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International Journal of Humanity Studies 

 http://e-journal.usd.ac.id/index.php/IJHS 

Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 

 

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THE SEA, THE VOLCANO AND THE TIGER: 

SOME ANIMISTIC SYMBOLS IN ORAL TRADITION AND MODERN 

INDONESIAN LITERATURE 

 

Marina Frolova 
Institute of Asian and African Studies 

Moscow State University 

m.v.frolova@gmail.com 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24071/ijhs.2017.010103 

received 5 March 2016; revised 21 February 2017; accepted 7 July 2017 

 

Abstract 

The article deals with the idea of rediscovering three basic images of Indonesian 

culture: the sea, the volcano and the tiger, with the help of folklore and splendid 

literary works of modern Indonesian writers as well. Novels by Mochtar Lubis 

(Harimau! Harimau! 1975), Eka Kurniawan (Lelaki Harimau, 2004), and Budi 

Sardjono (Sang Nyai, 2011) are taken as a source. The enriched traditional 

meanings of some animistic symbols appear in different light in each novel, 

rediscovering the layers of main plot and characters connotations in different 

ways of Neo-Traditionalism, Deconstruction and Remythologization.   

 

Keywords: animistic symbols, Malay and Javanese basic archetypes and tradition, 

modern Indonesian literature.     

 

Introduction 

The significant role of the mighty animistic patterns in Malay and 

Indonesian culture is written enough. A number of great scholars and explorers of 

Nusantara made ethnographical and anthropological studies about shamanism and 

widespread belief in spirits and ghosts. Studying the rituals and the everyday life 

oddities for the Western eye, R. Wessing, R.E. Jordan, N. Mulder, J.J. Ras, W.W. 

Skeat, K.M. Endicott and many others viewed closely upon rudimental images of 

ancient animism of Malay Archipelago. However, quite a small amount of 

scientists paid enough attention to the folklore and literature precisely focusing on 

its sources. Exceptions were made by specialists in Malay and Indonesian 

literature. W. Rassers, T.G.T. Pigeaud, B. Parnickel and V. Braginsky achieved 

important results in reconstructing the system of regional animistic images, which 

root into the undiscovered past of the Indonesian islands. For example, due to 

their works we can also comprehend the role of the ship image in Malay tradition 

and the powerful clown-figures (punokawan) of the Javanese shadow plays in 

theatre, oral tradition and its transformations in the modern Indonesian literature. 

With the developing of literature studies in Nusantara, we can continue to fill in 

the information gap about other images and signs, which mark the whole 

Indonesian culture and represent the mindset of the native people.  

mailto:m.v.frolova@gmail.com


 

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The article deals with the idea of rediscover three images of Indonesian 

culture: the sea, the volcano and the tiger, with the help of folklore and splendid 

literary works of modern Indonesian writers as well. Novels by Mochtar Lubis 

(Harimau! Harimau!), Eka Kurniawan (Lelaki Harimau), and Budi Sardjono 

(Sang Nyai) are taken as a source. The objects of the present paper are the 

symbolical models of ancient beliefs of Indonesians, which are “pulled up” from 

the original literature. The subject deals with cultural particularities of animistic 

symbols, their enrichment through the influence of the other cultures.  

 

Theory 

The Archaic and the Tradition 

Pre-writing tradition of Nusantara includes oral folktales (cerita rakyat), 

magic spells (mantra, guna-guna), shadow plays (wayang purwo). The original 

“literature of the tradition” covers the divine revelation of the shaman, recitation 

by heart of the scholar, puppet master’s (dalang) improvisation of some slightly 

fixed texts like shadow theatre scenario (pakem). These conglomerate of mixed 

texts represent the gradual enrichment of the original content by the external 

influences, remarkably brought by Indian (VII-XIV centuries) and Middle Eastern 

(XIV-XIX centuries) Civilizations. From the linguistic perspective, two main 

court and high-literary languages have been used, Malay and Javanese (each in its 

old form). Information about animism is taken from the Malay texts because of 

the historical lingua franca role of Malay language as a mediator; some of the 

examples are taken from Malay translations of original Javanese texts (cerita 

Panji), with its core in theatrical performances (wayang kulit).  

Ancient myths, mirrored in shadow plays, folktales and first written 

literature, collect the images of the Universe.  The main features of this picture are 

the following. 

1) Axis mundi, the World axis, represented as World Mountain or a World 
Tree – we can witness this in special figure of wayang, gunungan of 

kayon, called so after “mountain” (gunung) and the “tree” (kayu). The 

“fire-mountain”, of the Volcano, is the place of Sakti concentration, the 

magic power.  

