Microsoft Word - 1031_Irka Wijaya (1-16) Available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijmesh International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH) ISSN 2580-0981 (online) Volume 5 Number 2 (2022): 1-16 Corresponding author First author, irka_wijaya@sbm-itb.ac.id DOI: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijmesh.v5i2.1013 Research Synergy Foundation Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya1, Angga Wisesa2 1,2 School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Abstract Patriarchal culture puts women into challenging situations where they are expected to maintain role duality, balancing gender role expectations of a mother and professional work. Women, especially working mothers, overcome this by shaping their leadership style based on their acquired motherhood parenting style. Their nurturing, empowerment, empathy, and understanding may answer millennials' expectations of ideal leaders to prepare them as future leaders. Leadership influences multiple levels of an organization and performance, enabling millennials as the biggest yet most influential working cohort might be the key to achieving a high-performance state in the current dynamic yet challenging economic landscape. This paper aims to discuss how motherhood shapes leadership characteristics in working mothers, which supports millennials in enabling high- performance organizations. Based on the critical reflection selected for this study, the reflected motherhood into leadership style may be beneficial to fill the demand created by millennials to support their individual contribution, which in the end, shapes organizational culture and enables high-performance organizations. Keywords: Leadership; Millennials; Motherhood; Mentoring; Patriarchal Culture This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC license. INTRODUCTION Leadership has always been described mainly from men's point of view. Back into one of the first leadership theories, where at the time, women were not regarded as leaders in any manner. The characteristics that define successful leaders are described in masculine terms (Jogulu & Wood, 2006). Even in the modern era, gender bias still happens, with the stereotypical leaders being men over women. In other words, men are preferred as the prototypical leader (Hudson et al., 2020), despite highlighting these stereotypes as a different leadership style than men’s (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). This leads to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions (Bosak & Sczesny, 2011), inquiring whether the development of modern leadership theories is still being centered around men. In spite of the fact that women enter the profession and hold leadership positions does not mean they do not face hurdles along the way (OECD, 2020), especially when compared to men. Eagly and Carli (2007) introduced the concept of the labyrinth of leadership, pointing out five walls limiting women's obstacles in their professional journey. It ranges from harmful prejudices, constant comparison of women’s leadership to men, doubt about women’s leadership style, pressure from domestic life, and inadequate social capital investment. Taking the example of International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa 2 │ ISSN 2580-0981 (online) marriage and parenthood, which are pictured as beneficial for men, not for women. Women's compassion toward others is not considered an effective leadership characteristic, not as men's affirmativeness and control. This forces women to possess both characteristics but not leave their stereotypical compassion. In terms of leadership style, women's leadership style or even the application of theoretical leadership are always being evaluated by men (Bass, 1999; Eagly & Johnson, 1990). The emergence of women leaders, or even mother leaders, brings new dynamics to organizations with their role duality due to expected gender roles (Buzzanell et al., 2005; Gatrell et al., 2017). Motherhood shapes and amplifies leadership possessed by mother leaders, emphasizing nurturing, empathy, understanding, and empowerment (Lämsä & Piilola, 2015; Ngunjiri, 2009). Nurturing is usually associated with mentorship, where it requires the mentor to understand the mentee’s perception by empathizing with them (Portman & Garrett, 2005), thus raising the perception of parenthood in the mentor role relationship (Ragins & McFarlin, 1990). Empowerment in the leadership context is about power and authority distribution, like involvement, information sharing, and development (Liu, 2015). These characteristics are connected to millennials’ demand for the workplace of participative mentorship with a parenting nature, where their demands have become essential to be studied due to their significant role in organizational performance (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & de Charon, 2014; Manuaba & Darma, 2021; Nolan, 2015). Hence, putting a notion that the leadership characteristics possessed by working mothers support millennials while balancing their role duality, especially in a patriarchal culture. The rise of the millennial