_______________________________________________ International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2022 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v3i2.15613 The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity Mahadewi Laksmidara, Fuad Nashori* Universitas Islam Indonesia, Indonesia *Corresponding email: fuadnashori@uii.ac.id Citation: Laksmidara, M. & Nashori, F. (2022). The state of loneliness among migrating students: The effect of psychological well-being and religiosity. International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 172-187. http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v3i2.15613 A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article History Received : 06/09/2022 Revised : 28/11/2022 Accepted : 06/12/2022 Being separated from their parents causes many migrating students to experience loneliness, not to mention their age range is prone to it. Therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of psychological well-being and religiosity on loneliness and isolation in migrating students using ex post facto quantitative research methods. Respondents to this study were active 213 migrating students in several universities in Yogyakarta Special Religion, Indonesia. Their ages ranged from 18 to 24 years old. The measuring instruments used were UCLA Loneliness version 3 (α 0.942), the Psychological Well- being Scale (α 0.776), and The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (α) 0.876). The data analysis technique used was multiple regression. The results indicated a significant negative effect of psychological well-being on loneliness and no significant negative impact of religiosity on loneliness in migrating students. Psychological well-being and religiosity contributed 58.2% to influencing the loneliness variable. The main conclusion this study is psychological well-being makes migrating students experience less loneliness when they are far away from their hometowns. Keywords: Loneliness, Migrating Students, Psychological Well-being, Religiosity Copyright © 2022 IJIEP This work is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 International license. http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v3i2.15613 mailto:fuadnashori@uii.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v3i2.15613 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 173 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 INTRODUCTION Individual interactions occur in various contexts, such as family, peers, or organizations. Interaction with family is considered the most important. Even so, certain circumstances prevent individuals from having high-frequency and quality interactions. One reason is that individuals, in this case, students, undergo higher education by migrating outside their area. By migrating, they have to live away from home or family for a relatively uncertain period to complete their education. They are usually called migrating students. The Ministry of Education and Culture (Halim & Dariyo, 2016) defined them as students who migrate to study at tertiary institutions outside their area. Students choose to go abroad due to the uneven education quality in various Indonesian regions. After all, higher education institutions with good quality are only concentrated in a few areas, especially Java. Irawati (2013) confirmed that one of the reasons students migrate is to obtain an adequate education. Another reason is to gain experience and challenges. Living away from parents is seen as a means of increasing independence. Living overseas allows individuals to gain experience in intercultural interactions, which can increase intercultural sensitivity. According to Sholik et al. (2016), wandering is an individual's departure from the place of origin where the individual grew up to another area to live life or seek experience. Furthermore, migrating students will leave their hometowns to live their own life without any family beside them (Fauzia et al., 2021). In this study, students are said to migrate while studying in another province. Ideally, even though they are away from home, students can still make good adjustments. They are expected to mingle immediately with their friends and carry out their college assignments well (Nashori, 2010). In reality, being away from home and being separated from family and friends can be, for most people, the cause of their loneliness. Nurlayli and Hidayati (2014) found that 40 out of 50 students who lived separately from their families felt lonely. Saputri et al. (2012) also found that 60% of 30 overseas students aged 18-21 from Bangka experienced loneliness in the high category. In 2018, the Australian Psychological Society and Swinburne University of Technology revealed that ages 18-25 are the most often experiencing loneliness. In the early stages of moving to overseas areas, students experience problems of discomfort in their new environment, which can affect them physically and emotionally as a reaction to moving to a new environment (Devinta et al., 2015). According to Halim and Dariyo (2016), loneliness is one of the effects of migrating. Migrating students experience loneliness because of various transitions in their lives, namely being away from their families, taking