International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) – eISSN: 1865-7923 – vol. 13, No. 8, 2019
Paper—The Relationship between Segmentation and Question Location within Mobile Video Platforms …
The Relationship between Segmentation and Question
Location within Mobile Video Platforms for
Enhancing the Ability of Recall
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i08.10614
Marwa Zaki Tawfiq Zaki
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg; drmarwaa_doc@hotmail.com
Abstract—The current research aimed at identifying the relationship be-
tween segmentation of video clips (Segmented Video (SV) / Non-Segmented
Video (NSV) and Question location (Pre-questions Preq / Post question Postq)
through Mobile Video Platforms on affecting the Recall ability among some
students of the College of Education. The semi-experimental approach was used
as based on the factorial designs (2 × 2). The research sample consisted of (63)
female students from the College of Education at the University of Jeddah and
randomly distributed to the four specified research groups. A Recall test has
been developed. Analysis of variance (one and two) (ANOVA), Partial Eta
Squared, and Schiff's post hoc comparison were employed to analyze data. The
results showed the effectiveness of the segmented videos as compared to the
non-segmented videos, and of the pre-questions as compared to the post ques-
tions, it also showed the priority of the fourth treatment of the interaction be-
tween segmented videos and pre-questions locations as compared with other
experimental treatments.
Keywords—Mobile Video Platform, Segmentation, Question Location, Recall.
1 Introduction
Mobile Platforms are interactive online services that allow students and teachers
have the access to digital content, interactive tools, and online resources to support
and manage the learning and teaching process [1, 2]. Mobile platforms are also secure
educational networks that give teachers simple ways to create and manage classrooms
across the web, and provide a productive environment for interaction between teach-
ers and learners, regardless of place or time [3]. Recently, several mobile video plat-
forms have begun to emerge, allowing classrooms to provide the teacher with a varie-
ty of strategies that control the presentation of videos, and to offer some interactive
features that were not available with video applications deployed across networks
over the last few years. Among the technologies provided by Mobile video platforms
is the possibility to split up one video for more than one segment in addition to the
ability to add various questions within videos [4-6], An example can be at some plat-
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https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i08.10614
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i08.10614
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i08.10614
mailto:dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg
mailto:dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg
Paper—The Relationship between Segmentation and Question Location within Mobile Video Platforms …
forms available at web and mobile like Edpuzzle (https://edpuzzle.com/), and Educanon
platform (http://www.educanon.com/).
Videos are the main component of mobile platforms, but studies related to the ex-
amination of technical variables for digital video or the tools associated with these
clips did not have the chance to be researched and studies [7]. This is consistent with
what has been mentioned in literature that the design process for delivering videos
across the web is in general limited and needs further examination and study [8, 9].
However, when talking about the video variables that are associated with the mobile
video platform system, the segmentation variable becomes one of the most important
video variables associated with controlling the pacing of instruction and reducing the
excessive cognitive load, leading to the release of knowledge resources and an in-
crease of working memory capacity in encoding new learner information for learners
[10]. The principle of segmentation is based on the assumption that the educational
program that allows the learner to control the speed of learning through tools that
allow him to stop and follow while reading video presentations is more effective than
the presentations that run from start to finish without interruption [11]. This is because
digital video segmentation gives the learner the opportunity to stop the flow of infor-
mation when necessary, and allows him to process information more precisely, thus
promoting the learning process [12]. Although a large number of studies in literature
supported segmented instruction (SI) versus non-segmented instruction (NSI) [10, 13,
14], the comparison between segmented and non-segmented remains one of the varia-
bles that need to be studied within a context that necessitates interaction with other
variables [15].
Learning from videos across the web should not only be limited to viewing; how-
ever, the viewing process should be linked to a set of questions related to the video
content [16, 17]. Regardless of the number of segments of a video - whether one or
several - it is important to determine the best location for the questions that relate with
each part of the video. Are the questions located before the beginning of each part? or
are they placed at the end of each part? The use of questions within the videos is one
of the important variables that need to be studied, especially that it has a strong rela-
tionship to the learner's ability to remember and retrieve [18]. Research in studies that
focused on the placement of questions, whether before or after the learning content,
leads us to the fact that most of the benefits that can be obtained from linking ques-
tions to videos comes from studies that have raised questions after viewing the con-
tent, while there is little knowledge about the potential benefits of questions being
raised before viewing the content, although previous content questions help students
encode subsequent information and improve memory performance [19]. In addition,
the pre-questions that precede each part of the video may also be important and can be
considered as a key tool that guides students to what they will learn and draw their
curiosity for learning. It can also be used as a tool for Metacognition [20]. While
some believe that pre questions may not enhance or even hamper the learning process
because in this case they serve as a selective indicator for the learner's information
that the learner should pay attention to what follows in content, thus ignoring other
information that are not covered in pre questions [19], others believe that the im-
portance of questions at the end of each part of a video comes as an indicator for hav-
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https://edpuzzle.com/
https://edpuzzle.com/
http://www.educanon.com/
http://www.educanon.com/
Paper—The Relationship between Segmentation and Question Location within Mobile Video Platforms …
ing the learner complete watching all the video content and ensure that being exposed
to all the key content contained in the clip [16]. It also tests what the learner watches
in the videos and helps him apply his new knowledge and however enhance the learn-
ing process [21].