workforce and women's leadership in the workplace coincided with the dynamic yet fiercely competitive economic landscape. In order to maintain high performance as the answer to staying competitive in this challenging landscape, organizational agility is introduced as making swift adjustments to the business core to adapt to the market landscape (Ehioboro, 2020; Harraf et al., 2015). Organizational agility is composed of three aspects: strategic, operational, and leadership agility (Joiner, 2019). The latter, focusing on the people aspect, plays a crucial part as it drives both the strategic and operational agility plus the continual process of learning and adapting to the changes in an agility manner (Crocitto & Youssef, 2003; Joiner, 2019). Incorporating the present organizational mix is necessary since the people aspect cannot be understated in pursuing organizational agility. This means women's leadership (along with their role duality) and the millennial workforce should be incorporated into the strategy to achieve the rank of high-performance organizations. Therefore, this paper aims to discuss how motherhood shapes leadership characteristics in working mothers, which supports millennials in enabling high- performance organizations. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. Enabling High-Performance Organization Through Leadership Organizations are now living in a fast-changing economic environment with the impact of globalization, increase in competitiveness, shifting in customers' demand, and the presence of technology. To stay afloat among competitors, the concept of an agile organization, change management, and continuous improvement are often correlated with high-performance organizations (Holbeche, 2005; Khan et al., 2019; Sanatigar et al., 2017; Wanasida et al., 2021). International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa │ 3 ISSN 2580-0981 (online) Several factors might lead to change management failure, one of them being human capital reactions to the change (Baškarada & Koronios, 2017; Holten et al., 2020). Leadership might obviate this possibility by determining the followers’ opinion towards the change (Holbeche, 2005; Holten et al., 2020). Treating people with respect and trust, coaching and facilitating successors, and allowing error to induce learning are also several leadership applications in enabling high- performance organizations (de Waal, 2007; Lacy et al., 2009; Rogers & Blenko, 2015). Leadership importance should be emphasized in promoting organizational agility and high- performance organization. Aside from discussed leadership practices in managing change, different aspects of leadership are proven to influence multilevel performance in an organization (Chen et al., 2005). On top of that, when evaluating an organization's performance from a strategic perspective, the structure's significance is essential (Hoyte et al., 2010). Leadership may promote individual performance, which later contributes to the team and organizational performance (Habeeb, 2020; Hoyte et al., 2010). Ensuring competency among individuals (de Waal, 2007) and team cohesion (Richardson & Denton, 2005) are examples of how leadership may contribute to performance. Thus, where leadership contributes at every level of the business, its importance in fostering high-performance organizations cannot be overstated. In terms of influencing organizational performance, leadership can be mediated by organizational culture. Leaders influence the organizational culture, as organizations are not formed with certain goals and purposes that can only be achieved by coordinated and concerted group effort. This is where the leaders impose their values and belief on organizational cultures (Schein, 2004). Leaders typically have a direct and personal interaction with most organizational levels and play a critical role in developing and reshaping strategy, dominating decision-making, and setting the organizational atmosphere (Miller & Dröge, 1986). On the other hand, organizational culture also shapes what leaders should do (House et al., 1999) and creates future leaders (Kargas & Varoutas, 2015). Influenced organizational culture may impact various processes and employees when in the end, influencing organizational performance. Regarding employees, organizational culture may drive commitment and value adherence in achieving collective organizational goals (Shahzad et al., 2012). 