Int. J. Aquat. Biol. (2021) 9(1): 55-65
ISSN: 2322-5270; P-ISSN: 2383-0956
Journal homepage: www.ij-aquaticbiology.com
© 2021 Iranian Society of Ichthyology

Review Article
An overview of the pesticides’ impacts on fishes and humans

Eric Amenyogbe1,2, Jian Sheng Huang*1,2, Gang Chen*1,2, Zhongliang Wang1,2

1College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524025, China.

2Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquaculture in the South China Sea for Aquatic Economic Animal of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Laboratory
of Fish Aquaculture, Zhanjiang 524025, China.

Article history:
Received 16 August 2020
Accepted 12 November 2020
Available online 2 5 February 2021

Keywords:
Pesticides
Immune system
Genotoxicity
Bioaccumulation

Abstract: Agrochemicals, also known as pesticides include nematicides, molluscicides,
rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides and insecticides, can control pests, weeds, fungi, rodents, etc.
The accumulation of pesticides in the food chain and water has harmful effects on humans and
animals. Despite the advantages provided by pesticides, aquatic organisms and human health are
affected as the results of continuous usage of pesticides and issues of building up of chemical
substances in aquatic organisms, such as fish. Pesticides must be lethal to the targeted species without
any effect on non-targeted ones. Pesticides have harmful effects on the nervous system. Other
pesticides are known to be carcinogenic substances. This review discussed the effects of pesticides
on the immune system, protein, chromosomes, behavior, enzymes, growth, bioaccumulation,
genotoxicity and changes in blood biochemical parameters of fish and humans and suggested some
possible ways of mitigating such effects.

Introduction
The human population has rapidly increased in the last
few decades leading to suburbanization, mechani-
zation, or industrialization (Al-Mamun, 2017). The
nutrient fortification of water environments, climate
change, acid rain and contamination by insecticides,
metals and manufactured toxic constituents cause such
anthropogenic troubles (Kamble, 2014). The death of
wildlife, including marine and freshwater organisms,
a growing hazard to human wellbeing, includes
chronic respiratory disease, damage to organs (e.g.,
brain, lung, heart, liver and kidneys) and algal bloom
in many water bodies, are some of the pesticidal
effects (Al-Mamun, 2017). Increasingly, water bodies
are getting exposed to contaminants or pollutants
owing to human actions, such as farming,
industrialization and domestic activities (Lu et al.,
2015; Al-Mamun, 2017). The use of agrochemicals is
essential for controlling pests and increasing food
production for the universal population (Khan et al.,
2013; Al-Mamun, 2017). Globally, serious concerns
have been raised about the existence of these toxic

*Correspondence: Jian Sheng Huang and Gang Chen DOI: https://doi.org/10.22034/ijab.v9i1.972
E-mail: gdoucg@126.com, huangjs@gdou.edu.cn

chemicals in both aquatic and terrestrial environments
or ecosystems (Alrumman et al., 2016). According to
recent studies, industrial chemicals, pesticides, and
other metals affect the endocrine system of several
organisms, including humans (Haseena and Malik,
2017). The presence of these chemicals may
negatively affect the normal function of the endocrine
system and cause growth disorders in many species,
including invertebrates and complex animals, also in
humans; it can cause cancer, genetic disorders,
respiratory diseases and neurological effects (Bibi et
al., 2016; Haseena and Malik, 2017).

This review discussed the effects of pesticides on
fish and human focusing on the immune system,
protein, chromosomes, behavior, enzymes, growth,
bioaccumulation, genotoxicity and changes in blood
biochemical parameters of fish and humans and
suggested some possible ways for mitigating such
effects.
Pesticides: Well-thought-out as a distinctive class of
chemical compounds, according to WHO, pesticides
are utilized to kill a wide array of pests that comprises

