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Preventive Initiatives to Promote Psychological Adjustment 

Among Primary Students: Findings of RULER Approach in 

Spanish Public Schools 

 

Ruth CastilloGualda1,2, Alvaro Moraleda2 & Marc A. Brackett3 

 
1) Faculty of Health, Universidad Camilo Jose Cela 

2) Faculty of Education, Universidad Camilo Jose Cela  

3) Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, Yale University 

 
  
Date of publication: June 24th, 2023 
Edition period: February 2023 - June 2023 

 

To cite this article: Castillo-Gualda, R., Moraleda, A., & Brackett, M. A. 

(2023). Preventive Initiatives to Promote Psychological Adjustment Among 

Primary Students: Findings of RULER Approach in Spanish Public Schools. 

International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2), pp. 206-232. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/ijep.10970 

 

 

To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/ijep.10970 

 

 

 
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IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology Vol. 12 No.2 

June 2023 pp. 206-232. 

2023 HipatiaPress 

ISSN: 2014-3591 
DOI: 10.17583/ijep.10970 

Preventive Initiatives to Promote 

Psychological Adjustment Among 

Primary Students: Findings of 

RULER Approach in Spanish 

Public Schools 
 

Ruth Castillo Gualda         Alvaro Moraleda  

Universidad Camilo Jose Cela       Universidad Camilo Jose Cela 
 

Marc A. Brackett 

Yale University 

 

Abstract 

Mental health during childhood is a growing social challenge with important implications 

for optimal development. Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) interventions have been 

shown to prevent problems related to psychological maladjustment, as well as promote 

emotional well-being. This article aims to provide evidence for the impact of RULER 

(Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, Regulating), an evidence-based 

approach to SEL, on students’ mental health outcomes in Spanish public schools. A total 

of 207 primary school students (50.24% girls, mean age of 9 years) participated in the 

study. The teachers in the intervention school as compared to the control school received 

RULER instruction consisting of 15 hours of professional development training, 3 hours 

of follow-up, and SEL implementation guidelines throughout the school year. Students 

completed the Behavior Assessment System (BASC S-2). Results showed significant 

impacts in the RULER as compared to control school, including a reduction of clinical 

symptoms, such as anxiety and atypicality, as well as emotional symptoms, such as the 

sense of inadequacy among 9 to 12 year old students. Implications of these findings are 

discussed. 

Keywords: psychological adjustment, childhood, social and emotional learning, school-
based intervention, emotional intelligence 



IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology Vol. 12 No.2 

June 2023 pp. 206-232. 

2023 Hipatia Press 

ISSN: 2014-3575 

DOI: 10.17583/ijep.10970 

Iniciativas Preventivas para Promover 

el Ajuste Psicológico en Estudiantes de 

Primaria: Resultados del Método 

RULER en Colegios Públicos 

Españoles
 

Ruth Castillo Gualda         Alvaro Moraleda  

Universidad Camilo Jose Cela       Universidad Camilo Jose Cela 
 

Marc A. Brackett 

Yale University 

 

Resumen 

La salud mental en la infancia es un problema social creciente con importantes 

implicaciones para su óptimo desarrollo. Se ha demostrado que las intervenciones en 

educación social y emocional previenen problemas relacionados con el desajuste 

psicológico, así como, promueven el bienestar. Este artículo tiene como objetivo 

proporcionar evidencia del impacto de RULER, un enfoque de educación social y 

emocional basado en evidencia, en variables relacionadas con la salud mental de 

estudiantes de escuelas públicas españolas. Participaron un total de 207 alumnos de 

Primaria (50,24% niñas, edad media 9 años). El profesorado del colegio experimental 

recibió la intervención RULER que consistió en una formación centrada en desarrollo 

profesional docente de 15 horas, más 3 horas de seguimiento y plan de implementación de 

las herramientas SEL durante todo el año escolar. Los estudiantes completaron el Sistema 

de Evaluación de la Conducta (BASC S-2). Los resultados mostraron una reducción de los 

síntomas clínicos, tales como la ansiedad y la atipicidad, así como el índice de síntomas 

emocionales, como el sentido de incapacidad, entre los estudiantes de 9 a 12 años, en 

comparación con los estudiantes cuyos profesores no recibieron la formación SEL. Se 

discuten las implicaciones de estos hallazgos. 

Palabras clave: ajuste psicológico, infancia, educación socioemocional, intervención 
educativa, inteligencia emocional 

 



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

208 

 

iddle to later childhood, specifically the developmental period 

between ages 6 and 12 years, is crucial, in that it can be an optimal 

time or, on the contrary, a precarious one for the acquisition of the 

abilities that lead to psychological adjustment and wellbeing. This 

developmental stage is critical for the maturation of cerebral structures, which 

are fundamental for cognitive, emotional, and social development. A 

sequential increase in frontal lobe activity occurs, facilitating self-regulation, 

greater receptiveness to emotional states, increased tolerance for unpleasant 

emotions, and greater complexity of emotional experiences. The ability to 

verbally express feelings and the capacity to institute strategies to conceal 

one’s emotional state develop progressively (Saarni, 1999). In addition, the 

continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex impacts the progressive 

acquisition of self-control and emotional regulation, such as reevaluation 

during a stage when one’s first difficulties and challenges must be addressed 

(McRae et al., 2012; Siegel, 2014; Walker, 2002).  

