61 SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS International Journal of Psychology: Biopsychosocial Approach 2017 / 20 ISSN 1941-7233 (Print), ISSN 2345-024X (Online) https://dx.doi.org/10.7220/2345-024X.20.4 THE ROLE OF A PERCEIVED E THIC AL LEADERSHIP ST YLE IN THE REL ATIONSHIP BE T WEEN WORK AHOLISM AND OCCUPATIONAL BURNOUT Modesta Morkevičiūtė1, Auksė Endriulaitienė Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania Abstract. Background. Academic literature has shown that working conditions created by ethical leaders might have positive as well as negative consequences for the em- ployees. Research has revealed that it might contribute to employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout, but this relationship is still controversial. Purpose. The aim of this study was to investigate the significance of a perceived ethical leadership style for the relationship between employees’ workaholism and occupational burn- out. Method. The study involved 302 (41 men and 261 women) employees working in different Lithuanian organizations. A perceived ethical leadership style was assessed with the help of Brown, Trevino, & Harrison’s (2005) questionnaire. The 10-item Dutch Work Addiction Scale, developed by Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker (2009), was used for the measurement of workaholism. Occupational burnout was measured using Copenha- gen Burnout Inventory by Kristensen, Borritz, Villadsen, & Christensen (2005). Results. The results revealed that workaholism, personal and work-related burnout of employ- ees who consider their leaders as more ethical is lower than of those who consider their leaders to be less ethical. Relationship between client-related burnout and ex- cessive work of the employees who consider their leaders as more ethical is weaker than of those who consider their leaders to be less ethical. Conclusions. Overall, the findings support that employee’s attitudes towards their leader are important for the occupational burnout and proneness to workaholism. Therefore, an ethical leadership style must be considered when addressing physical and psychological well-being of employees. Keywords: a perceived ethical leadership style, workaholism, occupational burnout. 1 Address for correspondence: Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Kaunas, Lithuania. Phone: +370 684 68058. E-mail: modestamorkeviciute@gmail.com mailto:modestamorkeviciute%40gmail.com?subject= Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 62 INTRODUC TION New technologies enable employees to work outside their office, leading to a higher number of hours devoted to work (Ng, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2007). Numerous studies have demonstrated that the scope of workaholism is on the increase (Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths, 2014; Schaufeli, Shimazu, & Taris, 2009). However, the amount of empirical re- search is still relatively low. It has been established that one of the nega- tive consequences of the workaholism might be occupational burnout (Innanen, Tolvanen, & Salmela-Aro, 2014; Balducci, Cecchin, Fraccaroli, & Schaufeli, 2012; Andreassen, Ursin, & Eriksen, 2007). The latest research shows that it is necessary to study the relationship between the worka- holism and occupational burnout due to their harmful effect on psycho- logical and physical functioning of an individual. On the other hand, the study of the workaholism and occupational burnout alone is inexpedient on account of several reasons: 1) usually these phenomena are closely re- lated to any employees, in any organization; 2) employees’ workaholism, occupational burnout and their relationship is a biopsychosocial prob- lem. However, the relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout is unstable. The social environment of an organization can either strengthen or weaken this relationship (Ying-Wen & Chen-Ming, 2009). Therefore, in order to understand the relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout comprehensively, it is important to investigate these phenomena not only from the psychological or biological, but also from social aspects (Ying-Wen & Chen-Ming, 2009). According to Kunigauskaitė (2011), Genevičiūtė-Janonienė & Endriulaitienė (2010), no other organizational factors have such a sig- nificant impact on the employees’ behaviour, their psychological well- being and physical health as the leader of the organization. Various leadership styles are important for the factors related to the employees (Jočienė, 2015; Genevičiūtė-Janonienė & Endriulaitienė, 2010). However, an ethical leadership style has an entire complex of certain features that contribute to employees’ workaholism, occupational burnout, their re- lationship and change (Fernández, José, Boada-Grau, Gil-Ripoll, & Vigil- Colet, 2016). Therefore, a perceived ethical leadership style has a greater impact on workaholism and occupational burnout than any other styles of leadership. 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 63 Some authors state that an ethical leadership style can create favour- able conditions for the development of employees’ workaholism, occu- pational burnout and their relationships (De Coninck, 2015; Kalshoven, Den Hartog, & De Hoogh, 2013). Other authors state the opposite – ethi- cal leadership bars the way to the development of the relationships be- tween these phenomena (Bouchamma & Brie, 2014; Chughtai, 2015). Issues of ethical leadership in the context of workaholism and burnout need further and deeper investigations (Kanste, Kyngas, & Nikkila, 2007). Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the significance of a per- ceived ethical leadership style for the relationship between employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout. LITER ATURE RE VIE W Workaholism and occupational burnout Ever since the notion of “workaholism” was introduced, researchers have held different viewpoints on its definition (Aziz & Tronzo, 2011). How- ever, this research is based on the definition proposed by Oates (1971), who labeled workaholism as “the compulsion or the uncontrollable need to work incessantly” (p. 11). According to this author, workaholism is com- posed of two dimensions: working excessively (the behavioral compo- nent) and working compulsively (the cognitive component). It is impor- tant to highlight that due to a high work investment, workaholism can be understood as similar to work engagement. Although both workaholism and work engagement are characterized by heavy work investment, the underlying motivation for this investment differs: workaholics are driven by an inner compulsion to work they cannot resist, whereas engaged em- ployees work because they find it stimulating, meaningful and engross- ing (Shimazu, Schaufeli, Kamiyama, & Kawakami, 