key: cord-252714-idlyl4ga
authors: Islam, M. Saiful; Rahman, Kazi M.; Sun, Yanni; Qureshi, Mohammed O.; Abdi, Ikram; Chughtai, Abrar A.; Seale, Holly
title: Current knowledge of COVID-19 and infection prevention and control strategies in healthcare settings: A global analysis
date: 2020-05-15
journal: Infection control and hospital epidemiology
DOI: 10.1017/ice.2020.237
sha: 
doc_id: 252714
cord_uid: idlyl4ga

OBJECTIVE: In the current absence of a vaccine for COVID-19, public health responses aim to break the chain of infection by focusing on the mode of transmission. We reviewed the current evidence on the transmission dynamics and on pathogenic and clinical features of COVID-19 to critically identify any gaps in the current infection prevention and control (IPC) guidelines. METHODS: In this study, we reviewed global COVID-19 IPC guidelines by organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Guidelines from 2 high-income countries (Australia and United Kingdom) and from 1 middle-income country (China) were also reviewed. We searched publications in English on ‘PubMed’ and Google Scholar. We extracted information related to COVID-19 transmission dynamics, clinical presentations, and exposures that may facilitate transmission. We then compared these findings with the recommended IPC measures. RESULTS: Nosocomial transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare settings occurs through droplets, aerosols, and the oral–fecal or fecal–droplet route. However, the IPC guidelines fail to cover all transmission modes, and the recommendations also conflict with each other. Most guidelines recommend surgical masks for healthcare providers during routine care and N95 respirators for aerosol-generating procedures. However, recommendations regarding the type of face mask varied, and the CDC recommends cloth masks when surgical masks are unavailable. CONCLUSION: IPC strategies should consider all the possible routes of transmission and should target all patient care activities involving risk of person-to-person transmission. This review may assist international health agencies in updating their guidelines.

The global outbreak of coronavirus disease is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). During the last 20 years, 2 other coronavirus epidemics, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, have resulted in a considerable burden of cases across multiple countries. 1,2 Outbreaks of newly emerging or remerging infectious diseases present a unique challenge and a threat to healthcare providers (HCPs) and other frontline responders due to limited understanding of the emerging threat and reliance on infection prevention and control (IPC) measures that may not consider all transmission dynamics of the emerging pathogens. Furthermore, HCP understanding and skills around the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) vary widely.

During the outbreaks of both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, patient-to-patient and patient-to-HCP transmission occurred in healthcare settings. 3, 4 Although the level of risk of transmission across hospital occupants (to HCPs and others) falls on a spectrum, all of these groups pose unique challenges when it comes to reducing transmission. In hospital settings, performing aerosolgenerating procedures (AGPs, eg intubation, suction, bronchoscopy, cardiopulmonary resuscitation) or using a nebulizer on a SARS patient facilitated patient-to-HCP transmission. 3, 5, 6 Overcrowding in emergency rooms, poor compliance with IPC measures, and contamination of the environment also contribute to viral spread. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] In healthcare settings, the most common pathway of human-tohuman transmission has been the contact of the mucosae with infectious respiratory droplets or fomites. 12 However, prior studies have also detected coronaviruses in sputum, nasal or nasopharyngeal secretions, endotracheal aspirate, bronchoalveolar lavage, urine, feces, tears, conjunctival secretions, and blood and lung tissues. [13] [14] [15] [16] Other research has also shown that SARS-CoV can survive in sputum, serum, and feces for at least 96 hours and in urine for 72 hours, 17 and it can survive on surfaces up to 9 days. 18 Thus, the recommended mitigation strategies may need to be sufficiently broad to control these transmission modes.

The COVID- 19 IPC guidelines have been adopted and or developed based on the knowledge gained from experience during responding MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV outbreaks. [19] [20] [21] [22] However, the available published literature to date have indicated that SARS-CoV-2 is genetically similar to, but distinct from, SARS-CoV [22] [23] [24] in terms of transmissibility, viral shedding, and other characteristics. [25] [26] [27] [28] Therefore, a critical review of the available literature related to the COVID-19 outbreak is essential as part of informing and updating IPC guidelines. In this study, we examined the current recommendations for IPC in light of what is known to date about COVID-19.