The researcher was interested in the groups that handle video as based on segmen-
tation and question location as one of the approaches that aimed at finding solutions to
the problem the researcher encountered when teaching the e-learning course for stu-
dents of the College of Education, especially that the in-classroom learning activities
are based on a review of some of the available web-related videos of the course top-
ics, that is followed by a discussion based on the review to the content of these clips.
However, the researcher noted an inability to recall the contents of these sections,
which are displayed free of charge through some sites and applications that do not
have any characteristics based on the segmentation or locating questions, such as
(YouTube) and (Vimeo). The researcher went on to try to know the effect of segmen-
tation and the question location in the video clips to enhance the recall capabilities of
the students of the College of Education in the e-learning curriculum.
Based on what have been mentioned above, the current research aims to determine
the effect of video segmentation (segmentation vs. non-segmentation) and the location
of questions through segmented videos, that is, before (prequestion) or after
(postquestion) in developing the recall skill within the mobile platforms that are em-
ployed in teaching some subjects related to the e-learning course of students of the
College of Education, University of Jeddah.
Therefore, the present research attempts to answer the following questions:
• (RQ1) What is the effect of segmenting videos (segmentation vs. non-
segmentation) across mobile platforms in developing the recall skills of students?
• (RQ2) What is the impact of question location within the video (pre-question or
post-question) across mobile platforms in developing the recall skills of students?
• (RQ3) What is the impact of the interaction between video segmentation and ques-
tion location across mobile platforms in in developing the recall skills of students?
• The current research also tries to validate the following hypothesis:
• (H1) There is no statistically significant difference at the level of ≤ 0.05 between
the mean scores of the experimental groups in the post measure of the recall test;
due to the effect of segmentation.
• (H2) There is no statistically significant difference at the level of ≤ 0.05 between
the mean scores of the experimental groups in the post measure of the recall test;
due to the effect of question location.
• (H3) There is no statistically significant difference at the level of ≤ 0.05 between
the mean scores of the experimental groups in the post measure of the recall test;
due to the effect of the interaction between segmentation and question location.
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2 Literature Review
2.1 Mobile video platforms
The e-learning revolution has produced a variety of systems that can be relied on in
various learning and teaching processes, including mobile Platforms which have be-
come dependent on unconventional tools in managing educational situations [22, 23].
mobile platforms have become one of the active tools in developing cooperation and
creative thinking among learners [24, 25], and has proved reliable in the development
of student engagement and responsible learning processes [3, 26].The design variables
of the mobile platforms have also created motivation and stimulation for learners to
complete learning tasks [27], and improve learning through active participation in
discussions and tasks [27]. Recent popular platforms include video-based platforms,
including the edpuzzle platform which succeeded in providing interactive tools such
as adding questions in various formats (right and wrong, multiple choice, and open
questions). It also allows segmenting video clips so that each clip can handle specific
subject area. Other features for these new platforms include anti-skipping to ensure
that the student views all the contents of each section of the clip, with a choice that
allow the student to re-view specific parts [28]. In addition, these new platforms ac-
cept adding subtitles to the clips and using them as a translation bar. They activate
content aggregation feature that allow viewing available digital web-based sources
next to the video clip through the platform [4].
The main content of the video platforms, which are the video clips themselves, and
considering redesigning them so that learners can recall their contents again is an
important issue [29]. It is essential for the instructional designer to keep in mind that
large videos which exceed 10 minutes may result in the learner not completing the
video content [30]. Some cognitive studies have shown that after 10 minutes the
learner's stimuli gradually disappear, which means that the learner may not complete
the video and then seek new videos immediately [31].
