (2017) that the descriptive qualitative method is concerned with describing individuals, groups, activities, events, or situations the common features of qualitative research are approaching what happens in the world instead of approaching it in special settings such as laboratories (flick, 2018) qualitative research is intended to understand, describe, and explain social phenomena through the experiences of individuals or groups, analyzing the communications based on observation, and document analysis. the data is collected by using two data instruments namely students’ documents analysis and interviews. students’ documents analysis intended to identify the kind of morphosyntactic errors which are found in writing argumentative texts and the interviews intended to find out the students’ difficulties in writing argumentative texts based on their experience. results and discussion the document was taken from the students by using some topics which were: parents can’t interrupt too much in the lives of their kids, technology development in the world, the usage of smartphones leads to less live communication, and the modern world depends on the internet heavily. eight of nine errors are found in this research, there are errors in using prepositions, errors in using verb groups, errors in using articles, incorrect word order, errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns, errors in using tenses, errors in using an adverb, and errors due to lack of concord. the errors are listed in the table below. table 1. the kinds of morpho-syntactic errors types of errors total errors percentage errors in using articles 3 12.5% errors in using prepositions 6 25.24% incorrect word order 3 12.5% errors due to lack of concord 1 4.16% errors in using conditional sentences errors in using tenses 2 8.3% errors in using an adverb 2 8.3% errors in using verb group 4 16.5% indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns 3 12.5% based on table 1 each student has eight of nine morpho-syntactic error types, errors in using prepositions are the most frequent error committed by 3 students for 6 errors or 25.24%, and the second position is errors in using verb group 4 errors or 16.5% committed by 2 students, the thirdplace of error is committed by 2 students for 3 errors or 12.5% which were errors in using articles, errors in word order, and errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns, the next is errors in using tenses and errors in using adverbs for 2 errors or 8.3% committed by 2 students, the fifth-place is 1 error or 4.16% committed by 1 student which was errors due to lack of concord, and the last is errors in using conditional sentences for none error. to find out the difficulties that students faced through the interview section there were five aspects; structure, content, grammar, vocabulary, personality background, and study background supported by ario (2020) that the object of academic writing has four principles namely formality, efficiency, modesty, and clarity and stavans, seroussi, & ehrlich (2019) determined that a high argumentative text quality is the advanced elaboration components of genrespecific. structure all of the students comprehend that argumentative text is about opinion and there is an agree-disagree statement, a few students remember the structure of the argumentative text, and most of the students claimed that they don’t even know the language features of the argumentative text. a few of them have similar steps in preparing for writing the argumentative text such as determining the topic, organizing the introduction, making the main body of text, conclusion, and revision but only one of them set the outline of the idea. content the preparation is done before they develop the content, the result shows that two students are clueless to develop the content into paragraphs because they write it spontaneously, while the others arranged the diction of the words before combining the words to become a sentence and then into a paragraph. besides ordering words, they claimed that they just develop the idea to become more detailed and classify them based on the related purposes. grammar the interview showed that all of the students recognized the definition and the function of grammar. the students stated that grammar has a big role in stating or claiming the meaning of a sentence including the situation, time, or place. in contrast with their statement, the students have a low implementation of grammar in writing practice proven by the finding of 24 errors. vocabulary the students had a variety of styles of vocabulary in writing practice. some of them used formal vocabulary, flexible vocabulary, and daily vocabulary. having an advanced vocabulary is also important because it makes the essay better by having a variety of vocabulary, references, and educative in helping the reader to improve their vocabulary skill, even though the important thing about an essay is easy to understand. personality background personality background and writing performance have closely intercourse, can be seen from the variety of approaches that students choose, how persistent they write their essays, and how well they can produce the essay, convinced by he (2019) that personality traits known as selfdiscipline, order, assertiveness, and activity influence the writing performance of efl college significantly. a detail person is part of selfdiscipline and based on the interview section a few of them are detail people, they will recheck their work twice or more before submitting it, one student chose to not recheck his work, and the rest are flexible because they depended on the deadline if they have the longer time they will recheck their work and vice versa. based on the interview it was found that a few of them are detail people, they will recheck their work twice or more before submitting it, one student choose to not recheck his work, and the rest are flexible depending on the deadline if they have the longer time they will recheck their work and vice versa. from the case that researcher gave, the students have a high willingness to improve themselves, especially in grammar, without any hesitation they are willing to explore and learn grammar from the basics. unfortunately, students agreed that writing an essay is hard, most of them were feeling the same thing, they struggle to determine the topic, continued by two others who got stuck in arranging the sentences and continuing the next part, and the hana dhiya ulhaq, yayan suryana, nida amalia asikin, fahrus zaman fadhly a morpho-syntactic error analysis of university students’ argumentative writing 26 least claimed that the more references won’t work it just make you more complicated. study background the students come from different circumstances, ages, experiences, and competencies that influence the production of an essay. most of the students have been learning english for 13 years and one of them has been learning english for 6 years, one of them claimed that he was not even interested in writing practice and the rest also claimed that they used english for writing when they have assignments. however, the researcher find out that there were opinions and suggestions from the students toward the english writing class, two of the student agreed that the class isn’t effective enough because sometimes the material is discussed often and it will be better to discuss it one by one. she also stated that there is no evaluation section which meant they need to know how far their progress is, moreover the book sources of this class were not easy to find. the least said that the class is helpful, especially in improving his willingness to read. the result of the document analysis and the interview reflected that the students of the 2nd semester in the english department of kuningan university committed errors in 8 of 9 kinds of morpho-syntactic errors, starting from errors in using prepositions is the most frequent error committed by 3 students for 6 errors or 25.24%, the second position is errors in using verb group 4 errors or 16.5% committed by 2 students, the thirdplace of error is committed by 2 students for 3 errors or 12.5% which were errors in using articles, errors in word order, and errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns, the next is errors in using tenses and errors in using adverbs for 2 errors or 8.3% committed by 2 students, the fifth-place is 1 error or 4.16% committed by 1 student which was errors due to lack of concord, and the last is errors in using conditional sentences for none error. the order of errors based on morphology started with errors in using prepositions for 25.24% and errors in using articles for 12.5%. meanwhile, the error based on syntactical started with errors in using verb group at 16.5%, continued by errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns and errors in word order at 12.5%, and followed by errors in using adverbs and errors in using tenses 8.3%, and the last is errors due to lack of concord for 4.16%. in conclusion, since syntax errors have more kind than morphology errors, they affected the students are committed syntax errors frequently. supported by alisha, safitri, & santoso (2019), university student had a significant problem with writing skill because of their poor vocabulary and language uses. the students had limited insight into formulating sentences grammatically, their poor vocabulary mastery confuses word selection, and also spelling has a role in writing problems. is proven by the conducted interview. all of the students comprehend that argumentative text is about opinions and ideas, a few students also remember the structure of the argumentative text but most of the students claimed that they don’t even know the language features of the argumentative text. the language feature of the argumentative text is abstract nouns, verb action, temporal connectives, capital auxiliaries, technical terms, reasoning connectives, and simple present tense proven by the document analysis that there are so many errors committed by the subject of this research in total 24 errors. the errors also happened because the students learn grammar theoretically instead of practicing more often, these things proven by the interview session that students comprehend the grammar definition and function, grammar has a big role in stating or claiming the meaning of a sentence but they were not aware how and when to use grammar in academic writing specifically argumentative text. mostly, the students struggled to determine the topic and arrange the sentences these things are supported by the finding that syntax errors are frequently committed by the participants starting from errors in using verb group for 16.5%, continued by errors in using relative clauses and relative pronouns and errors in word order at 12.5%, followed by errors in using adverbs and errors in using tenses at 8.3%, and the last is errors due to lack of concord for 4.16% the students come from different circumstances, ages, experiences, and competencies that influence the production of an essay. most of the students have been learning english for 13 years and one of them have been learning english for 6 years but it has no correlation with their writing skill, relating to the rare writing practice or differences in willingness, students committed errors in a variety total such as student 1 has 9 errors or 37.7%, student 2 for 5 errors or 21%, student 3 has 2 errors or 8.3%, student 4 and student 5 have 4 errors or 16.5%. the highest error is committed by student 1 and then followed by student 2, student 4, and student 5, and the lowest error is committed by student 3. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 27 conclusion morpho-syntactic error analysis is a tool that can be used by the teachers and the students to design the class or the material based on the real situation or students’ needs. morpho-syntactic error analysis also can be a tool to evaluate students' progress, especially in writing skills. writing skills is complicated and it’s hard to start the writing process according to the results of the interviews students struggled in to determine the topic and arrange the sentences so the difficulties that have been found in this research; are the incomplete material of language features, the less able to develop the content, grammatical, vocabulary election, writing strategy, personality background, study background, and the environment including learning sources are affected the students’ performances in writing skills. references alisha, f., safitri, n., & santoso, i. (2019). students' difficulties in writing efl. personal journal of english education, 2(1), 20-25. aqel, k. a. (2017). a longitudinal analysis study of writing errors made by efl. british journal of education, 5(13), 127-145. ario, f. (2020). struktur dan kebahasaan teks editorial bahasa indonesia. jakarta: direktorat sma, direktorat jenderal paud, dikdas, dan dikmen. balta, e. e. (2018). the relationships among writing skills, writing anxiety and metacognitive awareness. journal of education and learning, 7(3), 233-241. diambil kembali dari https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v7n3p233 flick, u. (2018). doing qualitative data collection charting the routes. in u. flick, the sage handbook of qualitative data collection (pp. 316). berlin: sage publications. he, t.-h. (2019). personality facets, writing strategy use, and writing performance of college students learning english as a foreign language. sage open, 9(3), 1-15. irmayana, a., pricilia, g. m., & siregar, l. a. (2020). an error analysis of students' speaking english performance (a study at the second semester of english department in institut pendidikan tapanuli selatan 2018/2019 academic year). joural liner, institut pendidikan tapanuli selatan, 3(1), 153-172. keshavarz, m. h. (2012). contrastive analysis & error analysis. tehran: rahnama press. leavy, p. (2017). research design: quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, and community-based participatory research approaches. new york: the guilford press. liunokas, y. (2020). assessing students’ ability in writing an argumentative essay at an indonesia senior high school. journal of language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature, 8(1), 284 – 296. mukarromah, i., beratha, s., artawa, k., & budiarsa, m. (2019). designing morphosyntax material for efl students: indonesian case. english language teaching, 12(6), 140-145. doi:10.5539/elt.v12n6p140 muthusamy, p., hassan, o., pillai, n. n., muniandy, r., kandsamy, s. s., & subramaniam, m. (2020). morpho-syntactic concept and contribution of tholkaappiyara: a view from a different prism. palarch's journal of archaeology of egypt/egyptology, 3064-3082. nadya, m., & muthalib, k. a. (2021). error analysis of the students’ english written descriptive text. english education journal, 2(12), 196-217. purinanda, h. f., & sutrisno, a. (2022). morphosyntax errors in undergraduate research articles. journal of english teaching and research, 7(1), 67-79. stavans, a., seroussi, b., & ehrlich, s. z. (2019). literacy-related abilities’ effects on argumentative text quality structure. journal of literacy research, 51(3), 315-335. doi:org/10.1177/1086296x19859515 hana dhiya ulhaq, yayan suryana, nida amalia asikin, fahrus zaman fadhly a morpho-syntactic error analysis of university students’ argumentative writing 28 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 1 analysis of students' critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets lilis lismaya department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan, indonesia e-mail: lilis.lismaya@uniku.ac.id agus priyanto department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan, indonesia e-mail: agus.prianto@uniku.ac.id anni samarotul khairiyah department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan, indonesia e-mail: annisamarotul@gmail.com apa citation: lismaya, l., priyanto, a., & khairiyah, a. s. (2021). analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(2), pp. 1-10. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v4i2.5198 received: 15-05-2020 accepted: 10-07-2021 published: 01-10-2021 introduction education has an important role in the learning process to make students understand all the material being taught. it is very important for educators to provide an understanding of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. according to syarif (2012), learning is a process of interaction between teachers and students, both direct interaction such as face-to-face activities or indirectly, by using various learning media. based on the differences in these interactions, learning activities can be carried out using various learning patterns. in general, indonesia uses face-to-face learning, where the teacher plays a direct role in delivering learning to students in the classroom. aji (2020) stated that at the beginning of 2020 the covid-19 pandemic occurred, this incident was a heartbreaking disaster for the entire population of the world experiencing difficulties in the economic crisis, health, and in the world of education. many countries have decided to close schools, colleges and universities, including in indonesia. the situation during this pandemic of course has an impact on the quality of learning, students and teachers who previously interacted directly in the classroom must now interact in a limited virtual space through online learning. teachers are required to be able to carry out learning well, so that learning objectives can be achieved (cahyani, abstract: this research is motivated by the lack of teaching materials that can facilitate students' critical thinking skills in learning during the covid-19 pandemic. critical thinking skills are very important competencies to be trained. this ability is indispensable in everyday life. the purpose of this study was to analyze critical thinking skills through online learning assisted by student worksheets. the method used in this research is quasi experiment with pre-test-post-test control group design. the population in this study were students of class xi mipa at sma negeri 1 cigugur for the academic year 2020/2021. the sample used in this study consisted of 50 students, consisting of 2 classes, namely the experimental class and the control class. the sampling technique used is purposive sampling. the instruments used are critical thinking questions and student response questionnaires to the implementation of online learning assisted by student worksheets. based on the results of analysis and calculations with hypothesis testing, the results obtained are h1 is accepted and ho is rejected, meaning that students' critical thinking skills increase in online learning assisted by student worksheets. with student worksheets, students can construct their own knowledge so that students' critical thinking skills can be facilitated and students can play an active role in learning activities, not just doing exercises. keywords: critical thinking; online learning; student worksheets (lks). lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, & anni samarotul khairiyah analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets 2 listiana, & larasati, 2020). according to delen & liew (2016), the development of online learning will greatly assist students in considering ways to use good selflearning strategies. online learning is one of the effective ways to be applied in the world of education, because most of its implementation is at the secondary and tertiary education levels that already understand the use of technology, making online learning will greatly affect its effectiveness, in emergency conditions such as the covid-19 pandemic. online learning in indonesia also has shortcomings in its implementation, according to pangondian, santosa, & nugroho (2019), the shortcomings in online learning are the lack of fast feedback during the learning process, then sometimes it makes some people feel uncomfortable using the new learning process, in remote areas it is very difficult reaching the existing internet, so that it is not optimal in the learning process. this deficiency is one of the impacts due to the lack of training in students' critical thinking skills. according to ariyana, pudjiastuti, & bestary (2018), critical thinking is a process where all knowledge and abilities are mobilized in solving problems that arise, making decisions, analysing all assumptions that arise and conducting investigations or research based on data and information that has been obtained so as to produce information or conclusions that desired. this critical thinking skill is very important to be mastered by students (pujianti, 2020), because through critical thinking, students will be trained to observe the situation, raise questions, formulate hypotheses, make observations, collect data, and provide conclusions. wahyuni (2015) stated that critical thinking also trains students to think logically and not to accept things easily. according to ita (2014), teachers need tools in learning so that learning can run smoothly. the teacher's efforts are to make it easier for students to understand and the concepts received by students are more durable, so the teacher can develop one of the teaching materials in the form of student worksheets (lks). the use of student worksheets (lks) is able to assist students in facilitating knowledge and training critical thinking, in line with the opinion of astuti, purwoko, & indaryanti (2017), suggesting that student worksheets can express students' ideas and opinions in criticizing the problems that exist in the lks so that with the lks process of training students' critical thinking will be more focused and comprehensive (suryawati, 2017). with lks, students can construct knowledge so that students can criticize lessons and can play an active role, not just doing exercises. meanwhile, according to arafah, priyono, & ridlo (2012), the use of lks is used as a reference to guide the implementation of learning activities and also as a learning tool. lks contains student activity sheets and practice questions, lks also contains a summary of the material, then lks is also a means to assist and facilitate teaching and learning activities. judging from the online learning process implemented during the current pandemic, there are not many teaching materials that can facilitate the practice of critical thinking skills (yamin, 2020), while critical thinking skills are very important competencies to be trained. this ability is indispensable in daily life. this is supported by research that has been carried out by khotimas (2017) which showed that based on the analysis of data obtained by students in the class who have mastered critical thinking skills after carrying out learning using worksheets. and after learning takes place post-test. this is evidenced by the average value of n-gain of 0.69. thus, to be able to train critical thinking skills to achieve well, worksheets are given as teaching materials in facilitating students to practice critical thinking skills, especially in online learning during the pandemic lks is stated to be effective in improving students' critical thinking as in islamia's research (2019) that lks shows an average score of 89%. this is because the lks developed has good quality as a tool in training critical thinking in learning. the novelty value in this study is that there are not many teaching materials that can facilitate students' critical thinking skills during online learning, the use of critical thinking worksheets contains contextual problems and the questions given refer to critical thinking indicators. so that this research can be useful for teachers to make it easier for teachers to train students' critical thinking skills, especially on immune system material in the online learning process during the current covid-19 pandemic. based on the background above, the researchers indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 3 are interested in conducting a research entitled "students' critical thinking skills through online learning assisted by student worksheets (lks)". method the research method used is quasy experiment with a pre-test-post-test control group design research design (sugiyono, 2017). the population in this study were students of class xi science at sma n 1 cigugur which consisted of 3 science classes with a total of 79 students. the sample was obtained using the purposive sampling technique, as many as two classes; class xi ipa 1 as the experimental class and xi ipa 2 as the control class. data collection techniques used in this study were through tests and non-tests. the instrument used in this research is in the form of standardized critical thinking essay test questions, which are given during pre-test and post-test. in addition, a questionnaire was also used to reveal student responses to lks-assisted online learning. table 1. student critical thinking skill test grid material aspect indicators no. of question immune system elementary clarification focusing the question 1,2 analyzing arguments 3,4 basic support considering the credibility of a source 5,6 inference making induction and considering induction results 7,8 advance clarification identify assumptions 9,10 strategy and tactic deciding an action 11,12 total 12 table 2. questionnaire sheet instrument grid no indicators item no 1. the effectiveness of the implementation of online learning on the material of the immune system 1,2 2 students' motivation and interest in learning towards online learning assisted by lks 3,4,5,8,9 3 the role of lks in critical thinking 10,12,13,14,15 total 15 results and discussion analysis of pre-test result to measure students' initial critical thinking skills, students are given a pretest in the form of 12 critical thinking skills description tests that have previously been tested by instruments and contain 6 indicators of critical thinking skills. the mean value of the pretest from the control class and the experimental class can be seen in the table below: table 3. pre-test mean class n mean ds experiment 25 36,67 5,61 control 25 37,78 5,84 based on the table of pre-test scores for the two classes, namely control and experiment, the results were not much different. based on the results of the pre-test given to the experimental class and the control class, the results showed that it did not show a significant difference, meaning that students had the same initial ability, the two sample classes had relatively the same critical thinking skills. the mean overall pre-test scores of the experimental class and control class students are not much different as shown in the table, namely 36.67 in the experimental class and 37.78 in the control class. hypothesis test (t test) homogeneity of variance that was carried out previously, hypothesis testing was carried out using the t-test, because the data group was homogeneous. the results of the t-test on the pretest data the results of the t-test on the pre-test data of the experimental class and control class are presented in the table: lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, & anni samarotul khairiyah analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets 4 table 4. the result of pretest data hypothesis test class tcount db ttable conclusion experiment and control -0,69 48 2,01 nothing is better because the variance of the data is homogeneous, it is continued to test the hypothesis, namely the t-test and the t-value is -0.69 and t-table is 2.01. because the value of t-count < t-table, -0.69 which is < 2.01 then h0 is accepted and h1 is rejected, which means that the two sample groups, both the experimental class and the control class, have no significant or equivalent initial differences in critical thinking abilities. analysis of posttest results the mean of posttest from the control class and the experimental class can be seen in table 5. table 5. posttest mean score class n mean ds experiment 25 56,67 7,64 control 25 42,78 6,36 based on the table, the experimental class has a higher mean post-test value than the control class. the results of the post-test calculation of critical thinking skills in the control class and the experimental class. based on the table, the mean value of the post-test obtained by the experimental class is 56.67 while the mean value of the control class is only 42.78. this shows that online learning assisted by worksheets has a positive effect on students' critical thinking skills. in other words, students' critical thinking skills can increase because it is facilitated by online learning assisted by student worksheets. furthermore, the post-test results of the two classes were used to test the hypothesis. based on the homogeneity of variance test that was carried out previously, hypothesis testing was carried out using the t-test, because the data group was homogeneous. the results of the t-test on the post-test data of the experimental class and control class are presented in table 6. table 6. post-test data hypothesis test results class tcount db ttable conclusion experiment and control 5,45 48 2,01 h0 is rejected, h1 is accepted from the data above, it can be seen that the mean percentage of critical thinking indicators achievement after learning in the control class and experimental class results in a t-count of 5.45 and a t-table of 2.01. because the value of t-count > ttable is 5.45 > 2.01, then h1 is accepted and h0 is rejected, meaning that there is an increase in students' critical thinking skills in online learning assisted by critical thinking worksheets. the mean learning process in the achievement of critical thinking indicators in the experimental class is greater than the control class, so when it is compared with the results of the pre-test, the experimental class and control class have increased the achievement of the critical thinking ability indicator. the n-gain calculation is carried out to analyze the magnitude of the increase in students' critical thinking skills, from the results of the analysis by comparing the results of the pretest and posttest experimental class and control class. the results of the calculation of the mean n-gain can be seen in table 7: table 7. comparison of the mean value of the experimental class and the control class class mean score criteria pretest posttest n-gain experiment 36 56 0,31 medium control 37 42 0,08 low the results of the n-gain analysis obtained by the experimental class and control class in table 7 show that the experimental class has improved better when compared to the control class, with the mean of n-gain value in the experimental class 0.31 including in the medium category and for the control class 0.08 is included in the low category. this shows that there is a difference in the improvement of students' critical thinking skills between the experimental class and the control indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 5 class. the percentage value of each critical thinking indicator for the experimental class and the control class the critical thinking ability description test sheet is made based on critical thinking ability indicators which consist of (1) focusing questions, (2) analysing arguments, (3) considering the credibility of a source, (4) making inductions and considering the results of induction, (5) identifying assumptions (6) deciding an action (ennis, 1996). critical thinking indicators are applied to the description test questions which was given to students at the pre-test and post-tests. the results of the recapitulation of the value of each critical thinking indicator are shown in figure 1. figure 1. the percentage value of each critical thinking indicator based on figure 1, it shows that the pretest results in the experimental class on indicator 1 are 39%, indicator 2 is 41%, indicator 3 is 31%, indicator 4 is 33%, indicator 5 is 34%, indicator 6 is 41%. as for the control class, the pretest scores on indicator 1 are 41%, indicator 2 is 37%, indicator 3 is 35%, indicator 4 is 38%, indicator 5 is 35%, and indicator 6 is 39%. after being given a posttest, each indicator of critical thinking increased, in the experimental class, the posttest score was 61% for indicator 1, 61% for indicator 2, 53% for indicator 3, 49% for indicator 4, 57% for indicator 5, and 59% for indicator 6. while the percentage results in the control class posttest are 49% for indicator 1, 43% for indicator 2, 39% for indicator 3, 40% for indicator 4, 41% for indicator 5, and 46% for indicator 6. in both the experimental class and the control class, the indicator that experienced the highest pattern of improvement was indicator 1, namely the indicator focusing on questions, the mean result was that the experimental class was 61% and the control class was 49% this is due to the learning process in the class. experiments with the interaction of the question and answer process that take place in the learning process, this makes students more trained in terms of critical thinking skills, especially in focusing questions. so we can conclude that the increase in the experimental class is higher than the control class because the experimental class is facilitated by critical thinking worksheets as teaching materials. data analysis of questionnaire result the questionnaire sheet instrument was used to reveal student responses to online learning assisted by critical thinking worksheets carried out in the experimental class; class xi ipa 1. the questionnaire sheet for each indicator consisted of fifteen statements from the three indicators of the student response questionnaire. the percentage of the questionnaire for each statement has a different response. the results of the calculation of the questionnaire sheet obtained a percentage that lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, & anni samarotul khairiyah analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets 6 shows the response of the experimental class during the learning process. the results of the calculation of the questionnaire sheet are adjusted to the score of each questionnaire item that is used to reveal student responses to online learning using critical thinking worksheets that take place in the experimental class. the following is a diagram of the questionnaire percentage to reveal student responses to the implementation of online learning assisted by critical thinking worksheets. figure 2. questionnaire average for each indicator students' responses to the learning process using lks critical thinking in the experimental class showed that the highest indicator is the indicator of student motivation and interest in learning which is 85%, this is evidenced at the time of learning assisted by lks that students feel that using this lks can help in training critical thinking skills, especially during online learning during the pandemic. then the second highest indicator on the indicator of the role of lks on critical thinking obtained results of 82%, this is proven when learning using lks, students find it easier to formulate a question, analyze arguments, consider results from a source based on literature, make conclusions, can identify assumptions in circulation, and can decide what action to choose. then the results of the third indicator on the online learning process indicator obtained results of 79% positive student responses, this is because at the time of learning, the media used was using zoom, not just whatsapp groups, so the interaction process between teachers and students was more visible than when learning, students find it easier to understand the material presented. of the three indicators, they gave a high positive response to the implementation of lks-assisted online learning towards students' critical thinking on immune system material. based on the results of the analysis, the posttest value of the experimental class is higher than the posttest value of the control class, this is because the worksheets given are different between the control class and the experimental class. the worksheets given for the experimental class have facilitated critical thinking skills, where the worksheets that have been presented have several special characteristics, including the problems are more contextual, making students easier in learning at school because it can be implemented in daily life, can be easily understood by students, and contextual problems will make students have high curiosity or curiosity. this is in line with the opinion of contextual learning strategies are needed in learning biology, because biology is related to nature. so it takes direct experience through experimentation through concepts and relate them to the real world. therefore, the use of contextual-based worksheets is expected to improve student learning outcomes, especially on the concept of the human immune system (suryani, 2016). then contextual problems will make students want to continue to analyze them, because analyzing is the basis of critical thinking as lismaya (2017) mentioned that critical thinking is the result of problem solving activities or students are accustomed to problem-based learning. problem-based learning is not only listening, taking notes, and memorizing material, but through problem-based learning students actively think, analyze, communicate, search and process data, which ultimately students conclude. in addition, another characteristic of lks is that it contains discourse taken from articles containing up-to-date content so that students have scientific content that can be accounted for. for example, the problem presented is about covid-19 so that students will be more interested in knowing the relationship between the covid-19 virus and the immune material being studied, and the problem questions given refer to critical thinking indicators, namely in the cognitive realm c4 to c6. according to anderson & krathwol (2010), there are 2 levels of student thinking, namely low order thinking (c1-c3) and high order thinking (c4-c6). so that the cognitive level of hots which indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 includes the ability to analyze, evaluate, and create is an ability that must be developed by students so that they can think at higher levels or think critically (wahyuni, 2015), so that the worksheets given to the experimental class make students more facilitated in terms of critical thinking skills. while in the control class the form of the lks given is not contextual in nature, the questions given have a low cognitive domain, namely in ci and c2 only. this causes students to not be able to bring up their critical thinking. based on the results of the analysis of critical thinking skills on each indicator obtained, the first indicator is to focus on questions. the results of the analysis on this indicator show an increase in the mean pretest and posttest scores of 38.6 and 61.3. meanwhile, in the control class, the mean pre-test and post-test scores were 41.3 and 48.6 where the indicator of focusing questions is the highest increase in the experimental class because during the online learning process between teachers and students interact with each other to ask questions, students are trained in asking questions about learning and during discussions discussing lks so students can focus questions better. then the lks questions given refer to critical thinking indicators. this is in accordance with hayati, loka, & anwar 's research (2019), that the ability to focus questions affects a person to be able to identify and formulate questions and criteria to consider possible answers. the ability to focus questions is the ability of students to find / formulate problems from a given case or phenomenon. this makes students read the problem statement and find known facts from a problem to help solve the problem. the second indicator is analyzing arguments, the results of the analysis show an increase in the average pretest and posttest scores of 41.3 and 60.6. while in the control class, the mean of pretest and post-test scores were 37.3 and 42.6. in the problems given to the experimental class, the worksheet contains aspects of analyzing arguments related to a phenomenon/information encountered. students relate to the analysis of their arguments scientifically in order to find out whether the arguments are proven or not by their opinion on the issue. in accordance with hayati et al.'s research (2019) analyzing arguments are directly related to the ability to analyze a person, someone who is able to give the right reasons in answering a question can be ascertained to have high analytical skills. analyzing problems directly can make students able to solve problems with more critical thinking. the third indicator is the ability to consider credibility, based on the results of the analysis, it shows an increase in the mean of pre-test and posttest scores of 32.0 and 53.3. meanwhile in the control class, the mean of pre-test and post-test scores were 35.3 and 38.6. its activities in considering the suitability of the sources used are to find information/data, students are directed to find the right information according to the problems presented. students can find and collect data that has been obtained and then put forward in solving the problems being faced so that they can develop their critical thinking skills. experimental class students can find the right source according to the problem. in accordance with the research of pujianti (2020) that basic abilities can increase significantly if a person is accustomed to finding information independently and choosing the right information to solve a problem. students will make their own decisions about what direction to take in an investigation, what information to collect, and how to analyze and evaluate that information. the fourth indicator is making and assessing conclusions, namely making inductions and considering the results of induction. the results of the analysis showed an increase in the mean value of the pretest and posttest that was equal to 32.6 and 48.6. meanwhile, in the control class, the average pre-test and post-test scores were 38.0 and 40.1. drawing conclusions based on facts is the purpose of inducing indicators and considering the results of this induction. when the data collection process has been collected, then the data processing process is carried out. in the problems that have been presented students were asked to make appropriate conclusions according to the problem. according to nikmaturrohmah (2016), the ability to conclude is one aspect of critical thinking ability. the ability to conclude is the activity of the human mind based on the understanding or knowledge (truth), it has to achieve another new understanding or knowledge (truth). the fifth indicator is identifying assumptions, the results of the analysis show an increase in the mean of pretest and posttest scores of 34.0 and 57.3. while in the control class, the mean of pretest and post-test scores were 35.3 and 40.6. the lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, & anni samarotul khairiyah analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets 8 problems presented include students being able to identify the assumptions in question and providing clarity on what they have done, being able to communicate the results of their analysis with developing assumptions about responses to developing assumptions, students must look for appropriate and accurate information. statement in accordance with the information that has been obtained. according to hayati et al. (2019), students are said to be able to keep the situation in response to questions from straying far from the topic being asked. so they talk only in the realm of material or concepts related to questions. students are said to have the ability to conclude and identify assumptions if in answering questions students can provide answers with the right reasons for the problems presented both in general and specifically (ernest in hayati et al., 2019). the sixth indicator is deciding an action, the results of the analysis show an increase in the mean of pretest and posttest scores of 41.33 and 58.66. while in the control class, the mean of pre-test and post-test scores were 39.3 and 46.0. the indicator decides an action, namely the problem presented is to decide an action on the problem presented. students are asked to decide what action to take when faced with a problem. in this case students will be more active in finding the information needed, in deciding an appropriate action. according to jf (2017), measuring the ability to decide students' actions on a problem that is around them by providing logical and contextual reasons (contextual teaching and learning) will contribute to the development of critical thinking skills. as for the results of the questionnaire analysis of student responses to online learning assisted by lks, the results showed that there was student interest in the learning process from the three calculated indicators. the percentage of the three indicators has a mean of 82%. where both when the online learning process takes place students can better understand the material being taught, then the use of the lks provided can motivate students to practice critical thinking skills, the use of lks also makes it easier to understand because the lks itself is in a contextual form where the problems intersect in daily life (syarif, 2012). this means that the online learning process assisted by the lks that has been carried out can help students understand the material better and develop their critical thinking skills. this is in line with the research of suryawati (2017) which stated that student responses to lks are in good and quite good categories. this shows that the developed worksheets have facilitated students in scientific work. students' critical thinking abilities were analyzed through critical thinking assessment sheets. the use of teaching materials in the form of lks based on critical thinking really helps students to continue to be trained in their critical thinking skills. according to nurichah (2012), student activity sheets based on critical thinking skills have components that train students in interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, concluding, and explaining. conclusion based on the research that has been done, it can be concluded that there is an effect of applying online learning assisted by worksheets on students' critical thinking skills in class xi immune system material. this can be seen from the results of the t-test hypothesis stating that h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted because the results of t-count > t-table are 5.45 > 2.01, which means that there is an influence from the implementation of online learning assisted by lks on students' critical thinking skills. the highest indicator is generated on the indicator focusing the question. the results of n-gain in improving critical thinking skills there are differences between the experimental class and the control class, namely the average n-gain result in the experimental class is 0.31 with moderate criteria, and the mean of n-gain in the control class is 0.8 with low criteria, it can be interpreted that there is an increase in the critical thinking ability of class xi ipa 1 students, on the material of the immune system. based on the results of the questionnaire or student responses to the online learning process assisted by lks, the results were 82%. students gave a positive response to the application of online learning assisted by worksheets and facilitated critical thinking skills. references anderson, l. w., & krathwohl, d. r. 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(2020). pembangunan pendidikan merdeka belajar (telaah metode pembelajaran). jurnal ilmiah mandala education, 6(1), 37-46. lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, & anni samarotul khairiyah analysis of students’ critical thinking skill through online learning assisted by student worksheets 10 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students efi lutfiyah arifin madrasah aliyah negeri (man) 2 kuningan e-mail: efilutfiyaharifin@gmail.com apa citation: arifin, e. l. (2021). application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp. 29-40. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4342 received: 09-01-2020 accepted: 23-02-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction as we know that language is a means of communication in social life. as stated by ayuningtias, wulandari, and yana (2019) that english as a tool of communication has been playing an important part in acquiring cultural, scientific, and technical knowledge, for collecting worldwide information and carrying out international exchange and cooperation. through language, one can communicate and interact with others, as chaer and agustin (1995) said that the main function of language is as a means of communication. this is in line with soeparno (1993) which stated that the general function of language is as a means of social communication. another opinion expressed by muklas (2017), that in speaking process, people try to communicate with each other and use their language to send their message to the second person. in the era of globalization as in today, competition in the world of work is getting tighter. one of them requires us, especially students, to have language skills, specifically having the ability to speak english well and fluently. speaking can be interpreted as the ability to express language sounds to express or convey thoughts, ideas, or feelings orally (brown & g yule, 1983). another opinion expressed by tarigan (1985) that speaking is the ability to pronounce articulated sounds or words to express, express, and convey thoughts, ideas, and feelings. but in reality, there are still many students of man 2 kuningan who find it difficult to speak english, because learning is still dominated by classes that focus on teachers as the main knowledge, so that students are less active in learning activities, and tend not to be so interested in english lessons, especially in speaking learning. similarly, a finding in irmawati (2016) also showed that 32 learners argued about the role of teacher which is too dominated in in classroom, the teacher’s speaking time is too much, that makes learners to be a listener rather than getting engaged in speaking classroom activity. furthermore, during the field experience practice activities, ica, mardian, & oktavia (2017) found that one of several factors behind the low level of speaking is the lack of speaking practice applied in learning. whereas according to experts, speaking ability is an ability related to oral communication (gage and berliner, 1984). in connection with this, hafi (2000) abstract: in globalization era, the competition in working world is getting tougher which demands that students speak english fluency. but in reality, there are still many students in man 2 kuningan who find it difficult because learning is still teacher-centred so that students are less active in learning. based on these problems, the researcher formulated the formulation of the problem; how is the role playing techniques in teaching speaking narrative text for xii ipa-2 class pf man 2 kuningan? the purpose is to determine the use of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of xii ipa 2 class. this research method uses 3-cycle car procedure including planning, action, observation, and reflection. the subjects studied are 29 students of xii ipa 2, the research location is in man 2 kuningan. data collection techniques are by using observation sheets and questionnaire sheets. research achievement targets: research will be declared successful if at least 70% of the number of students obtain a kkm score (75) in learning to speak on narative text material. while the indicators of student perception and impression are shown when students answer the questionnaire statement with a percentage of at least 70% 79%. the results can be concluded that role playing method is able to improve speaking skills on narative text. keywords: speaking; ability; narrative; learning; role playing mailto:efilutfiyaharifin@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4342 efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 30 revealed that the ability to speak as an oral productive ability that demands a lot of things that must be mastered by students, including mastery of aspects of language and non-linguistic. this is in line with oflaz (2019), speaking activity requires students to use vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and fluency. thus, the learning conditions speak in narrative text material in xii ipa-2 class of man 2 kuningan, which amounts to 29 people have simple word pronunciation problems such as “use”, “between”, and “require”. students often use inappropriate and limited vocabulary in conversation. this is in line with khan, radzuan, shahbaz, & mustafa (2018, p.408), “similarly, learning any foreign language is fundamentally associated with vocabulary knowledge, the shortage of vocabulary items obstructs the process of second language learning.” they are less fluent in speaking because many are disturbed by language problems so the average value achieved has not reached the standard of completed individually 75 and classical completedness is only 44.82%. from the problems and data presented above, there needs to be suitable and fun techniques in speaking learning that actively engage students, providing relevant and contextual learning and learning experiences in life, so as to develop a rich and strong mental. therefore, researchers apply the technique of "role playing" in the learning of narrative text speaking. role-playing is powerful language teaching methods that involve all of the students in the learning process. according to santoso (2011), role playing model is a way of mastering the learning materials through the development of imagination and dreaming of students in which there are rules, objectives, and elements of pleasure in conducting the teaching and learning process. hadfield in santoso (2011) reinforced that role playing is a kind of motion game in which there are goals, rules, and at the same time involves the element of pleasure. in additional, krisdiana, irawati, kadarisman (2018) believed that role play is a strategy which requires students to play a role which is appropriate to the given situation and enables students to ‘become’ anyone or imagine in a specific situation, which leaners may improvise dialogue or creating their own utterances and scenario like in a real world. furthermore, jakob (2018) believed that role play is different from other methods in dialogue, in role play, the students are given topics or situations to choose, otherwise they may choose a particular topics or situations by themselves. they are free to improvise the particular topic or situation and to improvise their performance by using useful expressions given by the teacher. there are many reasons in supporting of the use of role playing in english learning. it can provide motivation because it is enjoyable and entertaining for the students. this is in line with oroujlou & vahedi (2016), stating that motivation plays a significant role in the process of learning a language. it integrates language skills in a natural way and helps students who have never experienced such encouragement before. the use of role playing provides great opportunities for students to communicate with each other. furthermore, fitriani, apriliaswati, & wardah (2015, p.2) claimed “in fact, achieving fluency in speaking is not easy. students are not only demanded to use grammar correctly or having good pronunciation and vocabulary, they are also demanded to know the knowledge of how to use the language.” moreover, role playing also encourages students to communicate and express themselves bravely. role-play is a study in which students act specific roles through saying and doing. thus, without speaking skills students cannot convey their messages so role playing has been identified as an extremely effective methodology in language teaching. moreover, shen and suwanthep’s previous study (2011) found that role-play by practicing with other students gave positive effects on improving students’ speaking performance. this has been proven in aliakbari and jamalvandi study (2010) which showed that role play itself was practically effective in helping students to improve their speaking skill. docmo (2011) presented some advantages of role play such as: 1) energizing activity/fun to do, 2) allowing participants to contribute actively (even the reserved ones), 3) it is time-efficient, 4) experimental learning is more powerful than instructions, 5) delivering complex concepts in a simple manner, 6) requiring less preparation for the teacher/facilitator (unless you want to print out role descriptors). troubleshooting by providing one technique that is suitable and fun in speaking learning, it can quicken the ability to indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 speak to learners. role playing technique is one of the suitable and fun techniques in speaking learning because students are directly involved in learning. research objectives the expected purpose of this study is to find out the response of students to role playing techniques in narrative text speaking learning and to find out if role playing techniques can improve the speaking ability of students in grade xii ipa-2 man 2 kuningan. benefits of research results growing skills in learners according to basic competencies, as input for teachers in improving the quality of education in the classroom, and as input for students to further improve their language skills method research settings the subjects in this class action study are students of xii ipa-2 class in man 2 kuningan, with a total of 29 students: 7 male and 22 female learners. the research is conducted at man 2 kuningan, which is located at siliwangi street no. 108 ciawigebang kuningan. with several considerations and reasons, the researcher takes 3 months to conduct the research. research procedure this research uses class action research procedure with kurt lewin model. there are four components in the writing of ptk according to kurt lewin, namely: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting (lewin, 1990). the relationship of the four components is as one cycle. stages of research stages of this research devided into four stages, namely action planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. stages of action planning. creation of a learning design containing rpp that has been approved by the leadership, and teaching. as a benchmark of success for learners, students can speak english with proper pronouncation, be active, and fluent. stages of acting. to facilitate the implementation of research actions, the researchers develop learning scenarios with narrative text speaking material. on this occasion, students tell stories that they find / create in groups by role playing. observing. making research instruments and questionnaires made by teachers and collection of research data from the beginning of the first cycle until the third cycle. reflecting. at this stage, researchers perform several processes, including discussion with fellow teachers of english language to get useful input about the implementation of role playing in learning speaking narrative text. data collection techniques data collection techniques are carried out with questionnaire techniques and observation of learners in speaking learning in xii ipa-2 class which lasts for 2 months. research data analysis in this class action study, researchers take qualitative data that describes students’ expression, students' attitude to learning techniques applied using questionnaire data, and students’ learning activities using observation data. observation data analysis observation data describes the atmosphere and learning activities of students during the learning process. the results of these observations are analyzed using percentage (%), namely the number of atmosphere frequencies and activities of students divided by all the values of the number of frequencies, multiplied by 100%. analysis of poll data data questionnaire describes the perception and impression of students during the learning process. data from the spread of the questionnaire is analyzed by percentage, i.e. the number of scores obtained divided by the maximum number of scores, multiplied by 100%. after the percentage of perception questionnaires and learning impressions obtained, then determine the category of student questionnaires with conversion scores as follows: 80% 100% = excellent 70% 79% = good 60% 69% = enough ≤ 59% = less if the student's overall score is in the interval category above, then the results is interpreted according to the criteria of each score. efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 32 success indicators indicators of success in this study, namely: (1) research is declared successful if at least 70% of the number of students obtain a kkm score (75) in learning to speak on narative text material. (2) indicators of student perception and impression are shown when students answer the questionnaire statement with a percentage of at least 70% 79%. results and discussion results initial data description based on the results of initial observations conducted by researchers before conducting the research obtained data on the learning conditions of students in grade xii ipa-2 man 2 kuningan which amounted to 29 people as follows: table 1. observation results in initial data n o name of leaners in observed score aspect value pron un ciatio n score x weight (30%) vocabulary score x weight (25%) fluency score x weight (45%) 1 group 1 fatimatuh zahra 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 encas 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 wildan a 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 ade afif 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 2 group 2 0 0 0 0 agisk nur fadila 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 eka yulianti 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 ida farida 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 nur trismaliah 4 24 4 20 3 27 71 3 group 3 0 0 0 0 dadang r 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 riyan a 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 aad triono h 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 m. mukhlisin 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 4 group 4 0 0 0 0 aprilahati 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 ijah siti hodijah 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 ita rosita dewi 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ovi lutviyani 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 5 group 5 0 0 0 0 elin suhelin 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 hanifah ria c 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 indriani 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 tia setiawaty w 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 6 group 6 0 0 0 0 dianah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 seli salimah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 tita siti akromah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 tuti hernawati 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 7 group 7 0 0 0 0 imam muslim 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 dewi amanah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 aan amanah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 nita m.h 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 nia kurnia 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 total 108 648 101 505 92 828 1981 precentage/average 22% 17% 28% 68 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 based on the table above, the number of students who met the minimum completed criteria (kkm) is as many as 13 students, while those who have not met the standard are 16 students. the average value achieved has not reached the standard of completed individually 75 or just reached 68% and classical completedness is only 44.82%. cycle 1 in the first cycle, researchers took the subject matter of narrative text speaking about the story. the first step taken by the researchers was to give an aperception on how to convey the story in narrative text using role playing techniques, generic structure well, after which the teacher invited the group that had been appointed to present the story by role playing, beginning with the reading of the narrative of the story and accompanied by a question and answer about the story that had been played in english. researchers and collaborators did observations during the role playing. aspects observed during the learning process in the first cycle were how to pronounce the english vocabulary, vocabulary used, and smooth speech. in addition, observations were done on teacher activities in learning activity. the following are the results of observations on the learning process in the first cycle: table 2. observation results in cycle i no name of leaners in observed score aspect val ue pronun ciation score x weight (30%) vocab ulary score x weight (25%) fluency score x weight (45%) 1 group 1 fatimatuh zahra 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 encas 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 wildan a 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 ade afif 4 24 3 15 2 18 57 2 group 2 0 0 0 0 agisk nur fadila 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 eka yulianti 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ida farida 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 nur trismaliah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 3 group 3 0 0 0 0 dadang r 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 riyan a 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 aad triono h 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 m. mukhlisin 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 4 group 4 0 0 0 0 aprilahati 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 ijah siti hodijah 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 ita rosita dewi 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ovi lutviyani 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 5 group 5 0 0 0 0 elin suhelin 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 hanifah ria c 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 indriani 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 tia setiawaty w 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 6 group 6 0 0 0 0 dianah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 seli salimah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 tita siti akromah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 tuti hernawati 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 7 group 7 0 0 0 0 efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 34 imam muslim 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 dewi amanah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 aan amanah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 nita m.h 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 nia kurnia 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 total 113 678 103 515 93 837 2030 precentage/average 23% 18% 29% 70 based on the table, the learners’ ability to speak on narrative text material through role playing techniques cycle i has increased compared to the initial data acquisition of narrative text speaking learning before role playing method was applied. but it still needs to be improved because it has not reached the expected target, which is 70% of the number of students achieving the minimum completed kkm 75. there are still many learners in the pronunciation of simple vocabulary such as “use”, “between”, “require” is still not appropriate, only reached 23%, the activeness of new speech reaches 18%, and the smoothness in speaking has only reached 29% so researchers and collaborators consider it necessary to continue research into cycle ii. as a follow-up, the researchers did reflections as follows: (1) give an example of how to pronounce certain words that are considered to be mispronounced repeatedly, so it is expected that there is an increase in the second cycle, then advise the learner to watch english drama which it has a native speaker accent in speaking. (2) reexplaining the proper use of vocabulary in roleplaying, and motivating learners to continue enriching vocabulary. (3) motivate learners to continue to practice speaking english. cycle ii in the second cycle researchers gave an aperception on how to convey the story in narrative text using role playing techniques with more detail referring to deficiencies in cycle i. researchers and collaborators made observations during the role playing. the aspects observed during the learning process in cycle ii are the same as in cycle i, namely: pronunciation of words, vocabulary, and fluency speaking english. from the observation in cycle ii, the speaking ability of learners has increased compared to the gain in the first cycle, this can be seen in the assessment criteria speaking as follows: (1) the result of analysis of value comparison between the acquisition of values in the first cycle and the acquisition of values in cycle ii (second) there were 8 students (43.75%) in cycle 1 which increased to be 20 students (56.25%) in cycle 2 whose value is fixed. this means that the rele playing method can improve the speaking skills of narative text material. (2) the learning process looks more enthusiastic and vibrant. (3) the results of student grades can be proven that in the second cycle the average speaking value of narative text material reached 72.62. that means it is close to the minimum completed value (kkm) that has been set at 75. (4) students who have achieved a top grade (obtaining a score of 75 and above) there are 18 students or a percentage of classical completedness of 62.06%, and the remaining students (28.12%) still declared incomplete. the following is a table of observation data on cycle ii: table 3. observation results in cycle ii n o name of leaners in observed score aspect valu e pronunc iation score x weight (30%) vocabulary score x weight (25%) fluency score x weight (45%) 1 group 1 fatimatuh zahra 4 24 5 25 4 36 85 encas 3 18 3 15 2 18 51 wildan a 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 ade afif 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 2 group 2 0 0 0 0 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 agisk nur fadila 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 eka yulianti 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ida farida 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 nur trismaliah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 3 group 3 0 0 0 0 dadang r 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 riyan a 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 aad triono h 4 24 3 15 4 36 75 m. mukhlisin 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 4 group 4 0 0 0 0 aprilahati 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 ijah siti hodijah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 ita rosita dewi 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ovi lutviyani 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 5 group 5 0 0 0 0 elin suhelin 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 hanifah ria c 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 indriani 4 24 3 15 4 36 75 tia setiawaty w 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 6 group 6 0 0 0 0 dianah 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 seli salimah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 tita siti akromah 4 24 4 20 3 27 71 tuti hernawati 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 7 group 7 0 0 0 0 imam muslim 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 dewi amanah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 aan amanah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 nita m.h 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 nia kurnia 3 18 3 15 3 27 60 total 118 609 105 525 97 873 2106 precentage/average 24% 19% 30% 73 based on the table above, the ability to speak learners in narrative text material through role playing techniques cycle ii has increased compared to the acquisition of learning data of speaking narrative text cycle 1 but it still needs to be improved because it still has not reached the expected target, namely; there are still learners in vocabulary pronunciation needed to be improved, only reached 24%, the activeness of new speech only reached 19%, and the smoothness in speaking has only reached 30%. from these findings, researchers and collaborators held discussions and the results are still considered necessary to continue the research of this class action into cycle iii because the improvements achieved have not been significant. as a follow-up to cycle ii, researchers conducted reflections as follows: (1) the pronunciation of vocabulary has not reached the target set. in this opportunity, the teacher gave an example of how to pronounce certain words that are considered to be repeatedly mispronounced, so there is expected to be a significant increase in the third cycle, then suggest returning to the learner to watch an english drama so that it has a native speaker accent in speaking. (2) researchers re-explained the proper use of vocabulary in role-playing. (3) motivate learners to continue enriching vocabulary. (4) because it still has not reached the target set in the smoothness of speech, researchers give the opportunity for learners to present a different story than the previous one, so that they are trained to try to express different expressions / sentences so that the habit of speaking appears. cycle iii the first step that the researchers took was to provide an aperception on how to convey the story in narrative text using role playing techniques with more detail referring to deficiencies in cycle ii. efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 36 researchers and collaborators made observations during the role playing. the following is a table of observation data in cycle iii: table 4. observation results in cycle iii n o name of leaners in observed score aspect valu e pronunc iation score x weight (30%) vocabulary score x weight (25%) fluency score x weight (45%) 1 group 1 fatimatuh zahra 5 30 4 20 4 36 86 encas 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 wildan a 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 ade afif 4 24 4 20 3 27 71 2 group 2 0 0 0 0 agisk nur fadila 5 30 4 20 4 36 86 eka yulianti 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 ida farida 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 nur trismaliah 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 3 group 3 0 0 0 0 dadang r 5 30 4 20 4 36 86 riyan a 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 aad triono h 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 m. mukhlisin 5 30 3 15 4 36 81 4 group 4 0 0 0 0 aprilahati 3 18 5 25 4 36 79 ijah siti hodijah 4 24 3 15 4 36 75 ita rosita dewi 5 30 3 15 4 36 81 ovi lutviyani 5 30 4 20 3 27 77 5 group 5 0 0 0 0 elin suhelin 5 30 4 20 4 36 86 hanifah ria c 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 indriani 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 tia setiawaty w 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 6 group 6 0 0 0 0 dianah 4 24 4 20 3 27 71 seli salimah 4 24 5 25 4 36 85 tita siti akromah 4 24 5 25 3 27 76 tuti hernawati 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 7 group 7 0 0 0 0 imam muslim 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 dewi amanah 4 24 5 25 4 36 85 aan amanah 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 nita m.h 4 24 4 20 4 36 80 nia kurnia 4 24 3 15 3 27 66 total 117 744 115 570 105 945 2277 precentage/average 25% 20% 32% 77 from the table above, it is clearly illustrated that, in general, learners experienced a significant increase in pronunciation, vocabulary, and smoothness so that the percentage of achievement exceeded the target set by researchers of 70%. in addition to data collection through observation sheets, in the third cycle, researchers and collaborators also agreed to collect data through questionnaires in the hope of knowing more clearly the application of role playing techniques in the speaking learning of narrative text. based on the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 questionnaire data, as much as 100% of learners argued that teachers always give motivation and reflection at the start and update the learning. about 89% of students felt interested in learning narrative text speaking using role playing techniques, 92% of students said that role playing techniques in narrative text speaking learning made the learning atmosphere dynamic and enjoyable, 82% of students said it is easier to understand the content of the story delivered. and about 85% of students' speaking ability is improved through role playing techniques. the following is a table of result of the questionnaire: table 5. the results of the questionnaire data no statement number of respondent answer options yes percentage no percentage 1 teachers always give motivation and reflection at the start and update the learning 29 29 100% 0 0% 2 students feel easier to understand the content of the story delivered by role palying 29 25 85% 4 14% 3 students feel interested in learning narrative text speaking using role playing techniques 29 26 89% 3 10% 4 speaking learning with role playing made the learning atmosphere dynamic and enjoyable 29 27 92% 2 2% discussion data analysis was conducted on three data groups, namely peer observation data, teacher reflection data, and student learning outcome data which focused on two main things, namely class situation and student learning achievement. class situation: during the learning activities, there are still few students who did not look enthusiastic. on the contrary, most students responded well to the application of role playing method in narative text speaking learning, this is evident from the enthusiasm of the students when doing role playing activities. student achievement data: obtained from student grades at the time of role playing, taking into account the criteria of speaking assessment, including: pronunciation, vocabulary, and fluency. the value acquisition data as follows: table 6. recapitulation of speaking ability improvement of students in grade xii ipa 2 no student grades achievement initial data cycle i cycle ii cycle iii 1 average student grades 8765. 70.00 72.62 77.24 2 % of students are not complete % 51.72 44.82 41.37 31.03 3 % of students completed 48.27 55.17 62.06 72.41 based on the table, after the application of learning methods through role playing in learning speaking on narative texts, the value of student learning achievement increased. this is evidenced in the first cycle of average student speaking skills value of 70.00 with students who have completed learning as many as 16 people (55.17%) and 13 students (44.82%) are still unfinished. in the second cycle, the average value of students' speaking skills increased by 2.62% to 72.62% with students reaching kkm by 18 people (62.06%) and students who have not reached kkm there are 12 people (41.37%). meanwhile, in the third cycle, the average student score increased significantly by 4.62% to 77.24, with 21 students reaching kkm (72.41%), and students who have not reached kkm as many as 9 people (31.03%). in addition, through this role playing method, students' relationship with teachers is very significant because students are involved in learning so that teachers are not considered scary figures but as facilitators and partners to share experiences in efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 38 accordance with the concept of creatif learning, namely through discovery and invention and creativity and diversity is very prominent in this learning model. with this interpretation, it can be stated that the class action research carried out has been in accordance with the established plan, namely the implementation of cycles i, ii, and iii. with the end of cycle iii, it can be made a decision, that the class action research carried out has been able to answer the problem, namely activities, motivation, and the acquisition of student speaking skills results in narative text material can be improved through the learning method "role palying". for more details, can be seen from the chart as follows: chart 1. speaking ability graph of grade xii science 2 students the chart above shows an increase in the number of speaking skills grades in xii ipa 2 class of man 2 kuningan which is quite significant from cycles i, ii, and iii. conclusion based on the results of class action research on learning to speak narative text material of students in xii ipa 2 class of man 2 kuningan through the technique "role playing", it can be concluded that: role playing method is able to improve speaking skills on narative text. in the first cycle as many as 5 students (17.24%) increased grades and in the second cycle as many as 8 students (27.58%) increased grades, more than 10.34% compared to cycle i, while in the third cycle as many as 18 students (62.06%) increased in value, more than 34% compared to cycle ii. the achievement of classical completeness in the third cycle of 72.41% means that it has exceeded the classic completeness target formulated by 70% of students achieving a kkm score of 75 and above. besides, role playing method is able to give a positive impression for students. this can be seen from the implementation of dynamic and fun learning. based on the research that researchers did, it can be suggested that: in language learning, especially speaking, students should always be involved in learning activities through various techniques, including role playing, teachers should always apply learning methods or techniques that vary according to competency, so that the learning atmosphere becomes dynamic and enjoyable. references aliakbari, m. & jamalvandi, b. 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(2015). speaking as a language skill. bandung: space. http://docmo.hubpages.com/hub/how-to-use-role-play-in-teaching-and-training http://docmo.hubpages.com/hub/how-to-use-role-play-in-teaching-and-training https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.999 efi lutfiyah arifin application of role playing techniques in improving the speaking ability of students 40 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students' critical thinking ability lilis lismaya department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail : lilis.lismaya@uniku.ac.id agus priyanto department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail : agus.priyanto@uniku.ac.id putri ayu department of biology education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kuningan, indonesia e-mail : ayuwidrputri@gmail.com apa citation: lismaya, l., priyanto, a., & ayu, p. (2022). application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students’ critical thinking ability. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 5(1), 31-40. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i1.5874. received: 07-01-2022 accepted: 24-02-2022 published: 30-04-2022 introduction online learning conditions are difficult to control the learning process because it is limited in a virtual space. the change in the learning process from face to face to online is a challenge for a teacher in changing teaching strategies and the use of learning media. the interaction of teachers and students is only through the whatsapp group platform, zoom meeting, google classroom which has various advantages and disadvantages for each son (permana, 2020). conditions like this affect the critical thinking skills of students who are required to be able to adapt in the learning process with the new system, students are required to be skilled in using technology and be able to think critically about various information obtained through the use of information technology (bunt & gouw, 2020). in critical thinking, students are directed to a learning process that is able to focus their minds in processing and understanding any information (davud gul & akcay, 2020). based on observations through interviews with biology teachers at sma n 1 cigugur on august 19, 2020, it was said that online learning carried out by teachers only used whatsapp as a medium abstract: this research is motivated by the lack of learning media that can facilitate students' critical thinking skills in learning during the covid-19 pandemic. critical thinking ability is a very important competency to be developed through a scientific approach. this ability is indispensable in everyday life. the purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of students' critical thinking skills through the application of augmented reality through a scientific approach. the method used in this research is quasi experimental with pretest-posttest control group design. the population in this study were students of class xi science at sma negeri 1 cigugur which consisted of 3 science classes with a total of 78 students. the samples used in this study were two classes, namely class xi ipa 1 and xi ipa 3. the sampling technique used was purposive sampling. the instruments used are description tests, observation sheets and student response questionnaires to the application of augmented reality through a scientific approach. based on the results of analysis and calculations with hypothesis testing, the results obtained are h1 is accepted and ho is rejected, meaning that there is an increase in students' critical thinking skills by applying augmented reality through a scientific approach. keywords: augmented reality; scientific approach; critical thinking. mailto:lilis.lismaya@uniku.ac.id mailto:agus.priyanto@uniku.ac.id mailto:ayuwidrputri@gmail.com lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, putri ayu application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students’ critical thinking ability 32 in sharing material and sending assignments to students. in addition, the teacher only provides practice questions, there is no explanation of the material from the teacher, so students do not master it, and have difficulty understanding the material because the skills mastered are only limited to lower order thinking. as stated by daheri & warsah (2020), the use of whatsapp as an online learning medium is less effective in achieving learning objectives this is due to the lack of a comprehensive and simple explanation from the teacher. students should be given the opportunity to explore and develop critical thinking skills through a scientific approach. critical thinking skill is very important to be mastered by students (pujianti, 2020), because through critical thinking, students will be trained to observe the situation, raise questions, formulate hypotheses, make observations and collect data, then provide conclusions. wahyuni in lismaya (2021) stated that critical thinking also trains students to think logically and not to accept things easily. the scientific approach is an approach with steps that can build knowledge through the scientific method (asmi, 2015). this approach can also train students to think and analyze the information obtained by wakhidah (2018). according to liana (2020), the 5 phases of the scientific approach can develop various skills such as critical thinking skills, communication skills, research and collaboration skills and character behavior, because of experience the learning provided can fulfill educational goals and is useful for problem solving in real life. augmented reality can provide virtual learning through students' smartphones. augmented reality has several menus containing instructions for its use. augmented reality that has been installed on the student's smartphone, then using the camera on the smartphone will scan the human digestive system marker, when the marker is scanned, an animation/video will appear in the form of a mechanism or how the digestive system works on the smartphone screen, so that it can stimulate students. not only how it works, there are also functions of each organ of the digestive system that appear in the augmented reality media. this is in the use of augmented reality students can also communicate ideas simply so that it can help improve students' critical thinking skills. in accordance with the results of mustaqim's research (2016) regarding the use of augmented reality as a learning medium, that is, it can stimulate a mindset in critical thinking about problems and events that occur in everyday life, because the nature of educational media is to help students in the learning process in the presence or absence of educators in the educational process, so that the use of augmented reality media can provide learning anytime and anywhere. in the research of sungkar et al (2016) said that augmented reality is proven to be able to help and understand complex concepts that the average student has difficulty in understanding. augmented reality can provide virtual learning through students' smartphones. augmented reality has several menus containing instructions for its use. augmented reality that has been installed on the student's smartphone, then using the camera on the smartphone will scan the human digestive system marker, when the marker is scanned, an animation/video will appear in the form of a mechanism or how the digestive system works on the smartphone screen, so that it can stimulate students. not only how it works, there are also functions of each organ of the digestive system that appear in the augmented reality media. this is in the use of augmented reality students can also communicate ideas simply so that it can help improve students' critical thinking skills. biology is learning in the field of science, demanding learning competencies in the realm of comprehensive high-level understanding. science learning is closely related to phenomena or problems that exist in everyday life. according to nainggolan, suriani, & sianturi (2018), essentially, biology learning is related to how to find out and understand nature systematically so that learning biology is not only mastery of a collection of knowledge in the form of concepts, facts, but also a process of discovery, so that students are required to be able to think critically and furthermore, according to apriyani, nurlaelah, & setiawati (2017) argued that learning biology is a discovery process and emphasizes on providing direct learning experiences, namely by developing students' critical thinking skills, so learning must be based on appropriate problems. with the realities of life. the concept of the digestive system in terms of structure, function and mechanism is difficult for indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 students to understand because the concepts are abstract and complicated, because they relate to complex mechanisms, so students need learning media to be able to deliver abstract concepts into concrete. the causal mechanism contained in the material of the digestive system makes it difficult for students to understand how the system works. so the solution is to apply augmented reality media in accordance with one of the competencies in the current era, namely the 4.0 era. according to yunliono, sarwanto, & rintayanti (2017), the advantage of augmented reality in learning the human digestive system is an attractive visual display, because it can display the human digestive organs coherently and the working system in it. critical thinking is the result of problem solving activities or students are accustomed to problembased learning. problem-based learning students not only listen, take notes, and memorize material, but through problem-based learning students actively think, communicate, search and process data, which finally concludes lismaya (2017). students are trained in solving problems by looking for information that can solve existing problems, then efforts are made to explain the phenomenon of the problem, students can also improve their thinking skills. based on the background described above, researchers are interested in conducting research with the title "application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students' critical thinking ability". method the research method used is quasy experiment with a pre-test-post-test control group design research design (sugiyono, 2017). the population in this study were students of class xi science at sma n 1 cigugur which consisted of 3 science classes with a total of 78 students. and the sample was obtained using the purposive sampling sampling technique, as many as two classes, namely class xi ipa 1 as the experimental class and xi ipa3 as the control class. data collection techniques used in this study were through tests and non-tests. the instrument used in this research is in the form of standardized critical thinking essay test questions, which are given during pretest and post-test, observation sheet and questionnaire. observation sheets were carried out to observe the activities and implementation of augmented reality through a scientific approach. this observation sheet is made in the form of answer choices "yes" or "no" by providing a checklist in the column. in addition, a questionnaire was also used to knowing students' responses to the application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to the concept of the digestive system. table 1. students’ critical thinking skill test grid main material aspect indicator cognitive domain no.of question digestive system. elementary clarification focusing the question c4 1 analyze arguments c4 2 the basis for the decision observing and considering observation reports c4 3 c3 4 inference making and evaluating inductive conclusions and arguments c6 5 make and consider assessments c5 6 advanced clarification terms and consider definitions c6 7 identify definitions and identify assumptions c5 8 supposition and integration combining abilities and other characters in making decisions. c6 9 total 9 table 2. questionnaire sheet instrument grid no aspect indicators no. of question 1 observe ability to understand problems and encourage students to observe 1,2,3,4 lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, putri ayu application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students’ critical thinking ability 34 no aspect indicators no. of question and identify problems with the material stimulus of the digestive system using augmented reality 2 ask encourage students to ask questions or formulate problems and hypotheses 5,6,7,8 3 try improve students' critical thinking skills in trying or collecting information/data by using augmented reality through a scientific approach 9,10,11,12 4 reasoning to determine the ability to solve problems by analyzing data 13,14,15,16 5 communicating students' ability to understand the material and conclude from problem solving 17,18,19,20 total 20 table 3. observation sheet instrument grid no learning stage item number total 1 preliminary activities 1,2,3,4,5 5 2 core activities with the dl model, the use of ar through a scientific approach phase 1 stimulation 6,7 2 phase 2 problem statement 8,9,10,11 4 phase 3 data collection 12,13,14 3 phase 4 data processing 15,16,17 3 phase 5 verification ) 18, 19,20 3 phase 6 generalization 21,22 2 3 closing activities 23,24,25 3 total 25 results and discussion analysis of pre-test result to measure students' initial critical thinking skills, students are given a pretest in the form of critical thinking skills description tests that have previously been tested by instruments and contain 9 indicators of critical thinking skills. the average value of the pretest from the control class and the experimental class can be seen in the table below: table 4. pre-test average class n average ds experiment 27 34,56 8,70 control 27 34,22 8,47 based on the table of pre-test scores for the two classes, namely control and experiment, the results were not much different. based on the results of the pre-test given to the experimental class and the control class, the results showed that it did not show a significant difference, meaning that students had the same initial ability, the two sample classes had relatively the same critical thinking skills. the average overall pre-test scores of the experimental class and control class students are not much different as shown in the table, namely 34,56 in the experimental class and 34,22 in the control class. hypothesis test (t test) homogeneity of variance that was carried out previously, hypothesis testing was carried out using the t test, because the data group was homogeneous. the results of the t-test on the pre-test data the results of the t-test on the pre-test data of the experimental class and control class are presented in the table: table 5. the result of pretest data hypothesis test class tcount db ttable conclusion experiment and control 0,61 52 2,00 nothing is better because the variance of the data is homogeneous, it is continued to test the hypothesis, namely the t-test and the t-value is -0,61 and t-table is 2,00. because the value of t-count < t-table, 0,61 which is < 2,00 then ho is accepted and h1 is rejected, which means that the two sample groups, both the experimental class and the control class, have no significant or equivalent initial differences in critical thinking abilities. analysis of posttest results the average posttest from the control class and the experimental class can be seen in table 6. table 6. posttest average score class n average ds experiment 27 81,04 7,21 control 27 68,78 8,41 based on the table, the experimental class has a higher average post-test value than the control class. the results of the post-test calculation of critical thinking skills in the control class and the experimental class. based on the table, the average indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 value of the post-test obtained by the experimental class is 81,04 while the average value of the control class is only 68,78. this shows that application augmented reality through a scientific approach has a positive effect on students' critical thinking skills. in other words, students' critical thinking skills can increase because it is facilitated by augmented reality through a scientific approach. furthermore, the post-test results of the two classes were used to test the hypothesis. based on the homogeneity of variance test that was carried out previously, hypothesis testing was carried out using the t test, because the data group was homogeneous. the results of the t-test on the post-test data of the experimental class and control class are presented in table 7. table 7. posttest data hypothesis test results class tcount db t-table conclusion experiment and control 4,62 52 2,00 h0 is rejected, h1 is accepted from the data above, it can be seen that the average percentage of critical thinking indicators achievement after learning in the control class and experimental class results in a t-count of 4,62 and a t-table of 2,00. because the value of t-count > ttable is 4,62 > 2,00, then h1 is accepted and h0 is rejected, meaning that there is an increase in students' critical thinking skills on the digestive system material for class xi using augmented reality media through a scientific approach. the average learning process in the achievement of critical thinking indicators in the experimental class is greater than the control class, so when compared with the results of the pre-test, the experimental class and control class have increased the achievement of the critical thinking ability indicator. the n-gain calculation is carried out to analyze the magnitude of the increase in students' critical thinking skills, from the results of the analysis by comparing the results of the pretest and posttest experimental class and control class. the results of the calculation of the average n-gain can be seen in table 8: table 8. comparison of the average value of the experimental class and the control class class average score criteria pretest posttest n-gain experiment 34 81 0,71 high control 35 68 0,51 medium the results of the n-gain analysis obtained by the experimental class and control class in table 8 show that the experimental class has improved better when compared to the control class, with the average n-gain value in the experimental class 0,71 including in the high category and for the control class 0,51 is included in the medium category. this shows that there is a difference in the improvement of students' critical thinking skills between the experimental class and the control class. the percentage value of each critical thinking indicator for the experimental class and the control class the critical thinking ability description test sheet is made based on critical thinking ability indicators which consist of: (1) focusing questions, (2) analysing arguments, (3) considering the credibility of a source, (4) making inductions and considering the results of induction, (5) identifying assumptions (6), deciding an action, (7) terms and consider definitions, (8) identify definitions and identify assumptions, (9) combining abilities and other characters in making decisions (ennis, 2016). critical thinking indicators are applied to the description test questions which will be given to students at the pre-test and post-tests. the results of the recapitulation of the value of each critical thinking indicator are shown in figure 1. figure 1. the percentage value of each critical thinking indicator based on figure 1, it can be seen that of the nine indicators of critical thinking skills, it shows that each indicator has increased but the third indicator has the highest increase. the experimental class and control class in the indicators of observing and considering the observation report, the experimental lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, putri ayu application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students’ critical thinking ability 36 class is higher, namely 90.12 and the control class is 86.42 posttest scores, it can be concluded that critical thinking skills through the indicators used, after carrying out observations using augmented reality are higher in the class experiments that were treated using augmented reality with a scientific learning approach, compared to the control class that did not use augmented reality media even though they used the same scientific learning approach. data analysis of questionnaire result the questionnaire sheet instrument was used to determine student responses to learning using augmented reality media through a scientific approach carried out in the experimental class, namely class xi ipa 3. the questionnaire sheet for each indicator consisted of twenty questions from five indicators of the student response questionnaire. the percentage of the questionnaire for each statement has a different response. the results of the calculation of the questionnaire sheet which can