Mental Health Across Development of Childhood  

 

Late childhood and adolescence become fundamental moments to lay the 

foundation for health socio-emotional development and the prevention of 

psychological maladjustment (Burns & Gottschalk, 2019; Kressler et al., 

2007). Half of all mood disorders diagnosed in adulthood manifest symptoms 

at around 14 years old, though the symptoms are often neither recognized nor 

treated until later, which impacts future quality of life (World Health 

Organization, 2014). About 20% of children suffer from mental health 

problems (UNICEF, 2019). Mental health problems can have an impact in 

children’s emotional healthy development, as well as school adaptation, 

responsible decisions and optimal social interactions which could also affect 

future adult functioning. Notably, mood disorders are the primary cause of 

disability between the ages of 10 and 19, and suicide is the third most common 

cause of death during adolescence (World Health Organization, 2014). 

Between the ages of 12 and 19, a distinctive increase of mental health 

problems in developed countries is noted; the most prevalent include 

substance abuse, anxiety, and depression (Choi, 2018). In particular, anxiety 

disorders have a prevalence of 12.3% between the ages of 6 and 12 years and 

M 
 



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

209 

11.0% between the ages of 13 to 18 years (Costello et al., 2011). In addition, 

in a very recent report developed by Save the children, results also 

corroborated the prevalence of mental health disorders is higher from 11 to 14 

years old, comparing to 4 to 10 years old. These results also concur with data 

reporting the increasing prevalence of mental health issues after the pandemic 

situation (Aumaitre et al., 2021). Research also shows some gender 

differences in anxiety and depression. These gender differences seem to be 

linked to a tendency of lower levels of life satisfaction among girls, across 

different cultures. Contributing factors include the establishment of higher 

academic goals and self-perception of coping skills (WHO, 2016).  

The Impact of COVID-19 on Children Mental Health 

 

Now, more than ever, children mental health is a common problem 

worldwide. The increase of problems related to psychological maladjustment 

due to COVID-19 have been recently documented. Research shows an 

increase of mental health problems related to depression, anxiety, 

attachment/dependence issues, post-traumatic stress disorder, and emotional 

symptoms, such as irritability or sleep disruptions (Aumaitre et al., 2021; 

Brooks et al., 2020; Racine et al., 2020). Additionally, confinement and its 

associated stress since the beginning of the pandemic have exacerbated mental 

health problems. One study found that 86% of families reported changes in 

the emotional state of their children, such as irritability, agitation, 

nervousness, changes in sleep, or difficulty concentrating (Orgilies et al., 

2020).  

Despite clinical initiatives to address the growing prevalence of problems 

associated with psychological maladjustment, the educational context is 

unique because not only is learning taking place, but it is also an environment 

where students develop socially and emotionally. A report issued by 

UNESCO, which establishes the framework of Education for Sustainable 

Development 2030, points to education as the principle contributing factor to 

the construction of a more just and equal society through five main areas, 

including student empowerment as well as training and professional 

development of educators (UNESCO, 2020).  

  



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

210 

Social and Emotional Learning to Promote Mental Health in 

Educational Settings 

 

The implementation of educational practices based on the promotion of socio-

emotional skills and abilities through instruction and activities built into the 

curriculum is vital to fostering wellbeing and healthy development in 

childhood, especially for children at risk. Research shows that early 

intervention helps to reduce inequality and promote healthy growth from an 

early age (OECD, 2015; Yang et al., 2019). Numerous investigations have 

shown the role that teaching children socio-emotional abilities has in 

academic and personal development. Specifically, these abilities are related to 

better mental health, greater social competence, and improvements in both 

academic and professional performance from youth to adulthood (Mayer et 

al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2017). Hence, the benefits of Social and Emotional 

Learning (SEL) is accumulating, including not only for the promotion of 

specific techniques to prevent psychosocial maladjustment, but also to 

enhance wellbeing for all stakeholders in the educational community. 

Many SEL initiatives are based on the theoretical framework of emotional 

intelligence, defined as “the ability to perceive and express emotion, 

assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and 

regulate emotion in the self and others” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). SEL 

promotes the understanding, attitudes, and abilities related to recognizing, 

understanding, labeling, expressing, and regulating emotions (Brackett, 

2019). These underlying emotion skills help to optimize and promoting 

healthy self-awareness, empathy, self-management, responsible decision 

making, and social relationships (Durlak et al., 2011). SEL provides a 

framework for schools to systematically develop social and emotional 

competencies of children and adults, attending to their growing and changing 

needs (Taylor et al., 2017).  

Notably, throughout the last ten years, the methodological quality and 

understanding of necessary characteristics of SEL have increased significantly 

to ensure rigor and quality in its implementation. The Collaborative for 

Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) focuses its academic 

and scientific resources on adequate conceptualization and establishment of a 

curriculum intended to promote SEL competencies and optimal academic 

performance of all students (MacCann et al., 2020). CASEL’s efforts revolve 



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

211 

around defining the programs and tools backed by scientific endorsement, as 

well as their adequate implementation and sustainability1. 

There is ample scientific evidence to confirm the effectiveness of SEL in 

decreasing disruptive and aggressive behaviors, enhancing classroom 

environment and quality of interactions, and reducing problems related to 

psychological maladjustment, such as depression and substance abuse (Durlak 

et al., 2011). Compared to classroom that did not receive SEL training, 

evidence has shown that those which did had a reduction of clinical 

manifestations such as anxiety, depression, and social stress. Furthermore, not 

only were emotional symptoms reduced in the short-term, but the effects 

continued to be evident six months later (Ruiz-Aranda et al., 2012). SEL 

initiatives have also been shown to impact prosocial behavior and reduce 

direct aggression (Castillo-Gualda et al., 2013). Similarly, the results show 

that SEL tools play an important role in the management of unpleasant 

emotions, providing students with the ability to adequately recognize, 

understand, and regulate these emotions, which leads to the reduction of more 

reactive or impulsive strategies, such as aggressive behaviors (Castillo-

Gualda et al., 2018; Vega et al., 2021).  

