International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) – eISSN: 1865-7923 – Vol 16 No 16 (2022)
Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic
Literature Review
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i16.32285
Suzan Alyahya1(), Azizah Alqahtani2
1School of Graphic Design and Digital Media, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
2School of Psychology, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
smalyahya@pnu.edu.sa
Abstract—Integration of information and communication technologies
in educational settings offer added learning opportunities to teachers and stu-
dents. However, these come with the expense of cyberloafing among students
and educators in computer-mediated environments. Despite the curiosity it has
been arousing, so recent is the concept of cyberloafing, which implies that the
knowledge accumulated so far is sparse, broad and fragmented. This study aims
to systematically review the current challenges in the domain of cyberloafing.
The study reviewed twenty-six peer-reviewed scholarly articles to analyse and
reveal information on the methods, factors examined, applications, compre-
hensive results, and limitations. The findings in this study highlight the need to
uncover the phenomenon of cyberloafing in teaching and learning environments,
and proposes possible recommendations on issues and gaps open to be explored
in future studies.
Keywords—communication technology, cyberbludging, cyberdeviance,
cyberloafing, cyberloafing, cyberslacking, educational settings, systematic
literature review (SLR)
1 Introduction
While spreading its influence over personal and professional zones of individuals,
widespread use of technology has shown both the positive and negative impacts on the
overall functioning of societies. The performance and outcome of employees and stu-
dents have been potentially influenced. Integration of technology in daily lives has led
to increased productivity and digital literacy of teachers [1], [2]. However, the darker
side of the use of technology has in turn manifested itself, and it covers compulsive
use of media that results in cyberloafing [3]. Revealing an alarming statistic, [4] report
that cyberloafing takes up to three hours of effective work time per day of employees’
accessing the Internet.
Cyberloafing is a contemporary phenomenon that represents the dark side of tech-
nology use. The term has been referred in the extant literature using different termi-
nology [5] such as Cyberslacking, Cyberdeviance, Cyberloafing, and Cyberbludging.
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https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i16.32285
mailto:smalyahya@pnu.edu.sa
Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
The present study uses the term ‘Cyberloafing’, for referring to all these behaviours
discussed in the following text. In general terms, cyberloafing can be defined as the use
of Internet and technology during working hours for personal or non-organizational
purposes [5], [6].
Education realizes cyberloafing as the use of the internet and other related tech-
nologies by students and teachers during allocated time for teaching and learning to
achieve personal objectives at educational institutions [7]–[9]. In educational settings,
technology usage is typically for entertainment, e.g., chatting, checking emails, online
shopping, and watching videos [10] or some other personal work.
Reported as common behaviour, cyberloafing has been intensively researched in the
workplace settings. [11] report that 64% of workers acknowledge their engagement in
cyberloafing at the work place. Engagement of employees in such a behaviour nega-
tively affects their productivity levels during work time [12]. For example, employees
cyberloafing at work have tendencies to postpone tasks and spend most of their time
on entertainment [13]. This adds human and financial costs to organizations [14], [15].
Due to high organizational stake, scholars have focused on better understanding of
cyberloafing in the workplace settings to provide actionable solutions. [16] state that
employees engage in cyberloafing for the sake of their stress management. Reizer et al.
and She and Li [17], [18] report that engaging in cyberloafing also puts the organiza-
tions security at risk.
In contrast, the research examining cyberloafing in educational settings is not mature
yet, and only a handful of empirical studies are available. Scholars suggest that cyber-
loafing could negatively affect the educational environment in terms of the effective-
ness of teaching and learning [19], [20]. For teachers, engagement in cyberloafing can
influence their teaching productivity. For students, it can shift their focus and reduce
their level of engagement in educational activities by affecting their cognitive resources
[21]–[23]. Consequently, it negatively influences their academic success [24]–[26].
Given the role that education plays in society, researchers have shifted their focus
on the study of cyberloafing in educational settings from the time the peril was rec-
ognized. However, despite being fast-growing, the related findings are diverse, broad
and scattered. There is no doubt that it is important to understand the underpinnings
of cyberloafing in academic settings since it poses a serious threat to the successful
integration of information and communication technology in the educational context.
Moreover, it poses a negative influence on the future of the students, since they will
be future employees. Therefore, the efforts of future researchers in the area need to be
encouraged and supported.
The present research offers support in terms of amalgamating the existing ideas and
findings related to cyberloafing in one place through the usage of Systematic Literature
Review (SLR) methodology. SLR is an excellent tool that provides deep insights into
not only what has been done, but also sheds light on possible areas of focus in future.
SLR helps in the synthesis as well as the critical analysis of the domain under consider-
ation, here in this study: cyberloafing in educational settings. The study contributes to
the existing knowledge area by critically evaluating the existing findings, implications,
limitations, and presenting future recommendations that identify open gaps, which
when investigated can offer interesting opportunities for scholars, and inferences for
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
school administrations endeavouring to integrate technology with education success-
fully by overcoming its negative aspects like cyberloafing.
2 Methodology
As mentioned in the prior section, the study implements SLR methodology to coag-
ulate comprehensive information on the prior research related to cyberloafing in educa-
tional settings. SLR follows well-defined and transparent steps, follows an established
protocol to select and review relevant empirical studies [27]. The protocol consists of
three main steps: developing the review plan; executing the review plan; and reporting
the review. SLR in this study has been conducted as per the stringent, Preferred Report-
ing Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [28], rec-
ommended by the Cochrane Collaboration [29] and the Standard Quality Assessment
Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Papers [30]. The section next describes the
three main steps of the SLR research methodology.
