PERFORMANCE OF SWEET PEPPER UNDER PROTECTIVE STRUCTURE International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 47 | P a g e INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENT Volume-12, Issue-1, 2023 ISSN 2091-2854 Received: 19 October 2022 Revised: 26 December 2022 Accepted: 7 January 2023 CONTROLLED BURNING AND ITS EFFECTS ON SHOREA ROBUSTA (SAL) REGENERATION IN DHANSAR BLOCK FOREST, RAUTAHAT Badri Prasad Dhungana1, 2 *, Balram Bhatta 2, Sundar Sharma3, Vivek Thapa Chhetri4 1Division Forest Office, Rasuwa, Bagmati, Nepal. 2Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Forestry, Hetauda, Nepal. 3UNDRR-Regional South Asia Wildland Fire Network. 4Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal. *Corresponding author: bpstona2090@gmail.com Abstract Fire is used as a management tool to administer a wide range of ecosystems worldwide. Forest fires in Shorea robusta (Sal-dominated) forests take the form of ground fires and mostly affect regeneration. We investigated the effect of forest fire on Sal regeneration in 42 sample plots, of which 21 were subjected to controlled burning. The results showed that species richness decreased from fire-unaffected (19) to fire-affected (10). The total density of Sal seedlings in the fire-affected sites was 3829 seedlings ha-1, while in the fire-unaffected sites were 1779 seedlings ha-1 representing an increased species dominance of Sal species in the post-fire condition. The total density of Sal saplings in the fire-affected sites was 343 seedlings ha-1, while in the fire- unaffected sites was 571 seedlings ha-1. A significant difference with a large effect size (Cohen’s d=0.97) was observed in the seedling regeneration of Sal, while no significant difference was observed in the sapling regeneration of Sal in the post-fire condition. The increment of Sal seedlings may be due to the fire-hardy silvicultural characteristics of Shorea robusta and the decline of Sal saplings may be due to stem mortality in the small diameter classes. We conclude that fire is a beneficial tool for seedling regeneration but not for plant establishment. Future research studies regarding the impact of fire intensities, soil moisture, biological disturbances, temperature, light intensity, etc. on regeneration are recommended. Keywords: Disturbance, Diversity, Dominance, Post-fire, Wildfire DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/ije.v12i1.52442 Copyright ©2023 IJE This work is licensed under a CC BY-NC which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited and is not for commercial purposes mailto:bpstona2090@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.3126/ije.v12i1.52442 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6044-3036 International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 48 | P a g e Introduction Fire is one of the most significant eco-events that can have varied ecological effects (Keane et al., 2002; Whelan, 1995). Forest fire has influenced the Earth's surface for more than 350 million years, and human societies have coexisted with it since its origin (Doerr and Santín, 2016). Forest fire is one of the main contributors to forest degradation around the world (FAO, 2020), and several countries have suffered a significant loss in the primary productivity of forests (Weisse and Goldman, 2020). Forest fires destroy timber and non-timber forest products, reduce biological diversity, and degrade soil, inducing soil erosion, and risks of floods and landslides (Parajuli et al., 2015). Fire is ubiquitous as it may play an important role in the management of landscapes (Verma et al., 2017). Natural regeneration is an indicator of forest ecosystem health (Tyagi et al., 2011). A healthy regeneration of species maintains species diversity and density in any ecosystem (Bargali et al., 2022). Plant communities are strongly affected by forest fires (Danthu et al., 2003), which influence regeneration potential and plant mortality (De Luis et al., 2005). Fire plays an important role in the removal of competition from surviving species. In addition to suppressing certain species, forest fires also encourage other species, leading to changes in vegetation structure (Walters et al., 2004). Fire-tolerant plant species generally increased in abundance at the expense of those killed by fire (fire-sensitive plants) due to a considerable reduction in competition and possibly due to alternations in other conditions (Gallagher et al., 2022). Regeneration of post-fire trees depends on a variety of factors, from climate suitability to the characteristics of the microsite (Wooten et al., 2022). A successful reestablishment post-fire may be influenced by seed source, climate, competition or facilitation, and micro-climates (Stevens-Rumann and Morgan, 2019). There are regular occurrences of forest fires during the long and intense dry season, which have serious impacts both on ecosystem degradation, and the deterioration of vulnerable social and economic conditions, especially in fragile Himalayan ecosystems in Nepal (Wang et al., 2021). However, no systematic collection of fire impacts on wildlife, medicinal plants, health, weather and climate from brown clouds have been studied in Nepal. This scenario is also similar in South Asia as a whole (Lelieveld et al., 2019). Regeneration, dominance, and diversity of woody species are connected to the overall disturbance regime, including intensity, frequency, and scale (Zhu et al., 2007). A forest fire reduces the floral production, alters regeneration rates, and threatens endemic and endangered species (Bargali et al., 2022). A forest fire has a significant