 

The RULER Approach to Social and Emotional Learning 

 

One SEL initiative with accumulating empirical evidence at an international 

level is RULER (Brackett, 2019; Brackett et al., 2019), which is found within 

the SELect criteria established by CASEL that was created to determine which 

SEL initiatives comply with the criteria of rigor and methodological quality. 

RULER is a systemic approach based on emotional intelligence theory (Mayer 

& Salovey, 1997). RULER provides a series of tools to the entire educational 

community (educators, administration staff, families, and students alike) to 

promote the development of five emotion skills: recognizing, understanding, 

labeling, expressing, and regulating one’s own emotions as well as those of 

others. RULER uses scientifically endorsed tools that strive for a common 

vocabulary and its integration to the educational blueprint and culture. 

RULER’s theory of change is primarily based on the training of adults, the 

inclusion of RULER skills in school culture, integration of its tools in 

pedagogy, and subsequently, specific coursework with lessons included in 

curriculum content and adapted to students’ development, as well as training 



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

212 

for families (Brackett et al., 2019). In RULER, the pathway to student 

development is adult intervention, ensuring that the culture and climate in a 

school allows for and provides the conditions for the development of both 

children’s and adults’ socio-emotional skills. 

Among many goals, the integration of RULER tools and lessons in 

academic institutions aims to reduce negative attitudes toward classmates and 

school. Students in RULER classrooms show higher levels of academic 

performance, perspective-taking skills, and problem-solving skills in addition 

to a greater ability to understand, express, and regulate their emotions, 

compared to students in control conditions. Students in RULER classrooms 

also show improved levels of psychological adjustment and significantly 

fewer difficulties in school (Brackett et al., 2012). Schools that implement 

RULER tools into their curriculum show improvements in classroom 

emotional climate and teacher instructional skills and classroom organization, 

as well as closer relationships and better discipline, as compared to the control 

classrooms (Hagelskamp et al., 2013). Furthermore, RULER has also shown 

its efficacy in Spanish-speaking populations, specifically in the integration of 

RULER initiatives by teaching staff of junior and senior high schools, which 

showed improvement in numerous variables related to classroom 

environment, such as relationship quality, student autonomy, respect for 

diversity, discipline, teaching quality, and student support (Baumsteiger et al., 

2021). These results corroborated the effectiveness of RULER on classroom 

environment and the emotional support that students receive, which was 

reported in a randomized controlled trial (Rivers et al., 2013).  

Together, these results have important implications because teaching staff 

can promote an optimal classroom environment (or not), which is associated 

with increased wellbeing and mental health of students, as well as fewer 

behaviour problems and instances of anxiety or depression (Jennings & 

Greenberg, 2009). In addition, the benefits of RULER have not only been 

demonstrated with children and adolescents, but for adults, too, including 

reduced burnout and stress related to work, improved teacher satisfaction and 

commitment, and the development of emotion-related skills (Castillo-Gualda 

et al., 2013; Castillo-Gualda et al., 2017; Castillo-Gualda et al., 2019; 

Eisenberg et al., 2010; Kurki et al., 2016). Therefore, developing emotional 

skills in adults seems to be key for the promotion of co-regulation and to better 

prepare to attend to students’ personal needs.   



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

213 

Materials and Methods 

 

Hypothesis of the Present Study 

 

The objective of the present study was to examine the impact of RULER, an 

empirically validated SEL intervention, on variables related to children’s 

mental health, specifically among children between the ages of 6 to 12 years. 

Based on the literature, we hypothesize that  

   

1) RULER intervention promotes mental health and psychological 

adjustment by reducing levels of clinical, educational, and emotional 

maladjustment in Primary school students. 

2) According to literature documenting differences in emotional 

adjustment across childhood development. We hypothesized that the 

impact of the SEL intervention is significantly greater during late 

childhood, between 10 and 12 years, in comparison with younger students 

from 6 to 9 years. 

 

Procedure 

 

This study was developed with an ex post facto design, with a principal 

analysis aimed to evaluate if RULER training for teaching staff promoted 

mental health and psychological adjustment in primary school students in 

comparison with students whose teachers did not receive the training. RULER 

project took place in three phases through three consecutive academic years: 

(1) Phase one: during the first year, 4 in-person training sessions (15 hours) 

focused on RULER abilities and the four tools (Charter, Mood Meter, Meta-

Moment, and Blueprint) for teachers; (2) Phase two: during the second year, 

implementation and follow-up plan (3 hours) took place to introduce skills 

and lessons to students; (3) Phase three: during the third year, the Behavior 

Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC S-2) questionnaire 

was used to evaluate the students (Reynolds and Kamphaus, 2004, adapted by 

González et al., 2004).  