Amenyogbe et al./ Impacts of pesticides on fishes and humans

rodents, weeds and insects. They are utilized with the
objectives of improving yield and qualities of farm
products (Sharma et al., 2020). Pesticides are well-
thought-out as hypothetically toxic elements released
into the environment to kill fungi, weeds, insects,
rodents, etc. The physical and chemical properties of
pesticides are different. They are categorized based on
their properties (US Environmental Protection
Agency, 2018). Currently, there are three most
common categories of pesticides that are extensively
used, and the categories are based on the type of the
entrance, pesticide utility and the entity (Yadav et al.,
2017). Based on the harmfulness of pesticides, The
World Health Organization (WHO) grouped them into
four categories, including exceedingly hazardous,
greatly hazardous, abstemiously dangerous and
considerably harmful (Al-Mamun, 2017). The most
popular pesticides among these are herbicides
(GRACE Communications, 2018). The majority of the
pesticides is anticipated to aid as crop protection,
which generally protects crops from weed growth,
fungal infestation and insect attacks. Pesticides are
categorized based on the target animal (organism) and
chemical structure (organic, inorganic, synthetic and
biological substances) (Yadav et al., 2017; Li and
Jennings, 2017). Generally, pesticides are biological
agents, such as a virus, bacterium, or fungus that
discourages, debilitates, eradicates, or depresses pests
(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2018).
Despite the advantages, pesticides have harmful
effects on humans and other organisms (Hong et al.,
2019).
Benefits of pesticides: The beneficial effects of
pesticides are important. Controlling of pests, weeds,
rodents, etc. results in the high productivity and better
quality of crops, which also results in additional
economic revenue. The above benefits might help in
the medical and educational needs of children of
farmers, leading to better education and good health of
the general public of a nation.

General acknowledged commercial incentives are
dependent on the polluter pays standard or principle,
comprising taxes, user fees and the licensing fees.
Nevertheless, the benefits are mainly social benefits,

including risk reduction and capacity to increase
labour, hence by creating opportunities for
employment (Popp et al., 2013).

The increases in outputs and production have been
related to some factors comprising the use of
pesticides (fertilizers). The reduction of losses caused
by the diseases, insect pests and weeds can reduce the
quality, market value and the number of harvestable
crops (Aktar et al., 2009). Following Warren (1998),
there was a remarkable increase in yield of crops in
the USA during the 20th century, and considerable
economic losses were observed without pesticidal use
(Aktar et al., 2009). USA spent 9.2 billion USD yearly
on pesticides for crop protection and saved
approximately 60 billion USD on crops leading to a
net profit of 6.5 USD for every donated dollar on
pesticides (Gianessi, 2009).

The pesticides can generate substantial
environmental and socio-economic remunerations in
the form of safe, healthy and affordable food, which
contributes to secure farm incomes and enable
sustainable farm management by improving the
efficiency of natural resources, such as soil, and water
(Popp et al., 2013; Al-Mamun, 2017). It can be
opposite when pesticides are inappropriately used.

The pesticides have many advantages and play a
significant role in the management of weeds, rodents,
fungi, etc. and improving crop quality, yield
protection and food affordability, thereby providing
economic benefits to farmers and the consumers.
Certain ingredients of pesticides such as azadirachtin
and/or glufosinate are compounds that occur naturally
and are created using processes of synthetic chemistry
(Schwartz et al. 2004; Ressel 2015; Fernandes et al.,
2019; Mesnage et al., 2019). Additionally, several
plants, of which several are utilized as eatable crops,
have advanced resistance means against predators like
microorganisms as well as insects through the
production of compounds performing like pesticides
(Ujváry, 2010). These naturally occurring pesticides
are commonly established to have favorable wellbeing
influences in humans due to the fact that they stimulate
cellular stress adaption response pathways (Martel et
al., 2019; Mesnage et al., 2019).

Int. J. Aquat. Biol. (2021) 9(1): 55-65

Since 1945, the utilization of pesticides has
prevented approximately 7 million people from death
as a result of killing pests, which spread diseases,
including yellow fever, typhoid fever, bubonic plague
and encephalitis (http://study.com/academy/lesson/
use-of-pesticides-benefits-and-problems-associated-
with-pesticides.html). The use of pesticides prevents
the outbreaks of diseases, which contributes to
improving human health. For example, malaria is
reported to be responsible for the death of over 5000 a
day worldwide (Ross, 2005).
Toxic nature of pesticides: World Health
Organization (WHO) reported that approximately
300,000 people died per annum as a result of pesticide
poisoning (Gunnell and Eddleston, 2003). This
happened as a result of inhalations or consumption of
pesticides by a person above the threshold via accident
or occupation (Sharma et al., 2020). Pesticide
poisoning occurs as a result of relatively ignorance or
unawareness of detrimental effects via inhalation of
these chemicals by people. The literature available has
indicated that during the gestation period, when
women are exposed to DDT, there were traces of the
DDT in their breast milk and umbilical cord (Wolff et
al., 2007; Debost-Legrand et al., 2016; Sharma et al.,
2020). It has also been observed that there was some
relationship between exposure to pesticides and
changes in body weight at the birth time (Kezios et al.,
2013). On the other hand, work-related poisoning
known as occupational poisoning occurs as a result of
the usage of these chemicals in the field of agriculture,
manufacturing industries by the people in their daily
activities (Gangemi et al., 2016; Darçın et al., 2017).
Work-related poisoning of pesticides can happen in
several ways, such as ingestion, skin contacts, and
inhalation (Calvert et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2020).
The majority of people also consumed pesticides for
suicide (Gunnell et al., 2007).

