International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies(iJIM) – eISSN: 1865-7923 – Vol 16 No 14 (2022) Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment in Malaysian Schools https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i14.30597 Luqman Hakim Satiman1(), Nadiatulhuda Zulkifli2 1Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia 2Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia slhakim@unimas.my Abstract—The adoption of virtual learning environment (VLE) has started to gain serious attention worldwide including Malaysia, where its usage during the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak in particular has become a necessity. Neverthe- less, the extent to which teachers have adopted the VLE and which factors are most influencing the continued intention to adopt VLE post pandemic remain ambigious. The objective of this conceptual study is to provide a conceptual framework in investigating the factors that most influence the continued inten- tion to adopt VLE among teacher in Malaysian school. This study overview sev- eral important variables that may influence the continued intention to adopt VLE from three contexts (technology, organization and environment) which include relative advantage, compatibility. observability, technological infrastructure, school support, technical support and government support. Finally, this study can improve the understanding about which factors that may encourage or hinder the continued intention to adopt VLE in Malaysian school to enhance education quality for societal change. Keywords—continued intention, virtual learning environment, TOE framework 1 Introduction The rapid progress of information technology has affected the way human interact with each other. This progress has become one of the key issues in education especially in the school institution. This evolvement also affected not only to the students but also to the teachers who play crucial roles in order to ensure students can learn efficiently and effectively. In preparing the nation for the education transformation, the Malaysian Ministry of Education has conducted a comprehensive review of the education system in 2011 to develop a new Education Blueprint. The blueprint which is also known as Malaysian Education Blueprint (MEB) is a comprehensive plan for a rapid and sustain- able transformation of Malaysia education system for the next 13 years (2013–2025). The establishment of the 1BestariNet project is one of the many initiatives identified under the MEB’s first wave in order to ensure that 1BestariNet becomes the catalyst iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 14, 2022 31 https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i14.30597 mailto:slhakim@unimas.my Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... for ICT innovation in education in Malaysia. With an estimated cost of RM1.5 billion (about US$500 million), this initiative made the nation one of the primaries within the world which provide internet connectivity to all the schools with 4G high speed internet through virtual learning environment (VLE) platform, the Frog VLE [1–2]. Malaysia’s VLE adoption is considered one of a kind due to its widespread deployment across entire government public-school system, instead of targeted spe- cific institution. The access to Frog VLE were given not only to 6 million students and 450,000 teachers, but also include the 4.5 million parents in the country [3]. Neverthe- less, the low level of VLE utilization, particularly among teachers was not anticipated even though many efforts had been placed in order to encourage its usage. As a result, in June 2019, MOE decided to terminate the Frog VLE platform and replaced with Google Classroom [4]. Even though the former’s service provider argued the superior- ity of Frog VLE than Google Classroom, the decision to shift from Frog VLE to Google classroom was finalized due to a number of serious drawbacks in Frog VLE implemen- tation such as poor service and system quality which significantly affected the decision to use it among teacher [2]. Unexpectedly, COVID-19, a type of corona virus shook the whole world on 31 December 2019 when World Health Organization (WHO) received informa- tion regarding the sudden rise of pneumonia-related deaths in the city of Wuhan in China [5]. Covid-19 is a novel virus-based pandemic which has affected almost every aspect of human life globally including education. The unusual covid-19 pandemic has brought uncertainty to the Malaysian education system due to the unprecedented health fiasco [6]. Although VLE is not new to the students and teachers, due to Covid-19 pandemic, the implementation of VLE brought several new challenges for them. Spe- cifically, a series of school closures due to movement restriction order has forced the teachers to conduct teching and learning through online. However, the extent to which teachers have adopted the VLE and which factors are most influencing the continued intention to adopt VLE remain unknown. There are numerous studies focusing on the adoption and implementation of informa- tion technologies especially the VLE platform. However, majority of them focus more on individual analysis typically changes in attitudes and process among users [2,7–8]. Very little attempt has been made to use Technology-Organization- Environment (TOE) framework in order to investigate the factors influencing the teachers’ continued inten- tion to adopt VLE within the Malaysian public school environment. This study argues that technology alone cannot enable changes to happen naturally without appropriate intervention. This study also suggests that in order to materialize changes, technology factor must not only focuses on the changes in attitude and process among users, but technological, organizational and environmental contexts that may influence the adop- tion of VLE in school institution in Malaysia also need similar attention. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate which factors that may positively or nega- tively influence the teachers’ continued intention to adopt VLE in the Malaysian school institutions. 32 http://www.i-jim.org Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... 