2. Where are the Women in the Evolution of Leadership Theories The focus of leadership has altered over time and is an advancement from the previous era (refer to appendix). In the personality era, synthesizing the best leadership traits was not fruitful, as the traits were too specific to be generalized, and hard to find someone who possessed all qualities (King, 1990; Greenwood, 1996). The behavioral era took two different approaches. The earlier was expanding the concept of the personality era. The latter focused on the followers' aspect with Theories X and Y. The pinpoint to the leader was more vital in contingency and situational eras. Leaders are expected to be highly adaptive and identify the environment and the followers' needs to create the optimal setting (Badshah, 2012; Hunt & Fedynich, 2019). The dynamic in leadership has developed many leadership theories in the modern era, such as leader-member exchange (LMX), which emphasizes the relationship among parties (Mcclane et al., 1991) or servant leadership’s concentration on serving the follower and prioritizing their development (Northouse, International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa 4 │ ISSN 2580-0981 (online) 2016; Washington et al., 2014). The silver lining of all the theories is the burden on the leaders on their capability to be highly adaptive and identify which factors will yield the best result. Leadership theories have been evolving for the past 100 years but are still centered on men who are prominent and preferred leaders (Hudson et al., 2020). It can argue that three inter lapping factors cause this: (1) stereotypical gender characteristics that put women as subjugated to men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Risse et al., 2018; Schaefer, 2016); (2) expected gender roles of motherhood (Anggahegari & Lantu, 2014; Benard & Correll, 2010); and (3) underrepresentation of women in leadership positions (Bosak & Sczesny, 2011). These phenomena can be exacerbated in a patriarchal culture that correlates with unequal power relations between genders where men as the dominant and portrays women's subjugation to men (Murtiningsih et al., 2017; Stopler, 2008). Patriarchal culture’s translation in leadership language is when characteristics associated with men are considered more appreciated and thriving in the workplace (Schaefer, 2016). Several dimensions are used to describe this notion: (1) compassion vs. affirmativeness, where women are expected to display both and still being considered not adequate for leadership positions (Eagly & Johnson, 1990); and (2) Big Five personality, where men have higher psychological qualities that drive them to higher success and pay (Risse et al., 2018). On top of that, in a patriarchal culture, idolized figure of a woman is a perfect wife and mother (Anggahegari & Lantu, 2014). This puts the women in challenging situations, balancing or even positioning themselves in socially constructed gender roles, both in professional work and their position in their families. This might lead to disadvantages for women in the labor market or even leave their professional careers, known as the motherhood penalty (Benard & Correll, 2010). Therefore, these result in the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions (Bosak & Sczesny, 2011), wherein the end in leadership theories development. With the rapid leadership theories development, organization leaders must be selective in choosing leadership theory to be adopted as it may determine their organizational performance. Adopting appropriate leadership may support the performance, and adopting inappropriate one may result otherwise (Guardia, 2007). The trend of leadership theory's evolution has shown that leadership is complex and structured from several dimensions, such as leader, follower, and context. As a result, new leadership theories were born in an effort to address the dynamic change in organizations and market landscapes (Benmira & Agboola, 2021). Thus, women's underrepresentation in leadership theories development should be reviewed to enrich the leadership body of knowledge, adapt to new dynamics in constantly changing environments, and ultimately achieve a high-performance organization state. 3. The Lore of Maternal Instinct and Innate Motherhood Instinct is very identic with naturality, as it is typically described as the ability to operate in such a way as to achieve specific goals without foreknowledge of the purposes or prior training (James, 1992). However, many scholars have argued that maternal instinct is a myth, and it is constructed during the experience of becoming a mother (Lindberg, 2020; Smart, 1996; Thomas, 2014). As motherhood itself is an expression of maternal instinct (Smart, 1996), this is in keeping with the fact that motherhood is not a natural trait in women (Cowdery & Knudson-Martin, 2005; Røseth et al., 2018; Thomas, 2014), where different people may have different understanding of the concept of motherhood. Let alone many factors have been identified for strengthening the notion International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa │ 5 ISSN 2580-0981 (online) of why motherhood is not a natural trait for women based on their socio-demographic characteristics (Bermúdez et al., 2014; Hare-Mustin & Broderick, 1979; McQuillan et al., 2008) and family influences (Bermúdez et al., 2014). Another finding where the studies conducted by Lansford et al. (2021) and Senese et al. (2012) is that motherhood interpretation in national cultures and identities are different, driven by several aspects of socio-demographic characteristics. National culture's interpretation of motherhood is influenced by education, religion, and employment, using several indicators such as individualism, collectivism, progressive attitude, and authoritarian attitude (Lansford et al., 2021). For example, women's