Other studies suggest that it is better to have an average video length of (6) minutes
per clip [32]. However, when a video for one lesson is segmented for more than one
part, the total parts of all videos should not exceed 20 minutes [33]. In addition, the
presence of the teacher in these sections and the use of body language to emphasize
some important information increases the student's interest in content areas where a
teacher is present [34]. It may also be better to employ tools that allow discussion and
comments on the contents of sections that are broadcasted to learners, so that the
teacher can support learners who need some guidance when they study outside the
classroom and respond to them within a short time rather than waiting for the sched-
uled class time [16, 35].
2.2 Digital video segmentation
Video segmentation is based on a premise that these presentations provide fast and
continuous information flows, and each flow of information needs to be processed in
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the working memory. Therefore, when not giving the learner enough time to process
this information, it is likely that he/she may replace a new information with a previous
one regularly without having them stored in the long-term memory [36]. That is why
the process of segmentation work to divide the video into successive meaningful clips
[37] by adding pauses between these parts that allow the learner to move from one
part to another after pressing a follow button [38]. This helps reduce the cognitive
load, organize new knowledge, address pre-stop content, control learners' speed of
learning, and enable understanding of complex information and content [36, 39-41].
Segmentation also gives learners an opportunity to learn how to extract important
information from a specific part before moving on to the next, as well as analyse the
visual spatial structure of the content on the screen, which can be difficult to do when
the display is constantly changing [42]. Several studies that were interested in seg-
mentation processing versus non-segmentation processing have shown that segmenta-
tion process is very effective in developing the ability to acquire knowledge, apply
new strategies [10], solving problems [14], enhance performance and conduct cogni-
tive processes [43], and enhance the ability to recall [44].
The segmentation process can be considered as a form of temporal cueing [36],
where the segmentation process allows a better focusing on the mini and magnified
events within a single video clip [45]. Some have attributed the failure of some digital
media - including video - in making a change in learning outcomes to a media design
that lacks time organization; this time organization allows the learner to easily process
web-based content. This makes segmentation one of the important design factors that
should be taken into consideration when designing learning materials, especially that
is a key tool that control the timing when processing the educational content [43].
However, segmentation is very important even when the learner does not have control
on moving from one part to another withing the digital medium. This was made clear
in the study of Spanjers [15] which pointed out that the automatic stop for (2) seconds
that is followed by a display of information without any control on the part of the
learner has positive results when compared to the display that goes without any stops.
2.3 Question location within digital video clips
Examining the optimal placement of questions within digital videos whether before
or at the beginning of the segment means looking at the ideal design to employ ques-
tions as an instructional tool within the mobile video platforms, rather than simply
looking at questions as tools for measurement and evaluation [19, 46]. This trend and
orientation encourage having a good number of mobile video platforms that provide a
variety of tools to manage the set of questions across videos [6, 47]. Questions that
are presented at the beginning of learning process are called pre-question, while the
questions that are presented at the end of the section are referred to as post-questions,
and the various positions of the questions in the learning materials have multiple ef-
fects on the learners, so it is important to examine the optimal position for the place-
ment of questions with regards to learning outcomes [48]. Some argue that the reli-
ance on pre-questions means simply an activation of the prior knowledge, and an
increase of the learners’ concentration on the educational materials that will be pre-
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sented later [19], while the post-questions are more related to the idea of retaining the
impact of learning and raising the rates of remembrance [49]. Some studies have
shown the effectiveness of the instructional materials that are preceded by questions
as compared with other educational materials that are not preceded by any questions
for memory development [50, 51]; this can also be found in the study of [19] that
targeted a comparison between two groups. First is the experimental and it answered
the pre-questions before watching the videos, the second is a control group that
watched the videos without pre-questions. The results have shown that the perfor-
mance of the experimental group was better than the control group, which means that
there are positive effects when including pre-questions in videos. While other studies
have indicated that there are limited effects of pre-questions; these effects are limited
only to information that focused only on pre-questions [52, 53]. As an example, [52]
presented a series of multiple-choice questions in three positions, one before explain-
ing the lecture, the second at the end of the lecture, and the third before the unit test.
The results indicated an improvement in the performance of students who got pre-
questions in the two groups, although they did not recall the pre-questioned infor-
mation in the same way they recall non pre-questioned information. Hence, more than
one study has pointed out that a failure to answer pre-questions by learners does not
affect the positive advantages that pre-questions offer, especially that their primary
role is coding the subsequent information [53, 54]. When some criticize the pre-
questions for their influence in directing the learner to pick only information related to
questions [46], it can be noted that video presentations may not face this challenge
because they have the ability to control the frequency of information display, allowing
the learner to watch all information included in the presentation [46]. Some argue that
the post-questions that come at the end of learning processes may have a significant
role in improving the understanding of the content of previous questions, especially
when these questions focus on inferences and the main ideas that relate to the dis-
played content, where this kind of question is considered in this case as Adjunct
Questions [55]. In a study by [56] that compared the post-questions with the questions
generated during learning or learning without questions, the results have shown the
effectiveness of the post-questions in improving the efficacy of the recalling skills of
the main ideas and factual details.