We reviewed global COVID-19 IPC guidelines from the World Health Organization (WHO), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). We selected these international guidelines because they are commonly used as a reference globally. 29, 30 Guidelines from 2 high-income countries (Australia and the United Kingdom) and 1 middle-income country were also selected. We searched publications in English on 'PubMed' and Google Scholar for the period between January 1 and April 27, 2020, using the following search terms: "2019-nCoV" or "COVID-19" or "2019 novel coronavirus" or "SARS-CoV-2." To identify COVID-19 IPC guidelines, we visited the websites of the international public health agencies such as CDC, ECDC, WHO, as well as the Australian Government Department of Health, the Bureau of Disease Prevention and Control of the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, and Public Health England. Using the aforementioned terms, we also undertook a Google search for newspaper articles, reports, and updates related to the disease.

We extracted information related to COVID-19 transmission dynamics, clinical presentations, and exposures that may facilitate the transmission while reviewing the literature. For guidelines, we extracted title, country or organization, department, target audience, and the different control measures recommended to control COVID-19. The lead author extracted the information from the guidelines, and all coauthors reviewed and validated it. We performed a content analysis of all data and summarized it under certain themes, and we then compared and contrasted our findings as they related to COVID-19 IPC measures. 31 

The SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus, and bats are assumed to be the reservoir. 23, 32 The suspected mode of COVID-19 transmission in Wuhan is from bats to humans; this animal served as an intermediate host that facilitated the transfer of this virus to humans. 23 SARS-CoV-2 can be spread via droplets and aerosols (in a closed environment with high concentration of aerosols) transmitted from human to human through everyday interactions and by contact (eg, a person touches the patient or object contaminated with the virus). 21,22,33-43 van Doremalen et al 44 found that SARS-CoV-2 may remain viable in aerosols for up to 3 hours and on surfaces for up to several days. 44, 45 Public Health England classified COVID-19 as an airborne, high-consequence, infectious disease in the United Kingdom. 21 Transmission may occur presymptomatically, during the incubation period, or even after recovery. 46, 48 Like influenza and other respiratory pathogens, SARS-CoV-2 may also be transmitted through respiratory droplets through coughing and sneezing. 49 The CDC team reasoned that when an infected person coughs or sneezes, the large respiratory droplets expressed from the patients' mouth and nose are likely to transmit the virus from the infected patient to a healthy person. 50 The propelled droplets can land directly on the mucous membrane of the mouth, nose, or eyes of a nearby person or on the surface of objects. 49 These droplets may travel up to~4 m 51 and may increase the risk of infection to HCPs. 52 Guo et al 51 also identified SARS-CoV-2 on shoe soles of HCPs working in intensive care units (ICUs); therefore, shoes can carry the virus. In an experimental study conducted by van Doremalen et al, 44 SARS-CoV-2 remained viable on plastic and stainless-steel surfaces for up to 3 days. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was identified on a cruise ship 17 days after the ship was vacated. 45 AGPs, such as bronchoscopy, bronchial suction, tracheal intubation, and sputum induction, may generate aerosols containing the virus and increase the risk of transmission. 19, 42 These modes of transmission may contribute to spreading the virus in healthcare settings, including superspreading events, 53 and they inform guidance for IPC in healthcare settings.

The incubation period of COVID-19 is 2-14 days. 64 Backer et al 65 estimated the mean incubation period to be 6.4 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 5.6-7.7). The available findings showed that transmission of SARS-CoV-2 may occur before and after symptom onset. 45 Zou et al 27 found modest viral loads on nasal and throat swabs early in the illness, with viral loads peaking~5 days after symptom onset. The virus can be detected until 15 days from onset of illness and can be transmitted throughout the illness episode. 27 Sharing a toilet in healthcare settings can also be a source of infection; the SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in toilet bowls and sinks. 66, 67 Inappropriate selection of PPE may also put HCPs at risk of infection. 68 Exposure to AGPs was identified as a risk factor for acquiring COVID-19, 42 but the others drivers of transmission and the exact mode of transmission remain uncertain. For example, blood, saliva, and stool, of COVID-19 patients have been tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, 60,63,69 but the precise role these body fluids play in disease transmission in healthcare settings and the ways in which they may be transferred remain uncertain.