2.1 Planning the review
At this stage the objectives of the SLR, the search procedure, inclusion and exclu-
sion criteria and quality evaluation protocol are specified.
2.2 Research objectives (ROs)
RO1: To identify the research profile of the studies on cyberloafing in education,
in terms of publishing timeline and volume, research methods, geographi-
cal scope, and moderating, control, and dependent variables utilized in the
reviewed studies.
RO2: To identify key themes emerging from the prior relevant studies and outline the
scope of uncovered areas.
RO3: To examine the findings, implications, limitations and future work directions
presented in the included studies to process implications for future researchers
and provide recommendations for future studies.
RO4: To develop an integrated framework for the reference of future researchers in
the area of cyberloafing in an educational context.
2.3 Search procedure
SLR was conducted on online databases targeting three bibliographic databases,
namely, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science. A Google Scholar search was then
conducted in an attempt to find additional articles. The selection was limited to
peer-reviewed articles that were in the English language and addressed the theme of
cyberloafing or cyberslacking until 2019. The key search terms used to formu-late
search queries were: ( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( Cyberloafing ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
( cyberslacking ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “mobile-loafing” ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY
( “mobile loafing” ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “mobile loafing” ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY
( “mobile slacking” ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “Internet slacking” ) OR TITLE-ABS-
KEY ( “Internet loafing” ) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “online loafing” ) OR TITLE-ABS-
KEY ( “online slacking” ) ). Forward and backward citation chaining search was also
conducted to ensure selection of all relevant studies.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria. To select most relevant studies, four inclusion
criteria were specified:
1. Empirical studies on cyberloafing in educational settings will be included.
2. Peer-reviewed, journal articles published in English will be included.
3. Studies published on the topic until July 2019 will be included.
4. Only empirical studies on cyberloafing that include students or teachers as partici-
pants will be included.
To further ensure a robust selection, four exclusion criteria were specified for elim-
inating non-relevant studies:
1. Empirical studies on cyberloafing that focuses on the non-educational setting will be
excluded.
2. Duplicate studies appearing on different databases will be excluded.
3. Master and doctoral thesis will be excluded.
4. Studies that do not satisfy the quality evaluation protocol described below will be
excluded.
Executing the review plan. At this stage the search procedure, inclusion and
exclusion criteria discussed above are put into action to identify the candidate studies.
The online literature research resulted in 140 articles from Scopus, 11 articles from
PubMed, 111 articles from Web of Science and 13 articles through forward and
backward search, which make a total of n=275 articles; where n represents the count
of articles.
Titles and abstracts of manuscripts were screened for eligibility. After the first screen-
ing, a second screening was undertaken for duplicates. Titles and abstracts were then
examined to iteratively apply the pre-specified inclusion and exclusion criteria to the
remaining articles. Studies that meet inclusion criteria were retrieved and their contents
were coded to ensure eligibility. All 272 studies found through the search procedure
were evaluated thoroughly for selection, however, only 32 articles were found eligi-
ble after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, six more were dropped
as they failed to meet the quality evaluation protocol and remaining 26 articles were
carried forward for synthesis. The process and the articles excluded at each stage is
presented in Figure 1.
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
Identified and reviewed
relevant articles (n=275)
Included Articles for
match aganist Inclusion
Criteria (n=32)
Articles included for
Systematic Literature
Review (n=26)
Excluded articles for
unmatch aganist
Inclusion Criteria (n=6)
Excluded articles for
match aganist Exclusion
Criteria (n=243)
Fig. 1. Selection procedure
2.4 Reporting the review
The third stage includes the presentation of the profile and findings of the reviewed
studies. The next section represents the profile of the reviewed studies, followed by the
section discussing the themes of the reviewed studies.
2.5 Study characteristics
From the 26 articles selected for the present SLR, three used qualitative method of
analysis for a total subsample size of 509 participants, and 23 studies used quantitative
method of analysis, for a total subsample size of 25,558 participants. The overall sam-
ple size for the 26 studies is 26,067 participants. Studies included, focused on students
and teachers (see Figure 2). Profiles of student participants are shown in Figure 3.
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
0.844
25.223
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Teachers Students
C
o
u
n
t
in
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
Fig. 2. Student and teacher participants
Four studies were conducted on teachers with a total sample of 844 participants
and 22 studies were conducted on students, with a total sample of 25,223 participants.
The student sample was diverse and contains university students and school students.
Furthermore, of the qualitative studies, two used open-ended questions; one used the
interview. The coding analysis was generally used by qualitative studies. Of the quan-
titative designs, all of them used a survey to collect data and one study validated a
measure. Details about the included studies’ characteristics are provided in Table A1
in appendix.
95%
20%
11%
10%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
School
Ungraduate
Graduate
University
Approximate count in percentages
C
yb
er
lo
af
in
g
by
s
tu
de
nt
s
a
t d
iff
er
en
t l
ev
el
s
Fig. 3. Profiles of students surveyed
2.6 Geographic scope of the selected studies
Regarding the location, studies included in the present review were distributed
around the world, as shown in Figure 4. The studies’ researchers were based in Turkey
for 13 of the studies, the United States for three studies, and Spain, United Kingdom,
and China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Canada for one study each. Although the studies
from Spain were only two, 60% of the sample were Spanish.