2.4 The ability to recall
The recall is the individual’s ability to restore the information stored in his
memory, and it is also the ability to remember information when instantly needed
[57]. This recall may be a serial recall, in which the material must be remembered in a
particular order, and there is also another kind of recall called free recall, through
which the information can be brought in any order, and there is also an ordered recall
where the learner must recall the words as requested and he/she should identify the
sequence or the location of the words that he remembered. Another kind of recall is
the caused recall where the learner is given certain information that could help him
mention the requested topic, such as the first letter of the word [58-60]. Moreover,
recall is one of the components of a broader process called retrieval; it contains two
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major elements: recognition and recall where recognition is a form of memory, and it
is easier than the recall because it depends on the existence of previously learnt stimu-
lus. Recognition means that what the individual sees or hears in the present is part of a
prior knowledge, while recall is concerned with remembering events and experiences
that were learned in the past without an existed stimuli or situations that led to learn-
ing [61]. Recall requires two types of activities: first is to search the memory to de-
termine the required information, and second is a simple examination to identify
whether the information is familiar or not.
Segmentation can affect the learner's ability to recall information due to the ability
of segmentation in organizing the encryption, processing, and storing of information
in memory and recalling it from memory. This ultimately affects the memory capacity
to perform the recall processes [38]. In addition, questions location significantly af-
fects the ability to recall because pre-questions give indicators for a focus on subse-
quent content, which means paying more attention and encoding it. On the other hand,
post-questions are certainly related to a previously presented information and a train-
ing to recall a content that relate to this type of question [52]. The video is also gener-
ally an effective tool in addressing the problems of recall as well as its active role in
enhancing recall and has great ability to handle the recall errors [62]. The general
characteristics of mobile video platforms support anti-oblivion and the ability to recall
and remember. According to the decay theory, the main reason for obliviousness is
the lack of use or practice of the acquired experience and the theory emphasizes the
need to practice and use information from time to time to help retain them and keep-
ing them vivid in memory [63].The mobile video platforms that are based on segmen-
tation and adding question solutions for dealing with obliviousness by allowing the
learner to see each part of the content more than once and get trained to recall and
encode information more than once, which ultimately enhances the learner's ability to
recall [22, 23].
3 Theoretical Framework
Presenting the content at a rapid pace and in continuous flows without any inter-
ruption may exceed the cognitive ability of the learner and thus lead to a cognitive
overload [12]. This means that instead of displaying videos in continuous flows, it is
better to display them in segments by adding stops within the video through which the
learner can moves from one part to another according to his desire and speed in ac-
quiring information [36]. This comes in line with Richard Mayer's Cognitive Theory
of Multimedia Learning (CTML) which recognizes the principle of segmentation. It is
one of the basic principles of a theory that relates to how information is handled. The
principle indicates that learning is best done when presenting content in parts to allow
the learner to move between them at his/her own desire rather than continuously dis-
playing them automatically [12]. Working memory performs three things at once:
processing information related to external stimuli in working memory, keeping new
information in working memory, retrieving information from long-term memory. The
working memory capacity is in normal condition limited, and in case the cognitive
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demands of an educational task exceed the memory capacity, it leads to Cognitive
Overload. However, using segmentation in this case is one of the solutions through
which the amount of information processed by the learner can be controlled without
any cognitive overload [10, 44].
The Event Segmentation Theory (EST) recognizes an important principle that
states that individuals recognize and perceive any activity in the form of separate
events through a process called mental segmentation which happens by setting
boundaries between events so that current information get perceived, attention pro-
cesses become organized, and knowledge be stored in the long-term memory. This
happens through a procedural process in which the person forms models of the event
in his working memory on the basis of sensory information and prior knowledge.
Based on these models, predictions are made of what will happen at the next moment
and are then compared with what actually happens according to the new sensory in-
formation received, and when a difference exists between the expectations and the
new sensory received information, a new event model will be constructed for the next
part, and in this case the so-called event boundaries are distinguished [64]. There is no
doubt that the principle of video clips segmentation provided within the digital video
system platforms comes in line with the theory of the event by dividing video clips
into separate events which make it easier for the learner process and understand the
events’ components.