1.1 Virtual learning environment VLE is among the top technologies adapted by many educational institutions espe- cially during covid-19 pandemic [9]. Generally, VLE is a platform for teachers, parents and students to communicate with one another and share learning resources. Specifically, Hew [3] defined VLE as a cloud computing virtual learning environment communica- tion platform that resembles the traditional classroom in all aspects and enables teach- ers and students to access, save, retrieve and sharing instructional resources anytime, anywhere on the cloud without storage limitation. Various VLE platforms that are cur- rently being adopted and used in many institution include Google Classroom, Frog VLE, Edmodo, Moodle, Blackboard , Elluminate and Second Life [10]. 2 Theoretical background The focus of this section is to discuss the underpinning theory that have been adopted in this study. This study is a response to the call by Hew and Kadir [7] to examine the effects of technology-organizational-environment framework on teachers’ acceptance of VLE. Although there are many studies address the adoption of VLE in the literature, very little attempts have been made to use TOE framework as the underpinning theory. This trend is predictable as most of the prior studies focused on the individual level analysis rather than organization [7]. The commonly used theories used in the prior studies to understand technology adoption at the individual level include the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [1,11], Chan- nel Expansion Theory (CET) [12], and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) [8]. While these theories do make significant contribution to the literature, it is important that scholars begin to examine the influence of technologi- cal, organizational and environmental contexts on the adoption of VLE. Therefore, this study adopted TOE framework as the underpinning theory in order to investigate the determinant factors that may influence the continued intention of teacher to adopt VLE in school institutions. 2.1 TOE framework TOE framework was developed by Tornatzky and Fleischer [13] to examine organizational level adoption of various information system or information technology (IS/IT) products and services. The framework distinguishes between three different contexts which included technology, organizational and environmental contexts that may influence the adoption of innovation. Several prior studies have used TOE frame- work to understand various innovation adoptions at the individual or organizational level such as cloud computing in education [14] cloud computing [15] and e-learning [16]. Thus, it is suggested that the TOE framework is applicable to used in order to investigate factor influencing the continued intention to adopt VLE. iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 14, 2022 33 Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... 3 Research model and hypotheses This study proposes a research framework that includes technological, organizational and environmental contexts, that may influence the teacher continued intention to adopt VLE in Malaysia school institution. 3.1 Technological context The technological context refers to any technology that is either being used by the organization or that is available and is known to be potentially useful but is not yet being used [17]. Safari et al. [18], describes that the technological context in the TOE framework can be based on diffusion of innovation (DOI) theory. In DOI theory, Rog- ers [19] suggested five perceived characteristics of innovation which consisted rela- tive advantage, compatibility, observability, trialability and complexity. However, this study considers only three factors which include relative advantage, compatibility and observability as they had emerged as the most significant factor as well as consistent linkages with the adoption of innovation in various contexts [14–15, 20]. Therefore, these factors will be considered in this study. Relative advantage. Relative advantage can be defined as the degree to which the current VLE is superior than the prior VLE [21]. As highlighted earlier, school institutions in Malaysia had used Frog VLE before shifting recently to Google Classroom. Prior empirical studies showed that the likelihood of adopting new technology by organizations increase when they perceive that technology has more benefits than existing practise. There are various sub-dimensions of the relative advantage which may include time saving, profitability, social prestige and low initial cost [22]. However, in this study, the expected benefit of VLE may include the following: easy to use, save time and paperless, free-to-use platform, flexibility, mobile friendly and facilitates collaborative learning [23]. Venkatesh et al. [24], found that relative advantage is one of the major determi- nants of intention to adopt an information technology. Similar finding also be found in the various context related with the technological innovation. For instance, Merhi [25] found relative advantage has a positive related with the intention to use podcast among higher education students in United States. In addition, Gupta [26] confirmed that the relative advantage has significantly influence the intention to adopt massive open online courses (MOOCs) among student in Indian university. Based on the above explanation, the following hypotheses is developed and will be tested: H1: Relative advantage significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. Compatibility. Compatibility is defined as the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with the potential users’ existing values, previous experiences and requirements [27]. Worldwide, Internet has turned into the major form of information sharing and communication. Internet-based cloud platforms such as VLE will let education institutions to conveniently import or disseminate their academic services. Specifically for VLE, it is required to understand whether the technology is compatible with the existing technology in organization. 