The research group made a formal proposal of RULER Approach to SEL 

to the Government of La Rioja (Spain). The proposal was approved as an 

Educational Innovation Project, conducted by the Center of Innovation and 



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

214 

Education from La Rioja. Two official announcements during two 

consecutive academic years were made for public schools to apply. One 

school participated in the first year, and other nine schools participated in the 

second year. From all of them, two schools were contacted by the research 

group to participate in the present study. The school that participated during 

the first official announcement was considered experimental school because 

at the moment of evaluation teachers were already trained in RULER and 

started RULER implementation (phase two). The experimental school is a 

public school of Early Childhood and Primary Education. It is a school 

characterized by the principle of coeducation and normalization and 

integration of students with special educational needs. They implement the 

project VIDA with RULER Approach. The control school was selected from 

the nine participating schools during the second official announcement 

according to several characteristics such as proximity, strategic mission of 

schools and socio-cultural families’ characteristics. Control school is a public 

school of Early Childhood and Primary Education. The educational project is 

based on six basic core elements: Bilingualism, Project Work, Co-education, 

Library, Sports and Well-being, and Coexistence. This school was considered 

as a control group assigned as "waiting list" procedure since, at the time of the 

evaluation, teachers have not started RULER implementation yet. 

Experimental and Control schools are situated within the same population, 

about five kilometers of distance. Their curricula were based upon very 

similar methodological models, predicated upon project-based learning and 

based on equality and innovation. Both institutions were chosen with shared 

characteristics in mind, such as socio-economic level and socio-cultural 

qualities of the student body. 

 

Intervention 

 

The present intervention with RULER Approach to SEL is an evidence-based 

approach grounded on emotional intelligence theory (Mayer and Salovey, 

1997), aimed to promote five set of skills: Recognize our own emotions and 

those of others in facial expressions, body language, vocal tones, nonverbal 

signals and thinking patterns; Understand causes and consequences of 

feelings; Label our emotions with accurate vocabulary; Express our feelings 

in accordance with cultural norms and social contexts; and Regulate our 



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

215 

emotions by using helpful strategies to promote optimal growth and 

wellbeing. The RULER training provides a) teaching staff development of 

recognition, understanding, labelling, expressing, and regulation of emotions 

with the objective of improving the teaching-learning process and promoting 

an optimal environment; b) promoting adults’ social and emotional skills to 

encourage professional development and incorporation into their pedagogy; 

and c) constructing and solidifying the understanding necessary to integrate 

RULER tools into educational curriculum. A full description of RULER tools, 

theory of change and strategy is described elsewhere (Brackett et al., 2019). 

 

Participants 

 

The sample for this study consisted of 207 children from two public Primary 

schools, located in Spain. The sample was distributed by 49.76% boys and 

50.24% girls. Students were between the ages of 6-12 years (Mean = 9.21, SD 

= 1.59). Children from both schools completed a questionnaire, and their 

families signed an informed consent. The decision to participate was 

voluntary and anonymity and confidentiality were guaranteed regarding to 

data collection and processing. The study was carried out according to the 

Declaration of Helsinki. A total of 131 students were randomly selected in the 

experimental school and 76 students were randomly selected in the control 

school. The difference in sample size between schools was due to larger size 

of experimental school with a whole sample of approximately 680 students (3 

groups for each grade). In comparison to control school with a total of 

approximately 400 students (2 groups for each grade). The initial sample 

consisted of 214 subjects, from which 7 were excluded due to reliability issues 

in their answers. In order to supplement the analyses, the sample was 

categorized, see Table 1, and differentiated according to gender and age, 

splitting into two groups ages 6-9 years (middle childhood) and 10-12 years 

(late childhood).  

Instruments 

 

The present study utilized the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 

Second Edition (BASC-2), an adaptation of the original version form 1992, 

modified to its Spanish version (González et al., 2004). The BASC is a 

multidimensional test that measures several aspects of behavior and 



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

216 

personality, including dimensions of psychological adjustment (adaptive) as 

well as maladjustment (clinical). The self-report provides information 

regarding the total store and regarding two scales:  

- The clinical scale (negative attitude toward school, negative attitude 

toward teachers, sensation seeking, atypicality, locus of control, somatization, 

social stress, anxiety, depression, and sense of inadequacy). 

- The adaptive scale (interpersonal relationships, relationships with 

parents, self-esteem, and self-confidence).  

Similarly, this test allows for the procurement of four global dimensions: 

maladjustment to school, clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms index, 

and personal adjustment; and 12 subdimensions: negative attitude toward 

school, anxiety, negative attitude toward professors, atypicality, self-esteem, 

conduct problems, depression, social stress, locus of control, interpersonal 

relationships, relationships with parents, and sense of inadequacy. 

The Spanish adaptation of the test, in similar age groups, presents adequate 

psychometric properties. Regarding reliability, the internal consistency 

coefficient as well as the stability over three months elapsed time are elevated 

for all the global scales, specifically, .85 and .81 for maladjustment to school, 

.90 and .69 for clinical maladjustment, and .84 and .77 for personal adjustment 

(González et al., 2004). For this study, Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient 

for internal consistency is greater than .80 for all the items analyzed. 

 

Data Analysis 

 

Data analysis was completed using the statistical package SPSS (version 

25.0). Initially, we completed a descriptive analysis of the sample and 

calculated the mean score and standard deviation of the scales used. Later, an 

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized to determine the possible 

differences in the dimensions and subdimensions by participation of the 

teaching staff in the training. There is no post hoc comparisons, since there 

were only two groups (yes/no teaching staff participation in the training) in 

the ANOVA. 

 

Results 

 



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

217 

The descriptive statistics (mean and SD) of the items are shown in Table 2, of 

the sample in general, and differentiated by middle childhood (6-9 years) and 

late childhood (10-12 years). 