According to Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), the more diverse are the sources of
learning and the more varied are the relationships between these sources, the more
cognitive burden it puts on the learner, and this makes the subject becomes more
difficult in the learning process. However, one of the solutions that must be taken into
account to solve such a problem is to provide sufficient time for the learner to be able
to handle all elements of learning and draw up relationships between these elements
[65].Therefore, segmentation is offered as one of the solutions, which is compatible
with the cognitive load theory, in providing the learner with enough time to process
web-based educational presentations, which includes a diverse number of educational
elements and topics [36, 66]. It is also important to take into consideration that seg-
mentation may expand the time needed for learning due to the provided pauses
through digital videos. However, cognitive load and learning outcomes do not im-
prove with the span of time regardless of how long it is; rather, segmentation is the
key factor in improving learning outcomes and in preparing the cognitive load for the
learner to receive and process new information. This can be illustrated by Hassler and
his colleagues, who have demonstrated the effectiveness of segmentation in all condi-
tions under which the learning time was unified [67].
In normal educational environments, questions and tests are often considered tools
for evaluating students’ knowledge. It is an annoying event for both students and
teaching staff; it is carried out at specific times of the academic year to assess
knowledge and efficiency. However, questions are deeper than merely a measure of
knowledge, they are effective tools for memory development and retention of what
has been learnt; a phenomenon known as testing effect, which in other words mean to
what could questions contribute to the survival of the learning effect [49]. Thus, the
use of questions within digital stems from a rule that considers questions as a strategy
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to acquire knowledge rather than a test or measure of learners' knowledge, and that
the questions as unit is one of the learning events that has an effectiveness in the de-
velopment of learning outcomes. This effectiveness may go beyond the direct study of
a content that does not include any questions [53]. Questions are therefore one of the
learning tools, and if any education system has a core set of tools that assist its learn-
ing process, questions should be considered as one of the most important tools.
4 Methodology
4.1 Design
This research is based on the semi-experimental approach. It relies on the factorial
design (2 × 2), which is used to measure the effect of independent variables, segmen-
tation, question location on the dependent variable Recall that is related with the study
of some of the topics of the e-learning course by the students of the College of Educa-
tion at the University of Jeddah, and the following table (1) illustrates the experi-
mental design of the research.
Table 1. Research Experimental Design (2û2)
Segmented video (SV) Non-segmented video ( NSV)
Pre-Questions
(PREQ)
Group (1): A segmented video that con-
sists of five parts; each part is preceded by
questions
Group (2): A video that consists of one part
and preceded by questions
Post-questions
(POSTQ)
Group (3): A segmented video that con-
sists of five parts; each part is followed by
questions
Group (4): A video that consists of one part
and followed by questions
4.2 Sample
The current research sample consisted of 63 female students from the College of
Education at the University of Jeddah in Saudi Arabia who are studying an "E-
Learning" course. Students who were good at using the platform and who have the
desire to participate were nominated. The selected students were randomly assigned
into four groups, (PREQ + SV) which includes (17) students; the second group
(PREQ + NSV) and it includes (16) students; the third group (POSTQ + SV) includes
(15) students; and the fourth group (POSTQ + NSV) includes also (15) students.
4.3 Measures
The research sample students’ ability to recall was evaluated by an open-ended
test, in which the students answered two main questions, each was divided into four
parts, which stimulated the recall of what was explained on the platform. The partici-
pants answered each question by writing their answers in each of the four question
boxes; each box is allocated to one part of the four question arts. Each student’s re-
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sponse was evaluated by two teachers (interrater reliability, r = .88). The total value of
the recall test scores was (46), which goes as follow: (23) degrees for each question
where (3) degrees were assigned for the classification part; (3) degrees for the types
part of; (6) degrees were also assigned to the characteristics part; (6) degrees for the
tools part; and (5) degrees for the development cycle part. Recall Test Appendix (A)
4.4 Procedures
The procedures of the current research have been implemented according to the
phases of educational design, specified in (5) basic phases as follows:
4.5 The analysis phase
During this phase, the basic to-be implemented task across the mobile video plat-
form in the current research was analyzed. The educational tasks were based on the
study of educational platforms and Web 2.0 applications which are one of the main
topics of the e-learning course at the College of Education, University of Jeddah.
Each topic covered 5 main themes: concepts, types, characteristics, tools, and de-
velopment cycle. The characteristics of the sample students were analyzed with regard
to the previous use of mobile platforms. 77% of Students indicated that they use some
platforms like Edmodo, and Edpuzzel. In addition, more than one mobile video plat-
form were analyzed, such as Edpuzzel and Educanon, and the Edpuzzel platform was
developed because it has all the potentials and characteristics associated with the
research variables, and because of the popularity of this platform among the sample
students. In addition, this platform (Edpuzzel) has the following features:
• A choice to upload or recall videos from video sharing sites such as YouTube.