be seen in the appendix, obtained a percentage showing the response of the experimental class during the learning process. the results of the calculation of the questionnaire sheet are adjusted to the score of each questionnaire item that is used to determine student responses to augmented reality through a scientific approach during the learning process in the experimental class. the following is a diagram of the questionnaire percentage to reveal student responses to the implementation of augmented reality through a scientific approach. figure 2. questionnaire average for each indicator description: indicator 1: ability to understand problems and encourage students to identify problems with the material stimulus of the digestive system using augmented reality indicator 2: encouraging students to ask questions or formulate problems and hypotheses indicator 3: improving students' critical thinking skills in trying or collecting information/data by using augmented reality through a scientific approach indicator 4: to determine the ability to solve problems by analyzing data indicator 5: the ability of students to understand the material and conclude from problem solving. data analysis of observation result the observation sheet is an evaluation technique used to determine the process carried out by the teacher containing the steps of augmented reality through a scientific approach, so the analytical technique is only used in the experimental class. this observation sheet is used to determine whether the steps of augmented reality through a scientific approach and on the material of the digestive system are in accordance with the steps that have been prepared in the lesson plan. the results of observing teacher activities by applying augmented reality through a scientific approach in the experimental class. figure 3. the percentage value of each observation sheet indicator the average critical thinking of students in the experimental class is in the high category, meaning that overall students have been able to use their critical thinking skills well and the average thinking of students in the control class in the medium category means that overall students use their critical thinking skills quite well. also supported by syarifuddin's research (2018), there is a significant indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 influence of the scientific approach through critical thinking in science. in line with deshpande & kim's (2018) research, the use of augmented reality can improve problem solving skills, 3d objects in real time through augmented reality cameras can help students solve problems. although the control class experienced a significant increase in critical thinking skills, it was not in accordance with the expected critical thinking abilities of students. this is in line with the analysis of improving critical thinking skills in the experimental class which is better than the control class, because when conducting learning in both learning classes they are treated the same, but in the experimental class it is added or assisted by the existence of learning media, namely augmented reality as a student support tool. through a scientific approach to be more critical in responding to the problems presented. in augmented reality media students are presented with material, animation and stimulation, students are invited to explain the data that has been obtained in observations after interpreting the animations and simulations in the augmented reality content, the problem is through discussion with friends. in line with usada's research (2014) that augmented reality aims to simplify things for users by bringing virtual information into the user's environment to improve user perception and interaction with the real world. this is in accordance with what mantasia and jaya (2016) stated that augmented reality can provide a learning experience that makes it easier to understand a material because augmented reality is made interactively which can involve students directly in the learning process. as in abbas's research (2015), augmented reality as a learning medium can improve students' understanding because 3d objects, text, images, videos, audio can be displayed to students in real time. so that students can be interactively involved in the learning process, augmented reality also provides an illustration or illustration to students about the mechanism of the digestive system into a learning medium that can provide feedback to students, students can construct their own knowledge so that the experimental class indicates that critical thinking skills can be trained and taught. grow and develop through the use of augmented reality. as stated by bower, howe, mccredie, robinson, grover (2014), augmented reality can be used by teachers to develop students' higher order thinking skills that encourage learning by design that requires skills such as analyzing, evaluating and being creative that contribute to the final growth of students. in contrast to the learning control class which applies a scientific approach without the help of augmented reality media, students are only faced with the stages of learning contained in the scientific approach and in searching for data they only focus on book sources and the internet. so that students are less able to develop their critical thinking skills. in addition, the learning process in the control class does not emphasize students to play an active role in finding solutions or solving problems. on the other hand, the contribution of augmented reality media through the scientific learning approach shows that science is superior to learning without media in improving students' critical thinking skills. augmented reality through a scientific approach teaches students to analyze what they learn through a scientific approach allowing students to be directly involved in learning. the scientific approach is proven to improve students' critical thinking skills. this is also in line with chen & wang's research (2015) that the use of scientific discovery learning with integrated scientific reasoning has proven to be effective in increasing the ability to test hypotheses, justify hypotheses, and understanding based on correct evidence. the results of this study are also in line with izzudin's research (2019) which stated that the scientific approach is very effective in improving students' critical thinking skills. as stated by liana (2020), the scientific approach provides opportunities for students to find their own thoughts, using a scientific approach, information about the problems given regarding the material of the digestive system, can be obtained anywhere, anytime and does not depend on the teacher, and encourages students to find out from various sources through observation and not just being told. students can easily understand the material delivered with augmented reality media. students are actively involved in learning. so that students are more motivated and can cause curiosity in the learning process, students can solve problems and then present their results. augmented reality in learning makes it easier for students to remember new information related to lilis lismaya, agus priyanto, putri ayu application of augmented reality through a scientific approach to students’ critical thinking ability 38 the concept of the digestive system. this is in line with gilang's research (2016) that in the learning process using augmented reality media students are given the opportunity to experience themselves or do it themselves, follow the process, observe an object, analyze, prove and draw their own conclusions from a particular object, state or process. learning with augmented reality students can freely communicate with their friends. so that the learning process supported by augmented reality will encourage students to investigate, collaborate, and improve critical thinking skills. based on the results of the analysis of critical thinking skills on each indicator obtained. the indicator of critical thinking ability that has the highest improvement is observing and considering observation reports. in this indicator facilitates and is trained with the use of augmented reality media, the results of the analysis show an increase in the average pretest and posttest scores of 50.62 and 90.12. in the experimental class and the control class, the scores both experienced the highest increase, but the experimental class had a greater increase than the control class because it was also supported by the use of technology, namely augmented reality. the use of augmented reality is dominated by this indicator because the activities in observing and considering observation reports directly involve students in finding and making observations to answer the problems given by the teacher. students become more active in seeking and finding their own answers by using augmented reality media as a source of information to solve predetermined problems without relying on the teacher as a source of information. using augmented reality media students can describe the mechanisms that take place in the digestive organs that cannot be observed with the sense of sight. searching for data by linking the structure of functions, as well as disorders of the digestive system. students are directed to record the required data such as answering reports by direct observation using augmented reality. the ability to consider reports on observations is the ability of students to provide correct evidence based on the results of observations of a data. according to hayati, loka, & anwar (2019), the indicator of observing and considering a report is the ability to involve a few guesses based on the facts obtained and use the correct evidence to be reported. students are said to have the ability to make and determine the results of considerations in critical thinking if students can express a consideration that is believed and is able to determine actions based on the facts that have been collected (purwanto & winarti, 2016). through observation, students can prove the truth of their theory so that their knowledge of related concepts becomes more mature. the results of these observations can also be used as a basis for answering related problems that will be faced by fernanda, haryani, prasetya, & hilmi (2019). the experimental class students have been trained to collect data from the information they have obtained independently to solve problems in the worksheet provided. while the control class does the lks by looking for sources only from books or the internet, not using augmented reality. this is what makes students in the experimental class have more information than the control class. so that the skills to build basic skills in the two classes experienced significant differences. in accordance with the research of pujianti (2020), basic skills can be significantly improved if a person is accustomed to finding information independently and choosing the right information to solve a problem. students will make their own decisions about what direction to take in an investigation, what information to collect, and how to analyze and evaluate that information. based on a series of learning processes carried out in the experimental class, it shows that learning activities using augmented reality media through a scientific approach to the human digestive system can facilitate students' critical thinking skills, such as in activities carried out with the stages of a scientific approach which is a means to achieve thinking ability indicators. critical, so augmented reality through a scientific approach can develop students' critical thinking skills, especially on the material of the human digestive system. students are more active in finding the required information. this is in accordance with research conducted by mantasia & jaya (2016), the development of augmented reality technology in the implementation of learning activities using the scientific approach method can meet the needs of improving students' cognitive, affective and cognitive skills, and make it easier for students to understand abstract and complex things. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 1, april 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 the results of the student response questionnaire analysis showed student interest in the learning process which reached a percentage of 81.67%, which means that augmented reality media can help him understand the material more quickly and develop his critical thinking skills. in addition, the assessment of the teacher's observation sheet is to show the implementation of the learning process with the application of augmented reality through a scientific approach in the experimental class where almost the entire learning phase is carried out well as shown in the picture. as a result, both the control class and the experimental class both experienced an increase because both classes were treated with the application of a scientific approach. however, the increase in critical thinking in the experimental class is actually higher than the control class because of the use of augmented reality media. this is supported by mustaqim's research (2016), the use of augmented reality can stimulate students' mindsets in critical thinking about problems and events that exist in everyday life, because the nature of the existing learning media educational media is to help educators in the educational process, so that the use of educational media with augmented reality can directly provide learning wherever and whenever students want to carry out the learning process. conclusion based on the research that has been done, it can be concluded that there is an effect of applying augmented reality through a scientific approach to students' critical thinking skills on the material of the digestive system of class xi. the highest indicator is generated on the observing indicator and considering the observation report because it facilitates or is trained with the use of augmented reality media. the results of n-gain in improving critical thinking skills there are differences between the experimental class and the control class, namely the average n-gain result in the experimental class is 0.71 with high criteria, and the average n-gain in the control class is 0.51 moderate criteria. , it can be interpreted that there is an increase in the critical thinking ability of students of class xi ipa 3, on the material of the human digestive system. based on the results of questionnaires or student responses in the use of augmented reality which is used during the learning process, the results are 81.67%. so that overall students by using augmented reality media more easily understand the material and improve critical thinking skills. references apriyani, l., nurlaelah, i., setiawati, i. 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(2018). the promising roles of augmented reality in educational setting: a review of the literature. int j. of educ. meth., 4(3), 125-132. http://ejournal.kopertais.or.id/sasambo/index.php/mutaaliyah http://ejournal.kopertais.or.id/sasambo/index.php/mutaaliyah http://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/jpv https://doi.org/10.21831/jee.v1i1.13267 https://doi.org/10.20895/infotel.v6i2.20 http://e-journal.unipma.ac.id/index.php/pe http://e-journal.unipma.ac.id/index.php/pe indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 7 pre-service efl teachers’ creative thinking lamhot naibaho english language education study program, faculty of letter and languages, universitas kristen indonesia email: lamhot.naibaho@uki.ac.id apa citation: naibaho, l. (2022). pre-service efl teachers’ creative thinking. indonesian journal learning and instruction, 5(2), 7-14. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i2.6841 received: 13-06-2022 accepted: 25-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction in learning biology, higher-level thinking skills (hots) are required. the implementation of learning is carried out through a scientific approach so that students' hots can develop well. the scientific approach is a learning approach characterized by the protrusion of the dimensions of observation, reasoning, discovery, validation, and explanation of a truth so that the learning process must be carried out guided by scientific values, principles, or criteria. but in reality, the learning implementation process still emphasizes the mastery of knowledge, without paying attention to process skills and hots development. this happens because in general the teacher's perception of the learning process is only as a transfer of knowledge which is more dominated by memorizing theories, concepts, principles, phenomena or formulas. an important ability to be developed by students in the 21st century hots. it is the ability to make use the new information and the ability to manipulate it in order to reach possible answers in new situations (tyas & naibaho, 2021; conklin, 2011; irvine et al., 2010). hots that a student must have, namely the ability to think innovatively and creatively (critical thinking and problem solving and metacognitive thinking) (clemente et al., 2016; singh et al., 2018; tang, 2016). creative thinking ability is one of the important thinking skills to be developed in the field of education. creative thinking is “a cognitive ability to generate and develop new ideas, new ideas as a development of ideas that have been born previously and the ability to solve problems divergently” (barbot et al., 2011; leggett, 2017). creative thinking ability is an important aspect for students to be able to solve a problem and find new ideas to solve problems (ülger, 2016; berestova et al., 2021), generate new ideas by combining, changing or adding existing ideas, using various ideas, improving, analyzing and evaluating ideas in order to improve and maximize creative problem solving efforts (naibaho, 2022; 2022). there are four aspect of the creative thinking, namely fluency, flexibility, authenticity, and elaboration in thinking (turkmen & sertkahya, 2015; batlolona et al., 2019). fluency, is the ability to trigger many ideas, methods, suggestions, questions, ideas, solutions, or alternative answers smoothly in a certain time quickly and with emphasis on quality. “flexibility is the ability to issue various ideas, answers or questions where the ideas or answers are obtained from different points of view by changing the way of approach or thinking. originality (authenticity), which is the ability to issue expressions, ideas, or ideas to solve problems or create unusual, unique, new combinations of parts or elements that others have not thought of. elaboration (details), is the ability to enrich, develop, add, elaborate, or detail the details of the object, idea, or situation so that it becomes more interesting” (serevina et al., 2018). “creative thinking skills are part of the learning process to help students become successful learners, confident individuals and become responsible citizens so it is important to develop them in various subjects abstract: this study aims to investigate the pre-service teachers’ creative thinking at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia. it is limited to the difference of creative thinking between the male and female students. it was conducted at the christian university of indonesia within a period of 3 months from february to may 2021. the research design used was ex-post facto. the research subjects are 36 semester students who were selected purposively. the research instrument used is a standardized essay test. the data taken trough test were analyzed using descriptively, besides using a descriptive quantative, the data of the research were also analyzed using independent t test trough spss. the results of this study shows that the faculty of teacher training and education students’ creative thinking skills is at the level of “good” category, which is 63.69%. from a further analysis, it is found that the comparison between male and female students’ creative thinking skills did not have a significant difference. thus, it can be concluded that male students creative thinking ability are much the same with the female students’ creative thinking ability at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia. keywords: creative thinking; teaching english; male and female. lamhot naibaho pre-service efl teachers’ creative thinking 8 to help students to be able to develop their creativity and be creative in solving problems” (li, 2016; fisher, 2018; eragamreddy, 2013). the development of creative thinking skills in students is not only useful for the present life, but also as a provision of knowledge to prepare for the life to come. the goal is that students are able to anticipate and respond to future challenges or times that are always developing and undergoing changes, thereby encouraging students' creativity and innovative skills in solving problems and facing challenges and competition in the future (azevedo et al., 2019; adamczyk et al., 2012). the ability to think creatively is also needed to find new innovations in human life. the growing needs and complexity of the problems faced by this country, demands creative thinking for the community. “new innovations are expected to be born from the results of creative thinking as an effort to improve the quality of life and solve problems faced by the community” (stroh, 2015; proctor, 2010). the ability to think creatively makes students have many ways to solve various problems with different perceptions and concepts. creative thinking skills give birth to innovative students, so students can provide a new innovation from the results of problem solving (drapeau, 2014; kivunja, 2014; binkley et al., 2012). if people's creative thinking skills are low, it will have an impact on their lives in the future. a person with low creative thinking skills, will not be able to compete in an increasingly advanced life and lose good job opportunities. the problems he faces are also unable to be solved effectively and he is unable to face the challenges of an increasingly complex life. in fact, compared to 20 or 30 years ago, indonesian graduates now need more skills to succeed in facing the tough competition of the 21st century. english is one of the subjects that has an orientation to equip students to face the challenges of life in the 21st century. several studies have shown that pre-service efl teachers are less able to think creatively (çakici, 2018; karataş & tuncer, 2020). learning creative thinking skills really needs to be integrated in every subject, including english. several previous studies also examined the effect of gender or gender on creative thinking skills reported that there was no significant difference between male and female gender creative thinking skills (bart et al., 2015; he & wong, 2021; he, 2018), gender had no effect on students' creative thinking skills (hong & milgram, 2010; mierdel & bogner, 2019), and there was no significant difference between high achievers and low achievers in terms of creative thinking, but good female students who excel high and low are proven to be more creative than male students so that the effect of gender differences (ellis et al., 2016; stoet et al., 2016). women have creativity and innovation as creative styles in the thinking process significantly higher than men at the higher education level (ülger & morsünbül, 2016; da costa et al., 2015; madsen, 2015), and the ability of male students was superior to that of female students. “male students are more open in their thinking, so that with their thoroughness, male students are able to think abstractly mathematically to bring up novelty and flexibility by finding different patterns of answers and generalizing the results they find” (senel & bagçeci, 2019; tous & haghighi, 2016). while female students in their thinking are still on concrete experiments, and the difficulty of making abstract observations of abstract numbers so that patterns are generally not found (robertson, 2013; kouhdasht et al., 2013). however, female subjects were more fluent in expressing their written answers. this study aims to determine the profile of the creative thinking abilities of male and female students and the differences in creative thinking abilities between male and female students at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia. method this research is an ex post facto research or nonexperimental research because it aims to examine what the research subjects have naturally without any intentional effort to provide treatment in order to bring up the variables to be studied. the study population was all students of faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia. the sampling technique used was cluster sampling technique, which took the students in a classroom to be the sample of the study. the number of students chosen from faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia was 36 students. the instrument used is an essay test. the essay test was taken from a standardized essay test from the writing book used by the english lecturer in teaching. so it was not necessary to measure the valididy and the reliability of the test. the procedure for collecting data is by asking each student to work on an essay question for 10 minutes. the work on essay questions may be brought home with the condition that the time limit for the work is the same, but this method has the risk of causing bias that makes the research results different. the data obtained were then analyzed using quantitative descriptive analysis and independent t-test, data calculations using spss vers. 21 with a significance level of 0.05. the normality test and homogeneity test were indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 9 carried out before the independent test. normality test using the kolmogrov-smirnov test with the help of spss vers. 21, while the homogeneity test used levene's test with the help of spss vers. 2. after the data were analyzed, then the result of the analysis was convert to the following creative thinking score range in order to know the level of studetns’ creative thinking. table 1. the creative thinking ability score range score range % information score 019 very poor score 2039 poor score 4059 moderate score 6079 good score 80-100 very good results and discussion the students' creative thinking ability test uses an essay test consisting of 4 questions, each question represents an indicator of creative thinking ability, namely fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration with each. each with a maximum score of 4. the creative thinking ability test was given to 36 students with details of 18 male students and 18 female students. the results of the creative thinking ability test for each indicator can be seen in the following table. table 2. calculation of indicators of students' creative thinking creative thinking ability indicator total value avera ge % catego ry i01 136 3.83 80.21% c i02 85 2.25 48.22% lc i03 130 3.02 78.12% c i04 85 2.25 48.22% lc average creative thinking ability 63.69% good note: i01 (fluency), i02 (flexibility), i03 (originality), i04 (elaboration), c (creative), and lc (less creative) based on table 2, the results show that i01 is 80.21%, i02 is 48.22%, i03 is 78.12% and i04 is 48.22%. the percentage between 60-79%% is included in good category, so that the creative thinking ability of students at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia is in the a “good” category. faculty of teacher training and education has implemented a new curriculum, namely the higher education curriculum based kkni. the higher education curriculum based kkni is a competency-based curriculum that is directed at achieving the competencies formulated in the graduate competency standards. the higher education curriculum based kkni uses a scientific approach concept. the scientific approach is one of the approaches used in learning with an emphasis on the use of scientific methods in teaching and learning activities (özgelen, 2012). emphasis on the use of the scientific method is based on the essence of learning which is actually a scientific process carried out by students and teachers. “the scientific approach makes students think scientifically, logically, critically and objectively according to the facts” (brookfield, 2022; lai, 2011). the scientific approach used in the learning process is able to empower students' creativity through a more active teacher role in provoking students' creativity and providing more opportunities to improve creative, innovative, and critical thinking skills (bloom & doss, 2021; zhao et al., 2021; harris & de bruin, 2018). the scientific approach was developed with a scientific approach which includes five processes, namely observing, asking, exploring, associating and communicating (sale & thielke, 2018; cohen, 2018; haig, 2018). the scientific approach is often referred to as the 5m approach. at the observing stage, the teacher gives students the opportunity to make observations, so that students connect their initial knowledge with the phenomena they face. observation activities foster student curiosity. students' curiosity is manifested in the form of a question, so that students are trained to find and integrate known problems into a new, original question. “observing and questioning activities show that students' creative thinking skills are trained, especially original thinking skills” (tran et al., 2017; lucas & spencer, 2017). the ability to think creatively can be recognized by posing problems. the process of observing makes it easier for students to ask many questions or ideas. the ability of students to pose problems of opinions and ideas through questions can optimize one aspect of students' creative thinking skills, namely fluency (phuong & nguyen, 2019; zhang et al., 2021). the stages of observing and asking questions in a scientific approach train original thinking skills and fluency thinking skills. the exploration stage or collecting information is the stage where students conduct experiments, conduct literature studies, observe events or conduct interviews with resource persons to solve problems (dziedziewicz et al., 2013; chang et al., 2015). the exploration stage is accompanied by the associating stage, namely the stage of processing the information obtained so that students can draw a conclusion. the exploration and association stages train students' reasoning skills, namely the ability to think logically and systematically. the exploration and association stages are the lamhot naibaho pre-service efl teachers’ creative thinking 10 problem-solving stages. the problem-solving stage is a stage that trains many aspects of creative thinking skills. aspects of fluency in the problem solving process are trained through the ability of students to give correct and varied problem answers. the flexibility aspect in problem solving is trained through the problem solving process using different methods, such as conducting various kinds of experiments to get the expected results. “aspects of originality in problem solving are trained through the ability of students to answer problems with answers that are not usually presented by students at their level of knowledge” (bell & waters, 2018). the ability to solve problems with new answers occurs because students carry out the process of gathering information and conducting their own experiments for proof, thus bringing up original problemsolving answers. the exploration and problem-solving stages also train the elaboration aspect of creative thinking skills. problem solving activities such as conducting experiments, making students design an experimental process which includes the design title, objectives, tools and materials, and working methods. a series of processes in conducting experiments by carrying out systematic and detailed steps to train students' elaboration skills. the communicating stage is the stage of delivering information that has been obtained and has been processed both orally and in writing. the communicating stage develops honesty, thoroughness, tolerance, language skills and the ability to think systematically (fakhretdinova et al., 2020; rivers, 2018). the stages of communicating do not run in one direction only, but a question and answer process occurs between the presenter and the audience. the questions given by the audience will be discussed by the presenter, so that the answers to the questions are found. the process of solving problems through discussion certainly produces many ideas and answers from various points of view. “the ability of students to provide many ideas and answers from different points of view shows the trained ability of students to think fluently and flexible” (lin & wu, 2016; chang et al., 2015). the discussion process trains students' fluent and flexible thinking skills. scientific learning has trained aspects of students' creative thinking skills. the stages of observing and asking questions practice fluency and original thinking. the stages of exploring and associating practice fluent thinking, flexible thinking, original thinking, and elaboration thinking. the stage of communicating trains fluent thinking and elaboration thinking (flexibility). the results obtained show fluency and originality have a high percentage of 77.08% and 72.91%, respectively. the percentages that exist are included in the creative category, while elaboration thinking and flexible thinking have a percentage of 35.42% and 35.92%, respectively. the percentage is included in the sufficient category. differences in aspects of creative thinking can be caused by differences in implementation at each stage in the scientific approach. the aspect in the creative category shows that the implementation of the stages has been maximized, while in the moderate category it shows that the stages have been implemented but are not maximal. the fluency of students in faculty of education and teacher training is included in the creative category. the creative category is supported by maximum fluency training at all stages of scientific learning. the application of the maximum stages means that the learning process provides opportunities for students to ask various questions, answer questions, so as to successfully encourage students to generate many ideas about a problem and smoothly express their ideas (florea & hurjui, 2015; hill & miller, 2013). the flexible thinking ability of students in faculty of education and teacher training is included in the sufficient category. the sufficient category produced can be caused because the stages in the scientific approach have been carried out but have not been carried out optimally. the original thinking ability of students in faculty of education and teacher training is included in the creative category. the creative category is supported by maximum originality aspect training at the observing and questioning stage as well as exploring and associating in scientific learning. the ability of students’ elaboration thinking at faculty of teacher training and education is included in the sufficient category. the percentages shown are in different categories with original aspects and fluent thinking which are in the creative category. the differences that occur can be caused by the implementation of the scientific approach stage that has been carried out but has not been maximized. the stages that provoke the elaboration aspect in the scientific approach are the stages of digging information where students are trained to conduct experiments and read references which are carried out sequentially. the systematic work carried out by students provides opportunities for students to explore sequentially and in depth, so that at this stage they can practice the elaboration aspect of creative thinking. the level of creativity of students in faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen indonesia is included in the category of sufficient indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 11 overall aspects. the results obtained indicate that learning has implemented the kkni base higher education curriculum. the implementation of all stages of the scientific approach has been carried out and proven by the emergence of students' creative levels, but the implementation is still not optimal in several stages because the overall results of students' creative levels are in the quite creative category. table 3. male students' creative thinking ability indicator calculation creative thinking ability indicator total value average % category i01 80 3.78 83.61% c i02 49 1.83 36.33% lc i03 67 3.23 79.44% c i04 49 1.83 36.33% lc note: i01 (fluency), i02 (flexibility), i03 (originality), i04 (elaboration), c (creative), and lc (less creative) table 4. female students' creative thinking ability indicator calculation creative thinking ability indicator total value average % category i01 64 2.31 79.45% c i02 35 1.20 35.23% lc i03 61 2..01 78.29% c i04 35 1.20 36.23% lc note: i01 (fluency), i02 (flexibility), i03 (originality), i04 (elaboration), c (creative), and lc (less creative) based on tables 3 and 4, data analysis was obtained for male and female students at faculty teacher and training education, that the percentage of i01 in female students was 79.45% < 83.61% in male students, thinking ability i02 for female students is 35.23% < 36.33% for male students, i03 for female students is 78.29% < 79.44% for male students, and i04 for female students is 36.23% < 36.33% for male students. the males’ and females’ students creative thinking when compared from each indicator shows that the creative thinking ability of male students is higher than female students. the graph of the difference in the creative thinking abilities of male and female students on each indicator is as follows. figure 1. differences between males’ and females’ creative thinking the data obtained from the males’ and females’ students creative thinking were tested using an independent t-test. the results of the independent t-test which had previously been tested for normality and homogeneity are shown in table 5. table 5. t-test calculation using spss t-test for equality of means t df sig. (2-tailed) md std. ed confidence interval of the difference (95%) lower upper -1,354 -1,354 34 32,184 ,185 ,185 -5,55556 -5,55556 4,10321 4,10321 -13,89428 -13,91165 2,78316 2,80053 the result of the independent t-test was -1.354 with a significance (α) 5% was 2.032244, and the significance value was 0.185> 0.05. the calculation results show that h0 failed to be rejected, which means there is no real difference between the creative thinking abilities of male students and female students. it is in line with a research which shows that “gender has no significant effect on students' creative thinking skills in english learning” (ghonsooly & showqi, 2012; özcan, 2010). “on the other hand, the results of the study are not in line with the findings of the study which lamhot naibaho pre-service efl teachers’ creative thinking 12 stated that the results of the trial concluded that the ability of male students was superior to that of female students (van dun et al., 2021; rizvi et al., 2022). male students are more open in their thinking, male students are able to think abstractly mathematically to bring up novelty and flexibility, while female students are still in thinking in concrete experiments, and have difficulty making abstract observations of abstract numbers. in essence, there is no effect of gender differences on intellectual abilities such as overall creative thinking ability, but gender differences appear in several cognitive areas, such as mathematical abilities and verbal abilities. boys have higher visual-spatial skills than girls” (yang et al., 2019; secora & emmorey, 2019). the error factors that affect the results of the creative thinking ability data are: 1) restrictions on questions number 1 and 3 so that students are motivated by the minimum restrictions presented; 2) students experienced procedural errors in working on test questions, because they misunderstood the order of the questions; 3) the difficulty of students in working on one of the questions tested, because they do not understand the concept. conclusion the results showed that the average percentage of students' creative thinking abilities was 63.69% in the sufficient category. the findings of each indicator are as follows: i01 is 80.21%, i02 is 48.22%, i03 is 78.12% and i04 is 48.22%. the percentage between 60-79%% is included in “good” category. the results of the different test of creative thinking skills between male and female students showed that there was no significant difference. the suggestions given to the faculty of education and teacher training is the importance of increasing creative thinking because creative thinking is needed in 21st century learning. suggestions for further researchers are: 1) ensuring the number of male and female students in each class, 2) working on questions must be at the right time and place the same one. references adamczyk, s., bullinger, a. c., & möslein, k. m. 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(2021). critical thinking of music educators as a factor in creative music pedagogy. thinking skills and creativity, 41, 100884. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 the student’s production of speech sound disorder and its causes dwi puji nurhayati department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan email: dwipuji995@gmail.com fahrus zaman fadhly department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan email: fahruszf@gmail.com wulan rahmatunisa department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of kuningan email: wulan.rahmatunisa@uniku.ac.id apa citation: nurhayati, d. p., fadhly, f. z., & rahmatunisa, w. (2021). the student’s production of speech sound disorder and its causes. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(2), pp. 39-46. doi: doi: 10.25134/ijli.v4i2.5202 received: 19-05-2020 accepted: 17-07-2021 published: 01-10-2021 abstract: this research investigated the production of speech sound disorder student and the cause of student’s speech sound disorder, precisely in stuttering type. unicomb, hewatt, spencer, and harrison (2017) considered stuttering as the lack of neurology condition which disturbs the speech’s flow and erratic obstacle in communication process. there was only 1 participant involved in this study namely a student in one of vocational high school in kuningan. this study used a qualitative approach, mainly case study that gathered the data through observation and interview. based on the result, among three types of stuttering which are prolongation, repetition and blocks, the production of the participant that mainly occurred were repetition and blocks. thus, the cause of the participant’s stuttering was due to the lack of coordinator between the nerve and articulator and also it became worse because the anxiety. keywords: speech sound disorder; stuttering; production introduction the production of language stands as the ultimate stage of mastering communication with other people after the stages of acquisition and comprehension. unfortunately, the problem occurs when the speech could not be uttered perfectly by the speech organs. furthermore, it might be the barrier of communicating orally due to the lack of clarity in uttering the speech. thus, the speech problems consist of three main types as mentioned by prelock & hutchins (2018). the first one is speech sound disorders as it is marked by the error production of speech sound, the second problem is fluency disorders which effect on the flow of speech, and the last is voice disorders which impact the quality of the sound stream. this research highlighted the speech sound disorder as the representation of speech problems found in the student of vocational high school in kuningan. speech sound disorder affects the way human mispronounces some phonemes or words due to the lack of articulation organ as defined by sugden, baker, munro, & williams (2016) that children who suffer from speech sound disorder have difficulties to respond and represent the ideas with their articulation by concerning tones, rhythm, stress and intonation. nevertheless, children with speech sound disorder also suffer from many kind of speaking obstacles which influence their fluency and flow of utterances furthermore, there are only a few types of speech sound disorder which are easily detected such as apraxia-of-speech, dysarthria, articulation disorder, hypernasality or stuttering (shahin, ahmed, smith, duenser, & epps, 2019). looking by those kinds of features mentioned above, the mailto:dwipuji995@gmail.com dwi puji nurhayati, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa the student’s production of speech sound disorder and its causes 40 speech sound disorders in this student clearly cooccurs with stuttering. as unicomb, hewatt, spencer & harrison (2017) stated that stuttering and speech sound disorder have been intertwined between each other and the rate is up to 30-40%. in other words, the percentage of stuttering might occurs in speech sound disorders children is clearly high. mohamadi, madiseh & sedehi (2016) explained that the term of stuttering used to explain the disorder that disturbed the pace and continuity of utterances. this research mainly concerns on how the production of language in student’s speech sound disorder, in terms of speaking. moreover, the field that is not being revealed yet by the previous researchers is how the participant produces the speech despite the stuttering and its effect. the researcher conducted this research also due to the lack awareness of people to this kind of disorder in speech, especially for the teachers, parents, and peers on how to behave when they are facing the students who had the speech sound disorder. teachers should know how to handle this student in the learning process, parents should embrace and put on effort to this kind of child, and also the peers should not be ignorant to people who have this kind of disorder. having these reasons, the researcher is interested in conducting the research entitled “student’s production of speech sound disorders and its cause”. production must be seen as a pivotal stage of language skill that people need to master. because it will be useless if people only acquire and comprehend the language, but they do not apply it for daily activity and practical functions such as communicating with each other. martin, branzi, & bar (2018) add that the function of language production is considered to be essential when it comes to the limitation of semantic meaning in the context of sentences. as a result, language production is considered to succeed when the interlocutor delivers the content and meaning that could be understood by other people. similarly, nozari and novick (2017) said that producing a word includes several stages, and the first stage is semantic features. people normally create semantic features in their mind before uttering the word. furthermore, the second stage of producing a word is lexical items. for instance, our mind consists of the clues and information that are later being spoken by our mouth, such as animal, four-legged, pet, and meow. in reality, we say “cat” as the manifestation of the clues in our mind. the researcher concludes that the language production stages mainly consist of the two stages; semantic features and lexical items, which ended when the speakers utter the word that they intended to. somehow, the language production can be achieved fully and correctly by the time the speakers reached their adulthood. in connection with language production, speaking also deals with the sequence of steps to create words and sentences as what macdonald (2016) argued that arranging the speech needs some sequences to combine the words to be sentences and to gather the proper phonemes and syllables. furthermore, this process also depends on the longterm and basic knowledge of the speakers, as it affects the way the speakers choose the range of words. in conclusion, speaking does not only seem like a sign of humans as social creatures. it also focuses on how our articulators work as a system to create the speech, and how the cognitive plays an important role to create an utterance. we could not ignore the term “speech” when it comes to the relation of speaking, speech is the way human communicates in a spoken way. afroz and koolagudi (2019) explained that speech is the natural form of communication in mankind which occurs alongside much interference like repetitions, hesitations, and pauses. however, if the interferences appear more than it should be in an appropriate age of humans, it will lead to a problem in speech. furthermore, the problem in speech consists of three varieties as what prelock & hutchins (2018) stated: (1) speech sound disorders, which result in the misproduction of speech sounds and word shapes; (2) fluency disorders, which interrupt the smooth flow of speech; and (3) voice disorders, which impact the quality of the sound stream from the larynx. in brief, speech sound disorder is a problem that occurs in the phonological system of human utterances alongside any other disorders such as fluency and voice disorders that are being marked by the pronunciation errors that are not supposed to occur in a certain age. unfortunately, there are only a few types of speech sound disorder which are easily detected such as apraxia-of-speech, dysarthria, articulation disorder, hypernasality or stuttering. (shahin, ahmed, smith, duenser, & epps, 2019). the difficulties of detection in speech indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 sound disorder case urges parents to be more aware of their children’s development. concerning to speech sound disorder, stuttering symptoms mostly co-occur in people who suffer from speech sound disorder. stuttering is indicated by the way the speaker utters the sentences with many pauses and repetition of syllables, as it mentions by unicomb et al. (2017) that stuttering considered as the lack of neurology condition which disturbs the speech’s flow and erratic obstacle in communication process. mohamadi et al (2016) also add that the symptoms of stuttering are marked by the repetitions of syllables in some words or phrases, delay speech or even sound blocking. stuttering seems likely to occur in anyone despite their gender, races, or physical appearances due to the unpredictable to whom it might suffer from. however, in term of gender ratio, nang, hersh, milton, & lau (2018) stated that stuttering is more likely to happen in males rather than females. the reason is believed due to the genetic factors that females are more resistant to inherit stuttering. thus, the characteristics and causes of stuttering also vary depends on the stutterers’ themselves. khan (2015) stated that the characteristics of stuttering divided into two kinds of behaviors. the first one is primary behavior as it can be observed easily by the researchers as it is characterized by these following features: (1) repetition; (2) prolongations; and (3) blocks. beside the primary behavior, khan (2015) believed that secondary behaviors are the signal of stuttering symptom. this kind of behaviors are also known as escape behaviors as it is shown by the loss of eye contact, eye-blinking, head jerks and even hand tapping. in brief, the sign of stuttering symptoms can be detected by the surroundings environment as it is marked by the prolonging and blocking of sounds, repetition of syllables, and also the high amount intensity of