The existence of several agrochemicals popularly
known as pesticides in water bodies such as dams,
lakes, streams, and rivers generates a multifarious
exposure of these chemicals hypothetically poisonous
to aquatic organisms (Covert et al., 2020; Norman et
al., 2020). When fish species are exposed to poisonous

material such as pesticides, unexpected and extreme
death may occur as the results of acute toxicity. The
most ostensible signs of serious poisoning in fish as
the result of pesticide usage consist of severe reaction
to external stimuli, muscle spasms, and sudden fast
swimming in circles, lethargy, pallor, and forward
extension fins (Sabra and Mehana, 2015). Signs such
as respiratory dysfunction and suffocation, disruption
of nerve functions, and neurological disorder are some
of the major clinical signs that can result in the
mortality of fish (Banaee et al., 2011, 2012). WHO
reported the median lethal dose (LD50) of different
pesticides in rats and other laboratory animals (Table
1).
Pesticidal effects on humans: Pesticides and their
residues can cause harmful effects on human health.
The pesticides can enter into the human body and the
food chain through direct contact, foods, and polluted
air and water are not in dispute. As a result, human
health is currently under threat of continuous use of
pesticides. Pesticides from the agricultural field result
in dire ailment in humans (Lee et al., 2011b). Many
signs or symptoms, such as skin rashes, dizziness,
poor concentration, nausea, body aches, cramps,
impaired vision and headache occurred because of
pesticide poisoning (Pan-Germany, 2012; Al-Mamun,
2017). These signs and symptoms are related to the
amount and toxicity of the specific pesticide, mode of
activity, application mode, frequency and duration of
direct contact with person and chemicals. The direct
contact or exposure to sub-lethal amount of these
chemicals for a long period, such as several months,
years and decades, could lead to chronic diseases
(Pan-Germany, 2012). With regard to the chronic
poisoning of pesticides, the signs cannot be observed.

Table 1. The hazard ratings of a lethal concentration of the relative
toxicity of the agricultural pesticides.

Toxicity LC50(mL)
Minimal >100
Slight 10-100
Moderate 1-10
High 0.1-1.0
Extreme 0.01-0.1
Super < 0.01
Source: https://www.beyondpesticides.org/programs/wildlife/fish

Amenyogbe et al./ Impacts of pesticides on fishes and humans

Personnel working in the field of agriculture can be
affected in great jeopardy, but others are also at risk
through the food chain and polluted air and water (Al-
Mamun, 2017). The prevalence of chronic illnesses
has begun to increase as pesticide usage has grown in
the last few decades. Several studies reported that
pesticide exposure has harmful effects on the nervous
system, reproduction, respiratory systems and
cardiovascular system in humans (Mostafalou et al.,
2012). Chronic illnesses, such as adult brain cancer,
lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), prostate cancer,
childhood cancer, Alzheimer's disease (AD),
Parkinson's disease (PD), reproductive disorders and
hormonal imbalance, respiratory diseases, breast pain
and infertility were also reported in humans due to
pesticide exposure (Lee et al., 2011a; Tanner et al.,
2011; Abdullah et al., 2011; Andersen et al., 2012;
Cocco et al., 2013; Zaganas et al., 2013; Schinasi and
Leon, 2014; Al-Mamun, 2017; Polanco Rodriguez et
al., 2017; Bonner et al., 2017; Sabarwal et al., 2018).
Some adverse effects of pesticides on aquatic
ecosystems and pesticidal effects on fish: Currently,
the use of herbicides has been increased tremendously
and studies reported that it influences the environment
and non-targeted organisms (Pérez et al., 2011; Pérez-
Parada et al., 2018). Although it was first intended to
control only unwanted plants (Stenersen, 2004), it has
an adverse effect on non-targeted aquatic organisms
and other animals according to the recent studies
(Tulgar and Arınç, 2018; Pérez-Parada et al., 2018).
Water sources, such as rivers, ponds, etc., hold
pesticides at the bottom, which affects the
reproduction and behaviors of living organisms in the
aquatic ecosystem leading to the extinction of species
(Tulgar, 2018). Several living organisms are
dependent on planktons as food sources. These
planktons mostly collect the pesticidal residues, which
are transferred to fish and other invertebrates (Pereira
et al., 2013; Tulgar, 2018). The entrance of pesticides
into aquatic environments has many implications. Fish
are affected directly or indirectly by the use of
pesticides. The vulnerable parts of fish to chemical
exposure are liver, kidney, brain and gills (Mahmood
et al., 2016).