• A free download of clips with a capacity of (1) Giga.
• An ability to create more than one chapter, with each having its own independent
properties.
• Pauses and segmentation for videos are available.
• Each section can be re-viewed separately.
• A skip feature is available for any part of the video.
• Statistical information about whether or not the student is watching the video, the
last time a video was watched, and the total percentage of students completing the
video all can be provided.
• A control for the amount of time made available for viewing videos is also availa-
ble.
• A choice to add questions within your videos and receive answers.
• A choice for sharing video with students through their various accounts.
• A choice to identify the number of students viewing each videos independently.
• A feedback on student inquiries and questions can be provided.
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4.6 The design phase
During this stage the video platform and segmentation variables were designed and
placed as follows:
Designing Educational Objectives: The educational objectives were based on
(10) basic objectives related to the subjects of educational platforms and Web 2.0
applications.
Designing a Presentation for Digital Video: Two visual presentations were de-
signed for educational platforms and Web 2.0 applications, each displaying the five
core topics identified in the learning tasks. the learning objectives were also identified
in the previous step, then a re-recording of the presentation has been made through
one of the screen cam programs (SnagIt), and the video time range has been made not
to exceed (10) minutes, so as to guarantee that the learner stay concentrated during the
whole period of the video display.
Segmenting the Digital Video Clip: There are two modules for the digital video,
which were designed as follows:
Segmenting Video (SV): Video clips were segmented in this module into five parts;
each part includes one of the previously mentioned educational subject areas. The
balance between these parts was taken into account with regards to time range, and
the segmentation was performed using the Add Questions tool within the platform
which will be provided with questions – both Pre and Post -in the next stage.
Non-Segmented Videos (NSV): In this processing, the video is played without any
segmentation, which means that the video is only made of one part with a duration of
10-minute with no pauses.
Designing Question Location: Post and pre-questions were designed as to have
the same formulations, but the only substantive difference between them was in the
specific position of each question. The researcher was keen on directing a question for
each of the content areas which are identified in five areas.
Designing Pre-question Location: Regarding the position of the pre-question with-
in the segmented videos, a question was added before each of the five parts of the
video. Question (1) starts at the first second of part one of the video presentations. In
addition, each added pause contain a pre-question of the next part; while for non-
segmented videos, (5) questions were added at the first second of the video presenta-
tion.
Designing Post-question Location: Regarding the position of the post-question
within the segmented videos, a question was added after each of the five parts of the
video. Question (1) starts at the end of pause for part one. In addition, each added
pause contains a post-question of the previous part; while for non-segmented videos,
(5) questions were added at the end of the last minute (minute 10) of the video presen-
tation.
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Fig. 1. Illustrates the patterns of video segmentation and question location within the four
experimental groups
Figure 1 Segment videos and question locations according to the experimental de-
sign
Specify the time period for viewing the video: Using the (Due) tool, one day was
only allocated before the final application of the recall test.
Prevent Skipping: The "prevent skipping" option has been activated to prevent
skipping of any part of the video before viewing it.
4.7 The development phase
At this stage, the teacher's account was activated through the Edpuzzel platform.
Four semesters were also created; each one is assigned to an experimental processing.
The code of each group was obtained. The structural evaluation of the platform was
also carried out.
4.8 The application phase
At this stage, the equivalence of the groups was confirmed, the learning process
was launched and the tasks performed via the digital video platform, the final post-
implementation of the recall test was then carried out.
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5 Results
The results of the four experimental groups were analyzed for Recall among the re-
search sample students in relation to the Mean Scores and Standard Deviations, and
with regards to current search variables, Segmentation and Non-segmentation(SV,
NSV), Question location (Preq, Postq) Explains the results of the analysis. Table (2)
illustrates the results of the analysis.
Table 2. Mean scores and standard deviations of the four research groups
Total
segmentation
Question location
NSV SV
Mean=36.82 Mean=30.94 Mean=42.35
PREQ SD=6.02 SD=1.95 SD=1.32
N=33 N=16 N=17
Mean=30.20 Mean=23.33 Mean=37.07
POSTQ SD=7.09 SD=1.11 SD=1.33
N=30 N=15 N=15
Mean=33.67 Mean=27.26 Mean=39.88
Total SD=7.30 SD=4.17 SD=2.98
N=63 N=31 N=32
The two-way ANOVA was conducted on the students' recall scores according to
the segmentation (SV, NSV) and question location (PREQ, POSTQ) to identify sig-
nificant differences between groups. Table (3) shows the results of two-way ANOVA.