2) The journey to the land of the dead can be managed by the means of the 
special transport – the boat or the Ship, which plays the important role in 

everyday life of the Archipelago.  

3) Crossing over the jungle Forest always means the struggle and the defeat 
of the wild Beast.  

4) The helpful servants are always in the picture – several figures of the jests 
and clowns, who accompany the prince. Those figures, as proofed, also 
known as Punokawan, are the mighty spirits of the volcanoes and the 

hosts of the Java Island in disguise, the ancient fertility deities.   

5) The Semangat substance and the ability of some chosen ones (dukun) to 
turn into the animals and nature objects, and the old and wide-spread 

belief into the Were-tigers, based on the semangat concept and the 

mutual Isomorphism of  “inanimate” objects, animals and men.   



 

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6) The cult of the Great Goddess, in her most ultimate aspects of Batari 
Durga, the female Ruler of Destruction and Death, and the famous Nyai 

Roro Kidul, the Queen of the Southern Sea.  

These patterns formed inseparable with Hinduism and Buddhism, which did 

not eliminate the strong animistic basic and the beliefs in ghosts and evil spirits, 

and the divinization of the natural objects.  But the Islamization brought new 

perspective for these powerful images. Preserving the old meanings of them, such 

as defeating the beast meant the initiation of the hero, Sufi tradition from the 

Middle East added the other significant meaning. The defeated beast begins to 

mean the defeated wreath in the ones heart, nafsu ammarah.   

The Modernity 
In our opinion, the segment of the recognized modern Indonesian literature 

before the Independence (the Balai Pustaka and the Pujangga Baru generations) 

cannot provide the sufficient base of archaic symbols due to its turn to the 

Western narrative strategies and its explore of the Western styles of the literature. 

The rich experiments of early Indonesian writers and poets, however, can ensure 

the great themes of other cultural studies. We cannot deny also the fact, that 

young Indonesian literature moved on very fast, and absorbed different modern 

features of the world’s literature after 1945. The “Great come back” to the search 

of the national roots occurred in late 1960es – 1970es and the fascinating process 

of Neo-Traditionalism lasts till now (Braginsky, 2001). The ancient myths, 

traditional images and well-known plots re-actualize in “big literature”, in high-

leveled novels created by the most recognized national Indonesian writers. Their 

works open good opportunities of interpretation of the traditional symbols in the 

contemporary literature.  

 

Theory Application 

The traditional were-tiger and the modern deconstruction of the Sufi Path  
The novel Tiger! Tiger! (Harimau! Harimau! 1975) By Mochtar Lubis 

(1922-2004) is built on the plot-forming symbol of the tiger. The novel was 

published in the mid-seventies, and we will not reflect about its content in here 

much, because of numerous studies about this masterpiece of new Indonesian 

literature. Just one remark – the young hero Buyung managed to defeat the beast 

and to kill “the tiger in his heart”, as a couple of times reminded to the reader. 

Here lies the idea of the traditional literature – the defeat of the nafsu ammara, the 

Sufi concept of the animal nature of the human beings, the dark side of their souls, 

and the destructive chaos. The multifaceted character of the tiger also represents 

the Allah’s wreath and the divine vengeance for the sinners, due to the main solid 

Islamic discourse of the novel.  
 The contemporary writer Eka Kurniawan (born in 1975) gives different 

perspective on the tiger image.  His second novel Man Tiger (Lelaki Harimau 

2004) is a postmodern ‘penny dreadful’ mockery, picked up from cerita horror 

and cerita hantu of mass-market, inspired by productive horror-novelist of the 

Soeharto Era, Abdulla Harahap. Eka Kurniawan manages to combine and remix 

the Indonesian ‘pulp fiction’ full of murder, erotic and mystic, cheap comics and 

their much more serious origin – the Nusantara folktales about were-tigers. The 

family background of the main character, young anti-hero Margio, recalls the 



 

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social realism style, in the spirit of hopeless reality of the poor as displayed in 

plays and novels by prominent Soviet writer, Maxim Gorky. The gloomy 

backlight and the dense narrative reveal the unpleasant scenes of provincial life as 

the grotesque. Expressive Franz Kafka-motives are about to break in. The 

shamanic gift, inherited from the grandfather, gives Margio the power of 

supernatural power possession. Not alike the young Buyung character from 

Mochtar Lubis novel, Margio surrenders to the chaotic power and commits a 

crime, scene of which show up in the first chapter: “Its not me. It’s the tiger in 

me” (Kurniawan, 2004, p. 39), and the were-tiger materialized in Margio – in the 

last: “At the same moment the tiger came out of him. White as a swan” 

(Kurniawan, 2004, p.192).  