higher education, living in a new society, and having different expectations. Aspects of loneliness itself, according to Russel (1996), include loneliness trait (lonely experienced by individuals because of the individual's personality, namely having less self-confidence and having a fear of strangers), social desirability Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 174 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 (events where individuals experience loneliness because individuals do not get the desired social life in his life or environment), and depression (events where individuals experience loneliness because there are disturbing feelings such as feeling depressed, sad, unenthusiastic, feeling worthless and focusing on the failures that the individual is experiencing). Loneliness is an individual's reaction when they do not get social relationships or the relationships they have are unfamiliar or not following what they want. In general, loneliness is a condition that arises when individuals feel a lack of close relationships with other people, so they cannot meet the need for intimacy. Cacioppo and Cacioppo (2014) stated that loneliness could interfere with physical, cognitive, and mental well-being. Prasetio et al. (2019) also noted that loneliness in new students could present symptoms of emotional and mental disorders. Richard et al. (2017) showed that loneliness could be a factor in depression, so if the loneliness felt by an individual is greater, it can lead to depression. Richard et al. (2017) also revealed that individuals who experienced loneliness within the limits specified in the study reported chronic disease more often than individuals who did not. Matthews et al. (2016) explained that individuals with early adulthood are more likely to experience loneliness. When individuals experience loneliness, as revealed by Agarwal et al. (2014), what happens is that individuals experience low self-esteem, excessive shame, and a low ability to adapt to social environments. Those in emerging adulthood especially experience the risk of loneliness. Luning and Pijpers (2017) found that college students have a fairly high risk of experiencing loneliness due to increased social demands and feelings of homesickness. Individuals who experience loneliness negatively view themselves, others, and their environment. They also have low self-esteem and are pessimistic, helpless, disliked, and unappreciated. In addition, it has a deficiency in social skills. Miller et al. (2007) stated that loneliness occurs due to various factors. One important factor is inadequate individual social relations. Here the individual shows a negative attitude toward others. Individuals are also not skilled in establishing social relationships. Heinrich and Gullone (2006) said that in humans, there is a need to belong to a certain group. If this need for affiliation is not met, feelings of loneliness will arise, affecting mental health and psychological well-being. Psychological well-being is one of the important factors that influence low loneliness. Opree et al. (2018) stated that psychological well-being is an individual's ability and evidence of the individual's potential in the long term. According to Ryff (2013), psychological well-being has six dimensions, namely environmental mastery (competence in managing the environment, setting up complex controls on external activities, using opportunities effectively, being able to choose, and creating contexts that suit individual needs and values. Personal growth (a feeling of being able to go through stages of development, Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 175 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 being open to new experiences, being aware of one's potential, and making improvements to one's life at any time), purpose in life (beliefs that give a feeling that there is purpose and meaning in his life, whether from the past or currently living), self-acceptance (recognizing and accepting various positive and negative aspects of himself, and positive feelings about past lives), autonomy (skills in making his own and independent decisions, being able to resist pressure social in thinking and behaving with good efforts, behaving according to standards the value of the individual, and evaluate themselves with personal standards), and positive relations with other (individual skills in carrying out intimate interpersonal relationships and trust each other). Halim and Dariyo (2016) showed that psychological well-being could predict loneliness. Individuals who have good psychological well-being can create a positive and balanced life. Halim and Dariyo's research was conducted on students from various regions studying in Jakarta. In contrast to students from Jakarta, who have a more individualistic socio-cultural setting, this research was conducted in Yogyakarta, which has a Javanese socio-cultural background. As is known, Javanese culture is known as a culture that upholds hospitality and places great importance on harmony. It is interesting to know whether students who study in cities with a lonely-friendly cultural setting are also influenced by their psychological well-being. Subsequent empirical findings in different locations, as presented