participation in higher education and the labor market has been connected to declining authoritarian parenting views. In contrast, as the mothers value religion more, their progressive parenting views are falling. This notion is supported by a study comparing U.S. and Italian mothers, with the main finding of different cultures evaluating parental stimulation and its importance for child development differently (Senese et al., 2012). Education's relations to gender-role attitude become the justification for education shapes the motherhood concept, especially on sex and reproduction, closely related to religion and religiosity. Higher-educated individuals may perceive motherhood as more liberal and egalitarian, in contrast to the perfect altruism of a mother (Hare-Mustin & Broderick, 1979). Age, marital status, and child status also correlate in shaping motherhood. The older generation may have experience and, therefore, different perspectives on marriage and motherhood. Married individuals' perceptions are similar to highly educated individuals, more liberal, and egalitarian (Hare-Mustin & Broderick, 1979). Of course, women who are already mothers perceive motherhood as more critical than non-mothers (McQuillan et al., 2008). Bermúdez et al. (2014) researched Hispanic/Latino parenting styles and found that Hispanic mothers' parenting styles reflect their values, such as respect, sympathy, familism, and personalism. Another important finding is that based on their childhood experience, women may transform that into their motherhood style. 4. Millennials, The Current Workforce Generation Even though the popular concept of generations is based on birth year, their fundament stands on social and cultural major events surrounding that year. A generation can act as a social group identifier where people who faced or witnessed significant events happen, which in turn shape their collective consciousness on how they perceive and act on certain information and situations (Balda & Mora, 2011; Stiehr & Vandermause, 2017). The majority of current organizations consist of multigenerational workforces, ranging from baby boomers to generation Z (Christensen et al., 2018). Millennials, born in the technological revolution and connectivity advancement, and brought up as special kids (Christensen et al., 2018), currently dominate the workforce population (Bushardt et al., 2018; Gabrielova & Buchko, 2021). Due to this, in the workplace, they are categorized as: (1) prioritizing work-life balance (Christensen et al., 2018; Nolan, 2015); (2) preferring open communication and teamwork setting (Cahill & Sedrak, 2012); and (3) preferring on nurturing yet open to feedback environment (Carpenter & de Charon, 2014; Cahill & Sedrak, 2012; Christensen et al., 2018). Aside from the fact that as the most significant working cohort, millennials' influence on their organizations expands as they are the next future leaders (Gabrielova & Buchko, 2021) and are the International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa 6 │ ISSN 2580-0981 (online) most impactful to their organizations (Bannon et al., 2011). However, one of the most argued topics is how to retain millennials, who are perceived as having a tendency to switch jobs (Burton et al., 2019; Nolan, 2015). As a result, various studies have charted the desire of millennials to be retained as future talent in organizations, including leadership. The expectations of millennials in terms of leadership are investigated, as using millennials may be prone to more specific leadership styles than others. Mentors and leading figures are essential to millennials since millennials want continual mentorship to advance in their careers. Mentees' expectations of an ideal mentor are one of the most critical parts of a mentoring relationship (Bailey et al., 2016). Instead of merely managing, leaders who mentor and participate are more effective towards millennials. Leaders need to possess a parenting nature, where providing centralized authority, structure, and self-confidence is essential. They also must constantly provide vision and meaning behind work and reward millennials, giving them more responsibility for their career advancement. Traditional leadership methods are ineffective for virtual teams made up of millennials (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & Charon, 2014). RESEARCH METHOD In order to answer the research objective of how motherhood shapes leadership characteristics in working mothers, which supports millennials in enabling high-performance organizations, this research utilized critical reflection. Critical reflection, known as reflexivity or reflective practice, endorses various conceptual and theoretical understandings (Fook, 2011). Also known as self-reflective, it enables one to spot how discourses are perceived by examining own implicit assumptions by examining assumptions that may unravel inconsistencies and allowing for new understanding to fit into the idea. With critical reflection, the ultimate goal is to delimit restrictive understanding and ways of thinking so that new perspectives and changes may arise (Morley, 