As of April 8, 2020, >22,000 HCPs have been infected with COVID-19 in 55 countries. 70 HCPs comprise~11% of all reported COVID-19 cases in Italy, 70 13 .6% in Spain, 71~1 4% in the United Kingdom, 72,73 and 3.8% in China. 70 One of the largest known outbreaks of hospital-acquired COVID-19 was reported in China among 17 (12.3%) of 138 patients and 40 (29%) of 138 HCPs in 1 hospital. 54 Of the infected HCPs, 77.5% worked in general wards, 17.5% worked in the emergency department, and 5% worked in intensive care units. 54 Li et al 74 reported that no cases of COVID-19 occurred in HCPs before January 1, 2020. 74 From January 1 to 11, 7 (3%) of 248 HCPs were infected, and from January 12 to 22, 7% (8/122) HCPs were infected, showing that healthcare-associated infections were increasing. 74 A more recent study in a hospital in the United Kingdom showed ongoing transmission of COVID-19 among HCPs. 75 

The Department of Health, Australia, the Bureau of Disease Prevention and Control of the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, the CDC, the ECDC, Public Health England, and the WHO have published COVID-19 IPC guidelines that have targeted health administrators, HCPs, or public health units to implement IPC measures. 22, [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] Currently, the following IPC measures are in practice: suspected source control, use of personal protective equipment, rapid diagnosis, physical distancing, isolation, investigation, and follow-up of close contacts. 54 All guidelines include administrative control, environmental control, and PPE, and the guidelines of Australia, the WHO, and the CDC also include engineering control. A comparison of the recommendations made in the guidelines is presented in Tables 1-3.

All guidelines recommend early diagnosis and isolation of COVID-19 patients in a single room, if available. In settings where single-room isolation facilities are limited, all of the guidelines recommend cohorting or group zoning of suspected COVID-19 patients in a well-ventilated room. The guidelines prioritize source control and recommend providing face masks to patients. The guidelines also recommend training for all HCPs regarding IPC measures. However, there are discrepancies in the guidelines regarding IPC measures. For example, the WHO recommends at least 1 meter distance between patients or between patients and HCPs when patients are cohorted in a large room, whereas Australia recommends 1.5 m of distance and the CDC recom-mends~2 m (~6 ft) between patients. Moreover, 4 guidelines recommend patient education, and 3 guidelines suggest establishing surveillance in the hospital to monitor cross infection in patients and HCPs.

All of the guidelines highlight visitor controls in the hospitals. However, only China and the WHO discuss family members giving care in healthcare settings; they recommend that family caregivers use contact and droplet precautions while attending family members in the hospital. In addition, the ECDC guidelines recommend PPE for social workers when they provide care in healthcare settings.

All of the guidelines recommend that AGPs must be prioritized in a negative-pressure isolation room or in a well-ventilated room and that contact and airborne precautions should be followed during the AGP. To reduce room contamination in hospital settings, all of the guidelines recommend routine cleaning and disinfection of surfaces using disinfectants. The Chinese guideline also recommends air disinfectants using an air sterilizer and pressure steam sterilization. Incinerating or sterilizing patients' clothing, bedding, and utensils are included in the guidelines from Australia, China, and the United Kingdom. Although the fecaloral route of COVID-19 transmission has not yet been confirmed, the Chinese guidelines recommend disinfecting septic tanks. The CDC, ECDC, and UK guidelines recommended separate toilets for each patient. Although all of the guidelines recommend precautions during patient transfer, only the Chinese, ECDC, and UK guidelines emphasize decontaminating transportation means and trollies used by confirmed COVID-19 patients.