by Ergin et al. (2022), Ntozini and Abdullahi (2021), and Rantepadang and Gery (2020) show that the higher the psychological well-being of an individual, the lower the loneliness of the individual. Besides psychological well-being, religiosity also influences loneliness (Rahmi et al., 2015; Upenieks, 2022). Religiosity plays a major role in individual life. Religiosity can provide hope when individuals are hopeless. According to Ancok and Suroso (2018), religiosity is based on various dimensions of ritual or worship behavior and other activities motivated by supernatural powers. Furthermore, Huber and Huber (2012) divide the aspect of religiosity into five different elements, namely: a) Intellectual or general knowledge (individual's broad knowledge of their religion, where individuals can explain their views on God, religion, and religion), ideology (individual beliefs relating to the existence and meaning of life, as well as the relationship between God and humans), public practice (worship performed by individuals and manifested in their participation in rituals, ceremonies, and religious activities), private practice (worship executed by individuals by demonstrating in devoting themselves to God in activities, worship, and ways that are carried out alone), and religious experience (the experience of individual direct contact with God, where the incident affects the individual emotionally). Pratiwi and Mashoedi's (2011) research on first-year students showed that the higher the religiosity, the lower the feeling of loneliness. Rahmi et al. (2015) and Upenieks's (2022) studies on elderly subjects proved a negative and significant relationship between religiosity and loneliness. The more religious the individual Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 176 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 is, the lower the level of loneliness that individual has. The difference between this research and the studies above is the setting of migrating students. In contrast, Pratiwi and Mashoedi (2011) used first-year students, Rahmi et al. (2015) studied elderly subjects, and Upenieks' (2022) research used later laide respondents. It is interesting to study whether the results of this study will be the same or different from previous studies. Thus, this study aims to determine whether psychological well-being and religiosity affect loneliness in students studying in Yogyakarta who migrate. METHODS Research Design This study implemented an ex post facto design, a research conducted to examine the facts that have occurred and then make retrospective observations about the factors that can cause these events to arise. This research was not done using manipulation as is usually done in experimental research. Research Subject The subjects in this study were 213 active migrating students in several universities in Yogyakarta Special Religion. The criteria were active students, coming from outside the Special Region of Yogyakarta, aged 18-24, and not living with their parents, meaning the subject lived in Yogyakarta alone, such as in boarding houses or dormitories. The selection of ages 18-24 in this study was since age 18 is the initial age for subjects entering college, while 24 is the normal age for graduating. Data Collection Method The data collection method is a step taken by researchers in collecting data (Arikunto, 2010). Data was collected using the loneliness scale, the psychological well-being scale, and the religiosity scale. The Loneliness Scale used in this study aimed to determine the loneliness level felt by migrating students. The measuring instrument used was UCLA Loneliness 3, designed by Russell (1996) and adapted by researchers by translating English into Indonesian. The aspects of loneliness revealed in this study include personality, social desirability, and depression. Examples of two items used are "I feel that I am often left out" and "I feel that I feel distant from people." The assessment is very appropriate (5 points), appropriate (4), neutral (3), not suitable (2), and very inappropriate (1) for favorable items. The results showed that 20 items on the loneliness scale passed. The item-total correlation coefficient showed a value of 0.401 – 0.796, and Cronbach's alpha (α) coefficient is 0.942. The researchers modified the Psychological Wellbeing Scale compiled by Ryff and Singer (2008). Its aspects include self-acceptance, positive relationships with others, autonomy, having a purpose in life, personal growth, and mastery of the Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 177 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 environment. Examples of items used are "In general, I feel responsible for the situation in which I live" and "I am good at managing responsibilities in everyday life." The assessment is very appropriate (5 points), appropriate (4), neutral (3), not suitable (2), and very inappropriate (1) for favorable items. The analysis of the psychological well-being scale showed that out of 18 items, 7 were declared invalid because they had a corrected item-total correlation of less than 0.30. Of the 11 items that passed, the item-total correlation coefficient was obtained from 0.301 to 0.639, and the coefficient value of Cronbach's alpha (α) was 