impact on species composition, structure, and diversity in tropical forests (Kittur et al., 2014). It is crucial to understand how vegetation responds to fire to gain insight into changes in fuel availability, landscape flammability, and wildlife habitat (Belcher, 2013). The environmental impacts of fire have drawn the interest of researchers in recent years (Martin et al., 2002). Considering the changing fire regime, forests are expected to take a longer time to recover, affecting on regeneration and species composition (Verma et al., 2017). International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 49 | P a g e Commonly, forest fires occur every year in Nepal, particularly in the forests of the Terai and Churia hills. Community forests and leasehold forests are less affected as compared to protected forests and government- managed forests in Nepal (Acharya, 2008). An average of 200,000 hectares of forests are burned during the fire season from November to May in Nepal (Bajracharya, 2002; NDRRMA, 2022). Nepal witnessed severe wildfire incidents from September 2019 to September 2020 (Figure 1). The forest fire occurrences are increasing as a consequence of regional warming and extended dry spells (Sharma and Goldammer, 2011), growing aridity, and hydrological changes (NCVST, 2009), nevertheless, the national capability to deal with these wildfires is insufficient in Nepal. Shorea robusta-dominated natural deciduous broadleaved forests are the major forests of the Terai region of Nepal (Sharma, 1996a; Sapkota et al., 2009). It can yield a large number of seedlings in a good seed year, but only a minority of them survive and establish (Chapagain et al., 2021). The effects of fire on vegetation, soil properties, and biomass have been studied across the globe over the last few decades (Verma and Jayakumar, 2012). The impact of disturbance regimes on S. robusta regeneration has been researched (Belbase et al., 2020; Gautam et al., 2016; Gautam and Mandal, 2018; Bhuyan et al., 2003). Limited research has focused on the factors affecting tropical forests and no studies have focused on the post-fire regeneration of S. robusta in Nepal. Hence, this study aimed to understand the post-fire effects on the regeneration density of S. robusta compared to the recorded other plant species in the Dhansar block forest representing the Terai region of Nepal as a case study. Investigating the post-fire changes in the Sal regeneration helps in the forest management planning in the tropical Sal forests in Nepal. Figure 1: MODISC6 Image of Nepal from 2019 September to 2020 September. International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 50 | P a g e Material and methods Study area The research site was Dhansar block forest, Rautahat district, Nepal, which is situated in the north-west part of Rautahat district, Nepal (latitude: 27008’59’’ to 27012’05’’ N, longitude: 85014’28’’ to 85016’30’’ E, and elevation: 155 m to 180 m MSL). The whole forest area is 1050 ha (excluding the river bank of the Dhansar river), which is divided into three compartments and 24 sub-compartments. An irregular shelterwood system was applied, which is an intensive silvicultural system for the management of forests for production purposes. Shorea robusta, Terminalia alata, Adina cordifolia, etc., are the main floral species, and Asparagus racemosus, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellirica, etc. are the main NTFPs of the forest. Poaching is the main cause of the wildfires that spread through this block forest. Fire line construction, leaf litter collection, and burning before the fire season are the main activities to control the fire listed in the management scheme in the Dhansar block forest. The Dhansar block forest of Rautahat district was selected with due consideration that the forest is frequently affected due to high human disturbances owing to the disturbed forest. Figure 2: Study area map of the Dhansar block forest. International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 51 | P a g e Data collection Experimental design This study was conducted in 2020 within 3 months (April-August) research duration in the Dhansar block forest. The controlled burning (low-intensity fire) was set in 3 ha of the forest during April. The measurements were taken after 3 months in August. The total sampling area of the whole forest was 6 ha and divided into two strata i.e. fire affected and unaffected. A total of 42 sampling plots (21 for fire affected and 21 for unaffected areas) were assessed. Stratified random sampling was used to lay out the sample plots in each stratum. For seedlings, 1*1 m subplots were laid on one corner of the 5*5 m plot, whereas saplings were measured in the 5*5 m plot size. The number of regeneration (seedlings and saplings) of all the recorded species during sampling was considered. The seedlings were considered as heights between 30 cm to 100 cm. The saplings were considered a height of more than 100 cm and DBH up to 9.9 cm (Government of Nepal/MFSC, 2004). Data analysis The analyses were made on the basis of Shorea robusta and other species found in the field survey (Table 1). Species other than S. robusta were considered other species. Regeneration density (No/ha) under fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites was calculated, analyzed, and investigated for making statistical inferences using IBM SPSS Statistics 23. A two-tailed t-test with a 5 % level of significance (p) was used to test the significant difference between two independent sample means (fire affected and fire unaffected) of variation in regeneration (seedling and