Due to the global supply shortages of PPE, almost all of the guidelines revised their initial recommendations related to PPE use. Of the 6 guidelines, 5 now recommend reuse of PPE following the manufacturers' instructions. Considering the global scarcity of PPE supplies, the WHO, CDC, ECDC, Australian, and UK updated guidelines recommend surgical masks as an acceptable alternative to N95 respirators for HCPs during routine care, and N95 or equivalent respirators have been prioritized during AGPs. However, the recommendations around the type of face mask vary; for example, some guidelines recommend fluidrepellent surgical face masks, whereas others recommend general surgical masks. 82 The CDC also recommends homemade cloth masks or homemade masks when a face mask is totally unavailable. 81 As contact and droplet precautions, PPE measures, including wearing a surgical mask, and a gown, gloves, face shield, goggles and/or visors, and hand hygiene, have been recommended upon entering the patient's room as well as removal of PPE upon leaving (Table 1 ). In all guidelines, alcohol-based hand sanitizers have been prioritized whenever available (Table 1) . Fit testing and seal checks are an essential part of respirator use, but fit testing is recommended in 5 guidelines and a seal check is recommended in 3 guidelines. Precautions during donning and doffing are recommended in all guidelines. If an autopsy is required for a patient, the WHO, CDC, ECDC, and UK guidelines recommend the use of contact and airborne precautions during the autopsy. However, the WHO recommends performing autopsies in an adequately ventilated room, whereas the CDC recommends performing this procedure in airborne infection isolation room 85, 86 Engineering control Physical separation is efficient in reducing transmission of respiratory virus in hospital settings. The Australian, CDC, and WHO guidelines emphasize engineering control as an IPC measure. These guidelines recommend the following engineering control measures: spatial barriers or partitions to manage patients in triage areas, curtains around each bed in inpatient wards, closed suctioning systems for airway suctioning in intubated patients, and airflow management. The CDC guidelines also recommend installing physical barriers using glass or plastic windows in the hospital reception area.

All of the guidelines recommend standard precautions while handling dead bodies. Only the Australian, Chinese, and UK guidelines recommend the use of body bags. The Chinese guideline recommends putting cotton balls or gauze in the mouth, nose, ears, and anus, as well as any tracheotomy or open wound of the deceased body. 22 All of the guidelines also state that a burial ritual may be allowed with standard precautions. A dedicated vehicle is recommended for postmortem transport. 

In this review, we identified the transmission model and risk exposures of the COVID-19 pandemic. The identified signs and symptoms of the case patients suggest that SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted through cough, sneeze, saliva, nasal secretion, stool, and vomit via droplet, aerosol, fecal-oral, or fecal-droplet transmission. 42, 69 However, currently discrepancies exist among the guidelines; not all documents acknowledge the 3 routes of transmission. To reduce exposures to SARS-CoV-2, all of the guidelines recommend early diagnosis and rapid isolation of COVID-19 patients. However, studies to date have indicated that rapid diagnosis of patients is challenging 87 because the signs and symptoms of COVID-19 are nonspecific and may be confused with all microbial causes of respiratory tract infection. 87 The nonspecific nature of the virus, as well as asymptomatic patients, may affect the IPC measures. The recommendations regarding spatial separation between patients or between patients and HCPs are inadequate for droplet precautions in hospital settings. The recommendation of physical distance in the guidelines varies between 1 m and 2 m; however, a recent study has reported that the SARS-CoV-2 may travel >4 m. 51 Moreover, environmental factors, such as air flow, humidity, and use of air conditioners or air mixing fans, may also influence the horizontal travel of droplets. An outbreak of COVID-19 linked to air conditioning has been reported in China. 88 These reports indicate that revision of the spatial separation recommendation is warranted.

Although evidence that SARS-CoV-2 can be airborne is very limited, all of the guidelines recommend placing patients in a single room, if available. The exponentially large number of patients in several countries made the implementation of this isolation recommendation impossible due to the shortages of single isolation rooms. 89, 90 Therefore, cohorting patients in large shared rooms has become a practical alternative that is recommended in most updated guidelines. All of the international guidelines should make specific recommendations for hospitals that treat several patients in a large shared room. In addition, bed sheets and bed rails can be an important source of droplet and fomite transmission. 18 None of the guidelines provided proper instruction on how to handle the bedding and clothing of COVID-19 patients. Because SARS-CoV-2 may remain viable on surfaces for days, a recommendation is needed for safe handling these items.