0.776. The Religiosity Scale determined the level of religiosity of migrating students. This study used The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS) created by Huber and Huber (2012). The aspects measured through the religiosity scale were intellectual, ideological, worship practices, public practices, and religious experience. This religiosity scale was compiled using the Likert scale model. Research items include "I am interested in learning more about religion" and "I think participating in religious services is important." The assessment is very appropriate (5 points), appropriate (4), neutral (3), not suitable (2), and very inappropriate (1) for favorable items. The results of the religiosity scale analysis showed 15 items. One item was declared invalid because it had a corrected item- total correlation coefficient of less than 0.30. After item number 7 was deleted and 14 items remained, the item-total correlation coefficient was 0.395 – 0.695, and Cronbach's alpha (α) coefficient was 0.876. Data Analysis Method The data analysis method used in processing the data in this study was a quantitative analysis using statistical techniques of multiple linear regression analysis. This analysis technique was used to see if there was a relationship between several variables, and then a different test was carried out to see if there was an effect. The multiple linear regression analysis techniques is the dependent variable with one or more independent variables to predict the population mean or the dependent variable's average value based on the independent variable's value. Assumption tests were carried out by linearity tests, normality tests, multicollinearity tests, and heteroscedasticity tests (Purbani & Santoso, 2013). The analysis was carried out with the help of the SPSS (Statistic Product and Service Solution) version of IBM SPSS Statistics 2.3. for the windows evaluation version. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Result The following is the result of multiple linear regression analysis. The analysis includes the coefficient of determination test, partial t-test, and simultaneous F- test. The coefficient of determination test aims to determine how far the model's ability to explain variations in the dependent variable is. The test results for the coefficient of determination have values ranging between zero and one. If the value is close to one, the independent variable provides almost all the Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 178 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 information needed to predict the variation of the dependent variable. Conversely, if it has a value close to 0, then the model's ability to explain the variable is very limited. Table 1. Determination Coefficient Test Results Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 0.763 0.582 0.578 10.69362 Table 1 shows that the coefficient value is close to 1 of 0.763, meaning that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is 76.3%. While the value of the coefficient of determination 1 is 0.582, meaning that the contribution or contribution of psychological well-being and religiosity to loneliness is 58.2%. The remaining 41.8% comes from other variables not measured in this study. The partial t-test in this study aims to test whether the independent variables partially or individually affect the dependent variable. The partial t-test has a sig value <0.05, so the independent variables significantly affect the dependent variable. Meanwhile, if it has a sig value > 0.05, the independent variable has no significant effect on the dependent variable. Table 2. Partial T-Test Results Variable B (Coefficient) Beta Sig Description Psychological Well-being -0.735 -14.865 0.000 Accepted Religiosity -0.060 -1.218 0.224 Not Accepted Table 2, in the partial t-test, shows that the psychological well-being variable has a significant value of 0.000 (P <0.05), the value is -14.865 (1.652142>). Hence, psychological well-being partially has a negative and significant effect on loneliness. At the same time, the religiosity variable has an important value of 0.224 (p <0.05) and a value of -1.218 (1.652142 > p). Hence, religiosity does not negatively and significantly affect loneliness. The simultaneous F-test in this study aims to determine whether or not an accompanying effect is given to the dependent variable to the independent variable. The simultaneous F-test has the following criteria. If the significance value is <0.05, then there is a simultaneous influence of the dependent variable on the independent variable. Meanwhile, if the data obtains a significance value of > 0.05, the dependent variable does not affect the independent variable. In addition, the value of the simultaneous f test can also be known by comparing the value with the value. Value is determined by the statistical table, namely significance 0.05, value = (k-1) and value = (n-k), and k is the sum of the number Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 179 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 of independent and dependent variables. At the same time, n is the number of respondents. Table 3. Simultaneous F-Test Results Model Sun of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 33425.723 