2015). Theoretical and empirical models suggest that workaholism is caused and maintained by a range of antecedents. For instance, some authors have reported a link between workaholism and family systems, with the family being the origin of the phenomenon. According to this perspective, workaholism is regarded as the result of certain family dynamics (e.g., over-responsibility), affecting the individual within the system. Some other authors theoretically frame the structure, process, Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 64 growth and development of workaholism within addiction theory. Based on this model, workaholic behavior is somatically stimulated by physiological activation produced, for example, by working against the clock to meet a deadline. Learning theory may also add to our under- standing of workaholism antecedents. Based on this theory, the devel- opment of workaholism and corresponding behavior can be explained by various principles of learning (e.g. the individual may be influenced by observing the behavior of significant others). To sum up, although the theories presented here have different explanations of workaholism, it is most probably formed by a variety of antecedents (Miller, 2013). It is agreed that workaholism is one of the fundamental factors hin- dering employees’ physical and psychological well-being. Therefore, in- terest in employees’ occupational burnout was expressed at the same time as in workaholism. While not a new phenomenon, job burnout has resurfaced in scientific literature as the society becomes more complex, and more demands are placed on employees (McKinleya, Bolanda, & Ma- hanb, 2017). This research is based on the occupational burnout model suggested by Kristensen, Borritz, Villadsen, & Christensen (2005). Accord- ing to Kristensen et al. (2005), occupational burnout indicates the level of burnout which is the result of working activity, being in the working environment or thoughts about the work (Kristensen et al., 2005). They identified three dimensions of burnout: personal burnout (an employ- ee’s psychological and physical fatigue and exhaustion experienced by a person regardless of their participation in the workforce), work-related burnout (physical and psychological fatigue related to work) and cus- tomer-related burnout (physical and psychological fatigue caused by frequent communication with customers) (Robinson, Magee, & Caputi, 2016; Kristensen et al., 2005). Scientific literature has shown that occupational burnout can be caused by work activity, working environment and thoughts about work (Bubnienė, 2009; Kunigauskaitė, 2011). It is noted that workaholism is characterised by intense work activity, frequent and long-term being in the working environment and constant thinking about work. That is, the behavior and thoughts of a person who is prone to workaholism, creates conditions leading to physical and mental exhaustion. Thus, one of the most extreme outcomes of workaholism is occupational burnout (De Carlo, Falco, Pierro, Dugas, Kruglanski, & Higgins, 2014). 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 65 The relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout One of the main determinants that explain the relationship between employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout is high standards for oneself (Aziz & Tronzo, 2011; Taris, Van Veek, & Schaufeli, 2012; De Carlo et al., 2014; Bovornusvakool, Vodanovich, Ariyabuddhiphongs, & Ngam- ake, 2012). According to Ng et al. (2007), workaholics are characterized by a high need for achievement and perfectionism. Numerous studies have found positive correlations between perfectionism and stress (Shi- fron & Reysen, 2011). This increases the risk for the development of oc- cupational burnout (Aziz & Tronzo, 2011; Kristensen et al., 2005). There- fore, employees with higher perfectionism are more likely to experience burnout. Another mechanism that seems to be involved in the relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout is lack of rest. Accord- ing to De Carlo et al. (2014), employees who are prone to workaholism devote more energy to work than necessary. Therefore, workaholics typically work long hours (on average 50–60 hours per week). When the excessive amount of energy that workaholics spend at work is not coun- terbalanced with appropriate recovery (Taris, Geurts, Schaufeli, Blonk, & Lagerveld, 2008), employees might eventually exhaust their energy back-up (Schaufeli et al., 2009). Furthermore, workaholics are thinking about work even if not at work. It is clear that constant thinking about work limits the time for relaxing or hobbies (Falvo, Visintin, Capozza, Falco, & De Carlo, 2013). Consequently, this increases burnout. As Smedema, Thompson, Sharp, & Friefeld (2016) explained, the physical and psychological difficulties should be considered in the con- text of individuals’ life, including the environments in which they live and work. Some authors suggest that to understand the development of the relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout, it is necessary to pay attention to the way in which individuals perceive and interpret the behavior of others at work. It has been noted that the perception of manager behavior is one of the essential factors predict- ing the relationship between these phenomena (Rodríguez-Mantilla & Fernández-Díaz, 2017). Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 66 Importance of an ethical leadership style for the relationship of employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout Ethical leadership is usually defined as “the demonstration of norma- tively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005, p. 120). The most prominent features of an ethical manager are the following: management skills, personal morality and orientation to subordinates (Chughtai, 2015). Some authors have revealed the association between a perceived ethical leadership style and workaholism. One of the main antecedents of workaholism is strong working control, job demands and pressure to be productive (Choi, 2013). Ethical managers are characterized by the fact that a part of the responsibilities and powers is given to the em- ployees. Such managers allow subordinates to independently control certain work processes (Engelbrecht, Heine, & Mahembe, 2014; Macey, Schneider, Barbera, & Young, 2009). In this way, they can choose appro- priate ways and conditions of meeting the targets. As a result, the risk of workaholism decreases (Choi, 2013). Hence the results of the previous research provide some data for the first hypothesis: 1. Employees who perceive their manager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style have lower level of workaholism than those