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
Fig. 4. Geographic scope of the selected studies
2.7 Publication timelines
As shown in Figure 5, publication dates of the studies ranged from 2001 to 2019;
18 studies were published within the last five years, a further six were published within
the last ten years, and another two were published over ten years ago.
2.8 Evolving conceptualization and measurement of cyberloafing
Technological advancement and improved access to the latest technologies by
individuals, requires changes in the existing conceptualization of cyberloafing.
[31] report the need to redefine cyberloafing since the previous conceptualization
mainly addressed from the perspective of institutional setting. However, such concep-
tualization is quite limited and is outpaced by the evolving technology trends. Internet
access is no longer limited to organizational settings, as individuals have uninterrupted
access to the Internet through their personal connections, wireless network and other
modes of online connectivity. Emphasizing the point, [32] report that cyberloafing
is different from the conventional deviant behaviour. Furthermore, different kinds of
cyberloafing behaviours exhibit different prevalence rates [31].
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
For example, in general, cyberloafing is more prevalent in males as compared to
females, and students as compared to employees. However, employees cyberloaf more
than students when it comes to satisfying their impression management needs [31].
Taking this thought forward, successive attempts have been made to establish new
scales to measure cyberloafing. This is necessary, taking into account the advancement
in the information and communication technology [33]. Authors in [34] introduced
and validated a new scale for cyberloafing, that takes into account five factors: shop-
ping, sharing, accessing online content, gaming/gambling and real-time updating. This
scale went beyond the previous factors, namely, browsing and emailing. The frequently
occurring words found in the literature are depicted in the Figure 6.
1
0 0 0 0
1
0 0
2
0
1 1
2 2
5
3
4 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15
20
16
20
17
20
18
20
19
Pu
bl
ic
at
io
n
co
un
t
Fig. 5. Publication timelines
2.9 Antecedents of cyberloafing
Uncovering the antecedents of cyberloafing has been a key focus of the extant lit-
erature. The research studies investigating the predictors of cyberloafing can be cate-
gorized into three categories. First category reports about the antecedent with regards
to cyberloafing in general. This stream found following antecedents of cyberloafing:
demographic variables, technology usage status, academic variables [3], [35], addiction
[36]–[38], stress, social support [39], nature of online learning activities [3] [40], trait
procrastination [38], self-regulation [41], cyberloafing anxiety, distractions from peers
engaging in cyberloafing [42]. The study by Durak and Saritepeci [43] reports that per-
sonality traits do not predict cyberloafing.
Second category lists the predictors for specific kinds of cyberloafing. Prior litera-
ture has found the following categories of cyberloafing: {socialization, news follow-up,
personal business or individual} [35], [37], and search [37]. The socialization cyber-
loafing mainly addresses activities related to social networking, instant messaging,
discussing on discussion boards, and checking emails. News follow-up as a cyberloaf-
ing activity addresses the engagement with keeping oneself up to date with the latest
happenings around the world. Personal business or individual cyberloafing addresses
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
the cyberloafing activities dealing with issues such as online banking, shopping, job
seeking, and planning vacations. Finally, Search cyberloafing addresses the issue of
engaging in searching information irrelevant to set out learning goals. Studies have
revealed that for specific kinds of cyberloafing , internet addiction exerts significant
positive influence on individuals, Search cyberloafing and Social cyberloafing [37].
Fig. 6. Word cloud
Final category comprises studies that examine the antecedents of cyberloafing
intentions, behaviour and attitude. Intentions to engage in cyberloafing are derived from
the attitude towards cyberloafing [44], [45], {subjective norms, perceived behavioural
control} [8], [42], [44], {escapism, perceived threat} [44], multitasking [8], prescrip-
tive norms [45], descriptive norms [42] and cognitive absorption [8]. cyberloafing
intentions and habit predict cyberloafing behaviour, including, class engagement influ-
enced attitude towards cyberloafing [45].
Consequences of cyberloafing. The extant literature also investigated the
consequences of engaging in cyberloafing behaviour in a learning environment.
Majority of the reviewed studies have reported that cyberloafing affects performance
of individuals. However, [32] report that the influence over individual performance is
only valid over the Internet. Durak [3] states that cyberloafing exerts positive influence
over academic procrastination. Additionally, engaging in cyberloafing in educational
settings negatively influences academic success [3], [10]. Specifically, Wu et al. report
that in-class cyberloafing activities negatively influence academic performance [10].
On the other hand, cyberloafing also leads to smartphone addiction [39], [46]. The
negative outcomes become detrimental since cyberloafing diverts attention and focus
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
of teachers and students by diverging them from the tasks that they would execute
and complete effectively and efficiently. An example of such distraction is engaging in
cyberloafing instead of learning and performing course work during online teaching.
Surprisingly, cyberloafing has been found to have some positive outcomes as well.
Page [1] found that cyberloafing by teachers at work leads to increased productivity of
teachers. Intuitively, accessing the web for personal satisfaction at work may enhance
the abilities of teachers to manage stress and balance personal and professional life.
Additionally, such personal usage of the web also enhances digital literacy of teachers
that contributes towards successful integration of technology with teaching and
learning in educational context [1]. Wu et al. [10] report that out-class cyberloafing has
small, but significant positive influence on academic performances. However, Wu et al.
also report that excessive out-class cyberloafing activities may have negative impact.