2 16712.862 146.151 0.000 Residual Total 24014.230 57439.953 210 212 114.353 Based on Table 3 above, the Simultaneous F-test in this study has a significant value of 0.000 (p = <0.05). Psychological well-being and religiosity simultaneously or jointly affect loneliness in students migrating. Based on the results of hypothesis testing, the partial t-test shows a significant negative relationship between psychological well-being and loneliness among students who migrated. Hence, the first hypothesis in this study is accepted. Meanwhile, the partial t-test conducted on religiosity and loneliness shows that religiosity partially does not negatively affect loneliness. Hence, the second hypothesis in this study is rejected. Furthermore, the simultaneous F-test found that the results of psychological well-being and religiosity simultaneously or jointly affect loneliness in students who migrate. Hence, the third hypothesis in this study is accepted. In this study, additional analysis was carried out, namely the aspect correlation and difference tests. The aspect correlation test in this study aims to determine whether the aspects in the independent variable, namely psychological well- being, influence the dependent variable or loneliness. The correlation test in this research can be correlated if it has a significance value (p) <0.05. It is considered uncorrelated if it has a significance value (p) > 0.05. The level of attachment to the relationship between variables can be seen from the correlation coefficient (r) value. The following are the results of the aspect correlation test on the independent variables with the dependent variable. Table 4. Correlation Test Results of Aspects of Psychological Well-Being and Loneliness Variable Correlation coefficient (r) Significance (p) Description Self-acceptance with loneliness -0.689 0.000 Correlated Positive relationship with loneliness -0.715 0.000 Correlated Independence with loneliness -0.503 0.000 Correlated Environmental mastery with loneliness -0.187 0.006 Correlated The purpose of living with loneliness -0.289 0.000 Correlated Personal development with loneliness -0.432 0.000 Correlated Table 4 shows that the correlation test results with aspects of self-acceptance with loneliness are negatively correlated, indicated by the acquisition of a value of 0.000 (p <0.05) and a correlation coefficient (r) of -0.689. Then the aspect of the Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 180 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 positive relationship with loneliness has a negative correlation, indicated by the acquisition of a value of 0.000 (p <0.05) and a correlation coefficient (r) of -0.715. Furthermore, the aspect of independence and loneliness has a negative correlation, indicated by the acquisition of 0.000 (p <0.05) and a coefficient value of -0.503. Then on the aspect of environmental mastery with loneliness, there is a negative correlation, indicated by the acquisition of a value of 0.006 (p <0.05) and a coefficient value of -0.187. Aspects of life goals with loneliness have a negative correlation, indicated by the acquisition of a value of 0.000 (p <0.05) and a coefficient value of -0.289. After that, there is a negative correlation in personal development with loneliness, indicated by the acquisition of 0.000 (p <0.05) and a coefficient value of -0.432. Discussion Based on the results, psychological well-being significantly affected loneliness in college students, aligning with studies that several experts have conducted. Therefore, this study supports the research's theory and results that psychological well-being affects loneliness. Halim and Dariyono (2016), Rantepadang and Gery (2020), Simanjuntak et al. (2021), Ntozini and Abdullahi (2021), and Ergin et al. (2021) showed a significant negative relationship between psychological well-being and loneliness. These studies were conducted on overseas students (Rantepadang & Gery, 2020; Halim & Dariyo, 2016) and students in general (Simanjuntak et al., 2021); elderly (Ergin et al., 2022; Ntozini & Abdullahi, 2021). The results of this study and some of the studies above further confirmed n effect of subjective well-being on loneliness. The higher the psychological well-being of an individual, the lower the perceived loneliness. If the individual has low psychological well-being, the loneliness that the individual feels will be high. The correlation test results determined the effect of each aspect of psychological well-being on loneliness. The results showed that all aspects of psychological well-being had a negative and significant correlation with loneliness. Positive relationships or relations with others had the highest value on psychological well-being. These findings indicated that positive relationships with others played the most important role in reducing loneliness among overseas students. Simanjuntak et al. (2021) found that positive relationships with others were the strongest aspect contributing to reducing loneliness. Myers (2010) states that loneliness is a condition in which social relations are less meaningful than expected. Therefore, overseas students do not have positive relationships with other people because social relations are meaningless. Overseas students who have highly positive relationships with other people can reduce feelings of the loneliness felt by individuals. The self-acceptance aspect of psychological well-being also had a negative and significant correlation with loneliness. Kong et al. (2021) revealed that college students had a negative relationship between self-acceptance and loneliness. Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 181 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 According to Kong et al. (2021), individuals who have positive self-acceptance will have realistic expectations of their situation, respect themselves, and be able to improve themselves compared to individuals who have low self-acceptance will range from feeling lonely. The next aspect of psychological well-being, independence, is also negatively and significantly correlated with loneliness. Independence is an individual's skill in making decisions, being independent, and resisting social pressure in thinking and behaving. Henning et al. (2021) revealed that the higher the independence, the lower the loneliness. Furthermore, on the aspect of environmental mastery with loneliness, environmental mastery had a negative and significant correlation. Stickley et al. (2013) stated that individuals competent in mastering the environment experience considerable loneliness. Aspects of life goals and loneliness had a negative and significant correlation. The purpose of life can guide individuals in choosing a place to live, support environmental mastery, and build relationships with people (Ryff, 2013). Neville et al. (2018) showed that life goals were negatively correlated with loneliness. The aspect of personal development with loneliness also had a negative and significant correlation. According to Compton and Hoffman (2013), self- development is an individual's ability to explore one's potential and develop it and individual openness in dealing with new experiences. If the individual has a large aspect of personal development, he does not experience loneliness. In addition, the results of this study indicated no correlation between religiosity and loneliness. The results of this study are not in line with the research of Pratiwi and Mashoedi (2011), Ismail and Soha (2012), Rahmi et al. (2015), and Upinieks (2022) found that religiosity is negatively related to loneliness among students who migrate. Even so, the results of this study support the results of research by Purwono and French (2016), showing no relationship between religiosity and loneliness. The results of this study and several previous studies showed no consistency in the results of empirical research that religiosity influences loneliness. The inconsistent results of this study indicated that the religiosity factor was not essential and influenced the low level of loneliness in early adulthood. Then on the three variables in the sex group, there was no significant difference based on the sex group. Febriani (2021) revealed differences in loneliness in terms of gender. However, Fikrie et al. (2019) found no significant difference in loneliness based on gender. Furthermore, in the well-being variable based on gender groups in Izzati and Mulyana's (2021) study, there are differences in psychological well-being between men and women. Then, Ramadhani et al. (2016) found no significant differences in psychological well-being based on gender. Then, on the religiosity variable based on gender group. Ismail (2009) showed significant differences between men and women in religiosity. In this Laksmidara & Nashori | The State of Loneliness among Migrating Students: The Effect of Psychological Well-Being and Religiosity 182 International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 3(2), 2022 study, women had a higher level of religiosity than men. Then Supriyadi et al. (2021) found no significant difference in religiosity based on gender. Overall, in this study, there were deficiencies during the research. The drawback was that data collection was carried out online, thus making researchers unable to directly supervise respondents in filling out the questionnaire. This issue allowed respondents to fill out the questionnaire in earnest. Then, in a sample that was not representative of gender, there were more female subjects than male subjects. In addition, the items used were favorable in the third variable, allowing respondents to carry out social desirability. Then, researchers also did not carry out social desirability control on the measuring instruments used. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results, psychological well-being negatively and significantly affected loneliness among migrating students. That is, the higher the psychological well-being possessed by migrating students, the lower the loneliness. Religiosity did not affect loneliness. Furthermore, psychological well-being and religiosity simultaneously affected loneliness in migrating students. The higher the psychological well-being and religiosity possessed by migrating students, the lower the loneliness. There are numerous implications of this research. First, it is important to optimize migrating students’ well-being in order to prevent them from experiencing loneliness. 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