who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. Also, researchers claim that ethical leadership reduces employee’s burnout (Madathil, Heck, & Schuldberg, 2014). Ethical manager pro- motes subordinates’ ideas, creates a climate of mutual respect and fa- vourable conditions to achieve professional and personal development of employees. In such organization environment employees feel safe (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009). This leads to a positive assessment of a manager. In order to reduce the probability of burnout, a positive assessment of a leader and safety are very important (Kanste, Kyngas, & Nikkila, 2007; Bouchamma & Brie, 2014; Peterson, Walumbwa, Avolio, & Hannah, 2012). Based on these theoretical arguments and empirical evidence, this study generates the following hypothesis: 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 67 2. Employees who perceive their manager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style have lower level of occupational burnout than employees who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. According to the previous research, a perceived ethical leadership style is important for the relationship between workaholism and occu- pational burnout for such reasons: 1) it can increase (or reduce) the prob- ability that an employee who is prone to workaholism may start suffer- ing occupational burnout; 2) can accelerate (or distance) occupational burnout of the employee who is prone to workaholism; 3) can maintain or bar the relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout. The research results of an ethical leadership style for the relation- ship between employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout are controversial. For instance, ethical leaders focus on the employees’ pro- gress rather than results (Ma, Cheng, Ribbens & Zhou, 2013). Therefore, employees may consider that in order to become well-appreciated, they have to obviously show their initiative and efforts. This stimulates them to work excessively (Andreassen, 2014; Ng et al., 2007). Working exces- sively hard causes considerable stress, which is incompatible with feel- ings of health and well-being (Schaufeli et al., 2009). On the other hand, some authors provide contradictory results. For instance, according to Youngkeun (2013), if an organization implements a winner-takes-all or star reward system, employees are more likely to exert greater effort because only the top performers are rewarded. Thus, they are forced to work unceasingly to compete, and peer competition can evoke workaholic behavior. Also, in the organizational atmosphere created by widespread workaholism, peer competition can accelerate occupational burnout. It is important to highlight that an ethical man- ager is orientated to each employee’s progress and does not create a competitive working environment. Hence this creates unfavourable en- vironment for the workaholism and occupational burnout (Choi, 2013). Job demands-resources theory (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) may also help to explain the relationship among ethi- cal leadership, workaholism and occupational burnout. Job demands- resources theory claims that emotional job demands, physical job de- mands and work pressure are all risk factors for occupational burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2016). Moreover, as it was found in the previous Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 68 research, employees who are confronted with more work pressure usu- ally report higher levels of workaholism (Choi, 2013). However, in a view  of job demands-resources theory, the undesirable impact of job demands can be alleviated by job resources. The results showed that ethical leadership results in fewer job demands (cognitive, emotional and physical demands) and more job resources (e.g. job autonomy, tak- ing care of the welfare of subordinates, encouragement, support), and indirectly contributes to the development of an appropriate work habits and well-being of employees (Chughtai, 2015; Russell, 2013; Bakker & Demerouti, 2016). Based on a social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), workaholic be- havior occurs, is nurtured and sustained because similar behavior in the past had led to positive outcomes, such as praise and approval from managers, promotion, good salary, or because the behavior had led to the avoidance of negative outcomes such as unwanted leisure (Miller, 2013; Loi,  Lam,  Ngo,  & Cheong, 2015; Kalshoven,  van Dijk,  & Boon, 2016). It is known that one of the essential features of workaholics is inability to work in a concentrated way (Jočienė, 2015). Ethical leaders influence subordinates’ behavior by approving or rewarding well-struc- tured activity and punishing overtime and continuous work. As a result, employees are able to work purposefully, saving their time and energy (Chughtai, 2015). In this way, health-damaging work habits do not recur, and the risk of occupational burnout decreases (Russell, 2013). The above literature provides more rationales for the positive im- pact of ethical leadership. Thus, in view of Bakker & Demerouti (2016), Bandura (1977), Youngkeun (2013), Choi (2013), Chughtai (2015), Rus- sell (2013), Bouchamma & Brie (2014), Loi et al. (2015), Kalshoven, et al. (2016), the third research hypothesis was formulated: 3. The relationship between workaholism and occupational burn- out of the employees who perceive their manager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style is less expressed than of the employees who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leader- ship style. The previous research suggests that the experience with worka- holism and occupational burnout may be different due to certain socio- demographic characteristics of employees (Lopez et al., 2011; Kompier, 2006; Andreassen, 2014). Furthermore, some studies have reported an 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 69 association between a perceived ethical leadership style and employ- ees’ age, gender, education, work duration in the current organization (Mitonga-Monga & Cilliers, 2016; Feng, 2011). Thus, it may also influence the relationship between a perceived ethical leadership style, employ- ees’ workaholism and occupational burnout. We considered these pos- sibilities in this study and examined how certain socio-demographic characteristics of employees may influence our results. ME THOD Sample. The research was organized and conducted in accordance with the requirements for research ethics (APA, 2017). Both managers and employees were given general information about the research such as its purpose and the consequences of participation. Furthermore, a survey was held only after securing participants’ free and informed con- sent. The study involved 302 