2008). FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 1. Motherhood, Leadership, and Millennials in Organization Being a mother in the workplace may be reflected in a negative light, rounding in the concepts of role duality and role strains (Rushing & Powell, 2015). Gatrell et al. (2017) introduced the concept of "maternal bodies" in an organizational context. This explains why women managers are appraised based on equivocality, disrupting the organizational system, contextuality that women should be at home, and hormonal imbalance that impairs female rationality. One of the compromised organizational systems is when the women take maternity leave and are temporarily replaced by a substitute. This process affects many aspects of the organization. The women's subordinates may reject the unusual approach of succession, constantly comparing it with their original leader's way. Even when the women return to their position, they may question their capability as a professional and a mother based on how the organizations treat them. This can be exacerbated by the returning period, where the subordinates may question the resumption of their previous roles (Ashcraft, 1999; Ladge & Greenberg, 2015). However, motherhood may not always be considered a penalty to women in the workplace. The first study was conducted by Lämsä & Piilola in 2015, using phenomenology to identify motherhood effects on women's leadership, careers, and values. One of the analyses resulted in International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa │ 7 ISSN 2580-0981 (online) several leadership competencies improved by motherhood, such as a profound understanding of others' perspectives, empathy, acceptance of family matters, task management, stress management, and self-confidence in negotiation. Therefore, the essential finding of this study is that motherhood is considered positively affect women's leadership competencies (Lämsä & Piilola, 2015), which is also affecting their leadership characteristics. Hence, this indicates motherhood has an amplifying effect on established characteristics or even building new ones, as the study used the word "motherhood had improved" or "motherhood taught" to represent the findings. The second study took a different approach by linking servant leadership to motherhood. Ngunjiri (2009) conducted a qualitative study, describing servant leadership in a different light on nurturing and empowerment aspects of mothers. The findings of her research are healing and reconciliation, empowerment and ethic of care, and stewardship. These traits emerged from their cultural tradition, and they believed that they had equipped the women with the necessary skills they needed in their leadership position (Ngunjiri, 2009). These characteristics, especially nurturing, empathy, understanding, and empowerment, are in line with millennials' expectations in the workplace (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & de Charon, 2014; Manuaba & Darma, 2021; Nolan, 2015). The summary of these studies is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of Leadership Characteristics of Motherhood (summarized from Lämsä & Piilola, 2015; Ngunjiri, 2009) Characteristics Definition Empathy and understanding A deeper understanding of others' perspective, needs, condition, and hopes help them to aid their employees. Acceptance of family matters Emotionally and morally sensitive, accept the precedence of employee's family matters over work duties. Task management Organize and delegate jobs, flexible and multi-tasking Conflict-solving and high negotiation skills Ability to resolute conflict by reconciliation and healing based on her personal experience; highly skilled in making arguments and providing justification for a decision Calm and confident High tolerance for stress and confident Empowerment and stewardship Nurturing employee's future through inclusivity and care On the other hand, organizations mainly consist of millennials as their biggest workforce (Bushardt et al., 2018; Gabrielova & Buchko, 2021). Their leadership expectations should be prioritized by organizations, as their influence on organizations cannot be undermined (Bannon et al., 2011). Millennials' expectations of leadership concentrate on participative yet possess parental figures (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & Charon, 2014). These expectations might be fulfilled by mother leaders whose leadership has been sharpened by their motherhood experience—such as millennials' expectations of open communication (Cahill & Sedrak, 2012). These match up with leadership characteristics where mother leaders exercise empathy and understanding to foster an open communication environment, dig into the millennials' expectations of their careers, and even foster a feedback culture. Their task management aspect may be the bridge of giving millennials International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa 8 │ ISSN 2580-0981 (online) work delegations in order to improve their future career advancement yet meaningful ones (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & Charon, 2014). 