Table 3. The two-way ANOVA on the students' recall scores according to the segmentation
and question location
ŋ2 Sig. F Mean of Square df Sum of Square Source
.837 0.00 302.92 652.499 1 652.50 segmentation
.951 0.00 1153.00 2483.581 1 2483.58 Question Location
.142 0.00 9.70 21.098 1 21.10 segmentation * Question location
2.154 59 127.09 Error
63 74711.00 Total
A summary of the main effects and interactions are presented in the three sections
that follow:
5.1 Effects of video segmentation
The results have shown that there was significant difference on the main effect for
the segmentation [F(1, 63)=302.923, P=0.00]. Results indicated that (SV) students
[M=39.88] significantly outscored (NSV) [M=27.26] in the recall scores. When esti-
mating the effect size (Partial Eta Squared) to quantify and explain how much better
the effect was, the results showed that the effect size was large for this interaction
(η2= 0.837), and so this result has practical implications for instructional designers of
video.
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5.2 Effects of question location
The results have shown that there was significant difference on the main effect for
the question location [F(1, 63)= 1153.004, P=0.00]. Results indicated that (Preq) stu-
dents [M=36.82] significantly outscored (POSTQ) [M=30.20] in the recall scores.
When estimating the effect size (Partial Eta Squared) to quantify and explain how
much better the effect was, the results showed that the effect size was large for this
interaction (η2= 0. 951), and so this result has practical implications for instructional
designers of question location.
5.3 Effects of interaction between the video segmentation and question
location
The interaction between the segmentation and question location has shown signifi-
cant difference [F(1, 63) = 9.795, p=0.003]. When estimating the effect size (Partial Eta
Squared) to quantify and explain how much better the effect was, the results have
shown that the effect size was noticeably large for this interaction (η2= 0. 142). Result
of Schiff's post hoc comparison indicated that (SV+PREQ) students [M=42.35] signif-
icantly outscored (NSV+PREQ) [M=30.94] [LSD=11.41, P=0.00], (SV+POSTQ)
[M=37.07] [LSD=5.28, P=0.00] and (NSV+POSTQ) [M=23.33] [LSD=19.02,
P=0.00] students in in the recall scores. Also results showed that (SV+POSTQ)
[M=37.07] significantly outscored (NSV+PREQ) [M=30.94] [LSD=6.13, P=0.00],
and (NSV+POSTQ) [M=23.33][LSD=13.74,P=0.00] in the recall scores. The results
have also shown that (NSV+PREQ)[M=30.94]significantly outscored (NSV+POSTQ)
[M=23.33] [LSD=7.61, P=0.00] in the recall scores.
6 Discussion
6.1 Effects of video segmentation
The result that indicated the effectiveness of segmentation versus non-
segmentation of digital video in developing recall can be traced back to the ability of
segmentation to organize learning subjects, and to place each cognitive unit in its own
part; this helped learners understand the details of each part, process it and store it in
their memory. The process of segmentation sets a dividing line between each cogni-
tive unit and the unit that follows, thus giving the learner an opportunity to manipulate
the content, and not be affected by the successive frequency at which the subsequent
presentation can erase what was presented in the previous presentation. The process
of segmentation helped to reduce the cognitive burden on learner and free his
knowledge resources in a way that helped the sample individuals encode the majority
of the information presented in the videos. The process of segmentation thus equipped
the learners with greater ability to retrieve the acquired content. The real value of
segmentation as compared to non-segmentation lies in the fact that it gives each
learner enough time for a flexible handling to all learning contents. So it is the learner
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who decides when to step forward and to what extent he can wait in this part; the
learner can also watch the video again and again which is constantly reflected on the
learner’s recall-related capabilities. The current result is consistent with the cognitive
theory of multimedia learning that recognizes the principle of segmentation in which
learning is more effective when presenting content in the form of parts as it allows
students to move between them. Segmentation rates according to the cognitive theory
of multimedia learning may be one of the solutions that help control the amount of
information that the learner handles without any additional knowledge burden. This
finding is again consistent with was stated in the theory of segmentation, which point-
ed out that individuals are primarily aware of ongoing information in the form of
separate events, and that segmentation gives the learner greater opportunity to deal
with the presented events through what is known as mental segmentation. There is a
consistency between the result of this research and the results of a large number of
studies that targeted segmentation; the results of these studies have shown that seg-
mentation are the best solution for the learner's coding, processing, and retrieve,
which is ultimately reflected positively on what is called the recall [15, 36, 38, 68].