employees of business and education or- ganizations in Lithuania, who were recruited through convenient sam- pling. In order to increase the response rate and quality of responses, we firstly obtained consent from top executives at the target companies. The response rate was around 90%. All respondents were non-executive employees. Most of them had direct contacts with customers as a part of their daily work routine. More women (261) than men (41) participated in the study. The majority of respondents had higher education. Participants worked for the same or- ganization from one month up to 45 years, with a mean of 12.72 years (SD=10.60). The age range was from 20 to 79 years (mean 44.20 years; SD=12.65). Assessment instruments. A self-report questionnaire was used. The 10-item Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS-10) developed by Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker (2009) was used to assess employees’ worka- holism. The Lithuanian version of this scale was prepared by Jočienė & Endriulaitienė (2015). DUWAS-10 measures workaholism across two dimensions: five items assessed working excessively and five items as- sessed working compulsively. For instance, “I spend more time working than socializing with friends, on hobbies or on leisure activities” and “I feel obliged to work hard even if it is not enjoyable” respectively. Each Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 70 item of the questionnaire was evaluated according to a five-point Likert scale (1 – never / almost never, 5 – always). An increasing number of the points shows that a respondent has a higher level of workaholism (Falvo et al., 2013). The internal reliability of this questionnaire was .806. The internal reliability of the working excessively subscale was .735; of the working compulsively subscale – .679. Occupational burnout was assessed by Copenhagen Burnout In- ventory (CBI) developed by Kristensen, Borritz, Villadsen, & Christensen (2005). CBI was translated into Lithuanian and then back-translated by two independent translators. CBI measures burnout across three dimen- sions: six items assess personal burnout, seven items assess work-related burnout, and six items assess customer-related burnout. For instance, “How often are you emotionally exhausted?”, “Does your work frustrate you?”, and “Do you find it hard to work with clients?” respectively. Each item of the questionnaire was evaluated according to a five-point Likert scale (1 – never / almost never, 5 – always). An increasing number of the points shows that a respondent has a higher level of occupational burn- out (Kristensen et al., 2005). The internal reliability of this questionnaire was .919. The Cronbach’s alphas for the three subscales of the Copenha- gen Burnout Inventory in the present study were .856 (personal burnout subscale), .754 (work-related burnout subscale), .875 (customer-related burnout subscale). A 10-item scale (ELS), created by Brown, Trevino, & Harrison (2005), was used to evaluate an ethical leadership style. ELS was translated into Lithuanian, based on a standard translation/back-translation procedure. Each item (e.g. “Discusses business ethics or values with employees”) was evaluated according to a five-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disa- gree, 5 – strongly agree). The higher score indicates the more expressed ethical leadership style perceived by employees. The internal reliability of the questionnaire was .922. In order to compare the relationships between workaholism and occupational burnout in two groups of a perceived ethical leadership style (higher and lower), based on the recommendations of previous studies, an average score of ethical leadership (M=41.0608). Thus, a higher perceived ethical leadership style is mirrored when the respond- ent shows higher than average scores in ELS. A lower perceived ethical 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 71 leadership style is reflected when there are lower than average scores in ELS (DeConinck, 2015; Engelbrecht et al., 2014). To determine whether items reflect the constructs they are in- tended to measure, the confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of the scales (DUWAS-10, CBI, ELS) were conducted. In short, the results of the CFA provided support for the construct validity of the variables used in the current study: workaholism, occupational burnout and ethical leader- ship style. In order to assess the normality of data, Shapiro-Wilk test was used. Shapiro-Wilk test coefficients for DUWAS-10, CBI and ELS were .987, .990 and .931 respectively. For all three questionnaires the parameters of skewness and kurtosis ranged between -1 and 1 (e.g. DUWAS-10, skew- ness = .205, kurtosis = .615; CBI, skewness = .325, kurtosis = - .162; ELS, skewness = - .990, kurtosis = .939). This shows that the data come from a normal distribution and therefore in further analysis parametric statisti- cal tests were used. The results were analysed with the help of descriptive statistics, Stjudent’s t tests and correlational analyses. Then the correlations are conducted on the same variables by two different groups, and if both the correlations are found to be statistically significant (particularly when a sample size is small), Fisher’s r-to-z transformation is recom- mended (Corey, Dunlap, & Burke, 1998; Silver & Dunlap, 1987). Therefore, to compare the relationships between workaholism and occupational burnout in two groups of a perceived ethical leadership style, Fisher’s r-to-z test was used. FINDINGS Descriptive statistics in terms of mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of the study variables are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the study variables Variable N M SD Workaholism 293 26.3038 6.41434 Occupational burnout 290 47.6690 11.42816 Perceived ethical leadership style 296 41.0608 6.53567 Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 72 In order to examine workaholism, occupational burnout and a per- ceived ethical leadership style in different socio-demographic groups of employees, t-test of independence was used. It found no statistically significant differences of workaholism in different socio-demographic groups of study participants (p>.05). Further, our results revealed that occupational burnout is only related to work duration in the current organization: occupational burnout is stronger among the employees whose work duration in the current organization is longer than among those whose work duration is shorter (p<.05). It was also determined that a perceived ethical leadership style is related to employees’ age: older employees (aged 45–79) perceive their managers as being more ethical than the younger (aged 20–44) ones (p<.05). Partial correlation was used to determine whether there is a relation- ship between a perceived ethical leadership style, workaholism and oc- cupational burnout. This test was used in response to hypotheses 1 and 2. The results are presented in Table 2. Table 2. The relationship between a perceived ethical leadership style, workaholism and occupational burnout controlling for employees’ age and work duration in the current organization Ethical leadership style r Degrees of freedom (df ) p value Excessive work -.149 271 .014 Compulsive work -.144 271 .017 Personal burnout -.291 266 .000 Work-related burnout -.252 264 .000 Customer-related burnout -.075 263 .221 Ethical leadership style Workaholism (general) -.164 267 .007 Occupational burnout (general) -.217 258 .000 Table 2 indicates that an ethical leadership style significantly nega- tively correlates with employees’ excessive work (p<.05). Similarly, an ethical leadership style showed a negative and significant association with the employees’ compulsive work and general workaholism (p<.05). 