This implies that cyberloafing at work in moderate amounts brings positive outcomes,
nonetheless excessively engaging may equally prove to be detrimental.
Moderators and mediators. A limited number of studies investigate the role of
moderators and mediators in predicting cyberloafing. Prasad et al. [41] report that
self-efficacy, conscientiousness and achievement orientation moderate association
of self-regulation and cyberloafing. For example, being high on self-efficacy and
self -regulation reduces the tendency to engage in cyberloafing. Additionally, it should
be taken into consideration that tendency to indulge in cyberloafing is contingent with
the students’ self-regulation despite them being highly efficacious and task-oriented.
On the other hand, Gerow [8] found cognitive absorption to mediate the association of
multitasking and intentions to engage in cyberloafing.
User characteristics. The prior literature reports about the linkages between user
characteristics and cyberloafing. The user characteristics can be understood in terms
of demographic variables and nature of the users. The popular demographic variable
that has received ample attention from the researchers is gender. Literature reporting
absence of any relation of gender with cyberloafing is scant [3]. In contrast, most
literature reports the presence of association between gender and cyberloafing [37],
[47], [48]. Males have usually been found to cyberloaf more as compared to females
[35], [37], [47], [48]. In a contradictory finding, Durak & Saritepeci [43] reveal that
female teachers show more cyberloafing behaviour than male teachers.
When it comes to specific cyberloafing activities, gender influences differ. For
example, Batury & Toker [35] state that females become active when it comes to
cyberloafing for social reasons. However, Keser et al. [37] report no gender differ-
ences with regards to social cyberloafing. Furthermore, males prefer news and indi-
vidual cyberloafing activities [37]. Finally, no gender differences were reported in
terms of search cyberloafing [37]. Age was one of the demographic variables that was
rarely studied in the cyberloafing field. Durak and Saritepeci [43] found that age is
negatively related to cyberloafing. cyberloafing would be higher among younger indi-
viduals. However, Yan and Yang [38] indicated that age and cyberloafing are not asso-
ciated with each other. Other demographic variables such as residence location and
family income exert no influence on cyberloafing [39]. In relation to the nature of the
user, self-regulation and general self-efficacy have no influence on cyberloafing [46].
Furthermore, habit and consumerism indirectly influence cyberloafing via different
neutralization techniques such as denial of responsibility, appeal to higher loyalties,
metaphor of ledge, and denial of injury [49].
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
Technology usage. This theme addresses the influence of the factors related to use
of technology on cyberloafing. In this regard, internet experience is correlated with
cyberloafing [35]. The individuals who engage in technology and access to the internet
every day or more often, tend to cyberloaf more than the users, who use the internet less
often [35], [48]. Within this, individuals use the Internet daily cyberloaf for socialization
and personal business, rather than news follow-up [35]. Additionally, in terms of skills,
advanced or expert users of internet cyberloaf more than the those who are at novice or
intermediate level [35], [37], [47]. Interestingly, location and time of internet access has
no effect on cyberloafing [26].
Educational characteristics. Educational characteristics address the influence of
level of education, academic performance, nature of study and learning environment
on Cyberloafing. Gökçearslan et al. [39] reports that level of education has no influence
on Cyberloafing. Comparatively, [47] reports that students at higher levels of studies (or
senior students) have a high tendency to exhibit cyberloafing behaviours compared to
their counterparts at lower levels. Academically, low performing students have a high
chance to remain engaged in cyberloafing [47]. Arabaci [47] has examined the influence
of the number of hours the educational degree or course requires the student to spend
online. Karaoğlan Yılmaz et al. [26] report that time spent on online courses or course
activities requiring an online environment is positively correlated with cyberloafing. For
example, students spending more time in lab courses, cyberloaf more. This also implies
that students of certain study disciplines such as management information systems
cyberloaf more as compared to students of other disciplines, such as history [26].
Similarly, some streams of education (e.g., theology teaching department) exhibit more
disciplined behaviour than others that influences their tendency to manage or engage
in cyberloafing [47]. Additionally, the nature of learning strategies also positively
influences cyberloafing [48]. Learning strategies influence class attention of students.
The attention in class as also driven by the instructor’s encouragement, reduces the
tendency to engage in cyberloafing [44]. Furthermore, physical proximity of the leader
also results in reduction of cyberloafing [48]. On the other hand, motivation towards
the course or learning does not directly influence cyberloafing [48]. Lack of attention,
subjective norms and apathy towards course material share positive correlation with
cyberloafing [50]. Psycho-social perceptions formulated by the learning environment
(e.g., student cohesiveness, involvement, support from teacher, cooperation, equity,
attitudes and task orientation etc.) is weakly correlated with cyberloafing [48].
Gaps and limitations. The examination of the different studies on cyberloafing
led to the extraction of mainly nine limitations. These are discussed in the following
sections and references to the concerned studies are presented in Table 1.
I. Gender imbalance: refers to the dominance of a specific gender group over
others. Two studies have reported the prevalence of dominance of males over
females [3], [31]. This is important to have gender balance since it influences the
study findings in general, and more specifically where gender is one of the study
variables.