The proof of the plot element about the magical shamanic bound of the 

grandson and the grandfather is caused by the less formal communication between 

them and is found in the works of anthropologists (Frazer, 1960, p.172).  

Grandfather talked a lot about genies of both sexes, but the most incredible story 

was about the tiger. “Many villagers have become friends with the tigers… they 

received a special gift, which has been passed from generation to generation… Far 

ancestors have forgotten who in the kin was the first to enter into relations with 

the tiger” (Kurniawan, 2004, p.47). Margio received the gift in the erotic dream, 

which means that the ‘Kurniawan’s tiger’ shows up as ancestors’ gift and refers to 

the mythological plot about the zoomorphic sex partner. Totemism gets humans 

closer to animals. Putative ignorance about the role of the father in the conception 

brings to the substitution of the human ancestor with spirits, which are more close 

to the natural power” (Levi-Strauss, 2008, p. 25). Female spirits, or celestial 

wives, usually interfere in the shaman’s trance experience, accompanied with 

strong sexual emotions” (Eliade, 2014, pp.64-66).  

Then the plot gets to the breaking of the level (according to Eliade). After 

the obtaining the shamanic gift Margio becomes bloodthirsty, turns to the wild 

beast, crossing over the worlds of the humans and of the spirits. Till now some 

societies believe that the mental decease can be caused by the possession of the 

evil spirits: in the realistic way the story of Margio can be understood as historia 

morbi of a village psychopath.    

At the same time the description of the tiger-spirit is not threatening: it is 

big, white and transparent. The only person who sees it its Margio’s sister, who is 

convinced the tiger came to save them from the harm. This image of Margio’s 

tiger lies closer to the folklore rimau kramat, or the white tiger spirit-guard, which 

roamed the sacred places like tombs of the Sufi saints (Skeat, 1990, p.163). 

 The main core of the novel is made by the means of deconstruction, the 

complex method of collection and dismantling.  Unlike the heroes of oral 
traditional cerita rakyat and its written “brothers” – fixed Malay texts in Arabic 

script called hikayat, unlike the Mochtar Lubis’ Buyung, the Neo-Traditional 

hero, Eka Kurniawan’s Margio did not pass the test of defeating his own wreath 

and passions. His “tiger” is stronger than his mind. The fall of the young hero 

resembles the modern and post-modern philosophical ideas of the chaotic rule of 

dark matters. To underline this, Eka Kurniawan uses dark red paint in the 

descriptions. According to tradition, like wayang, the red face of giants (raksasa) 

is a spot of wreath and reckless minds.  



 

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In Sufi tradition, nafsu – or the animal soul of humans – can be displayed as 

images of strange beasts and visions like the mouse escaping from the throat 

(Schimmel, 2012, p. 121). The modification of nafsu – nafsu ammarah is ones 

angry soul, the image of it can be seen apart from the body.  

Before the murder Margio experiences strange state of body and soul similar 

to shamanic trance, called lupa in Malay and Indonesian (lupa literary means “to 

forget”). The Sufi adepts were familiar with the conditions called fana’ – the 

transition to revelation and annihilation in the Allah’s realm. 

The Path to this is commonly called tarikat. We can say that Margio is 

turned to be an anti-hero, anti-adept, who goes down the anti-path (anti-tarikat). 

The post-human Margio is back to the animal nature of its far ancestors.  

The chaos in our souls is the tiger. This warning of Eka Kurniawan is a 

masterpiece of new Indonesian literature, undoubtedly. 

The Sea and the Volcano – remythologization of the Javanese spiritual duality 
The opposite process of the deconstruction is the conservation the tradition 

by keeping it up-dated and up-graded in order to fit the nowadays needs and 

aspirations. The modern Indonesian writer Budi Sardjono (born in 1953) 

managed to publish successfully a number of novels, main characters of which are 

the specific Javanese deities of the Sea and the Volcano in his bestseller “The 

Queen of the Southern Sea” (Sang Nyai, 2011).  

European Romantics of the first part of the XIX century (like Ernst Theodor 

Amadeus Hoffmann) used the method of duel conception of reality. It seems that 

Budi Sardjono adopted some Romanism features, like romantic irony and humor, 

and put his protagonist, journalist Sam, in between the reality and the fantastic 

realm of Javanese spirits and mighty deities, like Kyai Sapu Jagad and Nyai Roro 

Kidul. The strong Javanese mysticism (kejawen) aura is preserved in Budi 

Sardjono’s works, which are popular and quite simply written. Addressing the 

wide audience Budi Sardjono introduces the bizarre world of Javanese beliefs to 

his readers, and the main pathos of his novels it aimed to save the tradition to the 

next generations.  