pauses. moreover, the gesture of the person also can be an indication of having speech sound disorders in term of stuttering. despite the physical reasons, coleman (2018) argued that stuttering may be happened by physical tension, negative feelings and behaviors, also the avoidance of speaking situations. this idea is in line with what afroz and koolagudi (2019) have explained that stuttering marked by a set of indicators such as tension, extra effort in speaking and lack of fluency. by that means, the psychological factors also play crucial roles in the condition of stuttering. meanwhile, according to sari (2017), the reasons of stuttering are divided into four different categories below: neurotic theories. in psychoanalytic field, stuttering is related to some types of unconscious neurotic needs. they believed that the cause of stuttering is based on stutterer's personality, mood and social skill. the main source of this cause is conflicts between child and parents or also known as parental pressure. however, this theory was opposed by many scientists as it it does not form a group with other behavioral problems and it differs from emotional disorders in children. structural or physiological inadequacy theories. the scientists believe that stutterers are lack of capacity in physiological aspect in order to manage their utterances, so that the stuttering can occur easily. furthermore, the stutterers are mostly lefthanded people because only the right hemisphere of their brain is dominant, meanwhile it needs both sides of hemisphere to speak simultaneously. thus, this problem is existed because of the lack of coordination between pronunciation, respiration and muscle of articulator. learning and conditioning theories. based on this theory, stuttering occurs when the person is facing fear, anxiety and struggle during their speech. expectation of communication disrupting theories. this theory means that stuttering is most likely to occur if the person or child could not have the speech performance of what society demands them to be. the society tends to be biased and view them as immature in term of cognitive, linguistic, and affective skills. on the other hand, khan (2015) stated that there are five causes regarding stuttering includes: genetics. children whose relatives are stuttered have a higher level tendency to stutter in their adulthood. physiological. many researchers believe that an abnormal production exists on stutterer’s speech production that is indicated by the breakdown and disfluent of speech. congenital. physical trauma of the mother around children’s birth also plays a vital role to be the cause of stuttering. auditory. auditory deficit is considered as one of the cause of stuttering. the evidence is that the auditory cortex of stutterers is different compared to the normal ones. dwi puji nurhayati, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa the student’s production of speech sound disorder and its causes 42 environmental. the children who faced stressful and demanding environment during their growth lead to the difficulties in developing their speech. regardless, the psychological factors also matter, such as avoidance of communicating with others and the fear of negative comments and behaviors as a feedback from other people in their surroundings. those kind of psychological factors are decreased their self-esteem in facing the social situation. method the research used qualitative method as an a approach to get the detail description and information in the process of conducting the research. according to creswell (2007, p.37), “qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, the possible use of theoretical lens and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.” in addition, qualitative methods were often being conducted to gain the further information of stuttering and its effect. furthermore, the researcher applied case study as the design. creswell (2007) stated that case study allows the researcher to investigate a case over time by looking into the detail data collection which consist of various source information such as observations, interviews, documents, and reports. thus, the research of speech sound disorder, specifically in stuttering conducted by using qualitative descriptive method to gain the data of each variable. the research used observation as one of the method to collect the data. creswell (2007, p. 134) stated “observation requires addressing issues as the potential deception of the people being interviewed, impression management, and the potential marginality of the researcher”. during the observation in the participant’s classroom activities of english language subject, the researcher recorded the participant’s utterances and communication skill, especially in speaking production. specifically, the researcher asked the participant to read the text consists of approximately 150 words entitled “true friend” and talk about the simple topic such as introduction in english. this type of observation is also known as stuttering severity instrument designed by riley (1972). then, the utterances of the student will be identified into three types of stuttering like repetitions, prolongations, and also blocking during the speech. in order to ensure those types of stuttering, the recording will be visualized by the application named praat. thus, the repetitions of speech will be detected by the curve shown in praat application. aside from the student’s speech, the observation also focused on several gestures which is showing the difficulties of uttering the words without being stuttered. besides doing the observation, the researcher chose to conduct semi-structured interview with some questions that are prepared and also known as a structured interview. according to given (2008), semi structured interview is a qualitative data collection strategy in which the researcher asks informants a series of predetermined but openended questions, thus the researcher has more control over the topic of interview. however, the questions are mainly related to the participant’s opinion about the stuttering and the reason why it happens. in analyzing the data, to answer the research question researcher used some stages of data analysis in qualitative research: collecting data, preparing data for analysis, reading through data, coding the data, and reporting the findings results and discussion the findings consist of the stuttering of student who has speech sound disorder and also the explanation of the stuttering’s cause which is conducted by interviewing the participant. during the first observation, the participant was being asked to read english text entitled “true friend” which has approximately 170 words. afterward, the participant was being asked to do free-speech with the theme of short introduction. within those two observations, the researcher examines the characteristics of stuttering in the participant’s speech by recognizing the primary behavior. table 1. types of stuttering in reading session no. words types of stuttering repetitions prolongations blocks indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 1. they-they knew that anything dangerous can happen any time in the forest. √ 2. so they promised each other that-that-that they would always be together in any case of danger. √ 3. one of them cli-climbed √ 4. a nearby tree-tree at once. √ 5. but… unfortunately the other one did not know how to climb up the tree. √ 6. the bear came near the on-one √ 7. it smelt in his ears, and slowly left the placethe place √ 8. "friend, what did the bear whisper-whisper into your ears?" √ 9. "just now the bear advised me not to believelieve a false friend." √ here are the picture showing using praat of the first utterance of stuttering in reading session which is: “they-they knew that anything dangerous can happen any time in the forest.” the red underline shows the way she stuttered. picture 1. the use praat of the first utterance of stuttering in reading session furthermore, the stuttering also appeared when she is being asked to introduce herself in short as explained in table 2. table 2. types of stuttering in speaking session no. words types of stuttering repetitions prolongations blocks 1. i live-i live-i live [in] cilebak. √ 2. my goal-my goal [is] director. √ 3. i study-i study at smk. √ 4. i ami am 17 years old. √ among those three primary behavior characteristics of the way she read and spoke, repetition is the characteristics that appear most of the time compared to the other two. as in the reading text observation, the amount of repetition in all over the text is nine times. while the blocking only appeared in short amount of duration, approximately one half second. on the other hand, the repetitions on the way she introduced herself briefly occur five times. overall, the repetition occurred fourteen times, while the block only occurred once in the reading session. furthermore, not only the production of speech that is being shown, the secondary behavior such as jaw-jerking also appeared as it is shown in the table below. dwi puji nurhayati, fahrus zaman fadhly, & wulan rahmatunisa the student’s production of speech sound disorder and its causes 44 table 3. physical behavior no. physical behavior 0 1 2 3 4 5 1. distracting sounds. noisy breathing, whistling, sniffling, blowing, dirking sounds √ 2. facial grimaces. jaw jerking, tongue protruding, lip pressing, jaw muscles tense √ 3. head movement. back, forward, turning away, poor eye contact, constant looking around √ 4. extremities movement. arm and hand movement, hands about face, torso movement, leg movement, foot taping or swinging √ total 10 based on the result of the interview there were several points that found by the researcher, which will be explained in the paragraph below. first, the participant mostly repeated the word such as in the word “cli-climbed”. rather than prolong the words, she repeated the word often. most of the time, she stuttered when she began to speak and read the first word. however, the participant’ stuttering usually disappears in a sudden, but suddenly re-appears in some words. moreover, during the reading session, she found the difficulties in saying the word with the initial alphabet as in the words of “they” and “that”. based on the findings, the repetitions that occurred in reading session is 9 times which the task score was 6 according to the stuttering severity instrument by riley (1972), meanwhile the speaking introduction session which is considered as job session was only 5 that the task score was also 5. the total points of task score in both aspects were 11. meanwhile, regarding the blocks that occurred during the reading session is only one half second and the task score is 2. it is noticeable when the participant began to stutter, she began to speak with low volume. meanwhile, in the term of secondary behavior, the participant tends to avoid eye contact when she stuttered, also the muscle tension near the mouth appear clearly with the head jerking. related to the stuttering severity instrument by riley (1972), there are four physical behaviors that is shown during the stuttering which had the scale from 0 (not noticeable) up to 5 (severe and painful looking). the first aspect of secondary behavior was distracting sounds such as noisy breathing during the speech, the participant has the score 4 as it might be seen as very distracting during her speech. the second aspect was facial grimaces such as jaw-jerking and lip-pressing and the score was 3 as it was pretty distracting. the third is head movement such as back forward turning away, due to the fact that the participant mostly turned her head while she was speaking, so the point was 3 as it is distracting to see. the last aspect was extremities movement such as hand movement during speech, but the participant was not doing the extreme movement during her speech so the score is 0. the total amount of score for physical behavior was 10. furthermore, the total amount of the task score, blocks, and physical behaviors were 20 up to 23, with the percentile of 61-77, so that the participant is considered as the term of moderate stuttering. second, the cause of the stuttering is due to the convulsions that happened to her during her childhood as the participant said that. “my mother said that i often got convulsions whenever i got sick.” the convulsion was the first symptom that indicated the lack of coordination between her brain and articulator. those lacks of coordination are noticeable when the participant speaks. in term of pronunciation, she speaks unclearly and also her heavy breath is somewhat noticeable whenever she reads or speaks. moreover, the lack of coordination between muscles of articulator is indicated by her muscle tension around her mouth whenever she utters the speech. however, the participant claims that her mouth is not in pain whenever she chews foods and it means that the lack of her mouth’s function is only appear whenever she speaks. third, the cause of stuttering is not only because of the physiological inadequacy of the participant. it is also indicated that the participant will always be fearful and struggling during her speech. it is showed when she was being asked to read aloud in english and even to introduce herself briefly. later on, she also stated during the interview that when she was in the elementary school, her friends often mock the way she speak. thus, it is indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 leaded her to have an anxiety whenever she speaks and it is the cause of her stuttering. conclusion after analysing the data in previous chapter, the researcher found that the production of language in the participant is commonly distracted because of the stuttering that appeared and noticeable. among the primary behavior of stuttering which were prolongations, repetition, and blocks, the participant’s stuttering mainly appeared as the repetition. during the reading session, the repetition occurred nine times, block only occurred once, while the prolongation was not found. on the other hand, during the speaking session of short introduction, the repetition appeared four times, while the other primary behavior was not occurred. the repetition is mostly appeared in the first syllable that the participant uttered. the researcher also found the cause of stuttering of the participant. the first cause happened during the childhood of the participant, it is caused by the convulsions. due to the convulsions, the lack of coordination between pronunciation, respiration and muscle of articulator existed. in term of pronunciation, the noticeable part is when the participant spoke unclearly with heavy breath. moreover, the lack of coordination between muscles of articulator is indicated by her muscle tension around her mouth whenever she utters the speech. meanwhile, the second cause of the participant’s stuttering is due to her anxiety. the participant indicated that speech is seen as somewhat frightening activity in her daily life due to the struggling that the participant faced the most. references asmoro, a. 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(2018). a systematic review and classification of interventions for speech-sound disorder in preschool children. international journal of language and communication disorders, 53(3), 446-467. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic wilany alya dwi pratiwi english education department, university of kuningan email: wilanyalya@gmail.com dadang solihat department of english education, university of kuningan, indonesia email: dadang.solihat@uniku.ac.id endang darsih department of english education, university of kuningan, indonesia email: endang.darsih@uniku.ac.id apa citation: pratiwi, w. a. d., solihat, d., & darsih, e. (2021). english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(2), pp. 31-38. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v4i2.5201 received: 14-05-2020 accepted: 19-07-2021 published: 01-10-2021 abstract: the objective of this research was to find out an english lecturer’ strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic and to know students’ attitude toward the implementation of the strategies. this study applied a qualitative method with case study design, the subject of the research was an english lecturer who teaching speaking course and five students from english education department of kuningan university. the data was collected by using an observation checklist and interview. the result of the research revealed that there are 7 strategies used by the lecturer in teaching speaking. there are: 1) voice note whatsapp, 2) video conference, 3) learning video, 4) podcast, 5) video assignment, 6) structure task / structure project and 7) elsaspeak application. from 7 strategies only a few strategies are considered quite effective. keywords: english lecturer strategies; teaching strategies introduction at the end of 2019, the world experienced a pandemic caused by a virus namely corona virus disease (covid-19). hubei province, the republic of china was the first place where this case was infected. the world health organization (who) emergency committee declared a global health emergency as covid-19 confirmed cases have been expanding globally. in indonesia, the first case was found in depok city on march 2, 2020. when covid-19 spread out to indonesia and peaked in march 2020, the government issued work from home (wfh) policy to stop this virus spread massively. due to the situation, the ministry of education and culture of the republic indonesia required all schools to conduct distance learning activities. this was done because of the increasing number of positive cases of covid in indonesia and to maintain of the health of students, teachers, and all educational staff. in this situation, online learning is one of the best solutions in teaching and learning activities during this pandemic. on the other hand, learning and teaching activities will be difficult to do if the lectures do not have a strategy to make students understands the material. strategy is an important aspect in teaching and learning process. in teaching and learning process strategy is an activity that should be done both teacher and learner in order to get learning activity becomes effective and efficient. learning strategies is the way to achieve the purposes of learning goals. based on friedrich & mandl (2008), learning strategies as sequences of action to reach a learning goal, procedures which are more or less complex, differently advanced, intentionally or consciously used to realize learning goals, and to cope with learning requirements. the concept of learning strategies is very important, learning strategies make the students easier in learning. the responsibility of the lecturer to motivate the students to speak english by using effective speaking teaching techniques. according to cole (2008), teacher’s role to provide effective wilany alya dwi pratiwi, dadang solihat, & endang darsih english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic 32 plans or strategies in accomplishing students’ educational need, whose general purpose is communicate using the language being learnt. speaking is one of four skills that the language learners that must be mastered. thornbury (2005) stated that speaking is an important component of the english art curriculum and provides the basis for the growth of other spoken skills such as its close association with listening. it shows that speaking is the most important skills because it is needed in communication easily and effective. speaking is an activity of the learners to express their ideas, feeling and thought. in this covid-19 situation, e-learning is the best choice for teaching and learning. according to khan (2005), e-learning refers to delivering learning material to anyone, anywhere, and anytime with using various technologies in an open learning environment, flexible, and distributed. furthermore, accessible and flexible learning words refers to students in terms of time, location, pace, subject material, learning style and type of learning, evaluation, as well as joint and independent learning are both choices. ghirardini (2011) stated that e-learning can offer one effective teaching method, such as practicing with related feedback, personalizing learning paths based on student needs, combining collaborative activities with independent study and using simulation games. e-learning can provide as a tool for encouraging students experiments in learning. this research presents the previous studies about english lectures’ strategies in teaching speaking. the researcher has the similarity and also differences with the previous study. the similarity is focus of research in lecturer’ strategies to improve students speaking abilities, and the differences is the researchers focus on researching what the lecturer’ strategies to teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic. based on explanation above, this research is formulated to answer the following question: “what strategies which are used by the lecturer in teaching speaking during covid19 pandemic” and “what is the student’s attitude toward the implementation of the strategies?”. the researcher tried to find out what kind of the strategies that lecturer used in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic and to know students’ attitude toward the implementation of the strategies. teaching speaking powers (2010) stated that speaking is the basic communications. it is the most important skill among the others language skills. speaking in a classroom is interactions between the students with the students and the lecturers with the students, which depends on how the lecturer organize the class. brown (2004) stated that speaking is a productive skill that can be directly and empirically observed, those observations are invariably colored by the accuracy and effectiveness of a task taker’s listening skill, which necessarily compromises the reliability and the validity of an oral production text. speaking is activity to produce opinion and construct the meaning. nunan (2003) said that speaking is the productive aural or oral skill, it consisted of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning. speaking is not only spoken, but speaking is an oral practice that involves making sounds to convey ideas and create language. as a result, students can acquire knowledge, comprehend the context of that information, and exchange the information with other students. nunan in kayi (2006) stated that teaching speaking means that the teacher teach the listener to: 1) produce the english speech sound and sound pattern, 2) use word and sentences, stress intonation pattern and the rhythm of the second language, 3) select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation, and subject matter, 4) organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence, 5) use language as a means of expressing, values, and judgments, 6) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. speaking is the most important skill than the other skill in learning english, because in speaking the students can exchange their ideas with other people, they can share the information, etc. speaking also is the most difficult skill than others skill, because in speaking the students must have knowledge and confidents to spoken in environment. so, the lecturer’ in teaching speaking must create interesting teaching process to makes the students interested and enjoy to follow speaking class. give the students motivation to more confident and practice. brown (2001) stated that in teaching oral communication, teachers need to show the details of how to convey and negotiate. teaching speaking is a process of giving lessons to students in which the indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 objective is making and helping students speak english. brown (2010) stated that in teaching speaking lecturer helps their students develop for real life communication situation. morley as cited in marmoah (2017) stated that the purpose of teaching speaking is to help the students to improve four things: 1) to improve self-confident in speaking and listening to english, 2) to improve intelligibility in speaking and listening to speaking english, 3) to improve fluency in speaking english, and 4) to improve accuracy in speaking english. based on the explanation above, the researcher concluded that lecturer teaching speaking as a facilitator in learning speaking with many strategies to mastery speaking skill. strategies in teaching speaking based on brown (2010) and thornbury (2015), the strategies that can be the teachers used in teaching speaking: using recordings and transcripts. this strategy is done to raise learners’ awareness of features of spoken language. it is to expose them to instance. the strategy is done by playing learners recordings of monologue or multiparty talk. by doing this activity, the learners will know how the speaking activity goes and how discourse management is in program. using live listening. this strategy is used to raise learners’ awareness of features of spoken language too. by using live listening it gives the bigger chance for the students to engage in a learning activity with their teacher. the advantage of live listening is that the learners can interact to ask question, clarify details, and solicit repeats. noticing-gap-activities. this strategy is used by making the learners to get important messages about their current state of proficiency by attending to their own output and by making comparisons between their output and that of others. in the learning of the speaking, learners may benefit from first “having a go” and then observing a skilled performing the same task. drilling and chants. drilling and chants are the strategies regard to appropriation activities. drilling that is imitating and repeating words, phrases, and even whole utterances. thus, after learners have listened to a dialogue the lecturer can isolate specific phrases or utterances and ask learners to repeat them. the impact of repeating them is certain to cause them to extra salient. drilling additionally presents a way of gaining articulatory control over language-of “getting your tongue round it”. chants is more playful form of practice that replicates the repeating and chunking nature of drilling is the use of chants. chants is extra memorable than in standard drills. writing tasks. writing has a beneficial position to play as an initial stage in the appropriation of newly encountered language for speaking. it can act as a way of easing the transition from gaining knowledge to using. learners have a tendency to rely on a very narrow repertoire of memorized expressions in face to-face interaction. so, an important function of classroom speaking activities is to help learners extend their range of such features. the form of the activities can be in dictation, paper conversations, computer mediated chat, and rewriting. dialogues. practicing dialogues has an extended record in language teaching-not surprisingly, considering language is basically dialogic in its use, and any grammar structure or lexical area can be worked into a dialogue with a little ingenuity. dialogue exercise additionally gives a beneficial alternate of awareness from teacher-led classroom interaction. even in a large class with constant furniture, setting up pair work is not an insurmountable management challenge. task repetition. the contextual teaching can impact the fluency of learners’ english speaking. this strategy is also influence the students’ accuracy any complexity of production. with the advent task-based learning, it is found that by manipulating the condition of speaking tasks: a) giving the learner unlimited time when performing a task increases their accuracy, but at the expense of their fluency, b) allowing time for pre-task planning enhances fluency, resulted faster speech and fewer silent pauses, c) likewise, pre-task planning has a positive effect on the complexity of the language that is produced, d) repeating a task shown gains in accuracy (including pronunciation), fluency, and complexity. presentation and talks. the experience of standing up in front of in their colleagues and speaking for a sustained turn is excellent preparation for real-life speaking. this is mainly the case if they also have to respond to questions. stories, jokes, and anecdotes. storytelling is an ordinary feature of language and one of the important components of informal conversation. wilany alya dwi pratiwi, dadang solihat, & endang darsih english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic 34 through their stories learners not only practice the essential skill, but they can also get to know one another: we are our stories. narration has always been one of the main means of having learners recount folk tales, or amusing or dramatic incidents based on a series of pictures. the value of encouraging learners to tell their own stories has been recognized, and course books now include personalized narrating tasks, whether monologue or dialogue, as matter of course. drama, role-play, and simulation. speaking activities involving a drama element, in which learners take an imaginative leap out of the confines of the classroom, provide a useful springboard for real-life language use. situations that learners are likely to encounter when using english in the real world can be simulated, and a greater range of registers can be practiced than are normally available in classroom talk. moreover, simulation and artifice suit the temperament of certain learners, who may feel uncomfortable “being themselves” in a second language. discussion and debates. the best discussion in the classroom is the one that is spontaneously arise in the english speaking class, either it is because of the students’ personal experience that they report in the classroom or from a text or topic in the textbook that triggers some debate. it becomes important to the lecturer to be able to raise the situation where discussion and debate can be formed in more formal way for teaching english speaking. conversation and chat. classroom conversation and casual chat have varied over the years. conversation and chat provide a good condition in english as a second language class. conversation and chat is best to be applied in a traditional grammar-focused class. outside-class speaking. learners can improve their speaking ability with the ease of the transition from classroom to the outside world, the lecturer can use the strategy as a task to do outside class. components of speaking speaking is not only about pronunciation and fluency, but it is all about how to make another people understand what the speaker meaning and got the purposes of communication. according to brown (2004), there are six components to measure students’ speaking, there are fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, comprehension, and task. hornby (1996) stated that speaking component are pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluently, and self-confident. pronunciation hornby defined pronunciation as the way in which a language is a spoken, way in which a word is pronounced. pronunciation is one of the important aspects between stress, accent, and intonation. pronunciation helps the listener to catch up what the speaker said. furthermore, harmer (2001) stated that pronunciation is the way of a person produce or utters the sound of the words meaningfully and accurately to be understood by others in communication such as different phonemes, rising and falling in intonation and stress. grammar grammar and pronunciation have a close relationship. in addition to the sound system, learners must be taught by using structure system of language. learners must be given insight into word order, inflection and derivation into the order significant functions of the english language. it will help students to speak fluently. vocabulary hornby (1996) stated that vocabulary is range of words known or used by a person in trade, profession, and others to speak english well, the students must have a lot of vocabularies. it will make easier the students to express their opinions or ideas. fluency hornby (1996) defined fluency as the quality of being able to speak smoothly and easily. fluency is as the quality of being capable to speak without hesitation. self-confidence self-confidence becomes an important factor in speaking learning process. a student whose great grammatical and has a lot of vocabularies skills generally more confident to express their ideas, opinions, suggestion or answer the question. they know what they can say and how to express. teaching speaking in higher education regarding the teaching of speaking to students at higher education, teachers should remember they must treat students fairly impartially and with respect is a must for teachers since the students need an adult in charge of the classroom (brown, 2001). in teaching speaking, the lecturer must create interesting strategies to make the students interest to indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 follow the lecturers speaking class. give more motivation to make them confident to speak up about their opinions, ideas, and make them confident to express themselves. in higher education the lecturers must have a lot a practice, because in that levels practice is the most important things. after practice, evaluation also is the next part. doing the evaluation is to find out the deficiencies experienced by students during speaking practice. this is important to improve students’ speaking abilities. teaching online during covid-19 pandemic online teaching implies a teaching and learning process that uses electronic as a tools. nowadays, technology is getting advanced, the use of electronics as a tool in teaching and learning process has become commonplace. although there are some lecturers who have not been able to use it properly. especially in the face of the covid-19 outbreak, online learning is the only way that can be done to teaching and learning. according to hartanto, antonius, & onno (2002), online learning is a form of information technology that is applied in the field of education in the form of virtual schools. the teaching and learning process that are usually performed in the classroom are done live in online learning technologies but virtually, means that when everyone can access at the same times from different places. when the lecturers teach in front of a screen that is situated in area, the student follow along the lesson learnt from the other location. and then the students can download the file in the form of files, while interactive instructions and students can be found in the form of assignments or discussion. intensive discussion groups and emails were used to do this. online learning is made for a solution when conventional teaching cannot be carried out, because online learning is made equivalent to conventional class. method this research uses a qualitative case study to analyze the data. this approach was chosen because the researcher felt that this approach was the most appropriate approach to meet the purposes of this research, who want to get an overview of what the lectures’ strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic. qualitative method as a research process, expressing descriptive data in written or oral form, can observe people and behavior. thus, this research uses case study design to gain the data of each variable. the qualitative approach to a case study with the investigator focusing on one or more cases over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources information (creswell, 2013). qualitative research can also be described as an effective model that occurs in a natural setting that enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from being highly involved in the actual experiences (creswell, 2003). this research was conducted to reveal facts in an object, where the result is something that really happened and not an essay by the researcher. from the explanation above, it can be concluded that qualitative descriptive is the research procedure a research that contains descriptive not numbers. these descriptions are the result of the findings of researchers in the field, something that actually happened or could be called a fact, not an engineering researcher. in this research, the researcher conducted a descriptive study using qualitative techniques. this research is conducted at kuningan university in english department. the main reason for choosing english department kuningan university was because there is the standard of criteria in conducting the research topic about lectures’ strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic. the participant of this study was an english lecturer who teaches academic speaking and listening, the lecturer was chosen as participant because the lecturer has taught english for ten years. and to another participant are five students who are in 4 semesters in academic speaking and listening class from english education department kuningan university. the data collection phases an important aspect of the qualitative analysis process, because it helps researcher to consider the types of approaches and procedures used to gather data, as well as their applicability to answering questions. understanding how their participation influences analysis and especially describing how this influences the research methodology will help qualitative research become more transparent. the clarity of the entire data collection process enables readers to judge the data collection method used and whether the decision made during the data collection process are wise (cresswell, 2007). wilany alya dwi pratiwi, dadang solihat, & endang darsih english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic 36 in this research, the researcher used qualitative data collection method that consists of observation, document analysis, and interview. the observation will be done directly, on the e-class as a uniku platform and zoom or google meet as a supporting platform. the researcher used observation sheet by thornburry (2005). the documentation of this research used lecturer lesson plan, the documentation tools were used to obtain documents that are related to this research. the document analysis was used to gain more data besides observation. beside observation and document analysis, the researcher used interview as the method to collect the data. interview is one of the most widely methods for obtaining qualitative data. in addition, during interview, the researcher recorded what the students said. using voice notes through whatsapp, it helped the researcher to make transcription to gain the more information the researcher modified masitoh’s (2017) interview sheet. furthermore, this research used technique of analyzing data by creswell (2014) who divided the process of analysis into six phases, namely organize and preparing data for analysis, reading through all data, coding the data, themes/description, interrelating themes/description, and interpreting the meaning of themes/description. results and discussion based on the results of observation, it is revealed that there are many activities in the teaching and learning process. before starting the learning activities, the lecturers did greetings and prayed together. the lecturer started by asking the student’s condition and inviting the students to discuss the material provided by the lecturer in the learning video. in speaking class, more practice is a way to increase the students speaking skills, because in speaking class the most important is practice and the material is the second. usually when students are used to speaking english, they will also be faster in mastering the material. most of the lecturers do this way to make students faster in mastery of english speaking. dialogue is one of the strategies for learning english speaking to increase the speaking skill, the lecturer in english class should often invite students to dialogue using english. this is one that can provoke the students to speak and train them in terms of increasing their skill and also to gain confidence in speaking english. dialogue also helps the students in learning how they pronounce a word and training them to express their opinions or ideas about something spontaneously. in speaking, doing a presentation simulation is a common thing which is done to make students learn what they should do when they have a profession. simulation presentation also helps students to increase their confidence and make them accustomed to giving presentations in english. these strategies used to know the students’ vocabulary, fluently in speaking english, to know the mastery of grammar in speaking english, to know how the students pronounce a word, and train their confidence in speaking english in front of a crowd. these strategies can also be done to prepare them for the future. before the class ends, the lecturer reminded the students about the material, after that the teacher gave them some information about the next material and the next task. because of the pandemic situations, the lecturer gave the students motivation to continue learning even though it has to be done online but must always learn and practice. the lecturer gave motivation to always take care of themselves, stay healthy, and implement health protocols. strategy in teaching is very important, especially in pandemic situations. the lecturer should have the best strategies in teaching to make the students easily learn speaking. the strategy is guided the lecturer in teaching, if there is no strategy in teaching the lecturer will be difficult to teach and fulfill the student needs. due to this pandemic situation, learning and teaching is done by elearning. every lecturer must have a strategy in teaching, especially in these situations, every lecturer must be smart in choosing which strategy is suitable for use in a material during this e-learning period. utilizing technology as a tool in teaching is only way to keep teaching in these situations. so, the lecturer used many strategies related to technology. based on the results of interviews, speaking lecturers have various strategies. this is because the strategy is adjusted to the material and needs of the students. based on the findings, there are any difference results when the lecturer changed the strategies. because each material requires different results, also the strategy must be different. every strategy indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 that the lecturer used is suitable for the student needs, so there is no best strategy. all strategies are good, because each strategy has been adjusted to learning needs. the strategy is called to be best when the strategy can be conveyed well to students as well as the students can receive the material with the strategies used by the lecturer. in conclusion based on the findings, technology is only tool that can be used in teaching on this pandemic situation. the lecturer used technology as a tool in teaching speaking to fulfill the student needs, according to bahadorfar & omidvar (2014), technological tools have been regarded as ways of helping students improve language skills such as speaking skill. there are seven strategies that the lecturer uses in teaching speaking, namely voice note wa, video conference, learning video, podcast, video assignment, structure task or project and elsaspeak application. however, there are differences in implementing strategies during offline and online learning in this pandemic. learning in this pandemic situation, the lecturer mostly used technology as the main tool in teaching, such as in the use of the elsaspeak application. the lecturers created a class on the application to be accessed by students, so that they can learn together even though the interaction is limited and the lecturer can check how fluent the students are in pronouncing a word. during offline learning, voice note whatsapp are not used properly. however, during online learning, voice notes are used as a tool to find out how fluent students are in pronouncing a word or sentences. the lecturers also used voice note whatsapp as a discussion tool. another example is when the lecturer and the students do structured-assignments or project assignments. the task is an assignment to make a seminar attended by the lecturer and the students, which are usually carried out by indoors. but, during this pandemic, tasks are carried out by using zoom meetings. all of these strategies are used because they are in accordance with the lesson plan that has been made by the lecturer. most of the students’ difficulties learning speaking during pandemic situation is they felt that there was no improvement in their speaking skills. with the limited time, meeting schedules and selfawareness. they waste a lot of their practice time and lack of the motivation to learn and practice speaking by themselves, even though learn speaking practice is the most important thing. the absence of an interlocutor is one of the things that make it difficult for them to improve their speaking skills in e-learning situations. according to the finding, most of the students feel that the lecturer strategies by podcast and voice note whatsapp increase their component of speaking, especially in pronunciation. there are some students who feel that their component in self-confidence increased during elearning. this is because when e-learning they can prepare more before show or presentation and when they have a lot of time to take notes before answering the questions by the lecturer. based on the finding, the selection of vn whatsapp and podcast as strategies to improve students’ pronunciation skills is the right strategy. most of them think that this strategy really helps them in improving pronunciation skills. learning videos also the strategies that can make the students easily learning speaking, because this strategy can be accessed anytime and anywhere. by this strategy, the students can rewatch the videos when they do not understand the material. in conclusion, based on the findings, the lecturer uses seven strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic as mentioned by brown (2010) and thornbury (2015) about various strategies in teaching speaking. conclusion the research was conducted to gain the research questions, namely identifying the english lecturer strategies in teaching speaking and the students’ perception about those strategies. according to the data which had been collected through conducting observation, document analysis, and interview, the researchers comes to conclusion that the lecturer strategies in teaching speaking are vary. lecturer has attempted to implement some strategies, but there are some encountered numerous obstacles. the first research result of analyzing data gathered through observations shows that the lecturer implemented the strategies and tried to make the strategy work and suitable with the lesson plan that has been made. the lecturer implemented some strategies such as vn whatsapp and podcast, do the video conference, learning video, make video, and audio podcast, a project to make video (role-play), structure project and the lecturer introduces application elsaspeak to help them in pronunciation. but only a few strategies that the wilany alya dwi pratiwi, dadang solihat, & endang darsih english lecturer’s strategies in teaching speaking during covid-19 pandemic 38 students can follow, they are podcast and vn whatsapp, learning videos, and making assignments video, this is because they have difficulty in understanding every command given by the lecturer. they felt that the explanation is not detailed enough, virtual meetings that are rarely done make students find it difficult to understand every strategy that is being given by the lecturer. it also makes students feel that their speaking skills are decreasing. to sum up, the findings of this research showed that the lecturer implemented many strategies to achieve the learning goals and the students need in learning speaking by e-learning. however, there are differences in the implementation strategies during offline and online learning. learning speaking in this pandemic situations, the lecturer mostly used technology as a tool. there are some problems, this is due to limited time and communication sometimes makes students confused to follow. the research can be concluded that the strategies that are implemented by the lecturers are quite effective. references bahadorfar, m., & omidvar, r. (2014). technology in teaching speaking skill. acme international journal of multidisciplinary research. brown, h. d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy, 2nd ed. new york: longman. brown, h. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. san fransisco: state university. brown, h. d. (2010). principles of language learning & teaching. (4th ed.). longman: new york. cole, r. w. (2008). educating everybody's children: diverse teaching strategies for diverse students, revised and expanded 2nd ed. virginia: association for supervision and curriculum development (asdc). cresswell, j. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design. california: sage publications. creswell, j. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. creswell, j. (2013). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among the five approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. creswell, j. w. (2014). research design, qualitatives, quantitative, and mixed methods approcahes (fourth edition). thousand oaks, california: sage publications. friedrich, h. f., & mandl, h. (2008). handbuch lernstrategien: handbook of learning strategies. göttingen: hogrefe. ghirardini, b. (2011). e-learning methodologies: a guide for designing and developing e-learning courses. rome: fao. harmer, j. (2001). the pactice of english language teaching. great britain: pearson. hartanto, antonius, a., & onno, w. p. (2002). teknologi e-learning berbasis php dan mysql. jakarta: elex media komputindo. hornby. (1996). teaching speaking, annual review of applied linguistics. new york: cambridge university press. kayi, h. (2006). teaching speaking: activities to promote speaking in a second language. the internet tesl journal. khan, b. h. (2005). managing e-learning: design, delivery, implementation and evaluation. hershey: pa: information science publishing. marmoah, s. (2017). the strategies of english lectures' in teaching speaking. journal of research in english language teaching, 23-37. masitoh, & dkk. (2017). strategi pembelajaran tk. jakarta: universitas terbuka. nunan, d. (2003). english language teaching. new york: mcgraw hillscompanies. powers. (2010). speaking activity in the english literary classroom. london: corwinpress. thornbury, s. (2005). how to teach speaking. england: pearson educational limited. thornbury, s. (2015). how to teach speaking . new york: pearson education. limited. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 43 exploring multiculturalism implementation to foster diversity among elementary school students sandi budiana graduate student in applied linguistics program at universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia e-mail: sandibudiana_7317167640@mahasiswa.unj.ac.id novi anoegrajekti department of applied linguistics at universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia e-mail: novi_anoegrajekti@unj.ac.id muhammad kamal bin abdul hakim department of applied linguistics at universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia e-mail: m.kamal.ah@unj.ac.id apa citation: budiana, s., anoegrajekti, n., & abdul hakim, m. k. (2022). exploring multiculturalism implementation to foster diversity among elementary school students, 5(2), 43-50. http://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v5i2.8314 received: 29-06-2022 accepted: 28-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction cultural differences play a significant role in giving rise to various problems, but it is the persistent intolerance towards these differences that remains a chronic and unresolved issue. this ongoing intolerance continues to manifest itself in different parts of the world, posing significant challenges to societal harmony. on an international scale, numerous cases have surfaced that illustrate the consequences of intolerance. for instance, there have been incidents where the death of an individual with a certain skin color has ignited mass demonstrations and resulted in the destruction of major cities within a powerful country (banda, 2020). these events highlight the deeply rooted divisions within societies and the urgent need to address them. at the national level, intolerance remains a prevalent issue across various regions of countries. despite efforts to promote acceptance and understanding, cases of intolerance persist, hindering progress towards a more inclusive society. zooming in further to the local level, specific cities like depok and bogor have gained attention for their high levels of intolerance. research conducted by adawiyah et al. (2021) indicates that these cities rank among the top ten in terms of intolerance, shedding light on the need for localized interventions and strategies to foster acceptance and cultural diversity. in order to address this chronic disease of intolerance, there is a pressing need for deeper exploration and understanding of its root causes. by delving into the underlying factors fueling intolerance, society can better formulate effective strategies and initiatives to promote mutual respect, tolerance, and inclusivity. indonesia's foundation is rooted in a diverse range of philosophical values encompassing abstract: this research focuses on analyzing the actual state of implementing multiculturalism and identifying strategies to improve its effectiveness in elementary school students from an early age. the study employs a qualitative method and collects data from elementary school teachers and principals through indepth interviews, documentation studies, and observation. the data obtained is then analyzed through data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. the study reveals that the majority of elementary school teachers view the implementation of multiculturalism as highly important, while a smaller portion considers it important. teachers emphasize the importance of multiculturalism in maintaining social harmony, preventing conflicts among residents, fostering awareness of diversity within the country, and upholding national unity and integrity. a significant number of teachers express strong support for the development of teaching materials that integrate multiculturalism. however, the current implementation of multiculturalism lacks a systematic approach in planning, implementation, and evaluation. to enhance the effectiveness of implementing multiculturalism in elementary school students, teachers can employ various strategies. keywords: diversity; learning material; multiculturalism; qualitative approach. sandi budiana, novi anoegrajekti, & muhammad kamal bin abdul hakim exploring multiculturalism implementation to foster diversity among elementary school students 44 religion, culture, ethnicity, race, identity, island diversity, and geographical variations (jayadi et al., 2022). consequently, it is crucial to introduce and nurture mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences from an early age, as these values are integral to the nation's identity. the principles of tolerance embedded within the concept of bhineka tunggal ika should be comprehended and internalized by the indonesian society. however, there are instances in society that contradict these values of diversity. interestingly, the notion of bhineka tunggal ika dates back to the 14th century, mentioned in the book of sutasoma by the esteemed poet mpu tantular, who lived during the majapahit kingdom (khaeruman & ghazali, 2020). hence, the doctrine of bhinneka tunggal ika is an ancient teaching deeply ingrained in the history of java and the archipelago, spanning over a millennium (khamami a. maftukhin, 2017). embracing diversity reflects the essence of nationalism and exemplifies love for culture, diversity, neighbors, the environment, and the archipelago (noorzeha, 2021). however, instilling multicultural values in students within the school system presents a significant challenge. the entrenched structure of schools as national institutions poses obstacles to the implementation of multicultural education (smagorinsky, 2022). the term multiculturalism is composed of three fundamental linguistic elements, each contributing to its meaning. firstly, the prefix "multi-" denotes the concept of "many" or "diverse," highlighting the presence of multiple cultural identities and perspectives within a given context. secondly, the term "culture" encompasses a vast and intricate system of beliefs, values, practices, and customs that shape individuals and societies. culture is not confined to tangible aspects but also encompasses intangible elements such as language, traditions, and worldviews (samsu, 2017). it is essential to recognize that human beings cannot exist in isolation but are inherently social creatures. in this regard, culture serves as the foundation upon which societies are built, providing individuals with a shared framework of understanding and guiding their interactions with others (suwardani & suwardani, 2020). cultural values and norms shape individuals' behaviors, attitudes, and perspectives, influencing their way of life and societal integration. multicultural education, as advocated by banks (2008), encompasses a comprehensive framework that acknowledges and values the diversity of cultures and ethnicities. it emphasizes the importance of understanding and appreciating diverse lifestyles, social experiences, personal identities, and educational opportunities for individuals, groups, and nations (indrawan et al., 2020). multicultural education goes beyond mere recognition of cultural diversity; it strives to promote inclusivity, social justice, and equal educational opportunities for all students, fostering mutual respect and understanding among diverse communities. exploring the linguistic elements and underlying concepts of multiculturalism allows us to delve deeper into the complexity and significance of cultural diversity. it reminds us of the crucial role that culture plays in shaping societies, and the importance of promoting multicultural education as a means to foster inclusive and harmonious communities. by embracing multiculturalism, societies can strive towards a more equitable and culturally enriched future. raabe and bellman propose that biases between different ethnic groups can begin to form early in life, as mentioned by de bruijn et al. (2021). it's particularly crucial to focus on elementary school students when introducing principles of multiculturalism. this age group forms the majority of the student population in basic education. the integration of multicultural teachings in formal education is even more important as affective competence is a primary objective of elementary school learning. this is further underscored by the education policy which assigns a 70% focus on character education and a 30% focus on general knowledge, according to the education ministry's web manager in 2017. parekh (2012) asserts that multicultural education should enable students to understand various viewpoints, belief systems, and common experiences, and to respect other cultures' strengths and limitations. in primary schools, multicultural education plays a pivotal role in fostering students' character in a diverse world. however, challenges exist in implementing these multicultural principles, with one of them being the lack of teaching resources that embrace multicultural values. rokhmansyah et al. (2021) reveal that there is a scarcity of high-quality non-curriculum books with multicultural themes available for students. moreover, the core textbooks used for teaching often lack substantial content related to multiculturalism. an analysis of grade 4 textbooks published by the national education indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 45 ministry's bookkeeping center revealed only one reference to the trait of tolerance (subekti & sumarlam, 2017). textbooks, guided by educators, are crucial for effective teaching and learning (alsaawi, 2021), and providing books with exemplary characters is essential for helping students develop commendable personality traits (bayraktar, 2021). the shortage of such resources presents a hurdle for teachers aiming to cultivate multicultural values among students. additionally, this lack of resources contributes to a narrow understanding of multicultural values among teachers themselves, as indicated by adam (2021). kosasih (2021) defines teaching materials as resources utilized by teachers and students to facilitate learning. these tools are systematically and attractively designed to help achieve educational objectives, namely the acquisition of competencies and sub-competencies in their entirety (rahayu, 2022). according to pribadi & putri (2019), teaching materials can also be understood as resources containing information and knowledge that learners can use to gain the requisite skills and understanding. this study can shed light on the deficiencies in existing educational resources, such as the insufficient presence of multicultural themes in textbooks. this could act as a catalyst for changes in future educational policies and curriculum development. moreover, the research emphasizes the importance of enhancing teacher training in the field of multicultural education. this could lead to the refinement of teaching methodologies and create a more inclusive environment for student learning. ultimately, this research plays a pivotal role in fostering a more tolerant and culturally diverse generation in the future. this could result in improved pedagogical strategies and foster a more inclusive educational atmosphere for learners. fundamentally, this research is crucial in molding a future generation that is more understanding and appreciative of cultural diversity. this research plays a pivotal role in fostering a more tolerant and culturally diverse generation in the future. method this study employs qualitative methods as described by sugiyono (2017). according to him, qualitative research is grounded in post-positivism philosophy, and it is used to investigate natural phenomena in non-experimental conditions. in this approach, the researcher plays a significant role, the data sources are selected purposely and expanded via snowball sampling, and data is collected through triangulation techniques. the analysis is inductive, and the qualitative findings prioritize understanding over broad generalization. the study's data is gathered from informants that include key respondents and their associates. specifically, 64 teachers from 10 elementary schools in bogor city are the primary respondents. data gathering involved comprehensive interviews aiming to delve into research queries. these interviews were performed via focus group discussions (fgds). a study of documents was another data collection technique used to collect documents relevant to the research questions. these documents were examined to assess the integration of multicultural values in education. the collected data was subsequently analyzed using a qualitative data analysis procedure devised by miles and huberman (2013). this process involves three stages: data reduction, data display, and drawing conclusions. results and discussion the perceptions and insights of elementary school teachers regarding the significance of instilling multiculturalism in students have been traced. it has been found that the majority of teachers (90%) consider the inculcation of multiculturalism to be highly important, while a smaller percentage (10%) deem it important. teachers provide various reasons for the importance of instilling multiculturalism, including promoting harmony, preventing conflicts among residents (40%), raising awareness of diversity within the country (34%), and maintaining national unity and integrity (19%). the research findings indicate that elementary school teachers place a high level of importance on instilling multiculturalism in students. the majority of teachers expressed that the inculcation of multiculturalism is highly significant, while a smaller proportion still recognized its importance. this suggests a strong consensus among teachers regarding the value of multicultural education in the elementary school context. the reasons provided by teachers for the importance of instilling multiculturalism offer further insights into their perceptions. the largest percentage of teachers emphasized the role of multiculturalism in promoting harmony and preventing conflicts among residents. this reflects an understanding that embracing diverse sandi budiana, novi anoegrajekti, & muhammad kamal bin abdul hakim exploring multiculturalism implementation to foster diversity among elementary school students 46 cultures and fostering inclusive attitudes can contribute to social cohesion and peaceful coexistence within the community. another significant reason highlighted by teachers is the awareness of diversity within the country. this indicates an acknowledgment of the multicultural nature of the society and the need to cultivate students' understanding and appreciation of different cultural backgrounds and perspectives. by developing this awareness, students are better equipped to navigate a diverse society and contribute positively to their communities. maintaining national unity and integrity emerged as an additional reason mentioned by teachers. this reflects the understanding that multiculturalism, when integrated effectively, can contribute to a sense of national identity and unity, while also recognizing and respecting the diverse cultural heritage that exists within the nation. the data suggests that elementary school teachers recognize the significance of instilling multiculturalism in students for various reasons, including promoting harmony, raising awareness of diversity, and fostering national unity. these findings emphasize the importance of incorporating multicultural education into the curriculum and implementing effective strategies to develop students' understanding, respect, and appreciation for diverse cultures and perspectives. the perspectives expressed by elementary school teachers regarding the importance of instilling multiculturalism align with the views of ki hajar dewantoro as mentioned by sabtaningrum et al. (2020). ki hajar dewantoro emphasizes the need for education to be in harmony with indonesian cultural values and to promote inclusivity across various social, religious, ethnic, belief, and racial backgrounds. this highlights the importance of incorporating multicultural principles into educational practices in order to create a more inclusive and culturally sensitive learning environment. furthermore, previous research has shown that a shared understanding of multiculturalism among school principals, teachers, and students can have positive effects on the development of multicultural values. the study conducted by aeni and astuti (2020) supports this notion by highlighting the significant role played by educators in fostering a common understanding of multiculturalism. when teachers and school leaders embrace and promote multicultural principles, it creates a conducive atmosphere for students to learn and appreciate diverse cultures. these findings underscore the importance of creating a collaborative and supportive educational environment, where all stakeholders, including teachers, school leaders, and students, share a common understanding of the value and significance of multiculturalism. by fostering this shared understanding, schools can effectively promote multicultural values and cultivate a sense of inclusivity and respect among students from different backgrounds. in summary, the alignment of teachers' perspectives with the views of ki hajar dewantoro and the importance of a shared understanding of multiculturalism among educators emphasize the significance of integrating multicultural principles into education. by embracing multiculturalism and promoting inclusivity, schools can create an environment that values diversity and fosters the development of multicultural values among students. the investigation delves into the strategies utilized by elementary school teachers to instill multiculturalism in their students. the results reveal that all interviewed teachers (100%) employ an integrative approach, integrating multiculturalism into appropriate themes. this approach ensures that multicultural concepts and values are seamlessly incorporated into various aspects of the curriculum. further exploration of the data focuses on how teachers integrate multiculturalism into their instructional practices. the majority of respondents (76%) emphasize the significance of planning as a starting point for integration. they incorporate multiculturalism into their lesson plans, ensuring that it is embedded in the learning objectives, content, and activities. this proactive approach enables teachers to intentionally infuse multicultural perspectives throughout the teaching and learning process. moreover, it highlights the importance of incorporating multiculturalism from the early stages of instructional planning. additionally, the findings reveal that teachers also implement and evaluate the integration of multiculturalism in their lessons. by incorporating multiculturalism into learning activities and assessments, teachers provide opportunities for students to engage with multicultural concepts and demonstrate their understanding of them. this holistic approach ensures that multiculturalism is not limited to theoretical discussions but is actively integrated into students' learning experiences. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 47 it is worth noting that a smaller portion of respondents (24%) mentioned that the inculcation of multiculturalism is facilitated through contextual advice and guidance. this approach suggests that teachers provide students with specific instructions and directions related to multiculturalism, helping them understand and apply multicultural values in real-life contexts. overall, the data highlights the importance of an integrative approach to instilling multiculturalism in elementary school students. by incorporating multiculturalism into planning, implementation, and evaluation, teachers ensure that multicultural perspectives are integrated seamlessly into the learning process. this approach enables students to develop a deeper understanding of multicultural concepts and values while fostering their appreciation for diversity. additionally, the study reveals the nonsystematic implementation of multiculturalism in student learning, as evidenced by the lack of teaching materials and media specifically dedicated to integrating multiculturalism. the majority of teachers (74%) acknowledge the absence of such materials, while the remaining teachers (26%) are uncertain about their availability, suggesting that even if they exist, they are not commonly used. these findings align with previous research in the indonesian context, which indicates a limited focus on multicultural education themes and a lack of emphasis on the paradigms or principles guiding the implementation of multicultural education in educational settings (jayadi et al., 2022). subsequent interviews regarding the development of a textbook integrating multiculturalism garnered positive responses from teachers. the majority of teachers (98%) expressed support, with 58% indicating strong support and 40% indicating support for the development of teaching materials with multiculturalism integration. only a small proportion (2%) did not support this development. this teacher support aligns with previous research, which emphasizes the importance of teaching materials, such as modules, in introducing multicultural attitudes and fostering love for the country among students (l. fatmawati et al., 2018). further analysis of the reasons behind supporting the development of teaching materials revealed that the largest percentage (27%) believed that such materials would facilitate students' learning of multiculturalism. additionally, 22% of teachers indicated that these teaching materials would make it easier for them to impart multiculturalism. previous research has also indicated that educators perceive books to play a crucial role in addressing diversity, promoting cultural understanding, and facilitating language acquisition (adam et al., 2019). furthermore, it has been highlighted that teaching materials should be suitable and engaging for children, featuring colorful illustrations and using simple language (kusumaningrum & wahyono, 2019). considering the significance of teaching materials, the development of multiculturalism references in textbooks would provide guidance for teachers in instilling multicultural values in elementary school students as shown in figure 1: figure 1. reason for teachers supporting the development of multicultural based learning material the findings from in-depth interviews with elementary school teachers regarding suggestions to enhance and improve the effectiveness of instilling multiculturalism are summarized in figure 2 below. figure 2. suggestion from teachers to improve the effectivity of multiculturalism implantation the data presented in figure 2 illustrates the strategies proposed by teachers to enhance the effectiveness of instilling multiculturalism in students. these strategies include the use of engaging learning media, provision of teaching materials, and incorporation of real-life examples sandi budiana, novi anoegrajekti, & muhammad kamal bin abdul hakim exploring multiculturalism implementation to foster diversity among elementary school students 48 of multiculturalism. these recommendations align with previous research on the positive impact of multimedia resources and instructional media on student learning outcomes. the suggestion to utilize engaging learning media reflects the understanding that students are more likely to be interested and actively participate in learning when multimedia resources are incorporated. the study conducted by puspitarini and hanif (2019) supports this notion by demonstrating that students show increased engagement and enthusiasm when exposed to learning materials that utilize various forms of media, such as visuals, videos, and interactive elements. by employing engaging learning media, teachers can create a dynamic and immersive learning environment that captures students' attention and fosters their understanding of multicultural concepts. furthermore, the use of instructional media is identified as a strategy to enhance the effectiveness of instilling multiculturalism. the research conducted by al mardhiyyah, latief, and masduqi (2021) reveals that instructional media can play a crucial role in promoting successful learning outcomes. it has been found that instructional media not only increases student motivation but also helps overcome language barriers in the classroom. by utilizing instructional media, teachers can create a more interactive and inclusive learning experience, enabling students to comprehend and appreciate multiculturalism more effectively. the integration of real-life examples of multiculturalism as a strategy is crucial in helping students connect theoretical concepts with practical applications. by incorporating real-life examples, teachers can demonstrate the relevance and importance of multiculturalism in everyday life, fostering students' understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures and perspectives. these examples can include multicultural experiences, events, or individuals from various backgrounds, providing students with tangible instances of multiculturalism in action. the strategies proposed by teachers, including the use of engaging learning media, provision of teaching materials, and incorporation of real-life examples of multiculturalism, align with previous research on the benefits of multimedia resources and instructional media in facilitating effective learning outcomes. by implementing these strategies, teachers can create an engaging and inclusive learning environment that promotes students' understanding and appreciation of multiculturalism. teaching materials hold significant importance in the learning process as they serve as a valuable resource for students, providing them with relevant and meaningful content. in addition to academic knowledge, teaching materials also play a crucial role in the development of students' character and the imparting of moral values. the research conducted by sulistiyo et al. (2020) focused on english textbooks designed for young learners. the study revealed a strong emphasis on moral values within these textbooks, including kindness, politeness, and empathy. these moral values were consistently presented throughout the materials, reflecting an intentional effort to instill positive character traits in students. by incorporating moral values into teaching materials, educators aim to foster students' understanding of ethical behavior and encourage them to exhibit these values in their daily lives. similarly, puspitasari (2021) conducted a study analyzing three english textbooks used in elementary schools. the research identified the dominant discursive representation of moral values within the textbooks, such as helping others, friendliness, politeness, and tolerance. these moral values were intricately woven into the content, providing students with explicit guidance on how to navigate social interactions and demonstrate respectful behavior. the integration of moral values within teaching materials serves to reinforce the importance of character development and encourages students to embrace positive attitudes and behaviors. moreover, both studies highlight that teaching materials, including textbooks, have the potential to integrate not only moral values but also multicultural values. by incorporating multicultural perspectives and experiences within teaching materials, educators can expose students to diverse cultures, beliefs, and practices, fostering an appreciation for multiculturalism. the inclusion of multicultural values within teaching materials enables students to develop a broader understanding of different cultures, promoting empathy, respect, and tolerance. overall, the research findings emphasize the significant role of teaching materials in the holistic development of students. by integrating both moral and multicultural values within textbooks and other teaching resources, educators can effectively nurture students' character, promote positive behavior, and cultivate an inclusive and respectful learning environment. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 49 conclusion this research highlights the important role that multicultural education plays in elementary schools. the findings suggest that teachers generally have a good understanding of multiculturalism and how to instill these values in their students. the instillation of multicultural values occurs in various forms, from delivering contextual moral messages and directions within the curriculum, to fostering these values through extracurricular activities and daily habits at school. a key finding of the study is the need for textbooks that incorporate multicultural education. these textbooks could expand teachers' and students' horizons and provide a more effective way to instill multicultural values. not only would they simplify the teaching process for educators, but they would also aid students' learning, thereby enhancing the overall effectiveness of multicultural education. thus, improving the systematic planning, implementation, and evaluation of multicultural education, as well as developing more comprehensive teaching resources, are critical steps towards creating a more inclusive and culturally sensitive educational environment. the adoption of these measures can significantly enhance students' understanding and appreciation of diversity, promoting unity and social harmony from an early age. references adam, h. 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(2020). “quo vadis” pendidikan karakter dalam merajut harapan bangsa yang bermartabat. in i. w. wahyudi (ed.), unhi press. https://www.kemdikbud.go.id/ https://doi.org/10.29333/aje.2019.426a https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101044 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v16i3.5828 https://doi.org/10.23887/jisd.v4i2.24796 https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v24i2.3027 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 69 the effect of problem-based learning method on students' critical thinking ability iskandar department of economics education, post graduate studies, university of kuningan email: iskandar@uniku.ac.id eman sulaeman al fathan department of economics education, post graduate studies, university of kuningan email: sulaemanalfathan@gmail.com apa citation: iskandar & al fathan, e. s. (2021). the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(1), pp.69-82. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4426 received: 28-01-2020 accepted: 21-02-2021 published: 31-04-2021 introduction the implementation of the asean economic community (aec) requires readiness in all aspects including human resources. therefore, the quality of human resources (hr) needs to be improved through formal and informal education. building quality education is the key to producing quality human resources, who are skilled in science and technology, and are competitive. one of the skills needed to face the mea is the ability to think critically. paul in itmeizeh & hassan (2020) defined critical thinking as "the art of analysing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it." duron, limbach, and waugh in rachmawati (2018) categorized critical thinking as an ability that includes the ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate bloom's taxonomy, so critical thinking is classified as a higher order thinking ability. the benefits of critical thinking skills according to jessica (2018) are increase sensitivity, save time, respect differences of opinion, improve communication skills, and become wiser. sharpening students' critical thinking skills is very important to be developed in schools so that students are able and accustomed to dealing with various problems around them. in the learning process, students' critical thinking skills can be honed and developed through appropriate teaching by means of students getting used to finding problems, analyzing problems, making hypotheses, collecting data, testing hypotheses, and determining alternative solutions. someone who has critical thinking is able to help himself in dealing with mental or spiritual questions and can evaluate a person or group to solve social problems that occur (duron, limbach, and waugh in eryadini and nafisah, 2017). based on a pre-research conducted in class xi ips sma al islam boarding school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency, to measure the extent to which students' critical thinking skills are in economics subjects, preabstract: the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using problem-based learning methods on students' critical thinking ability with emotional intelligence as a moderating variable in 11th grade students of social studies at al islam boarding school senior high school, kondangsari village, beber sub district, cirebon district. the research method used was a quasi-experimental with a factorial design. the subjects of this study were 66 students of 11th grade students of social studies (xi ips) at al islam boarding school senior high school, kondangsari village, beber sub district, cirebon district where the xi ips 2 class was the experimental class and the xi ips 3 class was the control class. the data analysis technique used the two-way anova test. based on the research results, it was known that there a significant effect of using problem based learning methods on critical thinking ability, there is significant effect of emotional intelligence on critical thinking ability, and there is significant interaction effect between the using problem based learning methods and emotional intelligence on students' critical thinking ability of 11th grade students of social studies at al islam boarding school senior high school, kondangsari village, beber sub district, cirebon district. therefore that emotional intelligence moderates the effect of using problem based learning methods on critical thinking ability. keywords: problem based learning methods; emotional intelligence; critical thinking ability iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 70 research questions were in the form of descriptions amounted to 5 questions using indicators of critical thinking skills. the results of the student's critical thinking ability test on economics class xi ips at sma al islam boarding school for the academic year 2020/2021 with reference to the criteria for the benchmark reference assessment (pap) scale 5 can be explained in table 1 as follows: table 1. the results of the student's critical thinking skill test in the economics subject of class xi ips sma al islam boarding school for the 2020/2021 academic year score category frequency percentage 90 – 100 very high 0 00,00% 80 – 89 high 0 00,00% 65 – 79 medium 13 19,70% 55 – 64 low 16 24,24% 0 – 54 very low 37 56,06% total 66 100,00% mean 51,21 table 1 shows the critical thinking skills of students in economics in class xi at sma al islam boarding school which is still in the very low category where the frequency of students in the very low category is students whose score between 0-54, the frequency of students is 37 people with a percentage of 56.06%. furthermore, in the low category, students who scored between 55 – 64, the frequency of students amounted to 16 people with a percentage of 24.24%. as for the medium category, students who scored between 65 – 79, the frequency of students only amounted to 13 people with a percentage of 19.70%. for the high category with a value between 80-89 and the very high category with a value between 90-100, the frequency of students was zero, which means that no students achieved a score above 80. the average student only reached 51.21 in the category of not passing because it is less than 65. students' critical thinking ability is one of the objectives of the 2013 curriculum. the 2013 curriculum has been applied to senior high schools (sma) at al islam boarding school senior high school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency. the results of interviews conducted by researchers to the economics subject teacher of xi ips sma al islam boarding school, namely mrs. siti soebah, s.e showed that students' critical thinking skills were still low. this means that there are still problems in learning economics in the classroom. in the learning process, teachers cannot create conditions and situations that allow students to carry out critical thinking processes. this can be seen from the activities of teachers and students during teaching and learning activities. the method most often used by teachers to activate students is to involve students in discussions with the whole class, from teacher to student and from student to teacher. in addition, based on interviews conducted with students that in economics learning the teacher is only oriented to the material without paying attention to the learning objectives. based on the conditions of these learning activities, students are not trained to think critically. the use of learning methods that are still teachercentered can increase students' knowledge. however, because students are not accustomed to building their own knowledge, the level of knowledge only reaches low-level thinking skills, while critical thinking skills are higher-order thinking skills, one of which can be measured by questions with high cognitive categories in bloom's taxonomy (jessica, 2018). the low critical thinking ability of these students is important to study. if the problem continues, it will have an impact on the inability of students to solve the problems they face. so far, students are only accustomed to fully receiving information without trying to find alternative answers and are accustomed to dealing with questions with low cognitive level categories. as stated by iskandar & mulyati (2019), teachers orienting to the completeness of material using simple method will only cause students to tend receiving more information and less afford the opportunities to develop their critical thinking ability.furthermore, if in the learning process students are not accustomed to thinking critically, it is feared that the output of indonesian education cannot apply the knowledge gained in real life and these students will find it difficult to develop even though their academic scores are good (jessica, 2018). the paradigm shift from teaching to learning requires the hard work of teachers in providing the best education to students so that they are able to develop themselves and are ready to enter the community. according to slameto (2010), teachers must use many methods in teaching because variations in methods result in the presentation of lesson materials that attract students' attention, are easily accepted by students and the class comes alive. teachers who are able to apply the method well will indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 71 certainly produce good quality students as well. the teacher certainly does not just convey the subject matter, but also transfers moral values. cooper in sianturi (2018) asserts that a teacher is a person charged with the reasonability of helping others to learn to behave in new different ways. a teacher needs more teaching skills than people who are not teachers. teachers must be rich in teaching methods and strategies. therefore, teachers must have broad knowledge and insight. referring to the description, it is necessary to make an effort to overcome the low critical thinking ability of students. to develop students' critical thinking skills in teaching and learning activities, learning methods must be developed, not only increase knowledge but also make students more active, able to understand the material in accordance with learning objectives, and be responsive to problems that exist in the surrounding environment. one of the learning methods that can be used to overcome the low critical thinking skills of students is problem-based learning (pbl). the principle of learning the pbl method is by providing problems as the first step in the learning process, the problems presented are problems that are often encountered in daily life, because it has better effect on improving learning outcomes. here the task of the educator as a facilitator who directs students in finding the solutions needed. in addition, problem-based learning can help to improve lifelong learning skills in an open, reflective, critical, and active learning mindset (rusman, 2012). pbl method is one of the learning methods that can be used to overcome the low critical thinking ability of students because it has several advantages, namely: students are encouraged to have problem solving skills in real situations; students have the ability to build their own knowledge through learning activities; problem-focused learning so that unrelated material does not need to be studied by students, this reduces the burden on students by memorizing/retaining information; scientific activities occur in students through group work; students are accustomed to using sources of knowledge both from the library, internet, interviews, and observations; students have the ability to assess their own learning progress; students have the ability to carry out scientific communication in discussion activities or presentations of their work; and individual student’s learning difficulties can be overcome through group work in the form of peer teaching (thobroni in rachmawati, 2018). the main purpose of the pbl method is the development of critical thinking skills, problem solving abilities, and the ability of students to actively build their own knowledge. the pbl method is also intended to develop students' learning independence and social skills. learning independence and social skills can be formed when students collaborate to identify relevant information, strategies, and learning resources to solve problems (hosnan, 2014). in addition to the use of appropriate learning methods, students' emotional intelligence is also a driving factor to achieve critical thinking skills. emotional intelligence is a person's ability to manage his emotions. emotional intelligence is related to students' ability to recognize their own emotions, manage their own emotions, motivate themselves, recognize the emotions of others (empathy), and the ability to build relationships with others. managing these emotions will be able to affect various daily activities, including also in learning activities (sulistianingsih, 2016). the importance of emotional intelligence is felt when a person interacts with other individuals or groups. a person is expected to be able to control his emotions with good and positive emotional management. in managing these emotions, of course, a person is required to be able to have good emotional intelligence. this emotional intelligence can affect a person's critical thinking ability. the better the emotional intelligence a person has, the more likely it is that the person's ability to think critically will be better (sulistianingsih, 2016). based on this explanation, it can be assumed that the problem-based learning method has an effect on students' critical thinking skills with emotional intelligence as a moderating variable. for this reason, the researcher conduct a research with the title: " the effect of using problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability with emotional intelligence as a moderating variable”, with the formulation of the problem: (1) is there any effect of using the problem-based learning method on the critical thinking skills of the xi ips class students of sma al islam boarding school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency? (2) is there an influence of emotional intelligence on the critical thinking ability of students of class xi ips sma al islam boarding school kondangsari iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 72 village, beber district, cirebon regency? (3) is there an interaction effect between the use of problem-based learning methods and emotional intelligence on the critical thinking skills of xi ips class students of sma al islam boarding school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency? method the research method used in this study was a quasiexperimental method. according to suharsaputra (2012, p.154), "a quasi-experiment is an experiment where not all variables that can affect the dependent variable can be controlled". this method was intended to see the consequences of the intervention, where this study aimed to determine the effect of using problem-based learning learning methods on students' critical thinking skills with emotional intelligence as a moderating variable in xi ips class students of sma al islam boarding school kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency. the experimental design used in this study was a factorial design. according to noor (2014, p.62) that: "factorial design is an action on one or more variables that are manipulated simultaneously in order to study the effect of each variable on the dependent variable or the effect caused by the interaction between several variables". the factorial design used in this study was 2 x 3 where the learning method consisted of two method, namely problembased learning method and lecture learning method, while students' emotional intelligence consists of three levels, namely high emotional intelligence, medium emotional intelligence, and low emotional intelligence. thus, the factorial design in this study can be explained further in table 2 as follows: table 2. research design emotional intelligence (b) learning methods (a) pbl (a1) lecture (a2) high (b1) a1b1 a2b1 medium (b2) a1b2 a2b2 low (b3) a1b3 a2b3 description: a : learning method a1 : problem-based learning method a2 : lecture learning method b : emotional intelligence b1 : high emotional intelligence b2 : medium emotional intelligence b3 : low emotional intelligence operational variable research variable the variables of this study consisted of three types, namely the dependent variable, the independent variable, and the moderating variable as described in the following description: (1) the dependent variable: the students' critical thinking ability. (2) the independent variable: the problem-based learning method. (3) the moderating variable: emotional intelligence. table 3. operational variable variable variable definition variable indicator instrument critical thinking skill the ability of individuals to use their thought processes to analyze arguments and provide interpretations based on correct and rational perceptions, analysis of assumptions and biases of arguments, and logical interpretations (hamalik, 2013, p.72) 1. give a simple explanation 2. build basic skills 3. make a conclusion 4. provide further explanation 5. set strategy and tactics (ennis in sianturi, 2018) test emotional intelligence a person's ability to regulate his emotional life with intelligence, maintain emotional harmony and express it through self-awareness, self-control, self-motivation, empathy and social skills. (goleman, 2015, p.512) 1. self-awareness 2. emotional management 3. productive use of emotions 4. empathy 5. relationship building (goleman, 2015, p.513) questionnaire indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 73 research subject the subjects of this study were 66 students of class xi social sciences sma al islam boarding school kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency which were divided into three classes, namely class xi ips 1, xi ips 2, and xi ips 3 with 22 students each. the class that was used as the research subject was class xi ips 2 and class xi ips 3 while class xi ips 1 was used as an instrument test class. class xi ips 2 was used as the experimental class while class xi ips 3 was used as the control class. technique of collecting data data collection techniques in this study were collected from test and questionnaire. test. giving tests in this study aimed to determine the extent to which students' critical thinking skills are. questionnaire. the questionnaire in this study was used to collect data related to students' emotional intelligence. the research questionnaire was prepared using the attitude scale of the likert method. the available alternative answers are: strongly agree (ss), agree (s), hesitant (rr), disagree (ts), and strongly disagree (sts). answer scoring scores with a range of 1 – 5 where the lowest score is given to strongly disagree (sts) and the highest score is given to strongly agree (ss). instrument test validity test to determine the validity of the research instrument in the form of description questions, the pearson product moment correlation formula was used as follows: rxy = source: priyatno (2013, p.16) description: rxy : question validity value n : number of samples x : score for each question y : total score of each sample  : quantity reliability test reliability testing in this study was carried out by using the alpha cronbach technique through the following: source: priyatno (2013, p.25) description: r11 : question reliability score k : number of questions b 2 : number of question variants 1 2 : total of variance difficulty level test testing the level of difficulty is to examine the test questions in terms of difficulty so that it can be obtained which questions are easy, medium, and difficult. reliability testing in this study was carried out with the following calculation formula: source: noor (2014, p.175) description: p : proportion of correct answers or difficulty level x : total score of each question sm : maximum score n : number of samples question difficulty level criteria table 4. question difficulty level criteria value range category p ≤ 0,30 0,30 < p ≤ 0,70 p > 0,70 difficulte medium easy source: noor (2014, p.175) discriminatory power test the discriminatory power test can be found using the following formula: source: noor (2014, p.176) description: d : discriminatory index a : the number of correct answers in the upper group (27%) b : the number of correct answers in the lower group (27%) : the mean of the upper group sample : the mean of the lower group sample sm : maximum score of the question the results of the discriminatory index calculation were then consulted on the discriminatory index criteria table for the test questions as follows:           2222 )()( ))(( yynxxn yxxyn                2 1 2 11 1 1   b k k r nsm x p .  