II. Self-reporting bias: as a limitation refers to the possibilities of under-reporting
of the behaviour by the respondents. A total of thirteen studies have reported
self-reporting to be one of the limitations of their research [3], [43]. This could
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be due to different reasons, such as lack of consideration of the behaviour to be
a hindrance [8], or anxiousness in revealing confidential information regarding
their involvement in the deviant behaviour [42]. This could pose a problem since
it can influence study findings by falling prey to common method variance that
could inflate or deflate the associations among investigated behaviours.
III. Context of research: refers to the limitations posed by context in which the
research is being conducted. Sixteen studies have found it to be a problem [44],
[48]. This could be due to the region in which the research is conducted, or the
type of respondents considered for the study or focusing on a restricted service
or institute being investigated. This influences the universal applicability of
the research findings.
IV. Distinction: refers to the failure in considering the distinction between the
antecedents and consequences of cyberloafing. Only a single study has reported
a limitation [3]. For example, lack of distinction between antecedents and con-
sequences of in-class and out-class activities, while investigating cyberloafing
behaviour [3]. This gives an unclear picture of the phenomenon.
V. Generalizability: refers to the inability of the study findings to be extrapolated
to explain the cyberloafing behaviour of the general user population. About eight
studies have specifically reported it as their limitation [45], [49]. However, it
might be implicitly meant by other studies when they discuss research context
or study design to be the limitations faced by them. Moreover, this is one of the
major restrictions faced by the empirical research being conducted in general as
well.
VI. Conceptualization of cyberloafing: reflects issues in relation to the way the
concept of cyberloafing was conceptualized for analysis and investigation. For
example, considering cyberloafing in general rather than specific cyberloafing
behaviour [45], investigating limited sub-dimensions of cyberloafing behaviour
and activities [26], failing to explore cyberloafing explicitly [44], lack of explo-
ration of context, where cyberloafing is being investigated, for example sampling
issues Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara [32], consideration of old scales that fail to
incorporate current changes in information and communication technology [38].
Six studies have highlighted this to be their limitation [44], [45].
VII. Inadequate sampling and sampling size: refers to the problems related to low
sample size, convenience sampling and failing to incorporate random sampling.
This has been reported to be a problem by five studies [44].
VIII. Limitations to study design: refers to the usage of cross-sectional design for data
collection rather than longitudinal. However, it also addresses other issues such
as the choice of using surveys as a data collection tool that involves self-selection
bias. This influence the drawing of the dynamic associations among variables
being investigated. Six studies have reported study design as their limiting point
[42], [45]. Lastly, the possibility of other variables highlights the limitation in
terms of ignoring the other variables that could be incorporated in the study since
they could influence cyberloafing behaviour of respondents. Two studies empha-
size upon the possible loss of information subjective to lack of consideration
of other important variables [44], [50]. For example, multi-tasking, cognitive
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
absorption, awareness of instructor monitoring, individual traits, learning style,
goals, interests etc. [44], [50].
The review of the extant literature has led to the identification of the eight open gaps
in existing knowledge on cyberloafing in educational settings. These gaps existing in
knowledge domain of cyberloafing are discussed in the following section:
I. The detrimental consequences of cyberloafing behaviour require more compre-
hension [34]. This will help in assisting the individuals suffering intentionally or
unintentionally from indulging in cyberloafing.
II. Serious cyberloafing behaviour requires further investigation [26]. For example,
hacking and spreading viruses.
III. Cyberloafing lacks treatment as a broad concept [43]. Majority of the extant
research considers a limited view of cyberloafing, which fails to present a more
holistic picture. This could be achieved by bringing out associations of varied
kinds of variables and cyberloafing. For example, variables such as addiction,
social support, cognitive absorption, readiness levels, interests, learning styles,
obedience, individual’s personality, and self-efficacy perceptions can be consid-
ered [32], [41], [42], [48]. Considering additional variables could also help in
overcoming the extant limitations by increasing the existing percentage of cyber-
loafing explained.
IV. There also exists an open gap that requires better understanding of the factors that
trigger or prevent cyberloafing behaviour in different contexts [26], [31], [35].
For example, influence of control, role of job types, characteristics of activity that
needs to be engaged in while users get distracted by cyberloafing, and addiction.
V. There is a need to consider the influence of cyber activities of the users while
analysing the cyberloafing behaviour and drawing implications from the same [3].
VI. Exploration of the cross-cultural nature of cyberloafing demands attention from
the research community. It will be interesting to know the cultural aspects that
have positive or negative influence on cyberloafing behaviour [35], [39].
VII. Nature of association between addiction and cyberloafing is also an open issue.
There have been some attempts at understanding their association [37], [46], how-
ever, in-depth exploration is needed for attaining better comprehension of their
association.
VIII. There is a need to bring forth the underpinnings of the differences among the
cyberloafing behaviour exhibited by students and employees [35], [41]. Finally,
there is a need for redefining cyberloafing since initial conceptualization mainly
dealt with the misuse of the Internet in the institutional settings [31]. However, the
situation has changed since individuals have continuous access to the Internet via
different ways.