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 73 Furthermore, there is a weak but significant negative correlation be- tween an ethical leadership style and employees’ personal burnout, work-related and general burnout (p<.05). The relationship between an ethical leadership style and customer-related burnout is also negative, but this correlation did not reach statistical significance (p>.05). Partial correlation was used to determine whether there was a rela- tionship between workaholism and occupational burnout in each group of a perceived ethical leadership style. Further, Fisher’s r-to-z transforma- tion was used to compare these relationships in two groups of a per- ceived ethical leadership style. The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. The relationship between workaholism and occupational burnout in different groups of a perceived ethical leadership style controlling for employees’ work duration in the current organization Perceived ethical leadership style r Degrees of freedom (df ) Z p value The relationship between personal burnout and excessive work Higher .285* 143 1.52 .1285 Lower .447** 125 The relationship between personal burnout and compulsive work Higher .296** 143 1.49 .1362 Lower .454** 125 The relationship between work-related burnout and excessive work Higher .330** 142 1.38 .1676 Lower .474** 123 The relationship between work-related burnout and compulsive work Higher .323** 142 1.03 .303 Lower .433** 123 The relationship between customer-related burnout and excessive work Higher .288** 139 1.99 .0466 Lower .496** 125 The relationship between customer-related burnout and compulsive work Higher .254* 138 .60 .5485 Lower .323** 125 The relationship between workaholism and occupa- tional burnout Higher .390** 133 1.96 .05 Lower .578** 123 * p<.05 ** p<.01 Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 74 Fisher’s r-to-z transformation showed no significant differences of these relationships between two ethical leadership style groups: per- sonal burnout and excessive work; personal burnout and compulsive work; work-related burnout and excessive work; work-related burnout and compulsive work; customer-related burnout and compulsive work (p>.05). However, our results revealed a significant relationship between customer-related burnout and excessive work, also between general burnout and workaholism in a different ethical leadership style groups (p<.05). It was found that the relationship between customer-related burnout and excessive work of the employees who perceive their man- ager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style is less expressed than of employees who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. DISCUSSION The purpose of the current study was to investigate the significance of a perceived ethical leadership style for the relationship between em- ployees’ workaholism and occupational burnout. Some findings were consistent with the previous research. Other findings did not support the previous research on a perceived ethical leadership style, employees’ workaholism and occupational burnout. The study results showed that employees who perceive their man- ager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style have a lower level of workaholism than employees who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. The obtained results confirm the findings of Choi (2013), Engelbrecht et al. (2014), Macey et al. (2009). The results can be interpreted in accordance with Walumbwa & Schaubroeck (2009), Choi (2013). Ethical managers of the respondents, who participated in this study, are likely to have been focused on each employee’s progress and did not create a competitive working environ- ment. As a result, employees did not feel tension to be superior to their colleagues, continuously improve their productivity and quality of work (Engelbrecht et al., 2014; Macey et al., 2009). Our results extend previous findings and suggest that such managers’ ethical behavior does not lead to the emergence of workaholic environment. 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 75 Our second hypothesis was partially supported: it was revealed that employees who perceive their manager as characterised by a more ethi- cal leadership style have a lower level of personal burnout, work-related burnout and general burnout than employees who perceive their man- agers as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. Contrary to the studies of Russell (2014), our findings showed that an ethical leadership style and customer-related burnout do not interrelate. On the other hand, the obtained results confirm the findings of Bouchamma & Brie (2014), Peterson et al. (2012), Kanste et al. (2007). Such results can be explained by an ethical manager’s behavior. An ethical manager is orien- tated towards the subordinates and focused on maintaining good rela- tionships with them. Therefore, employees feel less stressed and tensed, become more confident with the manager. Consequently, this leads to a positive evaluation of the ethical leader. As a result, the probability of personal and work-related burnout decreases (Bouchamma & Brie, 2014; Kanste et al., 2007). Our third hypothesis was also partially supported: it was found that the relationship between customer-related burnout and excessive work, also between general burnout and workaholism of the employees who perceive their manager as characterised by a more ethical leadership style is less expressed than of the employees who perceive their manager as less characterised by an ethical leadership style. As mentioned earlier, an ethical manager influences harmonious relationships between em- ployees, which are based on understanding, support and trust (Chugh- tai, 2015). Therefore, employees become friendly with each other, the