The duality of Javanese mysticism roots in general Austronesian myths 

about the Great Opposites, the sky and the earth, the peak of the mountain and the 

sea bottom, and also about the sun and the moon, their sacred marriage and close 

kinship.  

The Warden of the Volcano Merapi is represented in multiplied images of 

all-mighty deity and in some human-like figures, like Kang Petruk. “Laughing 

man” with “bun of hair tangled on the top of his head” is “tall”, has “long nose” 

and “big belly” (Sardjono, 2011, p. 31). The wayang-alike character helps the 

protagonist save the inhabitants of the Merapi mountain slopes to escape from the 
eruption.  

A lot of studies are devoted to Semar, Petruk, Gareng, Bagong as main 

punokawan characters in Javanese wayang. The change of their names in some 

sources (in cerita Panji texts they are called Persanta, Jerude, Punta, Cemuris etc.) 

does not change the main idea, that the punokawan figures are the all mighty 

deities of ancient truly agrarian times of Java. Semar is no one but Batara Ismaya, 

the big brother of Batara Guru (the Divine Teacher, or Shiva – M.F.). Semar and 

his clown company descended to the earth to guide the royal princes and to save 



 

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them from the harm, but sometimes they act silly and make everyone laugh at 

their comic behavior. Being close to common people, Semar is responsible for the 

whole Java land, he is its spirit and its emblem (Kresna, 2012, pp.55, 60-61).  

Hosts of sakti power, Semar and other punokawan are related to the places 

of its concentration – the mountains and the volcanoes. Volcano can display the 

whole Universe – the Upper world at its peak and the Underworld in its craters. 

Tantu Panggelaran, the mythological Javanese chronic, mention the God Brahma 

striking the iron in the crater of volcano, named after him – Bromo (Parnickel, 

1973, p.270). Folk culture enabled the Indian God to be the magician and the 

blacksmith. Sometimes this deity is called after the second popular punokawan – 

Petruk.  

His honorific name “Kyai Sapu Jagad”, used in the novel of Budi Sardjono, 

etymologically comes from the words “Great Master”, “Broom” and “Universe”. 

Sweeping the world, the Master keeps it clean and in balance. Also he is 

addressed as Sunan Gunung Lawu, or “Lord of the Lawu Mountain”, another 

sacred peak in Central Java.      

The plurality of the same object is the common case in animism. Nature is 

not the opposite for the humans – on the contrary, they are isomorphic and can be 

mutually transformed and manifest in each other. The human character of Sam in 

Budi Sardjono’s novel gets close to the divine and to the strange metamorphosis 

of two main Javanese deities, Nyai Roro Kidul and Petruk. The last one is 

represented in the novel like the adviser and the guardian of the Merapi crater.    

The journey to Kang Petruk’s place of habitat – the cave – lies through the 

forest. Actually, Sam arrives in the old-times Yogyakarta city. Crossing over 

space and time repeats the traditional hero’s path to the other kingdom (read: 

other world). The Cave of Petruk is the boiling crater of Merapi, and its master 

feeds his oven with human bodies to keep the fire in balance. The phantasmagoric 

scene is also the reminder, that the blacksmiths (and first of all, the smiths of 

keris, Javanese sacred daggers) were considered in many cultures like the devil’s 

servants. However, in Java the power over the fire and the metal means nothing 

bad – on the contrary, the blacksmiths are closer to the divine; they can obtain the 

sakti power and other magic skills. The underworld blacksmith Kyai Petruk is 

keeping the harmony and the balance of the Universe, as his close friend and 

alliance Nyai Roro Kidul does. This honorific name is not the only one. Ricklefs 

mentioned a dozen of them: Retna Dewati, Prabu Roro Rat Jawi, Sang Retno, 

Sang Dewi, Kajeng Nyai Roro Kidul, Gusti Ratu Kidul etc. (Ricklefs pp.64-74).  