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Table 1. Study limitations
Limitations Authors
Gender imbalance Durak, 2019; Akbulut et al., 2017
Self-reporting Durak, 2019; Akbulut et al., 2017; Yilmaz & Yurdugül, 2018; Taneje
et al., 2015; Gokçearslan et al., 2016; Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara,
2012; Wu et al., 2018; Li & Titsworth, 2015; Page, 2014; Gerow
et al., 2010; Yan & Yang, 2014; Soh et al., 2018; Durak & Saritepeci,
2019
Research context Durak, 2019; Yilmaz & Yurdugül, 2018; Rana et al., 2016; Akbulut
et al., 2016; Gokçearslan et al., 2016; Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara,
2012; De-Lara, 2007; Prasad et al., 2010; Li & Titsworth, 2015;
Keser et al., 2016; Rana et al., 2019; Gerow et al., 2010; Yan & Yang,
2014; Soh et al., 2018; Durak & Saritepeci, 2019; Varol & Yildirim,
2017
Distinction Durak, 2019
Generalizability Yilmaz et al., 2015; Rana et al., 2016; Sharma, 2019; Zoghbi-
Manrique-de-Lara, 2012; Prasad et al., 2010; Li & Titsworth, 2015;
Rana et al., 2019; Soh et al., 2018
Cyberloafing conceptualization Yilmaz et al., 2015; Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara, 2012; Prasad et al.,
2010; Rana et al., 2019; Yan & Yang, 2014; Soh et al., 2018
Sampling issues Rana et al., 2016; Taneje et al., 2015; Sharma, 2019; Li & Titsworth,
2015; Rana et al., 2019
Study design Taneje et al., 2015; Prasad et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2018; Gerow et al.,
2010; Sharma, 2019; Soh et al., 2018
Possibility of other variables Rana et al., 2016; Rana et al., 2019
2.10 Recommendations for future research
The studies analysed using SLR provide some interesting recommendations for con-
ducting future research in the area of cyberloafing. Outlines these recommendations is
given in the next section:
I. The findings from the existing studies should be replicated with users of varied
age range, different socio-cultural structures, different regions and different back-
grounds to have a more generalizable understanding of cyberloafing [3], [34],
[42], [44], [46]–[48].
II. The future studies on cyberloafing should be longitudinal in nature to capture
changes over time [3], [8], [10], [49].
III. The existing literature suggests that researchers consider study designs that are
based on different research methodologies to gain holistic understanding of cyber-
loafing phenomenon, such as considering using focus groups, observations, trian-
gulation, interview and surveys [38], [43], [46], [49]. Further, researchers suggest
the usage of think-loud protocols in the research design, such as semi-structured
interviews and eye-tracking tools [48].
IV. Further investigations on cyberloafing should take into consideration the dynamic
nature of information and communication technology [32], [34]. This will enable
more accurate estimation of cyberloafing behaviour.
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V. Future research could examine the distractions causing engagement in cyberloaf-
ing by an individual after viewing others in near proximity practicing the same.
This could be examined through variables, such as the role of morality, values and
concern for others, learning in a classroom or performing work efficiently [42].
VI. Future studies should consider having larger sample sizes [26], [44], [50].
VII. Future research should try to use log-based environments that can help in min-
imizing the bias brought as a result of self-reporting nature of study design [3],
[10], [44], [45].
3 Comprehensive framework
Based on the process of the reviewed literature, this study proposes a framework
that consists of five main components as shown in the Figure 7. The boxes and the
dotted lines represent the investigated relationships between cyberloafing and other
characteristics. Proposed framework may be employed by future researchers to fur-
ther guide them in the field of cyberloafing in various educational settings. Framework
offers support to research efforts aimed at exploring the consequences antecedents,
mediators, and moderators that might affect Cyberloafing. The different components of
this framework are as follows:
User characteristics
It is argued that there is a link between user characteristics, such as demographic
variables and the nature of users and Cyberloafing. The extant research has focused
on gender; however, gender influences differ [35], [37]. Future studies may consider
inclusion of gender effects and associations with Cyberloafing. Among the demo-
graphic variables the age of the participants was rarely focused on in the literature.
Few researchers suggested that the nature of users such as self-regulation and general
self-efficacy has no influence on cyberloafing [46]. Furthermore, habit and consumer-
ism indirectly influence cyberloafing by means of different mechanisms such as meta-
phor of ledge and denial of responsibility [49].
Technology usage
Extant literature has focused on investigating cyberloafing with relation to tech-
nology usage. Few researchers have also suggested that the internet experience and
internet skills are correlated with cyberloafing [37]. individuals engaging in Internet
activities every day would cyberloaf more than the users, who use the internet less
often. Individuals with advanced internet skills cyberloaf more than the ones who don’t
have advanced internet skills. However, cyberloafing does not get influenced by loca-
tion and time of internet use [26].
Educational characteristics
Educational characteristics, such as grade, academic performance, nature of study
and learning environment have been studied with relation to cyberloafing. Research
has shown that higher grades and academically low performing students and time
spent on online courses have a higher tendency to show cyberloafing behaviours [26],
[47]. However, Psycho-social perceptions formulated by the learning environment
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(e.g., student cohesiveness, involvement, support from teacher, cooperation, equity,
attitudes and task orientation etc.) has a weak relationship with cyberloafing [48].
3.1 Framework methodology
This study aims to build a comprehensive framework on previous research on cyber-
loafing in educational settings by implementing SLR methodology. Limitations have
been reported by prior studies for gender imbalance, self-reporting bias, and research
context. Authors posit the need for gender balance in the sample in future research.
Further, self-reporting measures may not be considered for collection of cyberloaf-
ing data. The context of research should be rich and unlimited to benefit the progress
of undertaken research. Further, distinction between antecedents and consequences on
cyberloafing should be considered in future research.