The widespread usage of chlorpyrifos increase the
lethal load in aquatic ecosystems, causing antagonistic
effects on non-targeted species, including fish
(Palanikumar et al., 2014). Severe and long-lasting
toxic effects of chlorpyrifos in diverse species of fish
were widely observed (Anita et al., 2016). Sublethal
toxic effect of chlorpyrifos in aquatic ecosystems can
prompt developmental, hematological, histop-
athological, biochemical, neurobehavioral, oxidative
and morphological changes, whereas the lethal
intensities are responsible for mass mortalities of non-
targeted species, weight loss, low disease resistance
and sterility in fish (Sunanda et al., 2016; Banaee et
al., 2019a, b, 2020; Hatami et al., 2019).

According to Jadhav and Pawar (2018), the
concentration of endosulfan is more toxic to fish than
any other aquatic organisms. One of the extensively
used groups of insecticides in agriculture is
organophosphates (OPs). Sublethal doses of organo-
phosphates resulted in different physiological injuries,
such as reproductive failure, predator avoidance and
feeding problem (Little et al., 1990). The continuous
utilization of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides
have been associated with the reduction of animal and
fish population. Due to overuse of pesticides, the
population of different species (peregrine, falcon, bald
eagle and osprey) are declining (Scholz et al., 2012).
The extensive usage of pesticides has several
implications, such as bioaccumulation, genotoxicity,
the immune system effects, protein effects,
chromosomal effects, behavioral effects, enzymes
effects, growth and changes in blood biochemical
parameters on fish and humans.
Bioaccumulation of pesticides: Pesticides could
accrue in aquatic animals via several means; directly
from water through skin or gills (bioconcentration),
the ingestion of polluted/contaminated food
(biomagnification) and suspended particles uptakes
(ingestion) (Van der Oost et al., 2003; Banaee et al.,
2015). Bioaccumulation of several kinds of pesticides
directly affects fish (Rao and Pillala 2001; Clasen et
al., 2018). The effect of pesticides in fish results in fish
behavioral changes. Sluggish movement of fish and
alteration of their swimming ability makes them more

Int. J. Aquat. Biol. (2021) 9(1): 55-65

susceptible to the predators, reduce their feeding
ability, maintain their position and defend their
territories (Ullah et al., 2014; Srivastava et al., 2016).
The behavior of an organism offers an exceptional
viewpoint to connect physiology and natural balance
between animals and their surroundings (Srivastava
and Singh, 2013; Srivastava et al., 2016). The
behavior of the organism permits them to adapt
internal and external stimuli, which enables them to
adjust to ecological variables (Srivastava et al., 2016).
According to Srivastava and Singh (2014) and Ullah
et al. (2014), the sub-lethal concentration of pesticides
in water ecosystems resulted in structural and
functional variations in organisms. The bio-
accumulation effects of several kinds of pesticides on
aquatic organisms, such as fish, are immeasurable.
Immune system: The low concentration of pesticides
disturbs the fish immune system (Farid and El-Sayed,
2015) and also work as an impersonator of sex
hormones, and trigger uncharacteristic sex growth, the
feminization of males, uncharacteristic sex ratios and
infrequent coupling behavior. Indirectly, pesticides
have impacts on fish through interfering with the diet
source and sporadic habits (Satyavardhan, 2013). The
function of the immune system is modified by the
pesticides leading to immune depression, unrestrained
cell growth and modification of host resistance
comprising innate immunity and assimilated
immunity. The most vital feature or possession of fish
is its immune system against pathogens. Fish become
vulnerable to infectious diseases and pathogens when
sub-lethal concentrations of pesticides are introduced
(Zelikoff et al., 2000).
Protein: Several studies have been reported the
decrease of protein content under stress in fish and
other organisms (Tiwari and Singh, 2009). As
reported by Tiwari and Singh (2004), there was a
significant reduction in the levels of protein in gills,
blood, intestine, muscles and liver of Channa
punctatus when exposed to oleandrin and the
introduction of C. carpio to endosulfan. Also, there
was a significant reduction in protein content of Colisa
fasciatus and Tor putitora when exposed to
cypermethrin (Singh et al., 2010; Ullah et al., 2014).