2. How Motherhood Shapes Leadership among Patriarchal Culture to Support Millennials in Enabling High-Performance Organization Patriarchal culture has positioned women to be overpowered by men with the unbalanced power relation between genders (Murtiningsih et al., 2017; Stopler, 2008). They are faced with the concept of role duality, which might lead to social repercussions and role strains. This happens when one role conflicts with another since gender traditionally has restrictive roles defined mainly by domestic and work obligations (Rushing & Powell, 2015). However, women, with their dual role and gender expectation, have overcome and adapted to the challenging situation by constantly creating the idealized version of themselves. Maintaining both responsibilities has forged women to adjust based on the demand of both roles, for example, translating their motherhood parenting style into leadership characteristics. These leadership characteristics have the possibility to be distinctive, as motherhood is not an innate characteristic in women (Cowdery & Knudson-Martin, 2005; Røseth et al., 2018; Thomas, 2014). As discussed by several scholars, women's role duality can be connoted as something negative, even birthed the term motherhood penalty (Benard & Correll, 2010; Eagly & Carli, 2007). However, this paper tries to show this inevitable role strain in a different light, where recent studies have been leaning towards it. A study by Wang and Ackerman (2020) showed that most employees believed that having working mothers sitting in leadership positions may benefit the organization. On top of that, these mother leaders who project their motherly figure were believed to support the employee's performance. This notion is in line with the findings of Ma et al. (2022), where findings depicted that the motherhood experience may support women sitting in leadership positions. Taking a step further into the current organizational context, these leadership characteristics can be argued that may be beneficial in order to achieve high-performance state for the organizations, especially in the current dynamic yet challenging economic landscape. While leadership influence performance (Gatrell, 2007), it is also important to note that: (1) leadership is both acquired and naturally innate characteristic (Arvey et al., 2007; Mole, 2011); and (2) leadership is a two-way relationship of leader-follower (Lussier & Achua, 2016). The first portrays the possibility that these motherhood leadership characteristics can be assessed and even selected to be adopted in organizations. The second shows that it is essential to see the leader and follower relationship to select the leadership among vastly evolved leadership theories. Reflecting on the current emergence of women leadership and the millennial workforce, organizations should also incorporate the millennial aspect into the mix when deciding the leadership. Millennials play an essential part in organizations as the most significant working cohort, impactful generation, and the next future leaders (Bannon et al., 2011; Bushardt et al., 2018; Gabrielova & Buchko, 2021). They have their own preference when it comes to leadership, as study shows that they may be more prone to some leadership style than others (Burton et al., 2019). Their expectations of participative mentors who possess parental figures (Burton et al., 2019; Carpenter & Charon, 2014) match the motherhood leadership characteristics focusing on nurturing, empathy, understanding, and empowerment (Lämsä & Piilola, 2015; Ngunjiri, 2009). When millennials' expectations of leadership can be fulfilled, it is expected that it can also be the driver of their International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa │ 9 ISSN 2580-0981 (online) individual contributions in order to generate organizational performance. Thus, the leadership characteristics of mother leaders may support millennials' performance to enable high- performance organizations. CONCLUSION Leaders are accountable for cultivating culture and performance in the organization. Speaking in both context, the number of millennials also cannot be underestimated. The dire need of this generation is to have solid mentorship that supports not only professional but also the emotional aspect of their career, such as parental figures. On the other hand, in a commonly patriarchal culture where role strain occurs, motherhood shapes leadership characteristics. Now enter The Motherhood Leadership, the trait that revolves on nurturing, empowerment, empathy, and understanding. These leadership traits can be learned and embedded in the organization to meet millennials' needs, optimize the company's culture, and hence boost overall organization performance. LIMITATION & FURTHER RESEARCH Where this paper seeks to broaden the horizon of motherhood leadership and millennials' performance, this topic should be tested empirically. Using qualitative methodology followed by quantitative methodology can be one of the ways to determine the distinctive motherhood leadership characteristics that support millennials' performance in high-performance organizations. On top of that, taking multiple angles from millennials' or mother leaders' perspectives may enrich the result. REFERENCES Anggahegari, P., & Lantu, D. C. (2014). 