sm xx d ba   ax ax iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 74 table 5. criteria for discriminating power of questions value range category d ≤ 0,20 0,20 < d ≤ 0,30 d > 0,30 replaced fixed used source: noor (2014, p.176) data analysis technique normality test normality testing was carried out with the aim of knowing whether the research data is normal or not as a condition for using parametric statistics. the normality test in this study was used to determine whether the research data was normal or not. normality test in this study used the kolmogorovsmirnov test. the results of this analysis werre then compared with the critical value. according to priyatno (2013), the basis for decision making can be based on probability: "if probability > 0.05 then the distribution of the population is normal and if the probability is < 0.05 then the distribution of the population is not normal." homogeneity test this test was carried out with the aim of meeting the requirements for using parametric statistics. the homogeneity test in this study used the levene test with the test criteria if the significance value is greater than 0.05 then it can be said that the variance of two or more data groups is the same while if the significance value is less than 0.05 then it can be said that the variance of the two groups of data is the same. or more data sets are different. hypothesis test hypothesis testing in this study used two-way analysis of variance (anova). according to winarsunu (2006, p.107) that: "factorial anova or often called multiple anova is a parametric statistical technique used to test differences between groups of data originating from 2 or more independent variables". the two-way anova analysis in this study can be explained as follows: table 6. the two-way anova analysis design source sum of square (ss) degrees of freedom (df) mean squares (ms) f factor a a-1 factor b b-1 a*b interaction (a-1) (b-1) error (a) (b) (n-1) total (a) (b) (n) 1 source: kusnendi (2018, p.6) table 7. statistic hyphothesis statistic hyphothesis test of statistic test criteria ho : αa = 0 : there is no a influence towards y fa ho is declined if : fa > f table for α, dfeffect and certain dferror , or p ≤ 0,05 ha : αa ≠ 0 : there is a influence towards y ho : αb = 0 : there is no b influence towards y fb ho is declined if : fb > f table for α, dfeffect and certain dferror , or p ≤ 0,05 ha : αb ≠ 0 : there is b influence towards y ho : αa*b = 0 : there is no influence of interaction between a and b towards y fa*b ho is declined if : fa*b > f table for α, dfeffect and certain dferror , or p ≤ 0,05 ha : αa*b ≠ 0 : there is influence of interaction between a and b towards y source: kusnendi (2018, p.6) indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 75 to find out the magnitude of the influence of each research variable, eta formula was used as described in the following description: eta square (n2) factor influence: factor influence: interaction influence: partian eta square (pn2) factor influence: factor influence: interaction influence: (kusnendi, 2018, pp. 6-7) results and discussion description of students' emotional intelligence descriptive analysis is a data analysis technique that aims to describe the existing situation or event. this analysis aimed to describe the emotional intelligence of students both in the experimental class and in the control class. each statement item has a score range of 1 to 5 for both positive and negative statements so that the highest average value is 5 and the lowest average value is 1 so that the criteria for the average respondents' responses are: table 8. average responses of research respondentsan no. criteria mean 1 very low 1,00 – 1,79 2 low 1,80 – 2,59 3 medium 2,60 – 3,39 4 high 3,40 – 4,19 5 very high 4,20 – 5,00 source: muhidin & abdurahman (2011, p.146) based on the category of students’ emotional intelligence, it can be determined descriptively of the emotional intelligence of experimental class students based on respondents’ responses to each statement item and the following total scores: table 9. recapitulation of respondents’ responses to the emotional intelligence of experiment class students no. statement score mean 1 i know my own feelings such as happiness, anger, disappointment, shame, and others. 87 3,95 2 i understand the causes of feelings that arise 85 3,86 3 i do not know the influence of feeling towards an action. 84 3,82 4 i can control my anger well. 74 3,36 5 i cannot express my anger properly (fighting easily). 77 3,50 6 i can control unfavorable behavior (vengeance, anger, and irritability) which harm myself and others. 74 3,36 7 i have good feelings of myself, school, and family. 75 3,41 8 i have the ability to overcome learning difficulty. 78 3,55 9 i can reduce feelings of loneliness and anxiety in relationship 81 3,68 10 i have a sense of responsibility toward learning. 78 3,55 11 i am not able to focus on the schoolwork. 78 3,55 12 i am able to control myself and do not change my mind easily. 82 3,73 13 i am able to accept the opinions of my friends. 79 3,59 14 i do not have a caring attitude towards the feelings of others. 82 3,73 15 i am able to listen to the teacher’s advice. 79 3,59 16 i am able to feel the benefits of hanging out with my friends. 78 3,55 17 i can solve problems with my friends. 78 3,55 18 i have the ability to communicate with others. 75 3,41 19 i have a friendly attitude or get along easily with my peers. 76 3,45 20 i do not have an attitude of tolerance and concern for others. 79 3,59 21 i like to help others. 77 3,50 22 i am happy to share happiness with my friends. 80 3,64 23 i don’t discriminate between friends insocializing. 80 3,64 total 1816 3,59 iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 76 based on table 9, it can be seen that respondents' responses to the emotional intelligence of experiment class students reached a total score of 1816 with an average of 3.59. if it is interpreted on the average responses of research respondents, the average is included in the high category (3.40 – 4.19). this shows that the emotional intelligence of experiment class students was generally perceived as high. thus, the emotional intelligence criteria area of experiment class students can be explained in the following figure: figure 1. criteria for emotional intelligence of experimental class students the thing that makes the emotional intelligence of experimental class students highly rated by respondents can be seen in item 1 which states that students know their own feelings such as happiness, anger, disappointment, shame, and others; and item 2 which states that students understand the causes of feelings that arise. things that make the emotional intelligence of experiment class students less than optimal or perceived low by respondents can be seen in item 6 which states that students are quite able to control unfavorable behavior (vengeance, anger, and irritability) that harm themselves and others and item 4 states that students are able to control anger well. furthermore, the emotional intelligence of experimental class students was re-categorized with the provisions of high (3.40 – 5.00), medium (2.60 – 3.39), and low (1.00 – 2.59) (muhidin and abdurahman, 2011). it aimed to simplify the data categories in the two-way anova test. based on the category of students' emotional intelligence, it can be determined the frequency distribution of the experiment class students' emotional intelligence. the results of the descriptive analysis using the spss application program obtained the following outputs: table 10. description of experiment class students’ emotional intelligence frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid high 15 68.2 68.2 68.2 medium 6 27.3 27.3 95.5 low 1 4.5 4.5 100.0 total 22 100.0 100.0 based on the table above, it can be seen that in the experimental class there were 15 students (68.2%) with high emotional intelligence; 6 students (27.3%) with moderate emotional intelligence, and 1 student (4.5%) with low emotional intelligence. thus, the majority of experiment class students have high emotional intelligence. these results can be explained again in the following graph: figure 2. description of experiment class students’ emotional intelligence indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 77 based on the category of emotional intelligence of students in table 11, it can be determined descriptively of emotional intelligence of control class students based on respondents' responses to each statement item and the following total scores: table 11. recapitulation of respondents’ responses to the emotional intelligence of control class students no. statement score mean 1 i know my own feelings such as happiness, anger, disappointment, shame, and others. 86 3,91 2 i understand the causes of feelings that arise 84 3,82 3 i do not know the influence of feeling towards an action. 81 3,68 4 i can control my anger well. 68 3,09 5 i cannot express my anger properly (fighting easily). 75 3,41 6 i can control unfavorable behavior (vengeance, anger, and irritability) which harm myself and others. 69 3,14 7 i have good feelings of myself, school, and family. 75 3,41 8 i have the ability to overcome learning difficulty. 71 3,23 9 i can reduce feelings of loneliness and anxiety in relationship 74 3,36 10 i have a sense of responsibility toward learning. 73 3,32 11 i am not able to focus on the schoolwork. 78 3,55 12 i am able to control myself and do not change my mind easily. 75 3,41 13 i am able to accept the opinions of my friends. 81 3,68 14 i do not have a caring attitude towards the feelings of others. 80 3,64 15 i am able to listen to the teacher’s advice. 81 3,68 16 i am able to feel the benefits of hanging out with my friends. 77 3,50 17 i can solve problems with my friends. 77 3,50 18 i have the ability to communicate with others. 80 3,64 19 i have a friendly attitude or get along easily with my peers. 76 3,45 20 i do not have an attitude of tolerance and concern for others. 77 3,50 21 i like to help others. 76 3,45 22 i am happy to share happiness with my friends. 76 3,45 23 i don’t discriminate between friends insocializing. 77 3,50 total 1767 3,49 based on table 11, it can be seen that respondents' responses to the emotional intelligence of control class students reached a total score of 1767 with an average of 3.49. if it is interpreted on the average responses of research respondents, the average is included in the high category (3.40 – 4.19). this shows that the emotional intelligence of the control class students is generally perceived as high by the respondents. thus, the emotional intelligence criteria area of control class students can be explained in the following figure: figure 3. criteria for emotional intelligence of control class students the thing that makes the emotional intelligence of control class students highly rated by respondents can be seen in item 1 which states that students know their own feelings such as happiness, anger, disappointment, shame, and others; and item 2 which states that students understand the causes of feelings that arise. things that make the emotional intelligence of control class students less than optimal or perceived low by respondents can be seen in item 4 which states students are quite able to control anger well and item 6 which states students are quite able to control bad behavior (revenge, anger, and irritability) that harms self and others. iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 78 furthermore, the emotional intelligence of control class students was re-categorized with the provisions of high (3.40 – 5.00), moderate (2.60 – 3.39), and low (1.00 – 2.59) (muhidin and abdurahman, 2011). it aims to simplify the data categories in the two-way anova test. based on the category of students' emotional intelligence, it can be determined the distribution of the emotional intelligence frequency of control class students. the results of the descriptive analysis using the spss application program obtained the following outputs: tabel 12. description of control class students’ emotional intelligence frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid high 14 63.6 63.6 63.6 medium 4 18.2 18.2 81.8 low 4 18.2 18.2 100.0 total 22 100.0 100.0 based on the table above, it can be seen that in the control class there were 14 students (63.6%) with high emotional intelligence; 4 students (18.2%) with moderate emotional intelligence, and 2 students (18.2%) with low emotional intelligence. thus, the majority control class students have high emotional intelligence. these results can be explained again in the following graph: figure 4. description of control class students’ emotional intelligence based on the description of the descriptive analysis, it can be seen that the respondents' responses to the emotional intelligence of the experiment class students reached an average of 3.59 including in the high category and similarly, the respondents' responses to the emotional intelligence of the control class students reached an average of 3.49 including in the high category. furthermore, the frequency distribution shows that the majority of experiment class students have high emotional intelligence of 68.2% and similarly, the majority control class students have high emotional intelligence of 63.6%. this indicates that there is no difference in the level of emotional intelligence of students between the experiment class using the problem-based learning method and the control class using the lecture learning method. description of students' critical thinking skills descriptive analysis in this study is also used to describe students' critical thinking skills for both the experimental class and the control class based on the results of pre-test, post-test, and gain. students' critical thinking ability was measured using test questions in the form of descriptions based on indicators: elementary clarification (giving simple explanations), basic support (building basic skills), infference (making conclusions), advance clarification (giving further explanations), and strategy and tactics (set strategy and tactics). the test results were then given an assessment based on the rubric that has been set by the researcher. the data on students' critical thinking skills were then analyzed using descriptive statistics through the spss application program so that the following outputs were obtained: indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 79 table 13. description of experimental class students’ critical thinking skill n minimum maximum mean std. deviation pre-test experiment critical thinking skill 22 29 67 47.68 13.667 post-test experiment critical thinking skill 22 51 89 71.64 12.591 gain experiment critical thinking skill 22 20 29 23.95 2.716 valid n (listwise) 22 from the table above, it can be seen that the critical thinking ability of the experimental class students based on the pre-test has an average of 47.68 with a minimum value of 29, a maximum value of 67, and a standard deviation of 13.667. after being given an intervention in the form of a problem-based learning method, the critical thinking skills of the experimental class students increased so that they were able to reach an average of 71.64 with a minimum score of 51, a maximum value of 89, and a standard deviation of 12,591. the increase in critical thinking skills of the experimental class students was indicated by the gain which reached an average of 23.95 with a minimum value of 20, a maximum value of 29, and a standard deviation of 2.716. these results can be explained visually as a graph or diagram as follows: figure 5. description of experiment class students’ critical thinking skill table 14. description of control class students’ critical thinking skill n minimum maximum mean std. deviation pre-test experiment critical thinking skill 22 28 66 47.55 12.137 post-test experiment critical thinking skill 22 44 80 62.91 11.380 gain experiment critical thinking skill 22 12 21 15.36 2.421 valid n (listwise) 22 from the table above, it can be seen that the critical thinking ability of the control class students based on the pre-test has an average of 47.55 with a minimum score of 28, a maximum value of 66, and a standard deviation of 12.137. after being given an intervention in the form of lecture or conventional learning methods, the critical thinking skills of control class students increased so that they were able to reach an average of 62.91 with a minimum score of 44, a maximum value of 80, and a standard deviation of 11.380. the improvement in critical thinking skills of the control class students was indicated by the gain which reached an average of 15.36 with a minimum score of 12, a maximum value of 21, and a standard deviation of 2,421. these results can be further explained visually as a graph as follows: figure 6. description of control class students’ critical thinking skill from the description of the descriptive analysis, it can be seen that based on the pre-test, the critical thinking abilities of the experimental class and iskandar & eman sulaeman al fathan the effect of problem-based learning methods on students’ critical thinking ability 80 control class students are declared the same because they have an average that is not much different, respectively 47.68 and 47.55. however, after being given different interventions where the experimental class used problem-based learning and the control class used the lecture learning method, there were differences in the critical thinking abilities of the experimental class and control class students, each of which reached an average of 71.64 and 62.91. this is indicated by the average gain of the experimental class which reached 23.95 while the average gain of the control class only reached 15.36. thus, the critical thinking ability of the experimental class students who used the problem-based learning method was better or higher than the control class students' critical thinking skills using the lecture learning method. hypothesis testing in this study uses two-way analysis of variance (anova). factorial anova or often called multiple anova is a parametric statistical technique used to examine differences between groups of data derived from two or more independent variables. factorial anova has several advantages including researchers can see the effect of various independent variables on the dependent variable either separately (independently) or combined (interaction). two-way anova analysis using the spss application program obtained the results in the following table: table 15. hyphothesis testing of anova two ways no. hyphothesis testing fcount sig. partial eta squared 1 the effect of using problem-based learning method on critical thinking skill 83,745 0,000 0,688 2 the effect of emotional intelligence on critical thinking skill 5,954 0,006 0,239 3 the effect of interaction between using problem-based learning method and emotional intelligence towards critical thinking skill 3,658 0,035 0,161 based on the table above, it can be tested hypotheses for the effect of using problem-based learning learning methods on students' critical thinking skills with emotional intelligence as a moderating variable as explained further in the following description: hypothesis testing 1. based on table 15 it can be seen that the learning method variable (mp) has a partial eta squared value of 0.688 indicating that the effect of using problem-based learning learning methods on critical thinking skills is 68.8%. furthermore, the learning method variable (mp) has an fcount of 83,745 with a significance of 0.000. the value of ftable can be obtained in ftable with a significance level of 0.05 with df1 = a – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1 and df2 = n – (axb) = 44 – (2 x 3) = 44 – 6 = 38, which is 4.098172. the value of fcount = 83,745 > ftable = 4.098172 and significance = 0.000 <0.05 then ho is rejected and ha is accepted, meaning that there is a significant effect of using problem-based learning learning methods on critical thinking skills. thus, hypothesis 1 proposed in this study can be proven true so that it can be used as a conclusion. hypothesis testing 2. based on table 15, it can be seen that the emotional intelligence (ke) variable has a partial eta squared value of 0.239 indicating that the influence of emotional intelligence on critical thinking skills is 23.9%. furthermore, emotional intelligence (ke) has an fcount of 5.954 with a significance of 0.006. the value of ftable can be obtained in ftable with a significance level of 0.05 with df1 = b – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 and df2 = n – (axb) = 44 – (2 x 3) = 44 – 6 = 38 which is 3.244818. the value of fcount = 5.954 > ftable = 3.244818, and significance = 0.006 <0.05, then ho is rejected and ha is accepted, meaning that there is a significant influence of emotional intelligence on critical thinking skills. thus, hypothesis 2 proposed in this study can be proven true so that it can be used as a conclusion. testing hypothesis 3. based on table 15, it can be seen that the interaction variable between learning methods and emotional intelligence (mp*ke) has a partial eta squared value of 0.161 indicating that the interaction effect between the use of problem-based learning and emotional intelligence on critical thinking skills is 16,1%. furthermore, the interaction variable between learning methods and emotional intelligence (mp*ke) has an fcount of 3.658 with a significance of 0.035. the value of ftable can be obtained in table ftable with a significance level of indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 1, april 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 81 0.05 with df1 = (a – 1) x (b – 1) = (2 – 1) x (3 – 1) = 1 x 2 = 2 and df2 = n – (axb) = 44 – (2 x 3) = 44 – 6 = 38 which is 3.244818. fcount = 3.658 > ftable = 3.244818 and significance = 0.035 < 0.05 then ho is rejected and ha is accepted, meaning that there is a significant interaction effect between the use of problem-based learning and emotional intelligence on critical thinking skills. these results indicate that emotional intelligence moderates the effect of using problem-based learning methods on critical thinking skills. thus, hypothesis 3 can be proven true so that it becomes a conclusion. furthermore, to find out whether or not there were significant differences between groups, a post hoc test was used where the test criteria used were if the significance value was <0.05 or there was an asterisk (*) in the mean difference, there was a significant difference between groups. post hoc test using the spss application program obtained the following results: table 16. turkey hsd post hoc test. no. group difference test mean difference significance value 1 high – medium emotional intelligence -0,59 0,743 2 high – low emotional intelligence -0,99 0,619 3 medium – low emotional intelligence -0,40 0,939 based on the table, it is possible to test the differences between groups of emotional intelligence, namely: 1) the difference between the high and medium emotional intelligence groups has a significance = 0.743 > 0.05, so there is no difference between the high emotional intelligence and moderate emotional intelligence groups; 2) the difference between high and low emotional intelligence groups has a significance = 0.619 > 0.05, so there is no difference between groups of high emotional intelligence and low emotional intelligence; and the difference between the medium and low emotional intelligence groups has a significance = 0.939 > 0.05, so there is no difference between the moderate and low emotional intelligence groups. thus, it can be stated that there is no difference between high, medium, and low emotional intelligence groups. conclusion based on the results of research and discussion that have been described in the previous chapter, some conclusions can be drawn as follows: there is a significant effect of the use of problembased learning on the critical thinking skills of students in xi ips class of sma al islam boarding school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency. there is a significant influence of emotional intelligence on the critical thinking ability of students of xi ips class of sma al islam boarding school kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency. there is a significant interaction effect between the use of problem-based learning and emotional intelligence on the critical thinking skills of xi ips class students at sma al islam boarding school, kondangsari village, beber district, cirebon regency. the results show that emotional intelligence moderates the effect of using problembased learning on critical thinking skills. references eryadini, n. & nafisah, d. 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(2018). pengaruh model problem-based learning (pbl) terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis matematis siswa smpn 5 sumbul. jurnal pendidikan matematika, 6(1). slameto. (2010). belajar dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. jakarta: rineka cipta. suharsaputra, u. (2012). metode penelitian. kuningan: rumah buku press. sulistianingsih, p. (2016). pengaruh kecerdasan emosional dan motivasi belajar terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis matematika. jkpm, 2(1). winarsunu, t. (2006). statistik dalam penelitian psikologi dan pendidikan. malang: universitas muhammadiyah malang. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 33 palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic heba jadallah department of languages, palestine ahliya university, bethlehem, palestine hebajadallah@paluniv.edu.ps mohammed a a farrah department of english language and literature, faculty of arts, hebron university, palestine mfarrah@hebron.edu apa citation: jadallah, h. & farrah, m. (2022). palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic. indonesian journal learning and instruction, 5(2), 33-42. http://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v5i2.5528 received: 29-06-2022 accepted: 22-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction whoever has taught me one letter has made me his slave. this is a beautiful phrase that clarifies the importance of education and teachers generally. education is a very important tool in improving societies. technology also is a good tool that makes the world entering a new revolution in education. covid-19 pandemic shows the other important side of technology in learning. according to itmeizeh and farrah (2021) educational institutions tend to depend fully on online learning during this pandemic. thus, the educational process keeps going even in difficult circumstances. to conclude, using technology in learning and teaching represents a new revolution in education. teachers and students should join this revolution. this new digital age of education is one that is crucial to teachers, students, and the advancement of education. this research will examine palestinian efl university students and instructors' perceptions towards using online applications. in this study, the researchers want to reveal efl palestinian universities students' and instructors' attitudes toward the sudden and quick transition to online learning. this may help uncover the opinions of this transition, the advantages, and the challenges that online learning has posed. to the best of the researchers’ knowledge there are few previous studies that examined online learning in palestine. this research is considered to be the first that introduces students' and instructors' views toward the transition to online learning across palestinian universities. thus, it will add new information to the ministry of education in palestine and help improve and challenge previous ideas about education. many educational institutions started to teach by using different online applications due to the coronavirus pandemic. according to basilaia and kvavadze (2020), the transition to online learning was quick. this sudden change did not allow for standardization and schools in georgia tended to use different online applications in teaching and learning such as; online portal, tv school, abstract: covid-19 is a virus that affects all spheres of life all around the world. students and instructors all around the world are forced to transfer to online learning applications as a substitute for face to face learning. hence, the pandemic has disrupted the palestinian educational system and caused online learning to become a necessity. this study observes palestinian university student and instructor perceptions toward using online learning applications during the covid-19 pandemic. quantitative and qualitative tools were used to collect data from students and instructors from 12 palestinian universities. thus, to collect data the researchers distributed 2 online questionnaires and conducted 32 semi-structured interviews. the sample of this study consisted of 375 students and instructors from different palestinian universities. the results show that both students and instructors agree that online learning has advantages such facilitating learning at any time and place. still, online learning has more disadvantages such as internet interruption, poor interaction, and more. instructors and students both harbor negative attitudes toward using online applications. finally, the study concluded with recommendations to improve online learning in the future. to facilitate higher quality online learning, instructors and students need support, training and a well-developed infrastructure. keywords: advantages; challenges; online learning; palestinian universities; solutions. mailto:hebajadallah@paluniv.edu.ps mailto:mfarrah@hebron.edu heba jadallah & mohammed a a farrah palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic 34 microsoft teams, zoom, slack, google meet, and edupage. the transition to online learning allowed educators to continue to teach remotely. additionally, according to almarzooq, lopes, and kochar (2020) the need to social distance because of the pandemic forced the us education system to transit to fully virtual learning. zoom and microsoft teams were the chosen appropriate platforms for education. using such platforms would allow the educational process to continue. moawad (2020) stated that because of the closure of the educational institutions in saudi arabia during the pandemic, a sudden shift to online learning occurred. online platforms were used in order to resume the educational process. students had concerns about final tests and assessments. so, using online learning needs a lot of preparation and training. online learning offers a number of advantages. any learning tool has advantages and disadvantages and online learning is one of these tools. according to itmeizeh and farrah (2021) online learning opens the way for learners to learn without being restricted by place or time. learners will be more motivated and responsible. also, instructors and course designers benefit from understanding any course’s aspects, increasing student understanding and participation. however, online learning is inherent with some limitations. it has technical problems such as slow servers, training and developmental issues, lack of web materials, and lack of facilities and high cost. sadeghi (2019) examined some limitations of online learning such as complicated technology. in case of any software or hardware breakdown, the class meeting abruptly ends. besides, al-jarrah, talafhah, and al-jarrah (2018) observed some obstacles of using online classes such as lack of technical support. another disadvantage of using online lectures is poor connection. this is clear in mishra, gupta, and shree’s (2020) study. they observed that internet interruption is a challenge in virtual learning. another disadvantage of online learning is the instructor and learner's lack of experience. altunay (2019) pointed out that students should participate in orientation programs at the beginning of the semester. also, face-to-face language learning speaking activities should be provided for better student-teacher interaction. this is in order to better integrate online learning. further, huang et al. (2020) explained that some instructors could not find online resources that are suitable in their teaching contexts because thousands of them were published online. dhull and arora (2019) revealed that online learning had barriers with high costs, so this affected its usage at institutions. layali and alshlowiy (2020) conducted a study about esl/efl students' perceptions and implications toward using e-learning during the coronavirus pandemic as a literature review. this study was done at saudi universities. the researchers used google scholar and education resources information center (eric) for getting data. the findings showed that students had positive attitudes toward using e-learning tools because using google docs improved their writing quality and the telegram app improved their vocabulary learning, nearpod led to their collaboration, and mobile technologies which improved student-teacher communication. but the slow internet was considered a challenge. similarly, allo (2020) studied efl learners' perceptions toward using online learning in the midst of the covid-19 pandemic. this study used a qualitative method with researchers conducting semi-structured interviews with learners of english study program of uki toraja by using whatsapp application. the results revealed that learners had positive views while using online learning in the middle of corona pandemic. additionally, this study spotted the light on internet breakdown financial problems, and selecting the appropriate and the effective online application while learning virtually. so, the learners recommended taking into consideration these issues in order to improve their online learning in the future. in the same vein, farrah, and al-bakry (2020) studied efl palestinian university students' perceptions toward using online learning. the participants were 191 students from different six palestinian universities and they were from different levels from the first year to ma level. the researchers used a quantitative research method as a questionnaire in order to collect the data. it was distributed online for all students. the results showed that students had positive attitudes toward using online learning applications. also, this research introduced advantages of online learning such as designating students as researchers. further, the researchers presented some challenges of online learning such as, students had poor technical support, their instructors should be trained more in using online learning applications, the evaluation system was not fair, and the whole technological infrastructure was poor. additionally, octaberlina, and muslimin (2020) observed efl students' perceptions toward using online learning during covid-19 pandemic. the participants were 25 students from the english indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 35 department from tadris bahasa inggris efl learners in indonesia. the researchers used a questionnaire and interviews to gather the data. the findings showed that students faced three major challenges while studying virtually; lack of interaction and personal touch, lack of technology and internet connectivity, and physical problems such as eye strain. however, the researchers gave solutions to overcome these challenges. nugroho, ilmiani, and rekha (2020) investigated efl teachers' practices of online learning and the challenges that faced them during the pandemic. the researchers used semistructured interviews. participants were 16 efl teachers from different schools in indonesia. all of them were teaching english as a foreign language and all of them had experience in teaching that ranged from one to eighteen years. teachers used different online platforms and applications. the results showed that many problems appeared with online learning: it took more time than face-to-face so it needed more preparation and planning, it required more training, students should be familiarized with online platforms, and more. as a result, online learning was not efficient enough to be used instead of face-to-face learning. in addition, gao, and zhang (2020) examined efl teachers' opinions about online teaching in response to the disruption of normal teaching plans. the participants were three teachers of english from a university in a northern chinese city and they were chosen through convenience sampling. the data was collected by doing in depth interviews. the results revealed that teachers had clear cognitions about features, advantages, and challenges of online teaching. however, teachers need to be more flexible, and ready to learn any new skills to overcome unexpected challenges such as covid-19. zboun and farrah (2021) examined efl palestinian university students' perceptions toward using online learning. the participants were 82 first year students from two intensive english courses which were english intensive 2 and english intensive 1 at hebron university. the data was collected by using a questionnaire and interviews. the findings revealed that students had an overall negative perception toward using online learning. also, the results showed that online learning had some advantages such as it had easy access, it was more convenient and others. but, the challenges of online learning outweighed them such as, poor interaction, interruption of the internet, less understanding, and more. therefore, this study aims to explore the advantages of using online learning in education. moreover, it aims to examine the challenges that face efl university students and instructors while using online applications. finally, the researchers aim to suggest solutions for the challenges students and instructors face with education through online applications. method two online questionnaires for both efl university students and instructors (see appendix a and b) were developed based on the literature review conducted by the researchers. both questionnaires contained 34 items and they were been distributed by the summer semester of 2019/2020 and the first semester of the academic year 2020/2021. quantitative data was analyzed statistically by using the spss program. thirty-two interviews (see appendix c and d) were conducted during the same semesters with students and instructors from different palestinian universities. this study consists of 301 efl university male and female students and 74 male and female instructors from different palestinian universities as a total of 375 students and instructors. all of the participants have been teaching or studying online courses of english. additionally, it consists of 21 interviews with students and 11 interviews with instructors from different universities as a total of 32 interviews with students and instructors. the researchers conducted semi-structured interviews. according to adhabi and anozie (2017) it is significant to acknowledge semistructured interviews as the ideal data collection mechanism for qualitative studies. it seems that using semi-structured interviews presents the perfect way to collect quality information. the researchers conducted interviews with 21 students and 11 instructors from different palestinian universities. thus, a total of 33 interviews had been done during the same time of summer 2019/2020 and the first year of 2020/2021. further, before doing the interviews, the researchers tried to take the students' and the instructors' permission to choose the suitable time and applications. results and discussion both questionnaires have two parts; the first one includes socio-demographic characteristics of instructors and students as shown in table 1 for instructors and table 2 for students which contain the frequency and percentage of each variable listed according to the survey categories. heba jadallah & mohammed a a farrah palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic 36 table 1. the distribution of the instructors' demographic data variable group frequency percentage gender male 50 67.6 female 24 32.4 total 74 100.0 age group 25-34 14 18.9 35-44 10 13.5 45-55 29 39.2 55+ 21 28.4 total 74 100.0 years of experience 1-5 10 13.5 6-10 10 13.5 11-16 11 14.9 17-21 14 18.9 22+ 29 39.2 total 74 100.0 university alquds open university 8 10.8 al-aqsa university 6 8.1 al-azhar university 8 10.8 al-quds university 4 5.4 an-najah national university 4 5.4 arab american university 4 5.4 bethlehem university 7 9.5 birzeit university 5 6.8 gaza university 5 6.8 hebron university 8 10.8 palestine ahliya university 8 10.8 the islamic university of gaza(iug) 7 9.5 total 74 100.0 have you taken any online training sessions before? yes 59 79.7 no 15 20.3 total 74 100.0 have you received adequate technical support for delivering your online courses at your university? yes 61 82.4 no 13 17.6 total 74 100.0 table 1 shows that the majority of the instructors are males constituting the total of 67.6%. in terms of age, instructors from 45 to 55 represent the highest percentage with a total of 39.2%. four out of the twelve universities have the same constituting total of 10.8%. regarding answering the two questions about taking online training sessions and receiving adequate technical support the majority responded with yes for a total of 79.7% for the first question “have you taken any online training sessions before?”. the same resulting percentage occurred in the second question “have you received adequate technical support for delivering your online courses at your university?”. the majority of instructors responded with yes with a total of 82.4%. table 2. the distribution of student demographic data variable group frequency percentage gender female 242 80.4 male 59 19.6 total 301 100.0 years of study first 11 3.7 fourth 127 42.2 ma student 38 12.6 second 54 17.9 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 37 third 71 23.6 total 301 100.0 university al-aqsa university 28 9.3 al-azhar university 10 3.3 al-quds open university 40 13.3 al-quds university 20 6.6 an-najah national university 28 9.3 arab american university 19 6.3 bethlehem university 39 13.0 birzeit university 31 10.3 gaza university 8 2.7 hebron university 37 12.3 palestine ahliya university 13 4.3 the islamic university of gaza (iug) 28 9.3 total 301 100.0 my major is one of the following (english literature, teaching methods, applied linguistics, translation, english/ minor french) no 0 0.0 yes 301 100.0 total 301 100.0 table 2 shows that females represent the majority with a total of 80.4%. fourth year students scored the highest percentage with a total of 42.2%. al-quds open university has the highest percentage with a total of 13.3% and bethlehem university has a close total 13.0%. all of the students respond yes to “is your major english” with a total of 100.0%. part two for both questionnaires answers the research questions, what are the major advantages of using online applications for learning? what are the challenges that face efl university students and instructors while using online applications? and what can be done to overcome some of the challenges? exploring the advantages of using online applications instructors and students have seen certain advantages of using online learning. here the researcher introduces them with mean and standard deviations. table 3. online learning advantages as perceived by the instructors and students # item instructors m std. students m std. 6 online learning offered me the opportunity to follow my study at any place and time. 3.39 .991 3.06 1.262 10 the online education provided a valuable teaching experience. 3.39 1.096 2.81 1.232 11 online learning promotes higher critical thinking (such as acquiring new vocabularies and idioms). 3.36 1.015 2.89 1.250 4 the web applications involved in online teaching are easy. 3.35 1.103 2.88 1.197 13 online learning offers effective communication tools. 3.35 1.221 2.82 1.202 14 online learning offers accessibility for instructors and students. 3.35 1.065 2.92 1.220 2 i found online sessions convenient and interesting. 3.27 1.174 2.71 1.145 5 online classes were effective in helping me achieve the learning objectives of the course. 3.19 1.029 2.68 1.201 1 the online education was flexible enough to meet my needs. 3.18 1.186 2.67 1.164 12 i recommend online courses to other instructors and students. 3.16 1.123 2.64 1.253 9 online learning supports student-centered learning. 3.11 1.015 2.82 1.264 7 i liked online learning because there is no need to go to university. 2.82 1.209 2.52 1.298 heba jadallah & mohammed a a farrah palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic 38 8 completely online teaching is an advantage. 2.78 1.114 2.58 1.266 3 i could deal with the online course more easily than face-to-face courses. 2.64 1.117 2.53 1.273 table 3 shows that instructors and students considered online learning to have a number of advantages as expressed in items 6, 10, 11 “online learning offered me the opportunity to follow my study at any place and time”, “the online education provided a valuable teaching experience’’, "online learning promotes higher critical thinking”. this indicates that online learning is considered beneficial to students for ease of access and for the valuable experience that it offers. moreover, they considered it to promote the higher critical thinking skills. the other advantages of online learning are related to the availability of the online applications and tools as shown in items 4, 13, “the web applications involved in online teaching are easy”, “online learning offers effective communication tools.” therefore, they reported that “online learning offers accessibility for instructors and students” as expressed in item 14 and they “found online sessions convenient and interesting” as shown in item 2. however, there are some items that received less agreement like items 7, “i liked online learning because there is no need to go to university”, 8 “completely online teaching is an advantage” and 3 “i could deal with the online course more easily than face-to-face courses.” this indicates that the participants liked the online teaching and learning experience because it is one of the offered options during the covid19 pandemic and not because they do not like to go to university. similarly, they did not consider that completely online teaching is an advantage. this means that they like face to face sessions because they could deal with the course more easily. exploring the challenges that face efl university instructors and students while using online applications to explore the challenges that face efl university instructors and students, means and standard deviations are calculated. below is the table that shows these challenges and they are organized from the most challengeable item to the lowest. table 4. online learning challenges as perceived by the instructors and students # item instructors m std. students m std. 10 i have concerns about interruption of internet or slow connectivity. 4.04 .943 3.55 1.338 11 i have concerns about software breakdown during my online classes 4.03 .921 3.47 1.311 9 online learning and teaching takes more time than faceto-face teaching. 4.00 1.123 3.27 1.277 8 the online transition increased my workload and working hours. 3.95 1.058 3.44 1.230 1 i have concerns about the absence of face-to-face interaction with students. 3.88 1.020 3.30 1.257 2 online instruction may isolate students and faculty. 3.84 .980 3.22 1.184 12 i have concerns about the quality of the voice and picture in my online classes. 3.82 .942 3.51 1.277 15 i have concerns about evaluation and assessment in the online environment. 3.80 1.085 3.40 1.183 6 lack of knowledge in technology has a negative effect on students’ performance. 3.73 1.076 3.49 1.231 13 i have concerns regarding sending and receiving assignments and materials. 3.70 1.043 3.36 1.298 7 i have concerns regarding large class number. 3.68 1.061 3.11 1.242 17 i have concerns regarding exams using google form. 3.68 1.087 3.22 1.228 5 lack of knowledge in technology has a negative effect on instructors’ performance. 3.66 1.050 3.55 1.179 16 the online environment made the evaluation of exams difficult 3.59 1.059 3.11 1.198 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 39 # item instructors m std. students m std. 14 lack of resources and web materials of online teaching had a negative impact on students' learning. 3.55 .953 3.27 1.254 18 i have concerns about the availability and effectiveness of my laptop and smartphone for online learning. 3.38 1.069 3.35 1.221 20 i have concerns about the availability of a calm room for online learning. 3.35 1.199 3.31 1.241 4 lack of technical help for students and instructors hinders the educational performance and progress. 3.24 1.070 3.36 1.187 19 i have concerns about the high costs of internet when using online learning. 3.07 1.317 3.12 1.232 3 i am unfamiliar with online learning. 2.55 1.218 2.85 1.264 table 4 shows that the instructors and students have challenges while using online applications. it's clear that instructors and students agree that online learning has the challenge of interruption or breakdown of internet and this appears in items 10, 11 “i have concerns about interruption of internet or slow connectivity”. “i have concerns about software breakdown during my online classes”. further, online learning has other challenges that relate to time and workload. thus, it needs more time and increases the workload and this is clear in items 9, 8, “online learning and teaching takes more time than face-to-face teaching”, “the online transition increased my workload and working hours”. additionally, they were afraid of having less interaction and being isolated from each other as shown in items 1, 2 “i have concerns about the absence of face-to-face interaction with students”, “online instruction may isolate students and faculty”. however, the item that has less agreement is 3, “i am unfamiliar with online learning”. instructors and students transferred to online learning suddenly without taking sessions or workshops so of course they are unfamiliar with this kind of learning. instructor and student interviews are analyzed and presented in detail. the interviews were conducted with 11 instructors and 21 students from 12 different palestinian universities. all of the interviewees accepted to participate in this research. 3 related questions were been asked to different instructors and students. the questions are about advantages of online learning, challenges and obstacles of online learning, and finally what can be done to overcome some of these challenges. the first question that was asked was “what are the advantages of online learning?” in response to this question, instructors agree that online learning has the advantage of saving time. some of them 4 out of 11 instructors talked about the negative sides of depending on online learning. but, most of them 8 out of 11 agree that online learning has a big advantage in saving time and effort. instructor 10: online learning is something new in our community, of course you can teach or learn at any time of the day, but unfortunately the infrastructure in gaza strip is too poor and it is a big obstacle, but the best advantages to instructors are free-lance and no fixed schedule and save a lot of time. also, you can handle courses more easily than face to face and can fix your suitable time for lectures. most of the students 17 out of 21 believe that online learning save time and effort. also, some of them 6 out of 21 agree that online learning makes them depend on themselves more. student 09: the best advantage of online learning is its flexibility and it doesn't restrict us as students in one place. yes, online learning eases my life. i can follow up my lectures at any time and place. student12: for me, i think e-learning was a great experience. it had many weak points, yet i found some lessons are more enjoyable and useful than face to face ones. also, it gave me the chance to learn from any place and at any time. it taught me to depend more on myself. moreover, it helped me to think more critically in the exams that depended on critical questions rather than theoretical ones. from the responses of both instructors and students toward the fourth question, it's noticeable that both of them believe that online learning saves time and effort. the second question that was asked in the interview was “what are the challenges and obstacles that you face during online learning?” almost all of the instructors 10 out of 11 talked about the unstable internet connection. also, some of them 4 out of 11 talked about poor interaction. further, 2 instructors out of 11 talked about the large number of students in one online session. instructor 06: the problem is mostly related to technology (technology phobia). internet interruption is a recurrent problem which leads to a great loss. instructor 10: there are lots of heba jadallah & mohammed a a farrah palestinian university english professors and students' perspectives of online learning during covid-19 pandemic 40 challenges, most of all electricity supply, the network infrastructure is too weak in gaza strip, and poverty is also a big challenge many students do not have internet at their homes. most of the students 18 out of 21 talked about internet interruptions. also, some of them 8 out of 21 talked about the distraction from others. others, so 5 out of 21 students talked about poor interaction with their colleagues and instructors. student 02: in online learning there is no participation or interaction between students and their instructors. i didn't get anything or information from this system. the internet is a big problem. student 04: technical problems such as internet interruption. also, distraction from my family is another obstacle. in relation to question 5 about online challenges it's clear that both instructors and students agree that internet interruption is the biggest obstacle. so, both of them talked about internet interruption and the outage of electricity. finally, the researchers asked the interviewees to suggest some solutions overcome some of the challenges. some of the instructors 3 out of 11 think that workshops are highly recommended in order to accommodate using technology. 