 

Table 1 

Sample distribution by treatment, age, and gender 
Group Gender 10-12 years 6-9 years Total 

Control Female 12 29 41 

 Male 9 26 35 

 Total 21 55 76 

Experimental Female 34 29 63 

 Male 34 34 68 

 Total 68 63 131 

Total Female 46 58 104 

 Male 43 60 103 

 Total 89 118 207 

 

Table 2 

Descriptive statistics of the mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and number 

(N) per dimension according to participation in the study and differentiated 

by the age of the students  

 
Dependent 

Variable 
Group 

10-12 years 6-9 years Total 

M SD N M SD N M SD N 

Clinical 

maladjustment 

Control 17.43 7.69 21 17.00 7.36 55 17.12 7.40 76 

Experimental 13.07 8.76 68 15.65 7.94 63 14.31 8.45 131 

Total 14.10 8.68 89 16.28 7.67 118 15.34 8.17 207 

Maladjustment 

to school 

Control 3.05 2.50 21 3.84 2.57 55 3.62 2.56 76 

Experimental 3.16 2.26 68 3.65 2.16 63 3.40 2.22 131 

Total 3.13 2.31 89 3.74 2.36 118 3.48 2.35 207 



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

218 

Dependent 

Variable 
Group 

10-12 years   6-9 years   Total  

M SD N M SD N M SD N 

Emotional 

symptoms 

index 

Control 31.57 8.51 21 30.00 6.68 55 30.43 7.21 76 

Experimental 27.01 8.00 68 28.70 7.35 63 27.82 7.71 131 

Total 28.09 8.30 89 29.31 7.05 118 28.78 7.62 207 

Personal 

adjustment 

Control 23.62 2.556 21 23.02 3.47 55 23.18 3.24 76 

Experimental 23.66 3.18 68 22.95 2.85 63 23.32 3.04 131 

Total 23.65 3.03 89 22.98 3.14 118 23.27 3.11 207 

Clinical scale Control 29.29 15.20 21 30.15 13.18 55 29.91 13.67 76 

Experimental 22.94 15.01 68 27.92 13.60 63 25.34 14.51 131 

Total 24.44 15.21 89 28.96 13.39 118 27.01 14.34 207 

Adaptive scale Control 23.62 2.56 21 23.02 3.47 55 23.18 3.24 76 

Experimental 23.66 3.18 68 22.95 2.85 63 23.32 3.04 131 

Total 23.65 3.03 89 22.98 3.14 118 23.27 3.11 207 

Negative 

attitude toward 

school 

Control 1.38 0.74 21 1.95 1.16 55 1.79 1.09 76 

Experimental 1.57 1.08 68 2.05 1.22 63 1.80 1.17 131 

Total 1.53 1.01 89 2.00 1.19 118 1.80 1.14 207 

Anxiety Control 9.05 3.96 21 7.42 3.63 55 7.87 3.77 76 

Experimental 6.59 4.29 68 6.92 3.58 63 6.75 3.95 131 

Total 7.17 4.32 89 7.15 3.60 118 7.16 3.91 207 

Negative 

attitude toward 

teachers 

Control 1.38 0.74 21 1.95 1.16 55 1.79 1.09 76 

Experimental 1.57 1.08 68 2.05 1.22 63 1.80 1.17 131 

Total 1.53 1.01 89 2.00 1.19 118 1.80 1.14 207 

Atypicality Control 4.24 3.16 21 5.00 2.80 55 4.79 2.90 76 

Experimental 2.65 2.74 68 4.52 3.02 63 3.55 3.02 131 

Total 3.02 2.91 89 4.75 2.92 118 4.00 3.03 207 

           



     IJEP – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2) 

 

 

219 

Dependent 

Variable 
Group 

10-12 years 6-9 years  Total   

M SD N M SD N M SD N 

Self-esteem Control 5.62 0.92 21 5.36 1.18 55 5.43 1.11 76 

Experimental 5.51 1.19 68 5.35 1.08 63 5.44 1.14 131 

Total 5.54 1.13 89 5.36 1.12 118 5.43 1.13 207 

Conduct 

problems 

Control 2.48 2.25 21 2.51 2.12 55 2.50 2.14 76 

Experimental 2.25 2.29 68 2.79 2.00 63 2.51 2.16 131 

Total 2.30 2.27 89 2.66 2.06 118 2.51 2.15 207 

Depression Control 3.00 2.43 21 3.31 2.22 55 3.22 2.27 76 

Experimental 2.38 1.92 68 3.10 2.23 63 2.73 2.10 131 

Total 2.53 2.05 89 3.19 2.22 118 2.91 2.17 207 

Social stress Control 3.10 3.42 21 3.24 1.91 55 3.20 2.40 76 

Experimental 2.68 2.53 68 3.05 2.50 63 2.85 2.51 131 

Total 2.78 2.75 89 3.14 2.24 118 2.98 2.47 207 

Locus of 

control 

Control 4.14 2.26 21 4.58 2.71 55 4.46 2.58 76 

Experimental 3.84 3.08 68 4.21 2.84 63 4.02 2.96 131 

Total 3.91 2.90 89 4.38 2.77 118 4.18 2.83 207 

Interpersonal 

relationships 

Control 8.10 1.95 21 7.91 1.93 55 7.96 1.92 76 

Experimental 8.21 1.67 68 7.81 1.81 63 8.02 1.75 131 

Total 8.18 1.73 89 7.86 1.86 118 8.00 1.81 207 

Relationships 

with parents 

Control 9.90 1.00 21 9.75 1.28 55 9.79 1.20 76 

Experimental 9.94 1.20 68 9.79 1.22 63 9.87 1.21 131 

Total 9.93 1.15 89 9.77 1.24 118 9.84 1.20 207 

Sense of 

inadequacy 

Control 2.71 2.33 21 2.76 2.40 55 2.75 2.36 76 

Experimental 1.65 1.86 68 2.48 1.98 63 2.05 1.96 131 

Total 1.90 2.02 89 2.61 2.18 118 2.30 2.14 207 

         