The presence of virus in stool samples indicates that the virus may also be transmitted through fecal-oral or fecal-droplet routes. 63, 67, 69 Prior evidence of SARS coronavirus transmission through feces supports the likelihood of COVID-19 transmission via an oral-fecal or fecal-droplet route. 91 In recent studies, investigators have detected SARS-CoV-2 in toilet bowls, sinks, and air. 66, 92 Toilet flushing may generate bioaerosols contaminated with pathogens. One study detected pathogenic microorganisms in air samples collected from hospital toilets, and the pathogen may remain viable in the air for at least 30 minutes after flushing suggest the possibility of fecal-droplet transmission. 93 Specific recommendations are needed regarding the prevention of fecal-oral or fecal-droplet transmission in hospital settings.

Shortages of PPE are expected during pandemics due to high demand, and they have occurred in past epidemics as well. 94 Due to the shortage of PPE, all guidelines recommend that HCPs should wear surgical mask as a droplet precaution and during specimen collection. 19, 22 The use of N95 or equivalent respirators is recommended only during AGPs in all guidelines. 19 The virus may be transmitted through aerosols, 42, 92 and it can remain viable in aerosols for several hours. 44, 92 Therefore, face masks may not provide sufficient protection to HCPs due to their long and repeated exposure in confined spaces. 77 In addition, the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 seems more like that of influenza than SARS-CoV. 27 A randomized control study among HCPs exposed to influenza patients found that surgical masks may provide some protection to the wearers, probably by minimizing the frequency of times a person touches their nose and mouth 95 ; however, surgical masks may not provide fully effective protection from respiratory pathogens because of leakage due to the loose fit of surgical masks. 96 Considering the shortage of HCPs globally, 97 the international guidelines should recommend optimal protection and IPC standards to protect frontline HCPs. Already, >22,000 HCPs have been infected, and many countries have reported ongoing nosocomial transmission of SAR-CoV-2 among HCPs. 70, 72, 98, 99 The role of face masks in protecting HCPs from SAR-CoV-2 has been questioned. 100 We understand that a global shortage of N95 or equivalent respirators might have prompted the WHO, the UK, the ECDC, Australia, and the CDC to loosen their recommendations regarding face protection, but frontline HCPs should not be put at risk of infection. The face mask recommendation should be changed to N95 or equivalent respirators for all HCPs in all guidelines.

The guidelines should include a strong statement against the use of cloth or material masks, and HCPs should be encouraged not to wear 2 products simultaneously. Although 4 guidelines recommend the reuse of PPE or extended wear, no current guidelines address this behavior, and strict hand hygiene and donning/doffing procedures should be followed. For example, the UK guideline recommends that PPE be used between 2 and 6 hours, whereas the ECDC guidelines recommend wearing PPE for up to 4-6 hours. [80] [81] [82] If countries resort to these strategies, it would be useful for the wider international community that observations studies be undertaken so that the results can be applied to future guidelines. Lastly, the WHO guidelines lack a recommendation on fit testing. It cannot be assumed that staff members have been fit tested for their respirators, so hospitals should be encouraged to fit test or at least fit check members of staff, including ancillary staff (ie, cleaning and support staff) and pharmacists who frequent the wards.

The recommendations should be updated regarding the disposition of patients after recovery and the use of standard precautions. Although all the guidelines make specific recommendations on this topic, some of the recommendations do not match our findings. For example, the WHO guideline recommends continuing standard precautions until a patient is asymptomatic. However, one study identified prolonged shedding of SARS-CoV-2 after recovery, 46 and, therefore, special attention must be given to changing this recommendation. The discord in the recommendations on corpse handling may result in an increase in the risk of infection among the exposed. Corpse-to-human transmission of Ebola and Nipah viruses has been documented, 101, 102 and MERS-CoV was detected in the nasal secretions of a deceased human. 103 SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in respiratory secretions, saliva and stool, and the virus may remain active in secretions and excreta from deceased bodies at least a few hours after death. 27, 74, [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] Direct physical contact with bodies infected with the virus may increase the risk of infection. All of the guidelines should include recommendations on how to handle corpses and their management in hospitals.