5 out of 11 instructors talked about fixing the whole infrastructure and minimizing the numbers of students in one session. instructor 01: i think that we should hold more workshops for both students and teachers. further, we should study the feedback from both students and teachers and work on it. instructor 05: raising the awareness towards the benefits of e-learning. giving more workshops on using new technologies. use of satellite channels to broadcast lectures which needs less internet. helping poor students to be able to access technological items. some students (5 out of 21) talked about blended learning. 9 out of 21 students talked about supporting them with the appropriate internet connection. student 04: we should have blending between face to face and online learning. student 11: to provide us with the appropriate networks, and to have technical solutions such as downloading the recording lessons when the internet is off so students could open them without the internet. instructors and students believe that online learning is a new situation that should be accommodated with in order to be in line with the educational process. both of them suggest many ideas in order to improve this type of learning especially during this pandemic. after analyzing data, it's clear that both instructors and students have negative attitudes toward the transition to online learning. still, both groups agree that online learning saves time and effort and this is clear in the high average of this item in both questionnaires. online learning allows instructors and students to hold their lectures at any time and place. this helps to continue the educational process in urgent situations that prevent face-to-face learning. in the instructor interviews most talked about another advantage which is developing technology skills similar to what al-bakry and farrah (2020) conclude in their study. also, students have the ability to re watch the lectures at any time because of the privilege of recording all the educational sessions. in the student interviews some of them agree that online learning makes them depend more on themselves which is highlighted in other studies such as albakry and farrah 2020. online learning eases the way for instructors and students to study anywhere and anytime. as to negative attitudes toward using online learning, this research is similar to what the following studies also conclude: zboun and farrah (2021) and nugroho, ilmiani, and rekha (2020). this research concludes that instructors and students agree that online learning has more challenges and they have negative perceptions towards using online learning. the most challenging characteristic of online learning is internet interruption or slow connectivity and this is clear in the high mean of this item in both questionnaires and in interview responses. this conforms to what other studies conclude such as allo (2020), zboun and farrah (2021), layali and alshlowiy (2020), and mishra, gupta, and shree (2020). these studies agree that internet interruption is the most common obstacle because it is related to problems and difficulties from both instructor and student attitudes. the internet infrastructure in palestine is poor and this resembles what al-bakry and farrah (2020) concluded in their study. in some cases, students have poor connection to the internet and this affects the educational process negatively. in others, instructors have problems connecting to the internet which has a huge effect on the completion of their educational mission. besides, another obstacle in connecting to the internet is the breakdown of electricity especially in winter because of wind and heavy rain. in the instructor interviews another obstacle they highlighted is poor interaction and communication and large number of students in one online session. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 41 to combat this complication, instructors suggested reducing the numbers of students in order to make things simpler. in the student interviews some of them talked about poor interaction and communication between each other and this aligned with findings from other studies such as octaberlina and muslimin (2020) and zboun and farrah (2021). instructors and students suggest certain ideas in order to improve online learning in future. some of the instructors suggest to do more workshops in order to have better online learning skills and this is what other researchers concluded in their studies such as gao and zhang (2020), and al-bakry and farrah (2020). to improve online learning, training sessions should be held. with these, instructors and students will be more aware about using technology in the appropriate way. students suggest blended learning meaning they will attend face-to-face lectures as well as online sessions. they need to have face-to-face lectures from time to time in order to improve the quality of their education. also, other students and instructors talked about developing the internet infrastructure in their country in order to achieve better connection. conclusion according to the results of the study, students and instructors agree that online learning has some advantages such as saving time and effort. this is because online learning depends on the internet without the need to take transportation and go to the university. also, online learning had the privilege of recording lectures, so any student could watch any lecture at any time. further, both of the students and the instructors highlighted the advantage of promoting their higher critical thinking in using technology. however, students and instructors agree that online learning facilitates their learning and this is clear in their questionnaires and interviews. however, online learning has some challenges. students and instructors have negative attitudes toward using online learning and this is clear in raising more challenges than advantages. most of the students and instructors highlighted the challenge of the internet interruption and bad or slow connectivity. this obstacle was clear in both the questionnaires and interviews. in the interviews most of the instructors talked about the challenge of poor interaction and having too many students in one online session. some of the students talked about other distractions and poor interaction. however, both instructors and students agree that online learning has more disadvantages and challenges than advantages. in conclusion, instructors and students largely have negative attitudes toward the transition from face-to-face learning to online learning. in this study the researchers found that online learning needs more attention in order to make it more efficient. she suggests several ideas in order to create a better online learning experience in the future. first of all, educational institutions should hold workshops and sessions to train both students and instructors about how to use online learning applications. these workshops and sessions should be done both virtually and in-person in order to make things clearer. second, our government, officials, and educationalists should draw a clear picture about mending the whole educational infrastructure in our country. for example, technology needs to be updated by providing the internet for all people in order to make poor students receive their due rights to quality education. also, lectures should be recorded using satellite channels because it requires less internet. third, the number of students in one session should be reduced to allow all students to understand and participate actively. fourth, blended learning is vital because instructors and students need to have face-to-face lectures from time to time in order to make things clearer especially during exam periods. with these solutions to the sophisticated issues highlighted, the online learning experience will improve for both instructors and students. references adhabi, a. e., anozie. b.c.h. 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(2020). online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of covid-19 pandemic. international journal of educational research open, 1(1), 1-10. moawad. r.a. (2020). online learning during the covid19 pandemic and academic stress in university students. revista romaneasca pentru educatie multidimensionala, 12(2), 100-106. nugroho. a., ilmiani. d., and rekha. a (2020). efl teachers’ challenges and insights of online teaching amidst global pandemic. journal of english language literature and teaching, 4(3), 277-291. octaberlina. l.r., muslimin.a.i. (2020). efl students perspective towards online learning barriers and alternatives using moodle/google classroom during covid-19 pandemic. international journal of higher education, 9(6), 1-9. sadeghi. m. (2019). a shift from classroom to distance learning: advantages and limitations. international journal of research in english education, 4(1), 80-88. swan. g. j. (2017). the challenges of online learning: supporting and engaging the isolated learner. journal of learning design, 10(1), 20-30 10.5204/jld.v9i3.293. zboun, j.s. & farrah, m. (2021). students’ perspectives of online language learning during corona pandemic: benefits and challenges. indonesian efl journal, 7(1), 13-20. https://doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v7i1.3986. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v3i2.3677 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 adenike aderogba onojah university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria email: temiladeadenike2015@gmail.com amos ochayi onojah university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria email: haymoresonojah@gmail.com nasiru ahmed ala university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria email: ahmedalanasiru@gmail.com apa citation: onojah, a. a., onojah, a. o., & ala, n. a. (2022). students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19. indonesian journal learning and instruction, 5(2), 29-32. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v5i2.6843 received: 17-06-2022 accepted: 25-08-2022 published: 30-10-2022 introduction for every problem there exist an underlying corresponding tenacity because without the difficulties the value of the solutions may not be fully appreciated. the reactions towards the knock down matters as it could aggravate the livelihood activities. it may not matter the depth and numbers of downfall but the effort made to rekindle the fuel to start again really matters. teachers need to place technology into the hands of students carefully by selecting the right mediums and technological tools should be constantly evolving to enhance problemsolving, innovation, decision-making, and teamwork (onojah & onojah, 2020). just like every other innovative virus which hampers the way of living in the past, there exist the corona virus or covid-19 which appear without notice and find its way to the society thereby scattering all plans across every sector with education inclusive. the reason why it was difficult to tackle could be due to its no record in the past, thus many countries are in the research to study, troubleshoot and discoveries which is expected to bring solutions to this pandemic. emerging technologies have a considerable impact on education and its adoption could facilitate learning and improve students’ academic performance (falade & alimi, 2015). the pandemic had lots of negative effect on the economy of every nations as most sectors are been shut down in other to curtail the spread of the virus. initially, there were unfounded rumors that this abstract: the recent covid-19 crisis had made it mandatory for schools to introduce new learning styles. however, the extent at which students will adapt to this new learning environment could differ as most are just being exposed to this context. this study therefore investigated the adaptive level of students to the new learning methods. the population comprised all students in nigeria out of which 2500 respondents were sampled across the schools in nigeria based on their accessibility. a researcher-developed questionnaire was used to gather data for the study. all ethical issues were put into consideration as none of the respondents were cohersed to participate in this study. means were used to answer the research questions while hypothesis one was tested using man-u whiteny at 0.05 significance level. the findings established that majority of the students initially find the distance education uneasy and data consuming. there was significant difference between public and private students’ adaptive level to the new learning methods. the study concluded that students are getting used to the new learning style introduced by their various schools because they have only that choice to learn with. it was therefore recommended that school administrators and teachers should continue encouraging students to use this learning style introduced as they may find it uneasy to use. the learning style adopted should also be such that attracts the learners’ attention. keywords: covid-19; students’ adaptive level; learning styles; resultant effect. adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 30 virus can not affect the africans. this spread for a while but was tampered when it started spreading even among the african countries. several approaches were introduced by the federal government of nigeria to restrain its blowout amidst the citizens of nigeria which the president made a priority because the lives of every nigerians’ matter. nam and smith-jackson (2017) established that the use of the web as an educational tool has provided teachers experiences of accessing information at any time and place, provide opportunity for online, presentation of information, encourage interactive task-based activities, effective dissemination of information, and long-distance education. most sectors were closed down, schools were closed to curb the spread of these pandemic. at that stage, most schools’ administrators unveil series of plans to engage both the administration, teachers, parents and students in learning activities to allow continuity so as for the students to still keep abreast with their instructional activities. most of the primary and post-primary schools used various technologies for their learning activities while away from school buildings. their selection and adoption of such technology(ies) for learning was based on availability, accessibility and technical-know-how. some tertiary institutions also engage their students to the extent of conducting their end of semester’ examination for their students during the lockdown. these will in turn need a connection to bring all users and learners together which could be in form of cables, wireless connection or data connection with the use of internet. internet services and facilities are capable of providing universities lecturers, teachers, students and scholars the enabling environment to overcome the barriers of communication, collaboration and also providing them and their institutions the advantages of presenting their research finding and ideas across the globe (abba, 2017). however, most of these learning innovations introduced has to be rooted in ict which is capable of bringing together virtually people, learners and instructors who are separated by distance. the use of information and communication technology (ict) has helped academicians, students, educationists and researchers to gather information which is normally not available through other means or not easily accessible. the benefits of ict being natureprotecting, non-polluting, less energy consumption and above all, more human-friendly, it is applications are becoming indispensable parts of contemporary culture, spreading across the globe through general and vocational education (ogunlade et al., 2013). while some schools would have engaged their students in this new learning method even before the covid outbreak, some will just be using it due to the lockdown and this could pose a challenge on the new users than their peers. such students who are exploiting these technologies afresh could encounter some challenges in adopting these learning tools. fakomogbon et al. (2017) stated that ict in education is a comprehensive approach to innovative educational systems, methods and management with the aid of new technology. it is comprehensive because it is impossible for any individual to explore all the icts to its optimum. correspondingly, ict in education incorporates all the contemporary digital tools such as computers, accessories and internet that can be used in education to accomplish its goals (abdulrahman & soetan, 2017). the use of technologies in educations makes teaching, teaching process and learning easier and speedily acquainted. ict encourages students to advance their literacy and numeracy skills and to recognize their prevailing abilities and also helps both individualized, sovereign and collaborative learning experiences. the adoption of technologies allows learners identify areas where they need assistance, update, backing, upgrade or transformation. in the same vein, amosa et al. (2016) concluded that learners can complete their education from any location as long as they have access to the ict resources. this is why these technologies became inevitable in this current season where students cannot gather together to perform their instructional activities consequent of the pandemic outbreak. application of icts in universities made it possible to work with distance learning and achieve a closer collaboration between different universities, lecturers, professors and even students now share ideas, conference and even have lectures online from different universities and countries. not only at the tertiary level but also other levels of education as development and innovations is embraced in all sectors aside the educational region. these developments paved way for a new teaching approach where there is unparalleled ability to spread knowledge and also disseminate information indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 (emmanuel & ngozi, 2014). each day is an opportunity for every human to get refreshed of ideas, skills, knowledge and human interactions and developments, innovations and new ideas also emerged every day. it has also been observed that ict in education makes lifelong learning easier and contributes to individual development by enhancing digital skills and providing individuals with skills that they might need in the future and thereby increasing employability and productivity (haelermans, 2017). the school ownership of the students could influence their adaptation rate to the new technologies introduced for learning during the covid. the purpose of ict in education is to make the students and teachers acquainted with its use and how it works (kampschulte & ellert, 2016). therefore, ict education in nigeria has to be a priority in the societal rudiments. proprietorship refers to the ownership of the schools, which students attend to acquire knowledge, or the body responsible for its establishment whether government or individuals and private organizations. in nigeria, government owned schools are referred to as public schools while those established by individuals or private organizations are referred to as private schools (clement & grace, 2017). institutional ownership refers to ownership of the institutions whether private, federal or state owned. school proprietorship also refers to the individual or group of individuals, religious body, federal or government that establish the schools. in this study, the school ownership will be clarified to mean the private and public owned schools. in similar study by onojah et al.(2019) which investigate the perception of undergraduate students on the utilisation of flipped classroom for learning in south-west nigeria and recommended that stakeholders in education should procure necessary equipment for flipped classroom due to its significance to education. if stakeholders in education procure necessary technological hardware and software which are essential to boost their learning, instructional activities will be easy especially in the lockdown era because out of the abundance of the heart vibrates the lips. clement and grace (2017) carried a study on the influence of school proprietorship on the achievement of students taught oral english with games technique and thus deduced that if students are exposed to equal treatment with regard to classroom instruction, there might not be much difference in the achievement of students attending schools in private and public schools. there had been series of calls to turn the school system into a digitalized classroom environment whereby students can learn without the four walls of the classroom. as much as the experts in the field of educational technology whose aim is to facilitate learning and improve performance with the use of technologies keep hammering on the need for this digitalized learning as another option for the conventional teaching process, most schools in nigeria especially the public schools have not embraced this innovative approach. for instance, onasanya (2019) pointed out the breakthrough in ict particularly in the 21st century and asserted that the inception of new trends in educational technology facilitates the creation of various forums for educational interactions. some schools employed it partially as supplement to the traditional classroom activities but only the national open university and some distance education programmes been conducted by some universities in nigeria are known to the researcher to adopt the digital system of learning in nigeria whereby students can engage in performing all requirements to obtain a degree without the conventional physical classroom attendance but it is done virtually. even the schools which acclaimed to have the technologies for learning in deceit have been exposed by the covid-19 pandemic which prompt schools to perform their activities virtually. while those who are already in the digitalized world easily migrate to the system during lockdown, those who do not have to prepare an emergency remote learning which was hurriedly developed to cover up the learning activities during lockdown and some could not even engage their students at all due to unavailability of the required resources. at commencement of the lockdown due to covid pandemic which made the federal government of nigeria to declare all schools closed till further notice, many schools put up several efforts to keep the school activities ongoing without delay. although the students and teachers will be in their various residence, they can still do the teaching and learning virtually. several platforms were adopted by each school ranging from websites, apps, links, tv, radio as well as the clustered learning. adapting to these technologies adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 32 by students depends on the newness to the platform. as it will be easily utilized by the students who have been using it before the mandatory lockdown, it will be uneasy and tacky for those who are utilizing it a fresh. this is the need for this study which is the reason why the researchers explored the adaptive level of students to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19. the following are the research questions of this study: (1) what technological learning means was introduced by your school during this lockdown? (2) how do students adapt to this new technological learning? (3) does this reaction to this technological learning vary by school ownership? the hypothesis of this study is: there is no significant difference between the reaction of private and public’ students to the technological learning. there are several theories postulated by scholars for learning, they include behaviourism, connectivism, constructivism, and so on. also, there are numerous models that support learning strategies which vary depending on technology acceptance model, theory of planned behavior, theory of diffusion of innovations and technology readiness to explain the users’ adoption of selfservice technologies. technology acceptance model introduced two new constructs, perceived usefulness (the belief that using an application will increase one’s performance) and perceived ease of use (the belief that one’s use of an application will be free of effort). in tam, both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use could predict an individual’s attitude concerning the use of an application. second, tam did not include subjective norm as a determinant of intention. since its introduction by davis (1989), tam has been widely used for predicting the acceptance, adoption, and use of information technologies as indicated in figure 1. figure 1. technology acceptance model (onojah et al., 2019) the tam has its roots in the theory of reasoned action (tra) and there have been numerous variations on the tam over the years. mohammadi et al. (2020) stated the tam offers insight into how behavioral intention is formed and its original form, the tam posits that attitude toward use of a system is determined by two behavioral beliefs of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. perceived usefulness on application of technology is the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular technology would enhance their academic performance (alani et al., 2022). perceived ease of use is “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort. the technology acceptance model (tam) has been described as a protuberant theory which pursues to explore the qualities which affect the adoption of technology. also imperative to the tam is the intention that can as well be applied in the foresee and envisage the keenness and enthusiasm to accomplish behavior with the complement of several skills. criollo et al. (2021) discussed some issues which affect user’ intention to espouse the exploitation of mobile imbursement structures and discovered that “performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence is facilitating conditions in the e-finance and mobile finance context. the tam model was adapted to fit in the focus of this research as shown in figure 2. the reaction of the students towards the use of the new learning style introduced towards during the lockdown from covid crisis could influence their readiness to use it for learning. adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 30 figure 2. conceptual framework of the study the reaction comprises the adaptation, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, intention to use among other variables which could influence students to want to utilize the digital learning method during lockdown. the availability of the technologies for learning also influenced their adoption of these platforms. another variable which influence the adaptation of these new learning styles is the school ownership which differentiate students from public schools and private schools in nigeria. upoalkpajor and upoalkpajor (2020) deduced that the worldwide lockdown of educational. establishments is going to ignite major break in students' education. behaviorism posit that learning in human being occurs only when there are observable changes in behavior. therefore, learning must be organized in chunks, and present learning should be logical and sequential order. behaviorist theory is based on the activities that promote learning as a change in learners’ observable actions (yusuf, 2022). in the behaviorist context, learning is thought to be best facilitated through reinforcement of an association between a particular stimulus and a response. aucejoa et al. (2020) established that covid-19's economic and health shocks vary by socioeconomic status and act as key mediators explaining pandemic's effects as the covid-19 outbreak also had large negative effects on students' current labor market participation and expectations about postcollege labor outcomes. constructivism asserts that, learner construct idea based on his/her perception and personal interpretation. each learner is unique and brings unique experience and contexts to learning new things. thus, learning is meaningful only when the learning contexts and materials are based on the learner’s cognitive structure and socio-cultural context. some of the proponents to this theory are aundrey gray, lel vygotsky and jean piaget (alebiosu, 2017). it is an activity in which learners actively construct new ideas or concepts based on both their previous and current knowledge (anhwere et al., 2020). the researchers are also of the view that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on both their current and past knowledge. learners are encouraged to be active constructors of knowledge, with academic social networking sites now embedding them in a realistic context at the same time as offering access to supporting tools. the key target of this theory is to make sure that technology is unobtrusive, so that it facilitates rather than hinders interactions among the learners. with computer laptops or desktops/mobile phones, ipads, tablets and so on, learners can construct their own knowledge and share it freely with peers at any time in any place. in a study by kuhfeld et al. (2020), it was projected that school closures are likely to lead to significant learning losses in math and reading. however, they estimate assorted effects, and conclude that high-performing students are likely to make gains. cognitivism postulates that learning is based on the belief that mental activity is less express in human behavior than what happens inside the human mind. human perception is important to learning and learning involves conceptual understanding, problem solving and procedures (marc, 2021). according to them, learning is spiritual rather than physical and mental rather than material. applying this to digitalized learning introduced during lockdown, some of the platform require brain work to run and the technical knowhow is essential too. this has significant contribution to boosting mental ability of students. chetty et al. (2020) found that, post-covid, student progress on an online math program adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 30 decreased significantly more in poorer zip codes. theories provide standards that promote advancements in any academic field, thereby guiding focus on elements that influence good practice. since education is a deliberately planned activity, learning theories therefore, provide the basis for effective learning experiences. the analysis of aucejoa et al. (2020) revealed that the heterogeneous economic and health burden imposed by covid-19 can partially explain these varying impacts. hen students have good reactions towards the use of the digitalized learning, it will enhance performance and readiness to use. method this chapter presents the methodology adopted in the study. they include: research design, sampling and sampling techniques, instrumentation, procedure for data gathering, data analysis techniques. a cross-sectional survey type was adopted in this study. these surveys offer researchers a sort of snapshot in time and give us an idea about how things are for our respondents at the particular point in time that the survey is administered. this type of research is frequently used to determine the prevailing characteristics in a population at a certain point in time. a researcher designed questionnaire was used to collect information on students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19. the study investigated how students adapt to the new learning styles introduced to them as a result of lockdown from covid-19 in nigeria. the study covered students at the primary and post-primary educational level across several states located in each geopolitical zone of nigeria. two thousand, five hundred students were randomly selected across the states in the nation. the selection was based on their availability and accessibility to the means at which the instrument was distributed. the research instrument employed to collect the relevant data for this study was a researcherdeveloped questionnaire. the questionnaire was structured in order to help draw appropriate responses from the respondents. the questionnaire was developed both on paper and online with the use of google forms. in building questionnaire items, the instructions were clear and unambiguous. the questionnaire was divided into three sections. section a focused on respondents’ demographic information which include the gender and school ownership type of the students, section b provided questions on various technologies for learning and respondents are to tick the technologies which their school introduced for learning during covid-19 lockdown in nigeria. section c dealt with how students adapt to the new technologies for learning during lockdown. ten relevant different items where composed for respondents to react to. the response mode adopted in this section is the fourlikert scale of strongly disagree, disagree, agree and strongly agree. respondents will tick (√) as appropriate for their response, and fill in blank spaces to provide suitable answers where applicable. validation of the instrument was carried out through experts’ validation. in order to ensure content and construct validity, the research instrument was validated by four experts from reputable establishment for scrutiny and expertise assessment. corrections and observations made by the experts were critically analyzed and treated to produce the final copy of the research instrument. the experts’ observations were corrected accordingly adhering to its face and content validity. the research instrument was trial tested on some graduates which will not be part of the real study. their responses were subjected to guttman split-half correlation coefficient and the correlation value yielded 0.815 which was used to establish that the instrument is reliable and that the instrument could be used without re-trial testing. however, the author(s) who want to adopt/adapt it for further studies could re-subjected it to validation and reliability process if desired. the researchers sought the permission from appropriate personnel to introduce the researcher and the focus of the research. the researchers introduced the research instrument and the interested respondents were asked to indicate the willingness to participate in the study. the researchers employed the service of the school administrators as well as teachers to help forward the instrument link to their students and the students filled and submitted accordingly. the link of the developed instrument was shared to students across their learning platforms accordingly. concerning the students who engaged in clustered offline learning, the teachers engaged them by attesting to the printed questionnaire as well as interview. based on research ethics and to ensure high indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 standards of professionalism, graduates’ consent was sought for through research consent forms that were presented to the students. both private and public-school students participated voluntarily in the study and there was no coercion of any sort. the respondents were told to freely partake or withdraw at any time without any repercussions. also, confidentiality of the participants was not compromised in preventing insecurity that could be felt by any participant. to ensure the study met the professional and institutional standard, ethical issues of confidentiality and privacy, and free and informed consent were addressed. with regards to confidentiality and privacy, the researcher ensured that the identity of the participants was made anonymous, and no sensitive personal information was collected from the participants to ensure participants’ protection. also, the researchers ensured that information not relevant to the purpose of this study was not collected from the respondents in the process of this study. to ensure free and informed consent in this study, participants were informed in detail about the nature of the research and the purpose of the survey. they were required to give their consent in collecting the data required without any intimidation such as coercion or manipulation. again, participants were allowed to provide the necessary data of their own free will and individuals, who did not wish to participate were, allowed to exercise that right without consequences. in addressing the plagiarism issue, all works cited in the study were referenced. the analysis and interpretation of data obtained through the questionnaire were done using descriptive and inferential statistics. frequency, mean and percentage were used to analyze the responses to the research questions given. hypothesis one was tested using man-u whiteny at 0.05 significance level so as to test whether private and public students are likely to derive the same adaptation to technological learning. the analyses will be done using amos statistical package at 95% confidence interval and 0.05 level of significance. results and discussion out of the 2500 students sampled across schools in nigeria sampled, 2219 were properly filled and returned and was thus used for the analysis in this study. research question one: what technological learning means was introduced by your school during this lockdown? table 1. technologies adopted for learning during lockdown s/n technological learning tools frequ ency percent age 1. whatsapp 949 42.8% 2. education.gov.ng (nigerian government education links) 202 9.1% 3. zoom 788 35.5% 4. google meet 211 9.5% 5. facebook 706 31.8% 6. other mobile apps for learning 1012 45.6% 7. school websites 837 37.7% 8. clustered learning 354 16.0% 9. electronic media 792 35.7% the technological tools which students used to keep themselves engaged with learning activities during the lockdown was been investigated and the results presented in table 1. it indicated that most of the students used mobile apps for learning during the pandemic with percentage of 1012 (45.6%). the ease of use, usability and the fact that some of these apps could be used offline could be the reason why most students adopt these mobile apps for learning during the lockdown when students were not given the chance to attend their regular schools to perform their regular classroom activities. also 949 (42.8%) of the respondents used whatsapp for instructional activities in the pandemic crisis. whatsapp platform is a very common social media platform used by many nigerians and this is been adopted for learning activities too. out of the total respondents sampled in this study, 202 (9.1%) of them agreed to have used the education.gov.ng (nigerian government education links) for their learning during the lockdown. most of the students claimed not to find enough materials on the site and that could be the reason for the low turnout but others claimed not to be aware of such government educational links for learning during lockdown. but some states also have their class links during the lockdown instance is the ogun digital classroom via ogundigiclass.ng which gives free access to smartup app for secondary school students in ogun state which is a leveraging emerging technology to help kids discover their purpose unleash their potentials and build their adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 32 future together. furthermore, 788 (35.5%) of the entire population embraced the zoom applications for instruction to cover up the classroom activities during the recent pandemic which affect the entire globe. google meet was another platform employed by the students for learning activities during the lockdown as 211 (9.5%) of the whole respondents sampled in this study claimed to use this platform during the lockdown. although many people perceived facebook to be a social media and its only used for social activities but according to the outcome of this research on covid-19 706 (31.8%) respondents made known to have used the facebook platform to engage learning from their teachers during the lockdown. other mobile apps for learning was used by the students during the lockdown, these learning apps was used by almost half of the respondents and thus 1012 (45.6%) of them acclaimed to use these learning apps for instructional activities during the covid pandemic lockdown. there were some schools who already have their institutional websites designed for their school, some of these schools took the advantage of the lockdown to engage their staffs and students in classroom instruction. 837 (37.7%) of the entire population adopt the school websites for learning during the lockdown. there were some of the students who reside in a very remote areas where no internet connection nor tv, radio and other electronic media. some of these students never allow the lack of infrastructure to be a barrier and lag behind their peers in the urban areas, they thus engaged in a clustered learning where they are grouped to allow a minute class of lower number to avoid the spread of the virus and they could also observe the social distancing as recommended by the nigerian center for disease control (ncdc) and the nigerian presidential task force (ptf). from the information gathered, a teacher who reside in the city claimed to go to one of the schools during the pandemic to organize an innovative media clustered learning for the students. out of the entire population, 354 (16.0%) students engaged in this clustered learning during the lockdown. there were some class lessons organized and available on radio and television programmes during the lockdown. example of such is shown on ogun state television, wazobia tv, galaxy television, channels tv among others. out of the whole students sampled for this study, 792 (35.7%) of them used the electronic media for instructional activities during the lockdown. based on these findings, most of the students participated in technological learning during the lockdown. research question two: how do students adapt to this new technological learning? table 2. students adaptation to the new technological learning s/n items sa a d sd 1. the fear of adapting to the learning style without teachers and peer’s physical appearance was my concern of worry as at when the lockdown started 1001 45.1% 728 32.8% 346 15.6% 144 6.5% 2. i initially find the distance education uneasy and data consuming 956 43.1% 582 26.2% 239 10.8% 442 19.9% 3. i never thought learning without teachers’ visibility is relatively achievable 464 20.9% 502 22.6% 568 25.6% 685 30.9% 4. electricity power supply was a huge barrier while learning with the technologies during lockdown 914 41.2% 697 31.4% 308 13.9% 300 13.5% 5. my perception as regards the learning’ assessment on the platform was not free of malpractice but it was accomplished as most of the questions were technical 695 31.3% 503 22.7% 510 23.0% 511 23.0% 6. it was uneasy to adapt to the technological learning but i later get used to the method after some weeks of the lockdown 1319 59.4% 400 18.0% 282 12.7% 218 9.8% 7. students were distracted with other online and electronic activities on the platform. however, i later blend to devote fully to the learning activities 495 22.3% 505 22.8% 718 32.4% 501 22.6% 8. my siblings and friends contributed to distraction during the learning tasks but my parents control the happenings 662 29.8% 376 16.9% 643 29.0% 538 24.2% 9. the learning with these technologies were lively as against my expectation of a bored class activities 598 26.9% 508 22.9% 778 35.1% 335 15.1% 10. network instability was an issue learning during the lockdown. 718 32.4% 197 8.9% 1186 53.4% 118 5.3% note that sa=strongly agree, a=agree, d=disagree and sd=strongly disagree how students adapt to the technological learning during the lockdown was also investigated and the results revealed in table 2. the findings indicated that 1001 (45.1%) of the respondents strongly adenike aderogba onojah, amos ochayi onojah, & nasiru ahmed ala students adaptive level to the new learning styles as a resultant effect of covid-19 30 agreed that the fear of adapting to the learning style without teachers and peer’s physical appearance was their concern of worry as at when the lockdown started, 728 (32.8%) of the respondents agreed, 346 (15.6%) of the respondents disagreed while 144 (6.5%) of the respondents strongly disagreed. in similar view, 956 (43.1%) strongly agreed to the statement that they initially find the distance education uneasy and data consuming, 582 (26.2%) of the respondents agreed, 239 (10.8%) disagreed while 442 (19.9%) of the entire respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. others followed suit as shown in table 2. based on the findings, it was established that the nigerian students adapt to the new technological learning introduced during lockdown amidst several difficulties. research question three: does this reaction to this technological learning vary by school ownership? hypothesis one: there is no significant difference between the reaction of private and public’ students to the technological learning table 3. mann whitney u results on students’ reactions to technological learning relating to private and public school ownership n mean ranks rank sum u p private 1238 14.40 246.82 37.500 .021 public 981 12.18 178.25 table 3 represents that there is significant difference between public and private nigerian students’ reactions to the technological learning introduced for learning during lockdown [u = 37.500, p < .05]. when mean ranks considered private students’ adaptation to the technological learning introduced during lockdown are significantly higher than those of public students. discussion the findings established that the technologies which students use for learning during lockdown includes whatsapp, nigerian government education links, zoom, google meet, facebook, other mobile apps for learning, school websites, clustered learning, and electronic media. students utilize social media as an incorporated tool with a number of websites and application tools (athukorala, 2018). some of the schools who value the importance of the digitalized learning invested into it even when there was no lockdown from covid pandemic. in addition, the study of onojah et al. (2020) concluded that undergraduate students have good proficiency level on the utilization of social media for learning. also, falade and alimi (2015) concluded that mobile learning is a new form of education that integrates e-learning with mobility in the process of delivering or receiving the instructional contents. furthermore, it was inferred that nigerian students adapt to the new technological learning introduced during lockdown amidst several difficulties. in support of this finding, jamari et al. (2017) established that adapting platforms that are not meant for learning is not an easy task but is achievable with appropriate guidelines and planning for both teachers and students. the use of the web as an educational tool has provided teachers with a wide range of new and exciting teaching experiences that are not possible in traditional classroom (nam & smith-jackson, 2017). also, it was deduced from this study that there is significant difference between public and private nigerian students’ reactions to the technological learning in favour of the private schools. but clement and grace (2017) established no significant difference in the achievement of private and public schools’ students taught oral english with game techniques. conclusion based on the findings of this study, some conclusions are found: (1) the technological tools which students used to keep themselves engaged with learning activities during the lockdown are mostly other mobile apps. (2) it was established that the nigerian students adapt to the new technological learning introduced during lockdown amidst several difficulties. (3) there is significant difference between public and private nigerian students’ reactions to the technological learning introduced for learning during lockdown. therefore, the educational authorities and the school system should encourage students to adopt technologies for learning in other to prepare them for any challenges ahead. besides, there is urgent need for government and stakeholders to provide schools in nigeria with the resources required for digitalized learning systems, immediate need for ministry of education to organise seminars, conferences and workshops indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 5, issue 2, october 2022 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 31 and training for teachers on how to adopt several technological tools for their instructional activities which will prepare them for future distance learning, and there is a need to bridge the gap between private and public students’ adaptation to new learning style as a result of covid to level up with the school ownership differences. acknowledgements we the author(s) of this article affectionately acknowledge all authors whose work were cited in this article. also, the authors appreciate the comments or suggestions provided by professors in the field of educational technology across nigeria who validated the research instrument. the effort, patience and diligence of students who made up the respondents are well appreciated. references abba, t. 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(2020). the proficiency of undergraduates in utilizing social media for learning in nigeria. indonesian journal of curriculum and educational technology studies, 8(1), 32-41. doi: https://doi.org/10.15294/ijcets.v8i1.38157 upoalkpajor, j. n., & upoalkpajor, c. b. (2020). the impact of covid-19 on education in ghana. asian journal of education and social studies, 9(1), 23-33. doi: 10.9734/ajess/2020/v9i130238. yusuf, m. k. (2022). gender and information and communication technology (icts) in nigeria: challenges and prospects. global journal of human social science sociology and culture, 13(6), 1-9. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 17 effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis temitayo omolara onasanya department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin nigeria email: tobabalola21@gmail.com gboyega ayodeji aladesusi department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin nigeria. email: aladesusigboyega@gmail.com samuel adenubi onasanya department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin nigeria email: saonasanya24@gmail.com apa citation: onasanya, t. o., aladesusi, g. a., & onasanya, s. a. (2021). effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis. indonesian journal of learning and instruction, 4(2), pp. 17-30. doi: 10.25134/ijli.v4i2.5200 received: 18-05-2020 accepted: 17-07-2021 published: 01-10-2021 introduction the fast evolution of digital technology has infiltrated into several aspects of life. advances and progress in digital technology has caused simplicity and automation in numerous sectors like in industries, businesses and recently in education. activities that within the past would take days or could also be months to finish will currently be attended to in an exceedingly matter of hours or could also be minutes. advancement in technological knowhow and its application has resulted in accrued potency of product delivery and additionally shortened the amount between production to the points of disposal. today's learners are unit digital natives and have new profile (prensky, 2009). they grew up with digital technologies and have totally different learning designs, new perspective to the educational method and better needs for teaching and learning. academics face new challenges and need to be compelled to unravel vital problems related to the variation of the educational method towards students’ desires, preferences and needs. academics have to be compelled to use different pedagogics and approaches that let students to manoeuvre participants with robust motivation and engagement to their own learning (abanikannda, 2017). modern pedagogical paradigms and trends in education, reinforced by the utilization of ict, create prerequisites to be used of latest approaches this study examined the effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievement in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis. the study determined the differences in the academic achievement of students taught english language with scrabble game as well as the differences in the academic achievement of students taught english language with scrabble game based on gender among others. the study adopted a quantitative research design of an experimental and survey methods. various statistical tools such as descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to answer the research question and test the hypotheses respectively. the results of the findings indicated that: (1) students performed well when taught english vocabulary with digital scrabble game, (2) gender differences do not exist in using digital scrabble game to teach english vocabulary in ilorin metropolis also students have positive reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of digital scrabble game. the implication of the findings is that, engagement-based approach like scrabble game can serves as an alternative approach to engage english language learners in the classroom. thus, improving students academic achievement and retention. it was therefore recommended that, scrabble game adoption should be encouraged among teachers and students. keywords: attitude; gender; scramble game. mailto:tobabalola21@gmail.com mailto:aladesusigboyega@gmail.com mailto:saonasanya24@gmail.com temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 18 and techniques so as to implement active learning and playful learning (rodilla, 2012). one among such reforms, trends, and new approach is gamification. gamification seems to be a replacement trend in several sectors, alongside business, structure management, in service coaching, health, policy, and education. the term gamification refers to the use of game mechanics in non‐gaming contexts (deterding, dixon, khaled, & nacke, 2011) or, rather, to the event of creating gameful experiences (koivisto & hamari, 2014). games are integral parts of all cultures and one among the oldest sorts of human social interaction. a game is any sort of play, amusement and activity involving competition. game contains what can engage students and help them enter a state of flow where they are fully immersed within the learning environment and energized to specialise in the activity they are involved in (koivisto & hamari, 2014). gamification represents an innovative and interesting methodology to motivate students and enhance their learning process (martí-parreñoa, seguí-masa, & seguí-mas, 2016). gamification affects students’ behaviour, commitment and motivation, which can lead to improvement of knowledge and skills (hsin-yuan & soman, 2013). gamification is adopted in different contexts and for a variety of purposes. it is used as a driver to promote fundamental things like learning, employee performance, customer engagement, and even crowdsourcing initiatives. according to huotari and hamari (2012), the widespread interest that gamification is attracting is based on its potential to strengthen engagement, change behaviours and support innovation. indeed, an increasing number of services are presently being gamified (huotari & hamari, 2012). gamification is also taking off in education, due to the conviction that it supports and motivates students, and can thus lead to enhanced learning processes and outcomes (kapp, 2012). english language competence is taken into consideration as a key factor within the information era, the teaching and learning of the language is gradually changing into the main focus in several countries. this growing stress has resulted in an exceedingly proliferation within the software package (meyer, 2013). meyer (2013) argued that integrating games has had an extended history in foreign learning whereby a seamless integration may lead to accrued motivation and purposeful exposure to the target language. though the problem of integrating games into formal learning is acknowledged, the author further indicates that there has being a bigger potential for college students to learn from games in their process of language learning as compared to alternative educational subjects (meyer, 2013). lam (2014) asserted that the utilization of gamification could turn learning into a more interesting and interesting activity and assist in improving students’ level of attention and persistence also as their attitudes towards learning. this notion is supported by other researchers that fewer than five percent (5%) of scholars are ready to endure the stressful nature of formal school training in languages. due consideration however must be made before gamifying an activity or a lesson to make sure the objectives of learning are achieved and not overshadowed or downscaled (lam, 2014). lam, (2014) revealed that learning new vocabulary during a second language requires between 5 to 16 exposures. in such a case then, games help provide this exposure as they involve repeated tries and failure (lam, 2014); however, the study emphasized that this is able to only be achieved with the acceptable use of gamification within the learning. there is a requirement to create tools or strategies that would help reduce the strain that students experience during their learning. activities structured as games can provide concrete practice for learners, while reducing the strain and anxiety often encountered during the training process. appropriate use of game elements within the classroom could result not only in enhanced motivation and learning experiences but also facilitate accuracy and fluency in language learners (lam, 2014). the idea of using games or games elements in education to interact students within the process of active learning is not new and may be traced back to the sixties when piaget (1962) acknowledged that games could not only help children to master their environments but also to make the worlds of their imagination. games also encourage students to play a lively role within the learning process thus supporting active learning, experiential learning, playful learning, and problem-based learning (oblinger, 2004). over the years, educators are increasingly incorporating indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 19 various games into their teaching curriculum in an attempt to make a fun and interesting learning environment for college kids. although this will be very challenging and time consuming, interactive, collaborative and competitive games tend to motivate and encourage student participation within the learning process (martíparreñoa, et al., 2016). rodilla (2012) asserted that humans can learn more about objects and other beings in an hour of play compare to a year of conversation. individuals are born with an innate sense of play as how to explore the planet around and yet traditional school day is meant with clear separations between instruction and play, merely regarding play as a sort of recreation. the potential of a nonconstrained play environment seems enough to undertake and mix play and learning (rodilla, 2012). rodilla (2012) asserted that schools became increasingly anachronistic institutions and claims for those learning environments that engage students, teach them, stimulate their understanding, and help them assume responsibility for his or her own future learning. resnick (2004) moreover reported that people’s best learning experiences come once they are engaged in activities that they enjoy and care about. similarly, rodilla (2012) reported that students show greater concentration once they are engaged in projects of their interest, finding their own answers, investigating new approaches, exploring other ways of doing things and taking their own decisions. games like board games are the foremost accurate sort of play within the standard classroom setting. board games prove the right pathways to playful learning thanks to their dual nature. on the one hand, they are structured, open ended, principled, in order that they allow learners to grant some rules, set methodology and fulfil set goals. board games are highly enriching activities that provide creative learning and playful exploration. board games have an extended and rich tradition, being both entertainment and education means in ancient cultures. the origin of board games return to countries like china, india and nigeria (rodilla, 2012). the primary parlor game ever known is senet and dates back from times of nefertari, the egyptian queen who ruled until 1237 bc. nefertari was portrayed in one among the wall paintings found within the valley of the queens. it is also in ancient cities in egypt that first mancalas, gaming boards made from stone were discovered, carved into the roofs of ancient temples. pachisi and chaupar boards and tokens made from rubies and ivory were found in india (rodilla, 2012). refined wooden boards for enjoying a game almost like go were found in china and japan alongside polished stones. it is curious to ascertain how these early board games are played for thousand years and yet they still provide the inspiration for many classic and current board games (rodilla, 2012). a parlor game may be a game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a premarked surface or board consistent with a group of rules. games are often supported pure strategy, chance (rolling dice) or a mix of the 2, and typically have a goal which a player aims to realize. early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most current board games are still supported defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position or accrual of points (often expressed as in game currency) (rodilla, 2012). board games also improve the students’ attention and help them take decisions and risks. as explained by rodilla (2012), it is important for learners to be ready to act in games when the completion of the sport depends on their actions, strategies, choices and decisions. this researcher’s claim also suggests that board games teach during a lasting manner: if students enjoy while learning, they are going to remember the lesson for extended. additionally, board games grant meaningful communication. the researcher stateed further that this happens because they create a context for language use and that they improve the students’ literacy as they supply language practice within the various skills in speaking, writing, listening and reading. there are board games that help learners hook up with multiple intelligences (mi) (gardner,1999). in fact, it is frequent that one single parlor game embraces variety of various skills. rodilla (2012) developed this view and remarks that aside from refining students’ linguistic intelligence, board games enhance all the opposite six mis: spatial; board games especially people who involve drawing and matching help improve the eye-hand coordination also as dexterity and visual perception: number, letters, shape(s) and colour recognition. logical; they stimulate the brain and prompt critical and temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 20 quick thinking and reasoning, rationalization and problem solving, and essential cognitive skills. mathematical; many board games involve grouping, counting, and calculating, improving learners’ numerical understanding. vocabulary acquisition is an important a part of learning since it is a main component of language proficiency and determines how well learners read, speak, listen and write. likewise, lam (2014) opined that words are deemed to be the building blocks of any language with the many role of vocabulary in expressing our thoughts undeniable. having limited vocabulary often hinders students from mastering the four language skills. a cohesive and rigorous vocabulary bank is therefore a crucial attainment in any language also because the basis of linguistic abilities. vocabulary is taken into account as a crucial element in learning. in fact, many students feel that vocabulary learning is boring since they need to memorize unfamiliar words and spelling without changing their learning habits, like writing words on paper, learning by memory or learning passively through the teachers’ explanations (darfilal, 2015). the communicative approach, then, encourages students to practice the target language using an infinite range of individual, pair and group work activities. one among these activities is learning through games since it is claimed that it can help students to find out and practice the vocabulary easily and effectively in an amusing classroom atmosphere (darfilal, 2015). previous researches have indicated the first headache or difficulty encountered by students learning a foreign language is usually in remembering words (hu hai-peng & deng lijing, 2007). vocabulary size is an important standard to evaluate a learner’s level of english proficiency; without an adequate vocabulary depository, a second language learner’s conversational fluency and reading comprehension will encounter difficulties (schaller, 2006). this has also been emphasized in the study by hu hai-peng and deng li-jing (2007) on the application of motivation for students’ vocabulary acquisition in multimedia environment whereby vocabulary is highlighted as an important part of a language as well as the core or basis of linguistic abilities. there are many explanations on what defines an academic game nowadays. while some games are competitive in nature, others may simply allow students to figure together as a category to unravel a general problem where nobody wins or loses. cruickshank and telfer (2001) divided games into non-academic or primarily for fun games (including card games, bingo and tabletennis) and academic or primarily for or supported learning games. the latter category is further divided into simulation, during which players work within a simulated environment, and non-simulation, during which players solve problems by using the principles of their topic like scrabble and puzzles, during which players use principles of a topic or discipline and solve related problems, as in math or spelling (cruickshank & telfer 2001). hadfield (1999) explained two ways of classifying language games; linguistic games that specialize in accuracy and communicative games that specialize in exchanging information. further, games are classified into more detailed forms composed of both linguistic and communicative games; sorting, ordering or arranging games; information gap games; guessing games; searching games; matching games; labelling games; exchanging games; board games; role playing games. language games could also be also classified as; listening games; speaking games; kinetic games; and experiential games (darfilal, 2015). scrabble is an interactional word-building game, has long been popular among american educators who believe it to assist students develop language and social skills (martí-parreñoa, et al., 2016). the thought of using games to interact students within the method of active learning is not new. over the past several years, educators are increasingly incorporating various games into their teaching curriculum in an effort to form a fun and interesting learning environment for school kids. although this may be very challenging and time consuming, interactive, collaborative and competitive games tend to motivate and encourage student participation within the training process (martí-parreñoa, et al., 2016). the idea of using games in teaching does not seem to be widely accepted and implemented although its profitability has been proposed and justified in different empirical studies. there has been a misconception that all learning should be indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 21 serious in nature. in fact, using games is an important tool that allows language teachers to add colours to their classrooms by providing challenge and entertainment. games that bring out these higher-level thinking skills are getting more popular, although more research and scientific assessment is important to live their overall effectiveness. there are domains emphasizing gender differences in cognitive activity in playing games such as chess, go, bridge, and scrabble where the best male players typically outperform the best female players to such a degree that the genders sometimes compete separately and a few competitions are restricted to only females. charness and gerchak (1996) proposed that gender differences in chess might be accounted for by the vastly larger number of active male players as compared to female players and thus wo not reflect differences in ability between males and females. gamification has gained significant interest among educators across the globe, this might be as a result of the characteristics that are inherent in gamification. these characteristics have led teachers to start integrating it into classroom in order to increase classroom engagement globally. moreover, using games in the english class, which is often considered as one of the best ways to get the students involved in the classroom activities in which their communicative ability is practiced and improved. language games, together of the foremost valuable and effective techniques in english teaching are used for an extended time by many western teachers. however, they are less used in nigeria, especially in secondary schools. most teachers and students think games are a waste of your time or simply a fun activity for youngsters. the general situation of english language teaching and learning at present is not very satisfactory, as incorrect english is still predominantly spoken in a large number of english language learners in nigeria, and the low achievement in past ssce exams (waec, 2016). so, it is safe to say that there is still a long way to go in english language teaching reform and improving the english teaching quality in nigeria. it is against this background; this study examined the effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievement in selected english language concept in ilorin metropolis. specifically, this study aimed to; 1) examine the differences in the academic achievement of students taught english language with scrabble game, 2) examine the differences between the academic achievement of male and female students taught english language with scrabble game, 3) determine students’ reaction towards learning english language with the use of scrabble game, 4) determine the differences between male and female students’ reaction towards learning english language with the use of scrabble game. attitude towards the use of games for instruction research within the area of attitude and attitude formation revealed that attitudes and beliefs are interrelated and attitudes and behaviours are interchangeable; moreover, attitudes are often divided into likes and dislikes (siragusa & dison, 2008). with the broad expansion of the mixing of games in education during the last decade, many research studies have explored the attitudes of users (educators and students) towards the mixing of games in education (gasaymeh, 2009; mishra & panda, 2007; wen & shih, 2008). students in developing countries have varying attitudes towards e-learning but generally, their attitudes are positive (gamal & el-aziz, 2011). this was corroborated by nassoura (2012) who acknowledged that a lot of students had positive attitudes towards e-learning because it had a positive impact on their motivation also as selfesteem. beggs, o’neill, virapen and alexander (2009) examined teachers’ perception on the utilization of digital games for instruction, the results of the findings indicated that majority had positive attitude about the effect of digital games in education. hsu, lin, huang, hsu, su, chiou, tsai, & hung (2011) also examined preservice teachers’ awareness of digital game for learning the results of the findings revealed that participants had positive opinions regarding digital games for education. also, hsu et al. (2011) asserted that teachers’ attitudes were not influenced by gender differences as revealed by t-test analysis. similarly, halver and gibson (2007) revealed that no age differences exist within the influence of educational games on the pre-service teachers’ attitudes. it is often concluded that both student and teachers in the least educational level were temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 22 conscious of the positive potentials of digital games as tools to serve education. gender gender differences in mental activity in games like chess, go, bridge, and scrabble where the simplest male players perform better than the simplest female players to the extent that male and feminine sometimes compete separately and in other competitions are limited to only females. charness and gerchak (1996) affirmed that gender differences in chess might be as a results of vastly represented number of male players as compared to female players. croson & gneezy (2009) opined that males are more motivated than females to realize than their female’s counterparts in any game’s competition. maass, d’ettole, and cadinu (2008) indicated that ladies who compete with their female counterparts in any chess achieved but their male counterpart. application of scramble game in english language vocabulary games have significant potential as a pedagogical tool for elementary literacy, this is often because children give maximum concentration if learning is formed active for them (nielsen 2006). voinov (2010) affirmed that adults are enthusiastic if games are integrated into learning and scramble games is as popular among the adult in nigeria as they are among children. these games include word search, sentence scrabble, and hangman, all of those sorts of games are purposely created for learning. hebblethwaite (2009) stated a number of the benefits of scrabble game which incorporates mental activity that hones cognitive skills, practice in applying economic principles, and therefore the activation of learning in classrooms. hebblethwaite (2009) and voinov (2010) also stated other benefits of scrabble game for instruction which incorporates ability to impact participant and spectators through creative and competitive group literacy. these benefits of scrambles games in instruction is extremely crucial to learning everywhere the planet (voinov, 2010). although games like crosswords and lots of other word games are both enticing and significant for learning language most significantly in english vocabulary learning. however, these games are supported individual effort. learning english vocabulary with the deployment of scrabble are often played during a community of learners, that is important in maintaining a difficult language and acquisition of recent vocabulary (voinov, 2010). if scrabble is played by players of varied generations or levels of language fluency, a younger or less fluent speaker will see vocabulary things employed by tons of fluent speakers that he/ she will not have encountered before, or learn word. mishler and frank (2002) stated that in scrabble, the challenge method within which one player contests the word employed by another player, will end in fruitful language learning: a beginner will learn tons from a fluent speaker through the challenge method. method the study adopts a quasi-experimental research design, in which pre-test, post-test non-equivalent group design was used specifically. the design, according to cook & campbell (1979), entails the use of non-randomized sample where the researcher cannot randomly sample and assign subjects hence intact classes were used. this is because it was not possible to randomize the subjects of the study without disrupting the school programmes. the population for this study was made up of all junior secondary school of 2018/2019 session in ilorin metropolis kwara state. the target population was junior secondary school students in jssi. the choice of the jssii is based on the fact that the concept to be taught in english language fall under the syllabus and scheme of work. the sample of this study was made up of seven (7) students from one selected co-educational junior secondary school in ilorin metropolis. the school was drawn through purposive sampling, the reason for purposive sampling of the school is to select schools with a believed to share common environmental conditions such as manpower, gender composition, exposure to the use of games, enrolments of students for jsce examinations for a minimum of 5 years and school type (public schools). the selected school was pre-tested and post tested. at the school level, one intact jssi class was selected. the sample size of the sample was seven (7) (4 males and 3 females) students captured from the intact class. the captured students from the intact class were pre-tested and post-tested. a scrabble board game on english language (sbcelv) to serve as the treatment. the scrabble board game was used to teach english vocabulary. indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 23 scrabble is a word game in which two to four players (students) score points by placing tiles, each bearing a single letter, onto a game board divided into a 15×15 grid of squares. the tiles must form words that, in crossword fashion, read left to right in rows or downward in columns, and be included in a standard dictionary or lexicon. in an english-language set, the game contains 100 tiles, 98 of which are marked with a letter and a point value ranging from 1 to 10. the number of points for each lettered tile is based on the letter's frequency in standard english; commonly used letters such as vowels are worth one point, while less common letters score higher, with q and z each worth 10 points. the game also has two blank tiles that are unmarked and carry no point value. the blank tiles can be used as substitutes for any letter; once laid on the board, however, the choice is fixed. other language sets use different letter set distributions with different point values. an achievement test in english language vocabulary (atev) which were researcher structured. thirty (30) fill-in-the-gap structured scrabble game questions on english vocabulary served as the ptev. the ptev was used as a pretest before treatment, then reorganized to serve as a post-test after treatment. to reduce the n retest effect and remove the threats to the internal validity of the instruments, the questions were reshuffled and administered in different random order in the pre-test and post-test. a researcher-designed questionnaire was used in collecting data to investigate students’ reaction towards the use of scrabble game for learning english language in ilorin metropolis, kwara state, nigeria. the questionnaire consisted of two sections; section a would contain the demographic information of respondents while section b contained items on students’ reaction towards the use of scrabble game for learning english language in ilorin metropolis, kwara state, nigeria. the items in section b would be rated on modified likert mode scale of strongly agree (sa), agree (a), strongly disagree (sd), and disagree (d) with weighted value of 4 to 1 in terms of scoring. to test the reliability of the achievement test in english language vocabulary (atev) instruments, pilot test was conducted within the target population but outside the school sampled for the study. the results obtained from pilot test conducted was used for reliability test. the test was administered to 6 jssi students, (3 males and 3 females) randomly selected using test-retest method. pearson product moment correlation formula was used with the aid of statistical package for service solution (spss) to determine the reliability coefficient of atev which yielded 0.91. also, to test the reliability of the students’ reaction towards the use of scrabble game for learning english language in ilorin metropolis, kwara state, nigeria, it was administered once on jss i students in ogbomoso and cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency of the instrument which yielded. hence the result was considered reliable and consistent. the entire study lasted for two (2) weeks; the experiment for one (1) week due to the period and time allocated to english language in the schools (80mins/week). the actual exercise commenced at the beginning of the first week. the achievement test in english vocabulary (atev) was administered as a pre-test before the use of the treatment (scrabble game) to examine their prior knowledge; the atev was then shuffled to serve as a post-test without prior information on the forthcoming test alongside the questionnaire after the experimental group had been exposed to the treatment (scrabble game) to determine the effect of the treatment; the copies of the achievement test in english language vocabulary (atev) was marked by the researcher independently. an achievement test in english language vocabulary (atev) which were researcher structured. thirty (30) fill-in-the-gap structured scrabble game questions on english vocabulary served as the atev. the atev was used as a pre-test before treatment, then reorganized to serve as a post-test after treatment. to reduce the retest effect and remove the threats to the internal validity of the instruments, the questions were reshuffled and administered in different random order in the pretest and post-test. the questionnaires were collected immediately after responding to the instrument. data collected were treated with utmost confidentiality and anonymity. ethical consideration was maintained through the period of data collection and thereafter. the researcher ensured that respondents were not coerced to fill the questionnaire and respondents were allowed to participate voluntarily. also, utmost confidentiality and secrecy of the respondents was maintained during the https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/word_game https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/board_game https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/crossword https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dictionary https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lexicon temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 24 administration, collation, and report of research findings. the data collected were analysed employing a descriptive and inferential statistics. descriptive design. moreover, it aims to answer the question what which focuses on the demographic of the study. it is used to define respondent characteristic, data trends, and comparison of groups, validate existing condition and to duplicate research. to deal with the four objective of the study, specific descriptive statistics like percentage, mean frequency and variance were wont to analyse demographic information of the participant by gender, mean achievement of the participant and reaction of the participant to the utilization of scramble game for learning vocabulary in english. since the things of the researcherdesigned questionnaire was structured on a four-point likert scale, the choice rule was supported the mid-point of the size 2.50. therefore, items with mean many 2.50 and above were considered agreed or positive responses while items with below 2.50 were considered disagreed or negative responses. independent t-test was used to test the stated hypotheses. independent t-test is an inferential statistical test that determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means in two unrelated groups (denscombe, 2008). it allows the researcher to compare the mean achievement, reaction of male and female students taught vocabulary in english using scramble game. all statistical analyses were analysed with the aid of statistical package for social sciences (spss) software version 20.0. sample characteristics the data collected and analysed in this section represents the variables of focus for the study and background information to examine the effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic performance in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis. the demographic information in which data were collected and analysed includes respondents gender only which is presented on table 1 as follows: table 1 reveals the distribution of respondents that were involved in the study to examine the effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievement in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis by gender. 4 (57.1%) of the respondents were male, while, 3 (42.9%) were female. table 1. distribution of respondents by gender gender frequency percentage (%) male 4 57.1 female 3 42.9 total 7 100 results and discussion results research question one: academic achievement of students taught english language with scrabble game? to answer research question one, data were collected to examine the effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievement in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis based on a pre-test tagged ptev1 was conducted before introducing scrabble game, this was done in order to ascertain the respondents’ previous knowledge on the concept to be taught. similarly, a post-test tagged ptev2 was conducted to ascertain the effect of the scrabble game on the academic achievement of the respondents. frequency count and percentage was used to analyse the data collected, while range was used to determine the overall students’ academic achievement using scrabble game based on a benchmark of 0-39, 40-44, 45-49, 50-59, 60-69, and 70-100 to represent fail, poor, fair, good, very good, and excellent respectively. results of the analysis are shown on table 2 and interpreted as thus: table 2. respondents’ academic achievement in english vocabulary using scrabble game s/n pre-test achievement (%) achievement level post-test performance (%) achievement level 1. 70 excellent 30 fail 2. 72 excellent 80 excellent 3. 40 poor 17 fail 4. 95 excellent 82 excellent 5. 95 excellent 89 excellent 6. 82 excellent 78 excellent indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 25 7. 83 excellent 71 excellent total 77 excellent 64 very good table 2 shows the academic pre-test and posttest achievement of students taught english vocabulary using scrabble game; the table revealed that six (6) of the respondents’ pre-test percentage scores; 70, 72, 95, 95, 82, and 83 performed excellently, while only one (1) of the respondents’ pre-test percentage score of 40 performed poorly. the table also indicated that five (5) of the respondents’ post-test percentage scores are excellently based on the post-test scores of 80, 82, 89,78, and 71, while only two (2) of the respondents failed the in the post-test conducted. the table revealed a difference in percentage score in both the pre-test and post-test. it could be observed that there are addition and reduction in the pre-test and post-test scores; 72 increased to 80, 95 reduced to 82, 95 reduced to 89, 82 reduced to 78, and 83 reduced to 71. however, they retained the achievement level of excellent. contrarily, two (2) of the respondents with pre-test scores (70 and 40) and post-test scores (30 and 14) revealed a reduction from achievement level of excellent and poor to fail respectively. cumulatively, considering the achievement ranges stated above, a reduction in the pre-test scores and achievement level and posttest scores and achievement level was observed; 77 (excellent) reduced to 64 (very good). thus, students performed well when taught english vocabulary with scrabble game. research question two: what is the difference between the academic achievement of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game? to answer research question two, data were collected to examine the differences between the achievement of male and female students taught english language with scrabble game. mean was used to analyse the data collected, while mean gain was used to determine the overall difference between male and female students’ achievement taught english language with scrabble game. results of the analysis are shown on table 3 and interpreted as thus: table 3. mean academic achievement of male and female students’ in english vocabulary using scrabble game treatment gender n pre-test mean post-test mean mean gain score scrabble game male 4 74.42 50.43 -23.99 female 3 83.30 82.67 -0.63 table 3 indicates the mean academic achievement of male and female students’ in english vocabulary using scrabble game. the table revealed that both male and female students taught english vocabulary using scrabble game had mean score of -23.99 and -0.63 respectively. this implies that there is a reduction in both male and female students’ achievement taught english vocabulary using scrabble game. thus, gender differences do not exist in using scrabble game to teach english vocabulary in ilorin metropolis. research question three: what is the students’ reaction to learning english language with scrabble game? in order to determine students’ reaction to the use of scrabble game in learning english vocabulary. a researcher-designed questionnaire was used in collecting data from the respondents. mean was used to analyse the data collected, while grand mean was used to determine the overall students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game. in determining the overall students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game, the bench mark of 2.5 of a 4 point likert scale was adopted. results of the analysis are shown on table 4 and interpreted as thus: table 4. mean of students’ reaction to scrabble game in learning english vocabulary s/n items mean decision 1. learning english language vocabulary with scrabble board game is interesting. 3.71 agree temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 26 2. i tend to develop more interest in the classroom because of the combination of visual impression in the instructional process. 3.14 agree 3. scrabble used in learning english language vocabulary leaves a lot to be desired and i look forward to its use to learn english language in subsequent lessons. 3.28 agree 4. the use of scrabble board game in learning english vocabulary is a waste of time 3.00 agree 5. incorporation of games like scrabble into english language classes can make the student to be more interested in the classroom lessons. 2.85 agree 6. use of games like scrabble board game is distracting for learning english language vocabulary 2.86 agree 7. learning english language with gamification is helpful in knowing new english language vocabularies 3.14 agree grand mean 3.14 table 4 indicates the mean responses of students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game. using a bench mark of 2.5, the result revealed that the mean score for each of the seven (7) items on the questionnaire is above 2.5, while, the grand mean score of the seven (7) items is 3.14. this indicates that students have positive reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game. research question four: what is the difference between the reaction of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game? in order to determine the differences between male and female students’ reaction towards learning english language with the use of scrabble game. a researcherdesigned questionnaire was used in collecting data from the respondents. mean was used to analyse the data collected in order to determine the difference between male and female students’ reaction towards learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game. in determining the overall students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game. results of the analysis are shown on table 5 and interpreted as thus: table 5. mean of male and female students’ reaction to scrabble game in learning english vocabulary gender n mean standard deviation male 4 3.29 .30 female 3 2.95 .16 table 5 revealed that male students have a more positive reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game with the mean score of 3.29 which is higher than the female mean score of 2.95. this shows that male students have a more positive reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game. results of hypotheses tested in the study the results of hypotheses tested in this study are presented in subsequent tables. all hypotheses were tested at significant level of 0.05. hypothesis one h01: there is no significant difference in the performance of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game. independent sample t-test was conducted to compare the performance of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game. data collected was analysed and tested at 0.05 significant level. results of the analysis are shown in table 6 with subsequent interpretation. table 6. t-test analysis of male and female students’ achievement taught english vocabulary using scrabble game gender n x sd df t sig. (2-tailed) remark male 4 62.42 28.48 5 -1.18 .29 accepted female 3 82.99 8.41 indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli xxvii from table 6, it can be deduced that there was no significant difference between the achievement of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game. this is reflected in the findings of the hypothesis tested df (5), t= 1.18, p>0.05. thus, the hypothesis which states that “there is no significant difference in the achievement of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game” is accepted. the result of the hypothesis is in line with the result of research question two, which states that gender differences do not exist in using scrabble game to teach english vocabulary in ilorin metropolis. hypothesis two h01: there is no significant difference in the reaction of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game. independent sample t-test was conducted to compare male and female students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game. data collected was analysed and tested at 0.05 significant level. results of the analysis are shown in table 7 with subsequent interpretation. table 7. t-test analysis of male and female students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game gender n x sd df t sig. (2-tailed) remark male 4 3.29 .30 5 1.67 .15 accepted female 3 2.95 .16 from table 7, it can be deduced that there was no significant difference between male and female students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game. this is reflected in the findings of the hypothesis tested df (5), t= 1.67, p>0.05. thus, the hypothesis which states that “there is no significant difference in the reaction of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game” is accepted. discussion this study examined the effect of scramble game on academic achievement of students in english vocabulary using scrabble game in ilorin metropolis. the findings revealed that a difference in percentage score in both the pre-test and posttest. it could be observed that there are addition and reduction in the pre-test and post-test scores; 72 increased to 80, 95 reduced to 82, 95 reduced to 89, 82 reduced to 78, and 83 reduced to 71. however, they retained the achievement level of excellent. contrarily, two (2) of the respondents with pre-test scores (70 and 40) and post-test scores (30 and 14) revealed a reduction from achievement level of excellent and poor to fail respectively. cumulatively, considering the achievement ranges stated in table 2, a reduction in the pre-test scores and achievement level and post-test scores and achievement level was observed; 77 (excellent) reduced to 64 (very good). thus, students performed well when taught english vocabulary with scrabble game. this clearly shows that instructional media when properly integrated into teaching and learning is capable of stimulating learning and encourage active learning in the classroom thereby increase students’ overall achievement in the classroom. this study agreed with the previous study of hebblethwaite (2009) and voinov (2010), whose study affirmed that scrabble board game offers an excellent oppourtunity of learning english vocabulary concepts and presenting an intense mental activity that offers cognitive skills, practice in applying economic principles, and the activation of language learning in classrooms, thus improving language skills of learners and increasing performance. this study also concur with the previous findings of glover (2013) whose findings affirmed that the application of scramble games in the classroom may be stimulating and motivating for the new generations of students that have grown up in the age of video games. the findings of this study validate the earlier study of oblinger (2004) whose study indicated that games encourage students to play an active role in the instructional process, thus, supporting active learning, experiential learning, and problem-based learning. extant literature suggests that educational games (egs) like jigsaw puzzle games represent a promising tool in gamification. glover (2013) temitayo omolara onasanya, gboyega ayodeji aladesusi, & samuel adenubi onasanya effect of scrabble game on secondary school students’ academic achievements in selected english language concepts in ilorin metropolis 28 concluded that among the reasons that have been pointed out for the use of games in education is that egs may be appealing and motivating for the new generations of students that have grown up in the age of video games. objectives 2 examined the difference between the academic achievement of male and female students taught english language using scrabble game. the findings of this study revealed that the gender differences do not exist in using scrabble game to teach english vocabulary in ilorin metropolis. it was revealed from the findings that the nature of scrabble game which involved intense mental activity and engaging both male and female students simultaneously helps in bridging the gender gap that use to exist in english vocabulary performance. this finding contradict the previous findings of halpern and wai (2007) whose study reported a significant lower scrabble rating for female compare to male scrabble players. similarly, the findings was inconsistent with the previous findings of croson & gneezy (2009) whose study concluded that males are more motivated than females to achieve than their female’s counterparts in any game’s competition. maass, d’ettole, and cadinu (2008) also indicated that women who compete with their female counterparts in any chess game achieved less than their male counterpart. objective 3 determined students’ reaction to learning english language with scrabble game. this study revealed that students’ reaction to learning english vocabulary with the use scrabble game is positive. this means that student would prefer the use of games to other traditional means of instruction in the class room. these findings agreed with the previous study of goehle (2013), whose study opined that students indicate positive increase in level of their engagement and interest which ultimately transformed to better performance and reaction to scrabble game. the study found that no significance difference existed between the academic performance of male and female students taught english vocabulary using scrabble game in ilorin metropolis. both male and female students taught english vocabulary with the use of scrabble game performed very well. this finding is in contrast with the study of mccarthy (2008), lubinski and benbow (2006), and tierney (2005), the researchers concluded that most players in scrabble tournaments are female, however, the higher ratio of female to male players cannot explain the male advantages in scrabble game, in fact, the researchers explained that one would predict females will be more prevalent than male at the performance level but opposite is the case. conclusion the results of the findings indicated that scramble game has positive effect on academics achievement of the students and there is no significant difference between male and female students taught english language using scramble game based on the findings of this study, it can be deduced that the findings of this study averred that academic achievement in english vocabulary can be increased with the utilisation of scrabble game through the intense mental activity that learners engage in while playing the game and instructional assignment should be assigned to students without any gender bias. similarly, the use of scrabble game in the teaching of english vocabulary is learner and gender friendly. hence, the need for scrabble game in the english language classroom is quintessential in order to maintain an interesting, engaging, interactive, entertaining and fun filled classroom, and help learners to gain better learning experience without gender consideration. in interpreting the results of the study, some limitations regarding methodological aspects can be stated. first, this study used a self-structured questionnaire to elicited information on student’s reaction to the use of scramble game for learning english language vocabulary, which brings opportunities for response bias. second, the sample only included students from jss one. in addition, the sample size was relatively small. these two factors suggested several precautions in the generalization of the findings of this result. furthermore, it should also be noted that the measurement scale used needs to be re-tested for future studies.hence, based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations were made. first english vocabulary teaching and learning should be conducted in an engaging, funfilled and entertaining manner using scramble game , this is because, english vocabulary are better understood when its learnt in an entertaining manner . second, scrabble game adoption should be encouraged among teachers and students. this will provide avenue to learners to learn in a personalised, indonesian journal of learning and instruction p-issn 2614-8250, e-issn 2614-5677 volume 4, issue 2, october 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ijli 29 individualised, and self-paced level, which will in turn translate to better academic performance, school proprietors should embrace and provide entertaining and interactive games such as scrabble game to the school. since, it creates better learning experience and offer a reality of experience that stimulates self-activity. references abanikannda, m. o. 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