                Castillo-Gualda et al. – Preventive Initiatives 

     

 

220 

Dependent 

Variable 
Group 

10-12 years  6-9 years  Total  76 

M SD N M SD N M SD N 

 Experimental 48.18 14.56 68 53.49 13.10 63 50.73 14.08 131 

Total 49.72 14.98 89 54.51 12.71 118 52.45 13.90 207 

 

In order to explore statistical differences between students whose teachers 

received SEL training compared to students with teachers without SEL 

instruction, a parametric comparison was completed through ANOVA, see 

Table 3.   

 

Table 3 

Effects of the analysis of variance by teacher participation (yes/no) for all 

students (SS: sum of squares; df: degrees of freedom; MS: mean square) 
Dependent variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Clinical maladjustment 378.55 1 378.55 5.80 .017* .028 

Maladjustment to school 2.36 1 2.36 0.43 .514 .002 

Emotional symptoms index 327.59 1 327.59 5.78 .017* .027 

Personal adjustment 0.90 1 0.90 0.09 .762 .000 

Clinical scale 1005.38 1 1005.38 4.98 .027* .024 

Adaptive scale 0.90 1 0.90 0.09 .762 .000 

Negative attitude toward school 2.62 1 2.62 0.91 .342 .004 

Anxiety 60.37 1 60.37 4.00 .047* .019 

Negative attitude toward teachers 0.01 1 0.01 0.01 .942 .000 

Atypicality 73.94 1 73.94 8.34 .004* .039 

Self-esteem 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 .996 .000 

Conduct problems 0.01 1 0.01 0.00 .971 .000 

Depression 11.95 1 11.95 2.56 .111 .012 

Social stress 5.64 1 5.64 0.92 .338 .004 

Locus of control 9.54 1 9.54 1.19 .277 .006 



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Dependent variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Interpersonal relationships 0.14 1 0.14 0.04 .834 .000 

Relationships with parents 0.31 1 0.31 0.22 .642 .001 

Sense of inadequacy 23.85 1 23.85 5.34 .022* .025 

Total 1051.21 1 1051.21 5.56 .019* .026 

Note. Statistically significant differences at a level of .05 

 

Regarding the general results of the research, statistically significant 

differences were found (small effect size, ηp2 < .03) in several dimensions: 

Clinical maladjustment (F = 5.80, p = .017), Emotional symptoms index (F = 

5.78, p = .017), and Clinical scale (F = 4.98, p = .027); in various 

subdimensions: Anxiety (F = 4.00, p = .047), Atypicality (F = 8.34, p = .004), 

and Sense of inadequacy (F = 5.34, p = .022); as well as in Total score (F = 

5.56, p = .019), with lower values in the students whose teachers attended the 

SEL training when compared to those whose teachers did not.  

In addition, no statistically significant differences were found in any of the 

dimensions, according to gender (analyses omitted). 

According to existing evidence, it was hypothesized that age could play 

and important role in the results, with significant differences in the studied 

dimensions. Therefore, the sample was divided according to the 

developmental period (middle childhood and late childhood). 

There were differences when comparing the age ranges, such as the Clinical 

scale (p = .024), Negative attitude toward teachers (p = .003), Atypicality (p 

= .000), Depression (p = .028), Sense of inadequacy (p = .017), as well as the 

Total score (p = .014). These results led us to analyze the two age ranges 

separately (Tables 4 and 5). 

 

Table 4 

Effects of the analysis of variance by teacher participation (yes/no) for 

students ages 6-9 years 
Dependent Variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Clinical maladjustment 53.45 1 53.45 0.91 .343 .008 

Maladjustment to school 1.01 1 1.01 0.19 .671 .002 



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Dependent variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Emotional symptoms index 49.75 1 49.75 1.02 .319 .009 

Personal adjustment 0.13 1 0.13 0.01 .910 .000 

Clinical scale 145.35 1 145.35 0.81 .370 .007 

Adaptive scale 0.13 1 0.13 0.01 .910 .000 

Negative attitude toward school 2.43 1 2.43 0.89 .350 .008 

Anxiety 7.27 1 7.27 0.56 .456 .005 

Negative attitude toward teachers 0.31 1 0.31 0.22 .644 .002 

Atypicality 6.66 1 6.66 0.78 .379 .007 

Self-esteem 0.01 1 0.01 0.01 .945 .000 

Conduct problems 2.38 1 2.38 0.56 .456 .005 

Depression 1.34 1 1.34 0.27 .604 .002 

Social stress 1.05 1 1.05 0.21 .650 .002 

Locus of control 4.14 1 4.14 0.54 .466 .005 

Interpersonal relationships 0.29 1 0.29 0.08 .773 .001 

Relationships with parents 0.07 1 0.07 0.04 .835 .000 

Sense of inadequacy 2.43 1 2.43 0.51 .477 .004 

Total 139.64 1 139.64 0.86 .355 .007 

 

Table 5 

Effects of the analysis of variance by teacher participation (yes/no) for 

students ages 10-12 years. 