sapling). The null hypothesis for the study was that i) there is no significant variation in post-fire conditions due to fire on the regeneration of S. robusta and other species, whereas the alternate hypothesis was that there is a significant variation in post-fire conditions due to fire on regeneration. Results Effect of controlled burning on regeneration The pattern of forest fires on species regeneration and diversity revealed a decrease in species richness in the fire-affected sites (10) than in the fire-unaffected sites (19) (Table 1). International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 52 | P a g e Table 1: Regeneration of species during fire affected and fire unaffected condition Fire Fire Species affected unaffected Shorea robusta Gaertn. + + Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. + + Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. + + Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. + + Toona ciliata M. Roem. - + Terminalia chebula Retz. + + Bixa orellana L. + + Lagerstroemia indica L. + + Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & L.M. Perry + + Hydrangea aspera D. Don + + Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don + + Carthamus tinctorius L. - + Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. - + Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. - + Dysoxylum gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Merr. - + Cassia fistula L. - + Cornus oblonga Wall. - + Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. & Hook. f. - + Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. - + + indicates the presence of the species whereas – indicates the absence of the species The density of seedlings (number/ha) of the Shorea robusta was higher in the fire-affected site (3829) than in the fire-unaffected site (1771). Similarly, other species’ seedlings’ density was higher in the unaffected site (2514) than in the fire-affected site (2000) (Figure 3). International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 53 | P a g e Figure 3: Seedling density under fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites The density of saplings (number/ha) of the S. robusta were higher in the fire-unaffected site (571) than in the fire-affected sites. Similarly, saplings of other species were also higher in the fire-unaffected site (629) than in the fire-affected site (229) (Figure 4). Figure 4: Sapling density under fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites The results revealed a significant mean difference in S. robusta seedlings with t=3.166, p=0.003. Findings showed that fire-affected sites were found 2.16 times higher on S. robusta seedlings (M=9.57, SD=5.60) compared to the fire-unaffected sites (M=4.43, SD=4.89). The value of Cohen’s d was 0.97 (> 0.8) which indicates a large effect size (Table 2). 3829 2000 1771 2514 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Shorea robusta Other species N u m b e r/ .h a Seedlings Fire Affected site Fire Unaffected site 343 229 571 629 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Shorea robusta Other species N u m b e r/ h a Saplings Fire Affected site Fire Unaffected site International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 54 | P a g e Table 2: Mean comparison of fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites in S. robusta seedlings Fire affected Fire unaffected Variables M SD M SD t p Cohen’s d S. robusta seedlings 9.57 5.60 4.43 4.89 3.166 0.003 0.97 The results revealed a non-significant mean difference in the other species’ seedlings with t= -1.416, p=0.165. Findings showed that fire-unaffected sites were found higher in the rest species’ seedlings (M=6.29, SD=2.77) compared to the fire-affected sites (M=5, SD=3.098). The value of Cohen’s d was 0.43 (<0.5) which indicates a small effect size (Table 3). Table 3: Mean comparison of fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites in other species seedlings Fire affected Fire unaffected Variables M SD M SD t p Cohen’s d Other species seedlings 5 3.098 6.29 2.77 -1.416 0.165 0.43 The results revealed a non-significant mean difference in the S. robusta saplings with t= -0.710, p=0.482. Findings showed that fire-unaffected sites were found higher in the S. robusta saplings (M=1.43, SD=3.58) compared to the fire-affected sites (M=0.86, SD=0.85). The value of Cohen’s d was 0.21 (<0.5) which indicates a small effect size (Table 4). Table 4: Mean comparison of fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites in S. robusta saplings Fire affected Fire unaffected Variables M SD M SD t p Cohen’s d S. robusta saplings 0.86 0.85 1.43 3.58 -0.710 0.482 0.21 The results revealed a non-significant mean difference in the saplings of other species with t= -1.42, p=0.163. Findings showed that fire-unaffected sites were found higher in the rest species saplings (M=1.57, SD=3.18) compared to the fire-affected sites (M=0.57, SD=0.50). The value of Cohen’s d was 0.43 (<0.5) which indicates a small effect size (Table 5). International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 55 | P a g e Table 5: Mean comparison of fire-affected and fire-unaffected sites in other species saplings Fire affected Fire unaffected Variables M SD M SD t p Cohen’s d Other species saplings 0.57 0.50 1.57 3.18 -1.42 0.163 0.43 Discussion Tropical forests used to experience very few fires, leaving plenty of time for regeneration (Slik et al., 2008). Nevertheless, tropical forest fires have increased in frequency and on a larger scale in the last few decades than in the past (Dickson et al., 2006; Stephens et al., 2015). The extent of the damage depends upon