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Journal of Management Development, 34(10), 1246-1261. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-02-2015- 0016 International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa │ 15 ISSN 2580-0981 (online) APPENDIX Table 2. Summary of Leadership Theories Evolution (summarized from several sources) Personality Era Trait Leadership (Greenwood, 1996) Fredrick Taylor delivered “trait and situational approach” that a leader must acquire several capabilities: brains, education, technical knowledge or strength, tact, energy, grit, honesty, common sense, and being healthy. Henri Fayol pointed out his view on traits that leaders must possess: intelligence, health, morals, highly educated, administrative ability, business acumen, and organizational knowledge. Behavior Era Michigan and Ohio Study (Badshah, 2012; King, 1990) Consideration (friendship, mutual trust, respect, warmth), initiative structure (structured organization that establishes relationships and roles, communication, ways of working), production emphasis (manner and motivating the group to get the job done), and social awareness (social interrelationship within group). Theory X and Theory Y (Hunt & Fedynich, 2019; King, 1990) Theory X describes people as passive and must be controlled and motivated to do their job because they despise it. Theory Y proposes that individuals are already driven to execute their jobs because they enjoy them, therefore they do not require external motivation or a desire for increased responsibilities. Contingency and Situational Era Fiedler’s Contingency (Badshah, 2012; King, 1990) Leader-member relations (more power if they have good relationships with their followers). Task structure (more influence if they assign structured tasks to their followers). Position (more power and influence if their positions able them to absolute rights). Path-Goal Theory (Badshah, 2012) Leader's efficacy is determined by how a leader's actions on driving their followers to perform, be content with their work, and accepting their leader. Normative Theory (Hunt & Fedynich, 2019; King, 1990) Leaders must diagnose the situation to determine the decision-making behaviour. This has some flexibility since it does not rely on leaders’ traits and power to be effective. Instead, leaders may modify their behaviour, depending on the scenario. Modern Era Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) (Mcclane et al., 1991) Leadership as the unique relationships between leaders and each follower. Supervision as influencing subordinates by incentives and penalties. Leadership requires exercising influence on followers in persuading them to go beyond the bare minimums of organizational membership. International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities (IJMESH), Vol. 5 (2), 1-16 Motherhood As Leadership in Enabling High-Performance Organization by Nurturing Millennials in A Patriarchal Culture: A Conceptual Revisit Irka Wijaya, Angga Wisesa 16 │ ISSN 2580-0981 (online) Transactional Leadership (Masa’deh et al., 2016). Reciprocal interactions between leaders and their followers. It refers to the exchange of economic, political, and psychological values between leaders and followers to reach established performance requirements. Leaders in transactional leadership seek to achieve a cost-benefit economic exchange with followers by meeting their material and psychological requirements to achieve desired work performance. Followers in transactional leadership are expected to agree, accept, and obey the leader in return for praise, reward, and resources, or to avoid punishment. Transformational Leadership (Badshah, 2012; Hunt & Fedynich, 2019; Northouse, 2016; Xie, 2020) Leaders and followers work together to attain a common objective. By accomplishing the objective, followers will boost their job performance, dedication, and long-term learning and growth. Closely associated with charismatic leader. A charismatic leader is someone who is visionary, becomes a symbol of success and achievement, is dominating, confident, has the ability to influence others, and has a high moral value. Authentic Leadership (Gardner et al., 2011; Hunt & Fedynich, 2019;) Focusing on positive attributes rather than negative ones. Being accountable for actions, consequences, and mistakes on behalf of personal and organization, not manipulating followers, and self-importance above position needs. Servant Leadership (Northouse, 2016; Washington et al., 2014) Serving the follower rather than leading by developing, nurturing, empathizing with the followers, and putting their needs first. Laissez-Faire Leadership (Pahi & Hamid, 2016; Yang, 2015) Absence or skill-lacking aspect of a leader. Leaders always avoiding their tasks and obligations at all costs, taking a long time to make good judgments, and provide little feedback to their followers. These may be resulted from strategic choice from the leader to reduce reliance, increase self- determination, and promote subordinate's autonomous motivation.