There was a substantial reduction of protein content in
C. carpio when exposed to endosulfan (Bibi et al.,
2014). The introduction of Clarias batrachus and
Labeo rohita to cypermethrin and malathion also
revealed the reduction in the protein content
(Thenmozhi et al., 2011). A study by Bose et al.
(2011), revealed the decrease in protein content of the
liver of Oreochromis niloticus when exposed to
thiamethoxan. Several studies showed the reduction of
protein contents in fish when exposed to pesticides.
Enzymes: All metabolic processes in the cell need
enzyme catalysis to sustain. Metabolic pathways are
dependent on enzymes. Enzymes help body to break
down large complex molecules into small molecules,
such as glucose. Pesticides in animals provoke some
enzymatic pathways. As reported by Srivastava et al.
(2016) and Das and Mukherjee (2003), brain
acetylcholinesterase action was observed to be
reduced after 45 days of exposure to cypermethrin.
Lactate dehydrogenase action in the brain and liver
were elevated but inhibited in the kidney, and
succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and ATPase
activities were depleted in brain, kidney and liver
because of the cypermethrin toxicity (Das et al.,
2003). Ogueji and Auta (2007) reported the variations
in biochemical parameters, such as alkaline
phosphatase, glutamic oxaloacetic acid transaminase,
glutamic pyruvic acid transaminase, triglycerides,
cholesterol, protein and serum glucose in
C. gariepinus under lamda-cyhalothrin exposure.
Genotoxicity: The genotoxic effect has become the
key biomarkers for assessing contamination related
damages. Biomonitoring programs have revealed the
genotoxicity and wellbeing effects (Hughes and
Hebert, 1991). Genotoxicity is defined as an asset
possessed by specific elements, which is dangerous to
the genetic evidence confined in animals. Several
dynamisms can damage DNA, RNA and other genetic
resources (Hong et al., 2020). The assets of
genotoxicity can be applied only to the constituents
that damage the genetic statistics. An element that
causes genotoxicity is identified as genotoxin
(Srivastava et al., 2016). Many studies revealed that
genotoxins are mainly birth-defect factors, mutation-

Amenyogbe et al./ Impacts of pesticides on fishes and humans

causing agents, mutagens and carcinogens. However,
there is evidence linked to pesticides (Srivastava et al.,
2016). Cancer is the unrestrained development of cells
inside the body (Kushwaha et al., 2012). The perfect
model for checking wastewater quality and genotoxins
is fish, since fish can metabolize toxic substances. Fish
have small size micronuclei because their
chromosomes are considerably small (Nagpure et al.,
2007). The micronuclei are shaped in the fish cells.
The development of micronuclei is based on the
degree of propagation of cells that is also based on the
fish species, target tissues, conditions of environments
and the type of harmful waste. The RAPD profile and
comet assay in C. punctatus was changed when the
fish was introduced or exposed to sub-lethal
concentration PFF, a sign of its genotoxic possibility
to aquatic animals (Pandey et al., 2018). However,
processes for the collaborative influence of
contaminants in the cells of fish are still not
completely understood.
Chromosomes: Chromosomal abnormalities are
triggered by dichlorvos at 0.01 ppm concentration in
the form of stubbed arms, extra fragments,
attenuation, chromatid breaks, sub-chromatid breaks,
chromatid gaps, centromeric gaps and pycnosis in
kidney cells of C. punctata after 24, 48, 72 and 96
hours of exposure (Farid and El-Sayed, 2015).
Similarly, dichlorvos toxicity was associated with the
changes in DNA duplication that triggered the
mutation and cellular hyper propagation (Sabra and
Mehana, 2015).
Changes in blood biochemical parameters: The
biochemical parameters of blood can be the indicators
of pesticidal toxicity. When severe damages are
caused to some tissues with special reference to the
liver, a combination of various biochemical
parameters could shrink considerably in cells, which
can reduce specific biochemical dynamics in fish
blood when introduced to pesticides (Banaee et al.,
2008). Distractions and injuries of tissue in organs
could lead to the reduction in survival, development,
fitness and high probability of vulnerability to
pathological alteration. The rate of recurrence and
tissue lesion intensity is based on the pesticidal