Conceptualization of cyberloafing in prior research, reflects the issues with regards
to the way the concept of cyberloafing was conceptualized for investigation. For exam-
ple, as general examination, limited sub-dimensions of cyberloafing behaviour and
activities, and failing to explore cyberloafing explicitly [26], [44], [45].
Antecedents. One of the limitations studies referenced in the prior sections reveal
lack of distinction between antecedents and consequences. Antecedents, such as
demographic variables, academic variables, stress, social support and self-regulation
have been studied with relation to cyberloafing. Research has shown that stress and
social support have significant effects on cyberloafing [39]. While perceived social
support has a small though significant effect on cyberloafing, it was found that the
higher the level of stress the higher the level of cyberloafing [39].
Age and gender as demographic variables have been studied in relation to teachers,
who cyberloaf. Young aged teachers show higher levels of cyberloafing behaviour than
older teachers. Further, female teachers show higher levels of cyberloafing behaviour
than male teachers [43].
Academic procrastination and education level, as academic variables have been
studied with relation to cyberloafing behaviour. The findings highlight a conceptual
relation between cyberloafing and academic procrastination and education level of
teachers. Students would give up their academic studies to cyberloaf more. Further,
higher the level of education of teachers the higher the level of cyberloafing [43]. How-
ever, research has shown that self-regulation has no effect on cyberloafing [46]. The
negative effect of self-regulation was not statistically significant [46].
Consequences. The extant literature in this paper showed the positive and negative
consequences of engaging in cyberloafing behaviour in a learning environment. Majority
of the reviewed studies have reported that cyberloafing has a negative effect on the
performance of individuals [3], [38]. Smartphone addiction is one of consequences of
cyberloafing [39], [46]. Gokçearslan et al. find that the level of activities of cyberloafing
increase individuals’ interest towards smartphone addiction.
[45] reported that class engagement was significantly and negatively related to cyber-
loafing attitudes. An engaging lesson would decrease students` capability to cyberloaf.
Cyberloafing is a source of distractions not only for students, but for teachers as well.
The engagement in cyberloafing instead of focusing on learning or teaching, is the
source of distraction. Research has shown that distraction caused by cyberloafing acts
of others have a negative impact on the attitude toward cyberloafing [44]. Distractions
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experienced by cyberloafing acts of others would decrease the perception of cyberloaf-
ing as fun and enjoyable behaviour [44].
On the other hand, cyberloafing has positive outcomes as well. [1] argues that cyber-
loafing by teachers while at work results in an increase of work productivity. This could
be due to their ability to manage stress and balance personal and professional life as
a result of using the web for personal purposes at work. Additionally, such personal
usage of the web also enhances digital literacy of teachers, which could contribute
towards successful integration of technology with teaching and learning in educational
context [1]. Wu et al. [10] report that out-class cyberloafing has a small but significant
positive influence on academic performance. However, they also report that excessive
out-class cyberloafing activities will have a negative impact. This means that cyber-
loafing at work in moderate amounts brings positive outcomes, nonetheless engaging
excessively in cyberloafing may ultimately prove detrimental.
Moderators and mediators. Cognitive absorption, conscientiousness trait,
achievement goal orientation and academic self-efficacy have been studied as
moderators and mediators with relation to cyberloafing.
Research has shown that cognitive absorption and academic self-efficacy were
considered as predictors of cyberloafing [43]. Prasad et al. [41] report that academic
self-efficacy, conscientiousness and achievement orientation moderate the relationship
between self-regulation and cyberloafing. Individuals with high self-efficacy and self
-regulation tend to engage less in cyberloafing. On the other hand, Gerow et al. [8]
found that cognitive absorption mediates the relationship between the ability to multi-
task and intentions to engage in cyberloafing.
Fig. 7. Comprehensive framework
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4 Study implications
This study offers various theoretical and practical implications, which are discussed
in the following sub-sections:
Theoretical implications
SLR methodology adopted is the first attempt at reviewing the phenomenon
of cyberloafing in the context of educational settings. This is vital to research and
analysis since cyberloafing during the teaching and learning process acts as a threat
to achievement of academic goals and successful integration of technology with
education. Moreover, current realization on cyberloafing in educational context is broad,
diverse and fragmented. In this regard, SLR provides comprehensive understanding by
providing information in a concise way on the cyberloafing behaviour. For example,
antecedents, outcomes, role of user characteristics in general and specifically related
to their technology usage and educational status and its conceptualization. Further-
more, it introduces gaps in the current literature concerning cyberloafing, and it also
provides future research directions for researchers. In future, researchers could focus
on cyberloafing behaviour investigation rather than intentions that may be researched
via experimental or log-based study design. SLR provides an integrated framework for
comprehending cyberloafing in an educational context.
Practical implications
The SLR methodology adopted in this study guides to the following three practical
implications.
I. First, it provides insights to educators and policy makers regarding avoiding or
reducing cyberloafing in the teaching and learning environments. It has been found
that increased engagement with technology for educational purposes increases the
tendency to engage in cyberloafing. However, educators and policy makers must
understand that limiting the usage of technology in educational curriculum is not
the right solution. This may refrain the reaping the benefits that integration of tech-
nology with education could offer. Moreover, students’ possession of smartphones
or personal connections to the internet do not let that happen in reality. Hence,
educators should think about other ways to limit sources allowing access to the
internet at ease. For example, role models of students could be established to refer
to and limit the negative consequences of engaging in cyberloafing among the stu-
dents. Furthermore, policy-makers could introduce policies in their curriculum and
educational institutions guidelines that explicitly inform students about the negative
outcomes of engaging in such behaviours. Adoption of such strategies have been
quite useful in controlling ragging in educational institutions in India [51], [52].