 
Dependent variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Clinical maladjustment 304.32 1 304.32 4.18 .044* .046 

Maladjustment to school 0.21 1 0.21 0.04 .844 .000 

Emotional symptoms index 333.15 1 333.15 5.06 .027* .055 

Personal adjustment 0.03 1 0.03 0.00 .955 .000 



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Dependent variable SS df MS F p-value ηp2 

Clinical scale 645.86 1 645.86 2.85 .095 .032 

Adaptive scale 0.03 1 0.03 0.00 .955 .000 

Negative attitude toward school 0.10 1 0.10 0.03 .859 .000 

Anxiety 97.05 1 97.05 5.47 .022* .059 

Negative attitude toward professors 0.60 1 0.60 0.58 .449 .007 

Atypicality 40.62 1 40.62 5.02 .028* .055 

Self esteem 0.18 1 0.18 0.14 .713 .002 

Conduct problems 0.82 1 0.82 0.16 .692 .002 

Depression 6.12 1 6.12 1.46 .230 .017 

Social stress 2.81 1 2.81 0.37 .545 .004 

Locus of control 1.49 1 1.49 0.18 .677 .002 

Interpersonal relationships 0.20 1 0.20 0.07 .799 .001 

Relationships with parents 0.02 1 0.02 0.02 .900 .000 

Sense of inadequacy 18.28 1 18.28 4.68 .033* .051 

Total 685.81 1 685.81 3.13 .080 .035 

Note. Statistically significant differences at a level of .05 

 

Results indicated that all statistically significant differences disappeared 

during the stage of 6-9 years in the two dimensions Clinical maladjustment (F 

= 0.91, p = .343) and Emotional symptoms index (F = 1.00, p = .319); in the 

Clinical scale (F = 0.81, p = .370), as well as in the subdimensions and Total 

score (F = 0.86, p = .355). However, in the age range made up of 10-12 years, 

despite there were no differences in the Clinical scale (F = 2.85, p = .095) or 

Total score (F = 3.13, p = .080). Results showed statistically significant 

differences, with medium effect size, ηp2 > .04, in Clinical maladjustment (F 

= 4.18, p = .044), Emotional symptoms index (F = 5.06, p = .027), Anxiety (F 

= 5.47, p = .022), Atypicality (F = 5.02, p = .028), and Sense of inadequacy 

(F = 4.68, p = .033), with decreased scores in the students who had teachers 

trained in SEL.  



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Discussion 

 

The present study advances our understanding of the effectiveness of RULER 

on mental health in students between 6 and 12 years of age. The results 

partially support the first proposed hypothesis: that RULER significantly 

reduces scores related to clinical maladjustment. Specifically, the results show 

the impact that SEL training completed by primary teaching staff had in the 

reduction of anxiety, atypicality and one’s sense of inadequacy, in comparison 

to students whose teachers had not received SEL training. However, the 

results did not show evidence of a positive impact on the adaptive scale. 

Consequently, we considered the role of age in the effectiveness of SEL 

training on clinical variables. We predicted the benefits of the SEL 

intervention to decrease variables related to psychological maladjustment 

would be stronger during late childhood, comparing to middle childhood.  

First, a significant reduction was achieved in three clinical subdivisions, 

anxiety, atypicality, and sense of inadequacy, of the BASC-2 questionnaire. 

These results concur with prior evidence regarding SEL’s effectiveness on 

children and youth (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017; Ruiz-Aranda et 

al., 2012). It appears that the SEL interventions were able to equip teachers 

with the understanding and abilities needed to provide their students with tools 

to recognize emotional experiences more effectively, empowering them to 

identify stimuli that could trigger physical or cognitive symptoms, facilitating 

the vocabulary to be able to express them adequately, and providing them with 

healthier strategies for emotional regulation, such as breathing techniques, 

self-talk, or reevaluation, which allow students to analyze stressful or 

challenging situations in a more well-balanced way. On the other hand, the 

incorporation of these tools into class in order to promote emotional 

awareness, such as the Mood Meter, could help teachers to obtain more 

complete information about students’ emotions, providing a better response 

to students’ needs (Choi, 2018; Costello et al., 2011; WHO, 2014); therefore, 

SEL initiatives could prevent these types of emotional symptoms. Regarding 

the Emotional symptoms index variable, indicating internalizing problems, 

another variable that was shown to decrease significantly was sense of 

inadequacy. Teachers who received the SEL training could be more capable 

of naming, validating, and teaching more effective regulation techniques, 

providing strategies so that students are able to respond more deliberately and 



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225 

connect with their own thoughts. In the presence of intense emotional 

experiences, there exists a percentage of children who resort to automatic 

responses, such as avoidance, isolation, rumination, or bad habits (WHO, 

2014). However, providing the school with SEL tools enables it to promote 

better coping strategies. For example, in RULER, educators and children learn 

a tool called the Meta-Moment. This teaches people to create greater distance 

between the stimulus and emotional response, facilitating the implementation 

of more helpful strategies and fostering a growth mindset regarding one’s own 

abilities to manage complex situations. Prior investigations show how 

teaching staff can serve as optimal models for effective development of socio-

emotional abilities of students and the role of emotional co-regulation in the 

process (Castillo-Gualda et al., 2017; Castillo-Gualda et al., 2018; Eisenberg 

et al., 2010; Kurki et al., 2016).  