The name used in the novel is Nyai Roro Kidul. Nyai matches Kyai and 

makes the opposite of Male and Female. The Female (Roro) Master, the Ruler of 

the South (Kidul) has a cult which is still thriving in nowadays Java. Myths of her 
origin often reveal the story of a skin disease, which made the royal girl throw 

herself from the cliff into the sea. She was crowned the queen of the South Sea (in 

Java it means the Indian Ocean – M.F.) by its inhabitants, the spirits and magic 

underwater creatures. The skin disease is the mark of her snake-like nature and the 

rudiment of the former hypothetically existed snake cult (she can be also referred 

as Nagini from Indian origin). Her manifestation as Nyi Blorong is a local image 

of a “mermaid” with big snake tail.  Snake nature helps her to keep a sharp eye on 

all the gold and treasures hidden in the earth (Jordan, 1997).  



 

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Chthonic image of the goddess links with the female, cold archetype of the 

ocean, the symbol of the cosmic chaos. The water has a double nature as a source 

of life and death at the same time. It is no coincidence that the Javanese think of 

the danger not because of the volcano, but the ocean.  They believe that the 

drowned and the victims of a shipwreck are taken as servants of Nyai to the sea 

bottom. In order to prevent the anger of the goddess, ceremonies and rituals like 

labuh and larung are taken place, the fleet of offerings for Nyai’s good will 

(Wessing, 1997, p.106). 

Not alike Dewi Durga, Nyai Roro Kidul does not have her wayang figure or 

mask, but is commonly represented as a wise and beautiful lady of ripe age, 

wearing gorgeous Javanese dress of the turquoise color. Budi Sardjono creates her 

image according to these beliefs. He also did not forget about the sacred marriage: 

not a secret that science Islam came to Java, the sea goddess is told to become a 

lover of all the sultans of Mataram kingdom (XVII-XIX centuries). The belief is 

circulating till now: the rulers of Yogyakarta and of Solo (Surakarta) are said to 

have a relation with her (Pigeud, 1964, p.211). 

Despite the conversion to Islam, the Island of Java keeps the belief in the 

sea and volcano deities. The reflection of the old dual image ‘Mountain-Sea’ 

tracks back to the XIX century, to the ‘records’ of Goddess of the Sea and Master 

of the Mountain royal meetings. There is also told that then the Master is out of 

Java, the role of the warden overcomes to the sea goddess. This superstition is in 

harmony with the main principles of the Javanese dualism (Geertzp, 1960, p.23). 

 The main figure of the Budi Sardjono’s novel, Nyai Roro Kidul herself 

(split in her many manifestations – the novel characters), is proofed to be a nice 

living myth and another emblem of the Javanese culture. The modern novel 

demonstrates the actuality of the basic archetypes for the Javanese, and, of course, 

for the other ethnics of Indonesia. The motivation for the creating such characters, 

as the ancient deities, lies in the concept of the retained balance of the archaic 

culture as much as in the conscious chose of stylization. The archaic patterns, the 

myths and the original images are also known as archetypes of the human psyche. 

The “eternal presence” of such archetypes as Fire, Water, Male, Female etc. made 

the contemporary book worthy and interesting. Appeal to the constant opposites 

and balance in our lives helps to revive and to rehabilitate the well-known 

symbols of Java and to strengthen the all-Indonesian cultural identity. Budi 

Sardjono tells about the new search of the roots and the new attempt to adopt the 

past.  

 

Conclusion   

Chosen novels are representing three basic concepts of Indonesian culture, 
coded in symbols. There are three big worlds: the sakti-ful Heaven or Mountain 

peak, the Earth, full of heroes, antagonists, wild beasts and mediators – shamans, 

the Underworld, like the underground craters and caves and the sea bottom, full of 

chthonic creatures. The enrichment of main mythological symbols happened in 

the ‘medieval’ (according to European periodization – M.F.) times, when the 

strong wave of Islam overcame the old religions of Hinduism and Buddhism and 

its fusion with the local animistic beliefs. New paradigm brought the Sufi 



 

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connotations to the old images, turning them into the symbols with additional 

meanings.  

The Europeanization gave new perspectives for the literary proses, but only 

in last few decades the Indonesian authors started to search for the foundation of 

their literature not abroad, but in the very country. ‘Back-to-basics’ concept, Neo-

Traditionalism, recalled ancient patterns and plots of traditional cerita. Some of 

the new Indonesian writers reviewed the main images and showed their 

ambiguities to the reading audience by deconstructing the core principles of the 

traditional symbols. Animism is a powerful source of symbol creating, and the 

very process is well known for Indonesian oral tradition and the modern literature. 

The few chosen symbols of animistic genesis drive the literature forward and 

review the myth in different ways. Like Sea, Volcano, Tiger, Gods and spirits, 

Myth is the greatest symbol of his own. 

 

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