II. Second, SLR findings can help teachers in understanding cyberloafing more broadly
and in a concise way. The findings recommend that teachers should bring in changes
in their teaching and learning strategies. For example, informing students about
the importance of taught content, physical monitoring, designing of educational
activities that are gamified; or to engage students and drive them to engage in flow
experience by balancing their skills and level of difficulty tasks etc.
III. Third, findings also assist parents, guardians, therapists and psychologists. For
example, self-regulation has been identified as a useful strategy for controlling
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cyberloafing. In this regard, parents and guardians could help their children to learn
the importance of self-regulation. Furthermore, psychologists and therapists could
help students in learning ways to practice self-regulation skills. Furthermore, par-
ents can also teach their children ethics and their importance in their life. Being
ethically conscious could also help them in refraining from engaging in cyberloaf-
ing. This is especially important since students of today represent the future of the
world and nations. They are future employees and it has already been reported that
cyberloafing by employees leads to great functional as well as financial losses to the
organizations.
5 Limitations
Despite the benefits offered by SLR, it suffers from two limitations.
I. The current review is subjective and qualitative in nature with regards to inclusion
of articles for SLR. This might bring in some bias that could ultimately influence
the findings of the conducted research. This recommends future researchers intend-
ing to conduct SLR in cyberloafing, or in other themes to incorporate quantitative
measures while choosing the articles for inclusion in SLR. For example, they could
use meta-analysis for such purposes. Using a quantitative approach for conducting
review of cyberloafing in the educational domain may also result in some findings
that probably current SLR failed to capture with its current approach.
II. The current research considers understanding cyberloafing among students and
teachers in general. It does not provide specific information on how cyberloaf-
ing varies across students and teachers at school, college or university level. Such
information could highlight the need for usage of different strategies especially for
students depending on the severity level across all three formal stages of educa-
tion. The future research could focus on spotting such differences so that appropri-
ate actions could be taken to curb the situation and assist the students as early as
possible.
6 Conclusion
This study employed Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology for review-
ing 26 articles and provided a detailed description of: (i) research profile of existing
cyberloafing research; (ii) key themes covered by extant research; (iii) provision of
future recommendations for research based on the examination of findings, impli-
cations, limitations and future research directions; and (iv) proposing an integrated
framework for reference of future researchers. The study focussed on the concept of
cyberloafing that emerges as a huge barrier to the success of achieving academic goals,
as set out for the students and teachers. Cyberloafing poses a threat to the successful
integration of technology in educational settings. The findings of this study offer sev-
eral theoretical and practical implications of research on cyberloafing. Investigation
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on cyberloafing in educational context is still in the infancy stage, in addition to being
a broad and fragmented concept. The educational environments demand an in-depth
understanding and comprehension of the issue of cyberloafing.
7 Acknowledgment
This research project was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Princess
Nourah bint Abdulrahman University.
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
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Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
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A
1.
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ri
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lo
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et
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gs
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on
tin
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d)
138 http://www.i-jim.org
Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
B
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– (C
on
tin
ue
d)
iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 16, 2022 139
Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
A
ut
ho
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&
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an
ov
a,
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is
em
pi
ri
ca
lly
b
as
ed
pr
ed
ic
ta
bl
e
m
od
el
o
f
pr
ob
le
m
at
ic
in
te
rn
et
us
e.
–
–
Ta
bl
e
A
1.
P
ri
or
li
te
ra
tu
re
o
n
C
yb
er
lo
afi
ng
in
e
du
ca
tio
na
l s
et
tin
gs
(C
on
tin
ue
d)
140 http://www.i-jim.org
Paper—Cyberloafing in Educational Settings: A Systematic Literature Review
10 Authors
Suzan Alyahya (PhD) is an Assistant Professor at Princess Nourah Graphic Design
and Digital Media School, in Saudi Arabia. She completed the PhD degree in Visual
Literacy/ Infographic at the University of Northern Colorado in 2014, and Master’s
degree in Art education from King Saud University in 2005. In 1999, she joined the
faculty of Art and Design at Princess Nourah University. Her research interests relate to
information visualization, Infographics, eye tracking technology, instructional design
and visual learning, and human computer interaction (email: smalyahya@pnu.edu.sa).
Azizah Alqahtani (PhD) is an Assistant Professor in Cross-Cultural Psychology at
Princess Nourah Psychology School, in Saudi Arabia. She completed the PhD degree
in Psychology at the University of Plymouth in July 2018, and Master’s degree in
Cross-Cultural Psychology from Brunel University in 2009. In 2011, she joined the
faculty of Psychology at Princess Nourah University. Dr Alqahtani`s research focuses
on the morality field and cyberpsychology across cultures (email: amalqahtani@pnu.
edu.sa).
Article submitted 2022-05-07. Resubmitted 2022-06-18. Final acceptance 2022-07-03. Final version
published as submitted by the authors.
iJIM ‒ Vol. 16, No. 16, 2022 141
mailto:smalyahya@pnu.edu.sa
mailto:amalqahtani@pnu.edu.sa
mailto:amalqahtani@pnu.edu.sa