organization creates an environment of cooperation; colleagues begin to perceive each other not as competitors, but as assistants. Ethical managers constantly communicate with employees, encourage them to move away from work, to reflect, to turn to their own needs. Finally, the ethical manager allows employees to control certain work processes, independently solve problems and influences subordinates’ behavior by rewarding their well-structured activity. Due to this manager behavior, an appropriate relationship with the work of employees is formed, and psychological and physical well-being is improved. The results of the study revealed that occupational burnout is only related to the work duration in the current organization: occupational burnout is stronger among the employees whose work duration in the Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 76 current organization is longer than among those whose work duration in the current organization is shorter. These results coincide with the find- ings of Montero-Marín, García-Campayo, Fajó-Pascual, Carrasco, Gascón, Gili, & Mayoral-Cleries (2011). It can be assumed that over the long years of work in the same organization employees lose professional enthusi- asm. A well-known organization and activities, lack of change and new challenges bar the way to the professional and personal development. As a result, the organization’s environment and work activities begin to tire an employee. We have also observed a relationship between a perceived ethical leadership style and employees’ age: older employees perceive their managers as being more ethical than the younger ones. Our findings can be interpreted in accordance with Feng (2011): older employees are more aware of the importance and benefits of moral and ethical behavior. Therefore, older employees are more considerate and sensitive to morality demonstrated by an ethical leader. It was established that there are no differences of workaholism in different socio-demographic groups (gender, education, age, work du- ration in the current organization) of study participants. Furthermore, gender, education and age of employees were not related to the occu- pational burnout. Lastly, perception of ethical leadership does not differ between men and women, employees who have or do not have higher education, as well as between those who work longer and shorter in the organization. The obtained results can be explained by the composition of study participants. For instance, workaholism and occupational burn- out are more likely to occur at a younger age (Taris, van Veek, & Schaufeli, 2012; Kunigauskaitė, 2011). On the other hand, the structure of the study participants was specific: the average age of respondents was 44 years. This means that respondents of the younger age who participated in this study in the general population would be considered as middle- aged and older employees. Such results can also be explained by the impact of factors which were not analysed in this research. It is important to consider some limitations of the current study when interpreting these findings. First, due for participation in the study, more organizations were contacted, however, only a small number of them agreed to participate in the survey. Therefore, there is a possibility that the managers of the studied participants in the general population would reach a high level of ethical leadership. Another limitation is that 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 77 Milda Cibulskytė, Loreta Zajančkauskaitė-Staskevičienė the majority of the respondents were women. This threatens the gener- alizability of our findings. Thirdly, objective instruments were not used for the collection of survey data. Therefore, there is a possibility that the investigation occurred in a social desirability bias, which could distort the results of the survey because of studied participants’ propensity to assess ethical leadership with high scores and the fact that rating their supervisor’s leadership style may feel insecure. Lastly, workaholism and occupational burnout are defined differently by various authors. The discrepancies of this and previous studies were possibly influenced by different concepts of the phenomena and different instruments used to measure it. Therefore, further researchers should first pay attention to the conceptual workaholism and occupational burnout problems. The results of this study support the theory and research, suggesting that working conditions created by ethical leaders may play an impor- tant role in the extent to which employees experience workaholism and occupational burnout. The finding implies that ethical behavior should be emphasized in planning and designing interventions for managing employees’ workaholism and burnout. It is worth to invest in managers’ development; managers should be introduced to the concept of an ethi- cal leadership style and its effects on employees. In order to determine more aspects of the relationship among an ethical leadership style, oc- cupational burnout and workaholism, more research is needed. References Andreassen, C. S. (2014). Workaholism: An overview and current status of the research.  Journal of Behavioral Addictions,  3(1), 1–11. DOI: 10.1556/ JBA.2.2013.017. Andreassen, C. S., Ursin, H., & Eriksen, H. R. (2007). The relationship between strong motivation to work, “workaholism”, and health. Psychology & Health, 22(5), 615–629. DOI: 10.1080/14768320600941814. Aziz, S., & Tronzo, C. L. (2011). Exploring the relationship between workaholism facets and personality traits: a replication in american workers. Psychological Record, 61(2), 269–285. DOI: 10.1007/BF03395760. Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward.  Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273– 285. DOI: 10.1037/ocp0000056.  Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 78 Balducci, C., Cecchin, M., Fraccaroli, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2012). Exploring the relationship between workaholism and workplace aggressive behaviour: The role of job-related emotion. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(5), 629–634. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.004. Bouchamma, Y., & Brie, J. M. (2014). Communities of Practice and Ethical Leadership. International Studies in Educational Administration (Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration & Management (CCEAM)), 42(2), 81–96. Retrieved from:http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.vdu.lt/ ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=30&sid=37a05869-833d-4b83-a37c- fbe51f64be90%40sessionmgr4007 Bovornusvakool, W., Vodanovich, S. J., Ariyabuddhiphongs, K., & Ngamake, S. T. (2012). Examining the Antecedents and Consequences of Workaholism. Psychologist- Manager Journal, 15(1), 56–70. DOI: 10.1080/10887156.2012.649994. Brown, M. E., Trevino, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. DOI: 10.1016/j. obhdp.2005.03.002. Bubnienė, D. (2009). Policijos pareigūnų profesinio pervargimo sąsajos su profesiniu saviveiksmingumu ir darbo – šeimos sąveika [Relation of Burnout and Occupational Self-efficacy of Police Officers and Work-Family Interaction]. Master thesis in Psychology. Kaunas: Vytautas Magnus University. Retrieved from: http://talpykla.elaba.lt/elaba-fedora/objects/elaba:1942505/ Choi, Y. (2013). The differences between work engagement and workaholism, and organizational outcomes: an integrative model. Social Behavior & Personality: an International Journal, 41(10), 1655–1665. DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2013.41.10.1655. Chughtai, A. A. (2015). Creating safer workplaces: The role of ethical leadership. Safety Science, 73, 92–98. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssci.2014.11.016. Corey, D. M., Dunlap, W. P., & Burke, J. M. (1998). Averaging Correlations: Expected Values and Bias in Combined Pearson rs And Fisher‘s z Transformations. The Journal of General Psychology, 125(3), 245–261. DOI: 10.1080/00221309809595548. De Carlo, N. A., Falco, A., Pierro, A., Dugas, M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (2014). Regulatory mode orientations and well-being in an organizational setting: the differential mediating roles of workaholism and work engagement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(11), 725–738. DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12263. DeConinck, J. B. (2015). Outcomes of ethical leadership among salespeople. Journal of Business Research, 68, 1086–1093. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.10.011. Engelbrecht, A. S., Heine, G., & Mahembe, B. (2014). The influence of ethical leadership on trust and work engagement: An exploratory study.  SAJIP: South African Journal of Industrial Psychology,  40(1), 1–9. DOI: 10.4102/sajip. v40i1.1210. 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 79 Falvo, R., Visintin, E. P., Capozza, D., Falco, A., & De Carlo, A. (2013). The relationships among workaholism, proactivity, and locomotion in a work setting. Social Behavior & Personality: an International Journal, 41(9), 1557–1570. DOI: 10.2224/ sbp.2013.41.9.1557. Feng, F. (2011). A Study on School Leaders’ Ethical Orientations in Taiwan. Ethics & Behavior, 21(4), 317–331. DOI: 10.1080/10508422.2011.585599. Fernández, M. J., Boada-Grau, J., Gil-Ripoll, C., & Vigil-Colet, A. (2016). A predictive study of antecedent variables of workaholism. Psicothema, 28(4), 401–406. DOI: 10.7334/psicothema2015.345. Genevičiūtė-Janonienė, G., & Endriulaitienė, A. (2010). Darbuotojų asmenybės bruožų, subjektyviai vertinamo transformacinio vadovavimo stiliaus, darbo motyvacijos ir įsipareigojimo organizacijai sąveikos modelis [Interaction model of employee’s personality traits, subjectively evaluated transformational leadership, work motivation and organizational commitment]. Psychology, 41, 50–67. Retrieved from: http://www.zurnalai.vu.lt/psichologija/article/ view/2579 Innanen, H., Tolvanen, A., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2014). Burnout, work engagement and workaholism among highly educated employees: Profiles, antecedents and outcomes. Burnout Research, 1(1), 38–49. DOI: 10.1016/j.burn.2014.04.001. Ying-Wen, L., & Chen-Ming, C. (2009). Personality traits and personal and organizational inducements: antecedents of  workaholism. Social Behavior & Personality: an International Journal, 37(5), 645–660. DOI: 10.2224/ sbp.2009.37.5.645. Youngkeun, C. (2013). The differences between work engagement and workaholism, and organizational outcomes: an integrative model. Social Behavior & Personality: an International Journal, 41(10), 1655–1665. DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2013.41.10.1655. Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D. N., & De Hoogh, A. H. B. (2011). Ethical Leader Behavior and Big Five Factors of Personality. Journal of Business Ethics, 100(2), 349–366. DOI: 10.1007/s10551-010-0685-9. Kalshoven, K., van Dijk, H., & Boon, C. (2016). Why and when does ethical leadership evoke unethical follower behavior?  Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(2), 500–515. DOI: 10.1108/JMP-10-2014-0314. Kanste, O., Kyngas, H., & Nikkila, J. (2007). The relationship between multidimensional leadership and burnout among nursing staff. Journal of Nursing Management, 15(7), 731–739. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2934.2006.00741.x. Kompier, M. (2006). New systems of work organization and workers’ health. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environmenent  & Health, 32(6), 421–30. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17173199 Kristensen, T. S., Borritz, M., Villadsen, E., & Christensen, K. B. (2005). The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout. Work & Stress, 19(3), 192–207. DOI: 10.1080/02678370500297720. Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė 80 Kunigauskaitė, K. (2011). Darbuotojų subjektyviai vertinamo transformacinio vadovavimo stiliaus, įsipareigojimo organizacijai ir profesinio pervargimo sąsajos [The relates of transformational leadership, organizational commitment and job burnout]. Master Thesis in Psychology. Kaunas: Vytautas Magnus University. Retrieved from: http://talpykla.elaba.lt/elaba-fedora/objects/elaba:1775387/ Loi,  R., Lam,  L. W., Ngo, H. Y.,  & Cheong, S. (2015). Exchange mechanisms between ethical leadership and affective commitment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(6), 645–658. DOI: 10.1108/JMP-08-2013-0278. Lopez, D., Green, M., Carmody-Bubb, M., & Kodatt, S. (2011). The Relationship between Leadership Style and Employee Stress: An Empirical Study. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(3), 169–181. DOI: 10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v06i03/51756. Ma, Y., Cheng, W., Ribbens, B. A., & Zhou, J. (2013). Linking ethical leadership to employee creativity: knowledge sharing and self-efficacy as mediators. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(9), 1409–1420. DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2013.41.9.1409. Macey, W.H., Schneider, B., Barbera, K.M., & Young, S.A. (2009). Employee engagement: Tools for analysis, practice and competitive advantage. London, England: Wiley- Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9781444306538. Madathil, R., Heck, N. C., & Schuldberg, D. (2014). Burnout in psychiatric nursing: examining the interplay of autonomy, leadership style, and depressive symptoms. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 28(3), 160–166. DOI: 10.1016/j. apnu.2014.01.002. McKinleya, T. F., Bolanda, A. B., & Mahanb, J. D. (2017). Burnout and interventions in pediatric residency: A literature review. Burnout Research, 6, 9–17. DOI: 10.1016/j.burn.2017.02.003. Miller, P. M. (2013). Principles of Addiction: Coprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders (1st ed). Massachusetts, USA: Academic Press. Mitonga-Monga, & J. Cilliers, F. (2016). Perceived ethical leadership: Its moderating influence on employees’ organisational commitment and organisational citizenship behaviours. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 26(1), 35–42. DOI: 10.1080/14330237.2015.1124608. Montero-Marín, J., García-Campayo, J., Fajó-Pascual, M., Carrasco, J. M., Gascón, S., Gili, M., & Mayoral-Cleries, F. (2011). Sociodemographic and occupational risk factors associated with the development of different burnout types: the cross-sectional University of Zaragoza study. BMC Psychiatry, 11(1), 49–61. DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-11-49. Ng, T. W. H., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2007). Dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of workaholism: A conceptual integration and extension. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 111–136. DOI: 10.1002/job.424. Oates, W. (1971). Confessions of a workaholic: The facts about work addiction. New York, USA: World Publishing. Peterson, S. J., Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., & Hannah, S. T. (2012). The relationship between authentic leadership and follower job performance: The mediating role of follower positivity in extreme contexts. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 502–516. DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.004. 2017, 20, 61–82 p.International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 81 Robinson, L. D., Magee, C., & Caputi, P. (2016). Burnout and the work-family interface: a two-wave study of sole and partnered working mothers. Career Development International, 21(1), 31–44. DOI: 10.1108/CDI-06-2015-0085. Rodríguez-Mantilla, J. M., & Fernández-Díaz, M. J. (2017). The effect of interpersonal relationships on burnout syndrome in Secondary Education teachers. Psicothema, 29(3), 370–377. DOI: 10.7334/psicothema2016.309. Russell, L. D. (2013). Reconstructing the “Work Ethic” through Medicalized Discourse on Workaholism.  Journal Of Applied Communication Research,  41(3), 275–292. DOI: 10.1080/00909882.2013.825046. Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., van der Heijden, F. A., & Prins, J. T. (2009). Workaholism, burnout and well-being among junior doctors: The mediating role of role conflict. Work & Stress, 23(2), 155–172. DOI: 10.1080/02678370902834021. Shifron, R., & Reysen, R. R. (2011). Workaholism: Addiction to Work. Journal of Individual Psychology, 67(2), 136. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800634-4.00096-2. Shimazu, A., Schaufeli, W., Kamiyama, K., & Kawakami, N. (2015). Workaholism vs. Work Engagement: the Two Different Predictors of Future Well-being and Performance.  International Journal Of Behavioral Medicine,  22(1), 18–23. DOI: 10.1007/s12529-014-9410-x. Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The Treatment of Workaholism with Meditation Awareness Training: A Case Study. EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, 10(3), 193–195. DOI: 10.1016/j.explore.2014.02.004. Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987). Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(1), 146–148. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.146. Smedema, M. S., Thompson, K., Sharp, S., & Friefeld, R. (2016). Evaluation of a Biopsychosocial Model of Life Satisfaction in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injuries. Journal Of Rehabilitation, 82(4), 38–47. Retrieved from: http://web.a.ebscohost. com.ezproxy.vdu.lt/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=27&sid=37a05869-833d- 4b83-a37c-fbe51f64be90%40sessionmgr4007 Taris, T. W., Geurts, S. E., Schaufeli, W. B., Blonk, R. B., & Lagerveld, S. E. (2008). All day and all of the night: The relative contribution of two dimensions of workaholism to well-being in self-employed workers.  Work & Stress,  22(2), 153–165. DOI: 10.1080/02678370701758074. Taris, T. W., Van Veek, I., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2012). Demographic and occupational correlates of  workaholism. Psychological Reports, 110(2), 547–554. DOI: 10.2466/03.09.17.PR0.110.2.547-554. Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: Mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5), 1275–1286. DOI: 10.1037/a0015848. 82 Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė SUBJEK T Y VIAI SUVOKIAMO E TIŠKO VADOVAVIMO STILIAUS REIKŠMĖ POLINKIO PER DAUG DIRBTI IR PROFESINIO PERVARGIMO SĄSA JOMS Modesta Morkevičiūtė, Auksė Endriulaitienė Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Lietuva Santrauka. Mokslinė problema. Remiantis mokslinių tyrimų rezultatais, etiškas vado- vavimo stilius gali turėti tiek teigiamų, tiek neigiamų pasekmių darbuotojams. Ankstesniais tyrimais nustatyta, kad etiškas vadovavimo stilius gali prisidėti prie darbuotojų polinkio per daug dirbti ir profesinio pervargimo vystymosi, tačiau šių reiškinių sąsajos vertinamos nevienareikšmiškai. Tyrimo tikslas. Nustatyti subjektyviai suvokiamo etiško vadovavimo stiliaus reikšmę darbuotojų polinkio per daug dirbti ir profesinio pervargimo sąsajoms. Tyrimo metodai. Tyrime dalyvavo 302 įvairiose Lietuvos organizacijose dirbantys respondentai (41 vyras ir 261 moteris). Etiškam vadovavimo stiliui vertinti naudotas M. E. Brown, L. K. Trevino, D. A. Harrison (2005) klausimynas. Polinkiui per daug dirbti matuoti naudota Olandijos polinkio per daug dirbti skalės trumpoji versija (DUWAS-10) (Schaufeli, Taris, Bakker, 2009). Profesiniam pervargimui vertinti naudotas T. S. Kristensen, M. Borritz, E. Villadsen ir K. B. Christens- en (2005) Kopenhagos Profesinio pervargimo klausimynas. Rezultatai. Tyrimu nus- tatyta, jog darbuotojai, kurie savo vadovo elgesį suvokia kaip labiau etišką, mažiau linkę per daug dirbti, mažiau kenčia nuo asmeninio ir su darbu susijusio pervargimo nei tie darbuotojai, kurie savo vadovo elgesį suvokia kaip mažiau etišką. Darbuotojų, kurie savo vadovo elgesį suvokia kaip labiau etišką, su klientais susijęs pervargimas yra mažiau susijęs su perdėtai sunkiu darbu nei tų darbuotojų, kurie savo vadovo elgesį suvokia kaip mažiau etišką. Išvados. Nustatyta, kad darbuotojų požiūris į vadovą yra svarbus polinkio per daug dirbti ir profesinio pervargimo vystymuisi, todėl ateityje svarbu tyrinėti veiksnius, kurie galėtų keisti darbuotojų požiūrį į organizacijos aplinką ir savo vadovą. Reikšminiai žodžiai: subjektyviai suvokiamas etiškas vadovavimo stilius, polinkis per daug dirbti, profesinis pervargimas. Received: 30 08 2017 Accepted: 07 11 2017