concentrations and the duration of the toxins
introduced to fish (Sabra and Mehana, 2015). As
reported by Fanta et al. (2003), histopathological
lesions were noted in the liver of C. carpio and
Cirrhinus mrigala, (Velmurugan et al., 2009).
According to Banaee et al. (2012), the
histopathological alterations were observed because
of the exposure of dichlorvos and diazinon treated fish
for 10 to 30 days.
Behavioral variations: Fish behavior is mostly
affected by the uptake of contaminants. Fish eat and
accumulate various pollutants, including pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and heavy metals (Srivastava et al.,
2016). According to Srivastava and Singh (2013), the
acetylcholinesterase action of pesticides disturbed the
existence and caused the death or mortality of
C. batrachus when exposed to propiconazole and
mancozeb. Srivastava and Singh (2013) also observed
that compounds that hinder cholinesterase action
disturbed the regular movements of fish. As a result,
fish were further predisposed and vulnerable to
infections and pathogens (Satyavardhan 2013; Gill
and Raine, 2014; Srivastava et al., 2016). Imbalanced
swimming, darting and erratic movements and
hypoexcitability can be observed in L. rohita,
C. carpio, O. mossambicus, C. catla and C. mrigala
due to the introduction of sodium cyanide (Ullah et al.,
2014).
Growth disorders: Deficiency in standard growth and
development can diminish the fish survival rate.
Larvae of fish can be directly exposed to pesticides
through parenteral in viviparous fish (Viant et al.,
2006). According to Todd and Leeuwen (2002), there
was an influence of carbaryl pesticides on the fish
embryo. Decreased development of fish comprises of
anomalies in nourishing or eating behaviors, such as
dysfunction in the metabolism process and waste of
energy caused by insecticide exposure (Sabra and
Mehana, 2015).
Conclusion and Future Directions: In the water
cycle, chemicals contaminate groundwater, and most
of these are transferred to lakes, rivers and ponds.
They also hinder the existence of aquatic life by

Int. J. Aquat. Biol. (2021) 9(1): 55-65

polluting the sources of food of the aquatic organisms.
Aquatic organisms and humans are affected directly or
indirectly due to the ingestion of contaminated fruits,
vegetables, fish and water (Simone et al., 2018;
GRACE Communications, 2018), which are also the
main sources of food and energy for organisms.
Several studies have reported the activities of
agriculture as the primary sources that release toxic
components into the aquatic environments. The intake
of pesticides by fish accumulates in human body
systems and bio-intensification through the food chain
causes environmental and health concerns. The non-
target organisms have been continually affected by
persistent organic pollutants in the ecosystem and
increase probabilities of the disruption of the
endocrine system, immune system, protein,
chromosomes, behavior, enzymes, growth of fish and
humans, bioaccumulation, genotoxicity and changes
in blood biochemical parameters as long-term chronic
effects. Biological sustainability of water
environments is under serious threat due to heavy
pesticidal usage (Mahmood et al., 2016).

Eliminating the risks from the use of pesticides is
impossible. However, the risks can be reduced e.g.
there is a need for environmentally friendly pesticide
formulation, which can minimize the destructive
effects of pesticide utilization. The appropriate dosage
of pesticides is essential and required to reduce the
risks. Crops that are grown without chemicals can be
useful for human and aquatic organisms. Furthermore,
the harmful pesticides, which are prohibited, must be
strictly enforced by imposing jail terms and massive
fines. It is believed that these approaches will help to
save aquatic lives as well as humans.

Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the China Agriculture research
system (CARS-47) and Southern Marine Science and
Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang)
(ZJW-2019-06)

Authors’ contributions: All authors contributed
equally to this study.

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