According to our second hypothesis, we obtained significant differences in 

our findings between the 10-12-year-old group and the 6-9-year-old group, 

which could be attributed to various aspects of development. Late childhood 

and adolescence are vital moments during which a greater incidence of 

emotional alterations is reported (Kessler et al., 2007). On the other hand, the 

transition from middle childhood to late childhood is a vital period during 

which girls and boys should be capable of progressively incorporating more 

cognitive strategies to manage the intensity of certain emotions (Saarni, 1999). 

Specifically, the maturation of the prefrontal cortex is a complex, non-linear 

process during which developmental changes of cerebral electrical activity 

from the age of 10 years forward are particularly evident. Higher levels of 

dopamine as opposed to serotonin and later maturation of the prefrontal cortex 

versus the amygdala seem to explain more intense responses to emotionally 

intense stimuli during this developmental stage (McRae et al., 2012; Walker, 

2002). In addition, according to prior literature, the higher prevalence of 

psychological maladjustment during late childhood in comparison to middle 

childhood, could explain why the results were seen in the age range of 10 to 

12 years and not in the preceding group (Aumaitre et al., 2021).  

Our data corroborate previous evidence regarding the role of adults and 

social context in which children develop as a key aspect for healthy socio-

emotional development. The absence of compassionate models that provide a 

guide for healthy coping with stressful situations decisively influences 

children’s ability to learn and use effective emotional strategies (Phillips et 



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226 

al., 2004; Phillips et al., 1994). Consequently, providing teachers with SEL 

tools that infuse in their daily relation with children could constitute a relevant 

way of prevention in educational settings. 

Considering the preventive nature of SEL initiatives, the present study 

provided some evidence regarding the role that RULER Approach to SEL 

might have in late childhood, before certain clinical manifestations can 

become more intense during adolescence (Choi, 2018; Costello et al., 2011). 

 

Limitations 

 

First, the most important limitation of the present study is that it does not 

correspond to a pretest-posttest design, which would have identified the 

students’ levels of maladjustment to school, clinical maladjustment, 

emotional symptoms and personal adjustment, prior to intervention. For this 

reason, in future research it is suggested to increase the sample size and 

include pretest-posttest designs with a randomized control group to be able to 

identify the impact attributable to the SEL intervention. Second, the data 

collected do not allow for the reinforcement of the students’ socio-emotional 

abilities, nor the medium- to long-term effects of the intervention; thus, it is 

suggested to proceed with longitudinal studies that permit the incorporation 

of follow-up measures in order to advance the role that the developmental 

process plays on socio-emotional abilities. Third, on the basis of a limited 

sample size, both in volume and in geographical disparity, it is notably the 

unequal distribution of participants, with larger number of students whose 

teachers had received SEL training, comparing to those whose teachers had 

not received the training. Additionally, the participation of only one school, 

both in the experimental and control group, make difficult the generalization 

of the results. Consequently, the participation of more schools in the present 

research could have allowed for a comparison of the effectiveness of SEL 

intervention in other school contexts (public, concerted, or private) and led to 

more socio-economic diversity. Finally, in the present investigation, self-

informed measures of variables related to psychological maladjustment were 

used. In future research, it would be advised to carry out evaluations that 

consider socio-emotional abilities as such, not focus on alterations or clinical 

symptoms; thus, the impact on children could be more adequately measured 



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227 

wherein the presence of certain emotional symptoms is less prevalent. 

Similarly, it is suggested to evaluate RULER mid-time and long-time effects, 

introducing follow-up measures that also provide information regarding the 

quality of implementation and satisfaction with the SEL program. 

Despite these limitations, the present study supports, with empirical 

evidence, the benefit that an SEL intervention based on Emotional 

Intelligence abilities (Mayer & Salovey, 1997), RULER, has on the decrease 

of variables related with maladjustment and clinical symptoms of students 

between the ages of 10 to 12 years. In addition, the present research 

emphasizes the role that SEL training of adults can have on students, 

advancing the theory of change regarding the effectiveness of SEL programs 

in general and of the RULER approach in particular (Brackett et al., 2019). 

Accordingly, the future of SEL initiatives should focus on the need to develop 

in teaching staff the abilities to effectively co-regulate emotions in educational 

environments, contributing to the prevention of mental health problems in 

students from childhood.  

In conclusion, this study intends to advance understanding of the role that 

the training of teaching staff in SEL tools and abilities can have on the 

prevention of problems related to clinical maladjustment in childhood, 

showing preliminary evidence of the role adults play in the creation of an 

adequate atmosphere for optimal development of children and youth. Thus, 

including SEL tools in the educational curriculum and pedagogy, will help 

professionals to be sensitive and responsive to emotional needs from 

childhood supporting their optimal development. Schools are a great place 

where children and adults can develop protective abilities that help them 

manage unpleasant emotions particularly prevalent during these challenging 

times. 

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https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2018.1539557 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ruth Castillo Gualda: Faculty of Health and Faculty of 

Education, Universidad Camilo Jose Cela 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0086-8574  

 

Álvaro Moraleda: Faculty of Education, Universidad Camilo 

Jose Cela  

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3638-8436  

 

Marc A. Brackett: Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, Yale 

University 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5245-0244  

 

Contact Address: rcastillo@ucjc.edu 

  

 
 

https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838021991296
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00161
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/326320
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/112750
https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2018.1539557
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0086-8574
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3638-8436
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5245-0244
mailto:rcastillo@ucjc.edu