34 http://www.i-jim.org Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... Prior empirical research found that the compatibility was a significant predictor influencing the adoption of VLE [8]. Meanwhile on a broader context, compatibility was found to be significantly and positively related with adoption of e-learning [28]. Similarly, Cheng [29] found that the users’ perceived compatibility affected their inten- tion to use m-learning. Thus, organizations are more likely to adopt an innovation if the new technology is recognized as being compatible with existing systems and organiza- tional values and beliefs. Based on the above argument, this study proposes: H2: Compatibility significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. Observability. Observability can be defined as the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others [19]. Observability is commonly understood as the capability to anticipate the overall impact of adopting an innovation. It has been asserted that when a technology is more noticeable, it will be more likely to be used by a person. In the same way, organizations also tend to adopt a technology that is more observable and widely used. This construct has been defined differently where some authors define it as the demonstrability of an innovation’s outcomes [30–31], while others define it as visibility of the innovation itself [32]. Observability also depends on the nature of an innovation where some innovations may be difficult to be observed such as technology software that is observed differently than the hardware devices that is more tangible. Observing others successfuly using a new innovation will increase confidence on it which will increase the chance of both individual or organization to adopt the innovation [19]. Many studies report a signif- icant relationship between observability and adoption and implementation of techno- logical innovation [17,33]. Based on the above argument, the following hypothesis can be proposed: H3: Observability significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. 3.2 Organizational context Organizational context can be defined as characteristics or resources of the organi- zation that may facilitate or hinder the adoption of an innovation [34]. Previous studies on the adoption of It innovation have identified various dimension of organizational contexts that may describe why an organization will accept or reject an innovative prac- tice [35]. Specifically, among the organizational context, technological infrastructure, school support and technical support emerged as among the critical and significant of organizational context in information technologies research [36]. Technological infrastructure. The environment surrounding technological infra- structure is undoubtedly dynamic and experiences changes that it requires systematic improvement on a regular basis, specifically in the school institution. Garba et al. [37], claimed that the essential elemants in constructing an ideal 21st century learning environment include providing the basic infrastructure and ICT facilities, and getting teachers to utilize these facilities in their teaching and learning activities. Meanwhile, Hiran and Henten [38] refers information technological infrastructure as the combina- tion of physical devices like computer and networking hardware, and various software iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 14, 2022 35 Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... and network components required for the existence, operation and management of an IT environment. Previous studies found that inadequate number of computers, slow access to Frog VLE applications and Internet access problems were among the infrastructure prob- lems faced by the Malaysian school institutions [39]. This finding is also consistent with another studies by Cheok and Wong [40] which also found that nearly all teachers complained the poor Internet connection and facilities as the greatest barrier in imple- menting e-learning. Slow internet connection and limited coverage of Internet access within school areas made it difficult for the teachers. In a recent progress, the wide- spread fiber installation by a telecommunication consortium to provide interim Internet service provider enables faster Internet within school compounds [4]. However, insuf- ficient number of working computers to make e-learning possible during teaching and learning period compared to the large number of students still remains as a significant challenge. This problem is worsen during covid-19 pandemic where majority of stu- dents from lower-income families did not have computers or smartphones. In addition, limited coverage of Internet access and slow Internet connection were also among the major barriers in the adoption of VLE [41]. H4: Technological infrastructure significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. School support. School support can be defined as the degree to which a teacher observes the commitment from school administrators in ensuring a successful implementation and use of the VLE [42]. School support can be observed in different ways such as emphasizing on the importance of VLE to the school staff and teachers. The hesistancy and opposition to the idea of introducing VLE by school administrators can cause serious drawbacks to its adoption. Clearly, it is critical to have support from institutions at the early stage of adoption of VLE which may influence the acceptance among teacher and student. Schools administrators are headed by principals who have the ultimate responsibility for their school. Principals have different beliefs on how schools should be successfully run, and they possess different capacities to implement their desired policies. Even if principals are constrained by outside factors, these abilities and beliefs are likely to translate into different management practices that ultimately affect schooling outcomes. Studies show that when an organization fails to acquire adequate support from management for their IT projects, these projects can face little success or fail altogether [38]. Prior empirical studies found that the school supports had positively influenced the adoption of VLE. For instance, Hew and Kadir [12] found that school support has a positive influence on the intention to use VLE platform. Similarly, Khlaisang et al. [43] empirically showed school support among the important determinant which influence the adoption of VLE. H5: School support significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. Technical support. Technical support is defined as procedures and approaches followed by the school to ensure seamless and continuous access to the VLE [44]. The support to provide a reliable technical infrastructure to offer user-friendly VLEs is inclusive of assuring uninterrupted access to the VLE among teachers and students, 36 http://www.i-jim.org Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... operating a round-the-clock help desk to provide technical support, having educational multimedia production units and offering facilities to encourage involvement in e-learning [44]. Furthermore, allocating IT technical teams to provide and technical support allow the school teachers to concentrate on pedagogical issue rather than technical issues. Williams [45] also agreed that one of the factors that can help in the adoption of a new technology is technical support. With the availability of technical support, teachers will be less skeptical about the idea of adopting VLE since it make the usage easy for them. This is because technical support gives users the sense of safety in technology usage. On the contrary, the lack of technical support will lead to a failed technology adoption. Therefore, this study proposes that: H6: Technical support significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. 