The increasing numbers of COVID-19 cases among HCPs along with evidence of ongoing transmission in some hospitals suggest some that gaps in IPC measures should be revisited in the guidelines. Low-and middle-income countries often adopt international IPC guidelines as they stand or with modifications for the local context. Therefore, we recommend international guidelines consider the global context while recommending IPC measures.

In conclusion, SARS-CoV-2 may spread faster than the previous SARS-CoV. IPC measures should consider SARS-CoV-2 to spread as a droplet, an aerosol, and through the oral-fecal route. All of the guidelines should target these modes of transmission while recommending control measures. Because no drug or vaccine is publicly available for SARS-CoV-2, HCPs and other frontline outbreak responders must rely on IPC measures for safety. In addition, gaps always occur between the development of IPC guidelines, their introduction to target audience, and their implementation. During a public health emergency, international agencies may use an online platform to introduce IPC guidelines to HCPs in a shorter time. National authorities should provide training on the IPC guidelines to people at risk of infection.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome vs. the Middle East respiratory syndrome

The severe acute respiratory syndrome

Investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Toronto, Canada

Middle East respiratory syndrome: what we learned from the 2015 outbreak in the Republic of Korea

A major outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong

Possible SARS coronavirus transmission during cardiopulmonary resuscitation

SARS in healthcare facilities

Epidemiological investigation of MERS-CoV spread in a single hospital in South Korea

Molecular epidemiology of hospital outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome

Hospital outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

Clinical features and viral diagnosis of two cases of infection with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: a report of nosocomial transmission

Effectiveness of precautions against droplets and contact in prevention of nosocomial transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection

Tears and conjunctival scrapings for coronavirus in patients with SARS

Middle East respiratory syndrome

Human intestinal tract serves as an alternative infection route for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

Stability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating and UV irradiation

Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents

Infection prevention and control during health care when novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection is suspected. World Health Organization website

Infection prevention and control for the care of patients with 2019-nCoV in healthcare settings. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control website

COVID-19: Infection Prevention and Control Guidance

Bureau of Disease Prevention and Control of the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia and Prevention Control Program

Bureau of Disease Prevention and Control of the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China

Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding

A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China

WHO Scientific and Technical Advisory Group for Infectious Hazards. COVID-19: what is next for public health

The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus

SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients

Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: a prospective study

World Health Organization. Guidelines on Core Components of Infection Prevention and Control Programmes at the National and Acute Health Care Facility Level

Availability, consistency and evidence-base of policies and guidelines on the use of mask and respirator to protect hospital healthcare workers: a global analysis

Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multidisciplinary health research

A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Confirms Personto-Person Spread of New Coronavirus in the United States

Airborne infection prevention and control technical briefs

Novel coronavirus can transmit via aerosol: expert. Xinhuanet website

Shanghai officials reveal novel coronavirus transmission modes. China Daily website

Importation and human-tohuman transmission of a novel coronavirus in Vietnam

Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization. Epidemiological Update: Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)

COVID-19: what we know and do not know about the coronavirus. The Gurdian website

Bureau of Disease Prevention and Control of the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China

China confirms aerosol spread of COVID-19, frontline medical workers need to wear right masks. The Independent News

Expert recommendations for tracheal intubation in critically ill patients with noval coronavirus disease 2019

Evidence of airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus

Aerosol and surface stability of HCoV-19 (SARS-CoV-1 2) compared to SARS-CoV-1

Public health responses to COVID-19 outbreaks on cruise ships-worldwide

Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany

China coronavirus: six questions scientists are asking

Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19

How 2019-nCoV spreads

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Infection Prevention and Control Recommendations for Patients with Confirmed 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or Persons Under Investigation for 2019-nCoV in Healthcare Settings

Aerosol and surface distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in hospital wards

Airborne or droplet precautions for health workers treating coronavirus disease 2019?

Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China

Clinical features and treatment of 2019-nCov pneumonia patients in Wuhan: report of a couple cases

Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study

A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster

Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China

Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States

The digestive system is a potential route of 2019-nCov infection: a bioinformatics analysis based on single-cell transcriptomes

Consistent detection of 2019 novel coronavirus in saliva

Notes from the field: isolation of 2019-nCoV from a stool specimen of a laboratory-confirmed case of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Clinical characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in China

Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China

Air, surface environmental, and personal protective equipment contamination by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a symptomatic patient

Indirect virus transmission in a cluster of COVID-19 cases

What healthcare personnel should know about caring for patients with confirmed or possible COVID-19 infection

Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: implication of multiple shedding routes

COVID-19) Situation Report -82

Spain's coronavirus death toll surpasses China as world struggles with containment

COVID-19 How many healthcare workers are infected? The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine website

Number of coronavirus (COVID-19) cases and risk in the UK. In The Latest Number of Coronavirus (COVID-19) Cases and Risk Level in the United Kingdom

Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia

First experience of COVID-19 screening of health-care workers in England

Healthcare workers worry about coronavirus protection. The Washington Post

Exploring the reasons for healthcare workers infected with novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China

publications-detail/infection-prevention-and-control-during-healthcare-when-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-is-suspected-20200125

Canberra: CDNA; 2020. 80. Infection prevention and control for the care of patients with 2019-nCoV in healthcare settings. ECDC technical report. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control website

Interim infection prevention and control recommendations for patients with suspected or confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in healthcare settings

Guidance on Infection Prevention and Control for COVID-19. London: Public Health England

Interim infection prevention and control recommendations for patients with suspected or confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in healthcare settings

National guidelines for public health units: novel coronavirus 2019 (2019-nCoV)

Collection and submission of postmortem specimens from deceased persons with known or suspected COVID-19

Infection prevention and control for the safe management of a dead body in the context of COVID-19. World Health Organization website

The rate of underascertainment of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infection: estimation using Japanese passengers data on evacuation flights

COVID-19 outbreak associated with air conditioning in restaurant

Early lessons from the frontline of the 2019-nCoV outbreak

COVID-19) Situation Report -54

SARS: lessons from Toronto

Aerodynamic characteristics and RNA concentration of SARS-CoV-2 aerosol in Wuhan hospitals during COVID-19

Bioaerosol concentrations generated from toilet flushing in a hospital-based patient care setting

Policies on the use of respiratory protection for hospital health workers to protect from coronavirus disease (COVID-19)

N95 respirators vs medical masks for preventing influenza among health care personnel: a randomized clinical trial

Frequently asked questions about respirators and their use

A Universal Truth: No Health Without a Workforce

Christopher's doctor infected with COVID-19; ICU closed to new patients. 6 ABC Action News

Battling coronavirus, Iran's health workers complain of severe shortages

Protecting healthcare workers from subclinical coronavirus infection

Nipah virus infection outbreak with nosocomial and corpse-to-human transmission

Ebola virus shedding and transmission: review of current evidence

Case report: detection of the Middle East respiratory syndrome corona virus (MERS-CoV) in nasal secretions of a dead human

Consistent detection of 2019 novel coronavirus in saliva

First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States

Journey of a Thai taxi driver and novel coronavirus

A locally transmitted case of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Taiwan

Importation and human-tohuman transmission of a novel coronavirus in Vietnam

Family caregivers in public tertiary care hospitals in Bangladesh: risks and opportunities for infection control

Family caregiving in India: importance of need-based support and intervention in acute-care settings

Healthcare policy and healthcare utilization behavior to improve hospital infection control after the Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak

Family and paid caregivers of hospitalized patients in Korea

Family involvement in inpatient care in Taiwan

Roles of nurse aides and family members in acute patient care in Taiwan

The sociocultural context of caregiving experiences for vietnamese dementia family caregivers

Family-paid caregivers in hospital health care in China

Meaning of filial piety in the Chinese parent-child relationship: implications for culturally competent health care

Examining the inclusion of patients and their family members in infection prevention and control policies and guidelines across Bangladesh, Indonesia, and South Korea

Acknowledgments. We appreciate a colleague for providing us the latest guidelines from China. We are also grateful to Univesity of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, for providing scholarships to the primary author. We are grateful to the governments of Bangladesh, Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom for providing core, unrestricted support to the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), the home institution of the primary author.Financial support. This research did not receive any funding from donor agencies.Conflicts of interest. All authors report no conflicts of interest relevant to this article.