6.2 Effects of question location
The result that indicated the effectiveness of the placement of pre-questions as
compared to post-question in the development of recall ability can be traced back to
the fact that the placement of questions initially before viewing the information can
provide signs to the cognitive content that must be focused on within the video. This
state of alerting to the subsequent content of the videos, which makes the learner in a
state of constant attention to search for information that matches the questions pre-
sented at the beginning of the content. However, pre-questions in this case act as
wake-up stimuli of the coming video content, which makes the learner in a state of
constant attention ready to search for information that matches the questions present-
ed at the beginning of the content. In addition, the nature of the place in which the
pre-questions are located makes it able to encode the basic themes of information,
which makes the learner able to retrieve them again in more than one situation. Pre-
questions can also be considered as orientation keys to a testable content, which
makes the learner highly focused with a content that relates to the presented questions,
and thus can easily retrieve it later. Unlike post-questions, pre-questions can be con-
sidered as a planning tool for the following learning events and activities. When
learners are presented with questions before watching the video, they become in an
organized status for all the content details that he/she must learn. Learners’ attention
is at its highest level at the beginning of any educational situation and it begins to
diminish over time. This may explain the strong influence of pre-questions as com-
pared to the post-questions where the learner usually gives less attention to pos-
question as compared to pre-questions. In addition, post-questions can be considered
as a confirmation of the already raised information and do not have a role in coding
knowledge, unlike pre-questions. This finding is consistent with what has been point-
ed out that pre-testing are effective tools in memory development and ani-
obliviousness, especially when the learner succeeds in answering these questions. It is
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also a strategy that helps acquire knowledge rather than being an assessment tool for
knowledge. This means that pre-testing can be used as a reliable educational tool
within videos clips to organize coding, processing and storing information, and then
retrieve it again. This result corresponds to previous studies that indicated the effec-
tiveness of pre-testing [19, 50, 51, 53].
6.3 Effects of interaction between the video segmentation and question
location:
This finding which states that the highest recall rate was for the group that used a
segmented video with pre-questions can be traced to the fact the video segmentation
helped students organize their learning and gave them the opportunity through various
offered pauses to observe what was raised by pre-questions. Pauses also helped stu-
dents to practice linking pre-questions with what was subsequently presented to them.
It can also be said that video segmentation has contributed to enhance appropriating
videos for the schematic role that pre-questions play. The success of the group who
used video segmentation associated with pre-question over the third group who used
segmented videos associated with post-question can be attributed to the fact that the
handling done with the third group lacked the guiding and orienting role that pre-
questions could play; the third group relied on the post-questions that played an af-
firmative role on prior knowledge. The success of the handling done by the first group
over the handling done by the second and fourth groups, which included non-
segmented video clips, can be traced to the fact that the handling of the second and
fourth group faced additional cognitive burden because the clips did not have pauses
that could enable the learner handle the already presented information and knowledge.
The handling done with the second and fourth group lacked having intervals between
the main themes of the content which reduced the learner's chances of an in-depth
handling for each learning theme.
7 Conclusion
The current research focused on some design variables for web-based digital vide-
os. These variables were based on segmentation, question location, and their relation
with the recall ability. The research concluded that segmented videos have an ad-
vantage over non-segmented videos, pre-questions also have an advantage over post-
questions, and that there is an advantage for the handling that includes interactions
between segmentation and pre-questions. In the opinion of the research team that
future research associated with mobile video platforms may be directed towards stud-
ying the relationship between some of the design variables of videos and the cognitive
approaches of learners. Due to the importance of the role of the teacher in the process
of learning, it is possible to study the degree of the teacher’s presence through digital
videos. Although the segmentation variable has been studied in more than one study,
video segmentation rates still require further studies. Mobile video platforms need to
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be developed so that to become compatible with specific categories of special needs
people and addressing this issue is recommended by research orientations.
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9 Author
Dr. Marwa Zaki Tawfiq Zaki, associate Professor, Instructional technology De-
partment, College of Specific Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt , Re-
search Interests in the field of E-Learning, Mobile Games, 3D environments, Aug-
mented Reality. (e-mail: dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg; drmarwaa_doc@hotmail.
com)
Article submitted 2019-04-06. Resubmitted 2019-05-20. Final acceptance 2019-05-20. Final version
published as submitted by the authors.
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mailto:dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg
mailto:dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg
mailto:dr.marwa.zaki@sedu.asu.edu.eg