the frequency and intensity of fires, forest types, the availability of fuel, and local climatic factors. Results showed that species richness decreased and species dominance of certain fire-resistant species i.e. density of Shorea robusta species increased in the post-fire condition which aligns with the study (Bargali et al., 2022; Kittur et al., 2014; Verma et al., 2017). The increased species density of S. robusta may be due to fire-resistant characteristics (Gautam and Devoe, 2006). The decrease in species richness in post-fire conditions may be due to the proliferation of root sprouts (Saha and Howe, 2003). Gautam et al. (2016) found a negative relationship between disturbance and regeneration (both seedlings and saplings), while Sapkota et al. (2009) concluded that moderate disturbances promote regeneration. The seedling density of Shorea robusta was found significantly higher in the fire-affected sites which are supported by the previous research of Gould et al. (2002) and Mondal and Sukumar (2015). Forest fires in S. robusta forests take the form of ground fires and mostly affect the regeneration and the ground flora which normally recovers during the monsoons (Kovacic, 1998). S. robusta was a successful survivor after the fire and became an important component of the post-fire community in Uttaranchal, India (Chandra et al., 2015). The enhanced number of seedlings of S. robusta could be caused by increased nutrient availability, reduced pathogen population, and breaking of seed dormancy (Verma et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the seedling density of other species was found lower in the fire-affected sites which is consistent with the findings of (Kittur et al., 2014). Specifically, in burned areas, seedling establishment and survival may differ from unburned areas (Petrie et al., 2016). Thus, regeneration patterns during the first few years after fire likely affect the trajectory of the ecosystem (Turner et al., 2016). However, the interaction of various potential influencing factors is complex, and climate variables may not adequately explain the germination and survival processes in post-fire environments (Stevens-Rumann and Morgan, 2019). Fire occurred through natural or manmade factors that reduce vegetation growth and change forest structure (Spanos et al., 2010). Our study found increased Sal seedlings but reduced saplings in the low-intensity International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 56 | P a g e controlled burning. However, similar to our results, Keyser et al. (2008) found sites with high burn severity had lower regeneration than those with low to moderate burn severity. In contrast, the highest tree regeneration densities were found in high-severity burn plots by Coop et al. (2010) and Shive et al. (2013). Many have also found that tree regeneration varies with distance from the seed source, but not with burn severity (Coop and Schoettle, 2009). Forest fire management is an important aspect of sustainable forest management ensuring the health of forest ecosystems, where negative impacts of fire are minimized and positive impacts are maximized. These research findings help to address the issue of the post-fire effect on Sal regeneration for the effective forest management of Sal-dominated forests in the Terai region of Nepal. The research duration was short for the in-depth study so effective factors for variation such as rainfall quantity, soil moisture, biological disturbance, intensity, temperature, canopy, etc., in regeneration pattern are further recommended for future study. Conclusions This study examined the post-fire effects of controlled burning in regeneration density. The reduction of species richness and species dominance of Shorea robusta in the post-fire conditions induces favorable conditions for regeneration, thereby reducing the survival competition. A significant difference with a large effect size due to post-fire conditions in the seedling regeneration of S. robusta indicates fire as a positive catalyst tool for seedling regeneration and seedling production of S. robusta. The variation of the sapling regeneration of S. robusta and other species was found to be lower in the fire-affected areas, i.e., fire is a beneficial tool for regeneration but not for plant establishment. Hence, fire is not recommended for the sapling establishment period or after the seedling regeneration. This study provides baseline data for the regeneration management of S. robusta in the Terai region of Nepal. This study has the limitation of short duration effect, hence, future studies might focus on the long-term studies considering different fire intensities effects on regeneration. Authorship contribution statement Conceptualization, B.P.D., and V.T.C.; Methodology, B.B.; S.S.; B.P.D, and V.T.C.; Validation, B.B.; S.S.; B.P.D, and V.T.C.; Formal analysis, B.P.D., and V.T.C.; Data collection, B.P.D.; Writing—original draft, B.P.D.; Writing—review and editing, B.B.; S.S.; B.P.D, and V.T.C. We agree that the published version of the manuscript is accurate and complete. Conflict of interest statement No conflict of interest is declared by the authors. International Journal of Environment ISSN 2091-2854 57 | P a g e Acknowledgments We would like to thank Division Forest Office, Rautahat for granting us permission to conduct this study. We would like to acknowledge Mr. Jeetendra Gautam for his supervision. We are thankful to Mr. Gandiv Kafle, Mr. Shiva Kumar Wagle, Mr. Ashok Parajuli and Mr. Kamal Acharya for providing technical guidance to conduct this research. 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