3.3 Environmental context Environmental context represents the crucial factors which reside outside the organi- zation that may influence the adoption and implementation of technological innovation. In the context of this study, government support has been selected as the sub-dimension of environmental context that may influence the teacher continued intention to adopt VLE in Malaysia school institution. This selection is based on the prior empirical stud- ies which found that the government support such as policies and regulation have sig- nificantly influenced the adoption of innovative technology [46–47]. Additionally, it is vital to investigate how individuals perceive government support on technological innovations. In the Malaysian context, government has actively supported the use of technology in education. This effort can be seen through the introduction of 1Bestarinet program in 2012 and interim Internet in 2019 to provide high-speed Internet access and suitable virtual learning platforms bridge the digital divide between urban and rural areas [3–4]. Government support. The significance of technology utilization has been a determined agenda on government educational policy since the past decades. Government support is defined as financial backing and encouragement and regulation that are received from government in relation to the adoption and implementation of technology [46]. It is observed that governments worldwide have been supporting e-learning system and its implementation. In Lebanon for example, policymakers are involved to adopt an e-learning system as a substitute to the traditional practises [48]. Their education sys- tem has also authorized the use of e-learning system for teachers and students. Mean- while in Pakistan, web-based learning systems have experienced massive experiments which involves classroom lectures, distance learning program, and online or offline study modes [16]. Thus, it is necessary for schools to adopt e-learning system in ensur- ing the quality of learning experience can be enhanced. This support can also be an investment in infrastructure. Given a nation’s econ- omy is governed in a centralized manner by the governments, they have to play vital roles in encouraging teachers and students to be involved in technology adoption. This can be obtained by creating good policies, providing necessary financial investment in iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 14, 2022 37 Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... technology, and having essential infrastructure to have seamless implementation. As stated earlier, Internet services and technological infrastructure are facilities that are esential for seamless VLE adoption and usage, which demand for a strong emphasis in Malaysia. Nevertheless with government support, these issues can be fixed in order to ease the adoption of VLE. This ensures an easy implementation of technology and encourages teachers to learn the skills that are necessary towards the VLE adoption. Previous research has found the government support are important drivers that may affect the adoption of innovative technology in developing countries. For instances, Lai and Lai [49] found that the government support significantly influence the intention to adopt electronic schoolbag. Therefore, this study proposes that: H7: Government support significantly influences the continued intention to adopt VLE. 4 Conclusion The significant contribution of TOE framework in understanding the adoption of various technological innovation at the individual and organizational levels has been demonstrated. However, literature review in VLE shows scarce evidence in terms of TOE framework application. While this study is certainly not exhaustive of all factors, it provides a good start by adding new knowledge to enhance the understanding on the adoption and implementation of VLE in school institution. This study also improves the knowledge relatead with the factors that drive VLE adoption in the Malaysian school institutions. Meanwhile, this study is not without its limitations. The constructs suggested in this study may be limited to the adoption of VLE in Malaysian school institution. There could be other possible factors that might be different in other countries. Furthermore, this study does not differentiate VLE adoptions between Malaysian schools in the city and rural areas. School that are located in the rural areas by the nature and locality pos- sess certain characteristics compared to the schools in the city which include resource limitation such as Internet services, and less influenced by external pressure. Thus, issues surrounding VLE adoption in rural areas could be different from city schools. On the other hand, this study has several implications for various stakeholders such as government, ministry of education, school administrative, teachers, parents and stu- dents. Government and administrators in school can utilize the framework and planning accordingly based on it, in order to establish smooth conditions for teachers’ acceptance in the adoption and implementation of VLE. 5 Acknowledgement We thank the Ministry of High Education Malaysia (MOHE) and Research Man- agement Center of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, for financial support under Transdisciplinary Research Grant scheme (Vot No 05G59 and 05G60). 38 http://www.i-jim.org Paper—Determinants of Teacher’s Continuance Intention to Adopt Virtual Learning Environment... 6 References [1] J. S.-C. Yim, P. Moses, and A. Azalea, “Predicting teachers’ continuance in a virtual learning environment with psychological ownership and the TAM: a perspective from Malaysia,” Educ. Technol. Res. 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