23 SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS ISSN 1941-7233 (Print), ISSN 2345-024X (Online) http://dx.doi.org/10.7220/2345-024X.16.2 1 Address for correspondence: Vilnius University, Department of Clinical and Organiza- tional Psychology, Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania, ieva.urbanaviciute@fsf.vu.lt THE ROLE OF C AREER FAC TORS IN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE JOB INSECURIT Y: A STUDY IN DIFFERENT ORGANIZ ATIONAL CONTEX TS Ieva Urbanavičiūtė1, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė Vilnius University, Lithuania Tinne Vander Elst Research Group Work, Organizational and Personnel Psychology, KU Leuven, Belgium Hans De Witte Research Group Work, Organizational and Personnel Psychology, KU Leuven, Belgium Vanderbijlpark Campus, North-West University, South Africa Abstract. Background. The aim of this study is to analyse the determinants of the occur- rence of qualitative and quantitative job insecurity. It focuses on three career vari- ables (employability, career exploration, and career uncertainty) and the way they contribute to individual reactions (defined as financial and social strain) to job inse- curity. In addition, it takes into account the contextual factors, such as sector and or- ganizational change in explaining how job insecurity is perceived and responded to. Methods. An online survey was carried out in a sample of 205 respondents employed in various Lithuanian organizations. They filled out a questionnaire which included measures of job insecurity, career attitudes, and financial/social strain. The data were analysed in the full sample, as well as in four subsamples that were split regarding two parameters (public vs. private sector; no recent organizational change reported vs. recent organizational change reported). Results and conclusion. The hierarchical regression analysis showed job insecurity to be strongly related to financial and social strain. However, it draws a slight distinction between qualitative and quantitative job insecurity as predictors of strain. Furthermore, a moderator analysis has revealed sev- eral moderating effects of career variables in the relationship between job insecurity and financial/social strain. Finally, it was found that organizational change and type of sector may play a role in determining the interplay between career factors, job in- security and strain, as job insecurity effects were quite different across different sub- samples. To generalize, this study emphasizes the importance of understanding how personal variables, such as career attitudes and beliefs, might change the subjective experience of job insecurity in objectively different contexts. Keywords: job insecurity, strain, employability, career attitudes. 24 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte INTRODUC TION In the seminal work of Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) job inse- curity is defined as a potential threat to the continuity of the current job situation. Since then, numerous studies have focused on this phenome- non, and it is still considered a very important issue in the modern world of work. It is argued that job insecurity has serious detrimental effects for both employees and organizations. Considering the situation in the labour market following the economic recession, a certain level of job insecurity is almost inevitable, raising a very important question about how and by what means employers, employees or other parties could prevent its negative effects. Researchers focus on this question in quite different ways. Psycho- logists are particularly interested in individual (i.e. micro-level) indica- tors and the subjective side of insecurity. That is, they analyse percei- ved (though not always objectively existent) threat of losing job. Tradi- tionally, perceived job insecurity has been seen as a multidimensional construct (e.g. Ashford, Lee, & Bobko, 1989; Sverke, Hellgren, & Näswall, 2002; Hellgren, Sverke, & Isaksson, 1999; De Witte, 2005). One of the most well-known distinctions is the distinction between qualitative and quan- titative job insecurity introduced by Hellgren et al. (1999) and adopted by many researchers afterwards. Qualitative job insecurity is defined as a perceived threat of losing valued job features, whereas quantitative job insecurity reflects the perceived threat of losing the job itself. The psychological mechanism of job insecurity. In psychology, job insecurity and its effects are best explained by stress models, such as Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) model of coping with stressful events. More specifically, job insecurity is thought to be a stressor which de- creases the sense of control and, if an employee does not possess an effective coping strategy, it might eventually cause various negative effects (Ashford et al., 1989; Sverke et al., 2006; Vander Elst, De Cuyper, & De Witte, 2011; Staufenbiel & König, 2010). A number of studies report the link between job insecurity and its negative outcomes, such as psychosomatic complaints and an increa- sed level of anxiety (Mohr, 2000), negative job attitudes (Rosenblatt  & Ruvio, 1996; Mauno, Kinnunen, Mäkikangas, & Nätti, 2005), or a decrease 25 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. in work-related and general well-being (De Witte, De Cuyper, Handaja, Sverke, Näswall,  & Hellgren, 2010). An important note is that it can not only affect work-related behaviours and attitudes, but may also spread to other areas of life (De Witte et al., 2010; Lim  & Sng, 2006; Mauno  & Kinnunen, 1999). This is the so-called ‘spill-over’ effect, which can actu- ally be an indicator of how far negative outcomes of job insecurity can reach. For example, by analysing how job insecurity affects well-being or family relations, the spill-over into personal life can be observed. This effect might occur in various contexts and its analysis provides invaluable information on the psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between subjective experience of job insecurity and its various outcomes. Adopting a multifaceted approach, we presume that the scope of job-related insecurity can differ. It might be quite concrete and focused on the present or the near future (e.g., losing the job soon, cf. job insecurity) as well as ‘spilled-over’ and more generalized (e.g. being insecure about one’s future financial or social status due to the threat to financial/social functions of work, cf. financial/social strain). Therefore, this study focuses on a somewhat different aspect of the spill-over effect by analysing how qualitative and quantitative job insecurity spread to more generalized perceptions of strain related to the long-term financial and social consequences. By focusing on it, it addresses multiple layers of job insecurity and attempts to discover the meaning of loss of bene- fits provided by employment. Work-related benefits in the context of job insecurity. In this study, the exploration of the job insecurity-strain relationship is based on the concept of work-related benefits, which are extensively depic- ted in the works of Jahoda (1982). In her Latent Deprivation Theory, Jahoda argued that work serves a two-fold function (thus, providing two types of benefits): manifest and latent. The manifest function is a direct function of work to assure financial benefits. The latent function, on the other hand, is related to satisfying a number of personal and so- cial needs, such as the need for social contact, collective purpose, time structure, status, and activity (Jahoda, 1982). Latent Deprivation Theory is widely used in unemployment rese- arch to explain its negative effects (Hoare & Machin, 2009; Selenko, Ba- tinic,  & Paul, 2011; Paul, Geithner,  & Moser, 2009). For example, in their study of unemployment, Hoare and Machin (2009) argue that losing 26 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte latent and manifest job benefits decreases the sense of control in life, which is one of the reasons why unemployment is experienced as such a stressful event. Similarly, a focus on latent and manifest job functions might better explain the stressful experience of job insecurity when une- mployment has not yet happened but when certain changes in the job situation are expected. To illustrate the rationale of the current study, Figure 1 portrays a three-phase conceptual model of job insecurity in relation to latent and manifest job functions. Figure 1. Conceptual model of job insecurity. Contextual factors creating an (in)secure situation Level of perceived job insecurity Strain related to financial and social standing in the future Intervening factors The first phase includes objective preconditions that determine the occurrence of job insecurity (e.g. organizational context). The second phase includes perceptions of job insecurity as such. Finally, the third phase encompasses more generalized perceptions of strain related to one’s future social and financial standing (cf. anticipated loss of latent and manifest job benefits). Based on Latent Deprivation Theory (Jahoda, 1982), a direct rela- tionship between job insecurity and social and financial strain could be imposed. It applies to financial strain particularly, as financial need satisfaction is a direct function of work (while social need satisfaction may also be achieved by various other means). However, it is evident that individual reactions to job insecurity differ widely and they may or may not spill-over to a more generalized strain. Therefore, the main qu- estion addressed in this study is what factors prevent or promote the occurrence of future-related strain in case of job insecurity. The moderators of job insecurity effects. The emergence and outcomes of job insecurity are thought to be determined by a number of subjective and objective factors. The subjective (psychological) factors are often treated as moderators determining individual reactions to insecure conditions (Sverke et al., 2006; Klandermans  & van Vuuren, 27 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. 1999; Hoare & Machin, 2009). According to stress models (e.g., Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), certain individual characteristics may act as coping re- sources in stressful events; therefore, in the context of job insecurity, a focus on personal moderators (such as individual dispositions, attitu- des or beliefs) has a proven practical value as they may help an emplo- yee to cope more effectively when threatened with uncertainty. Differently from other studies, which focus on dispositional factors important for coping with stress (e.g., Mak  & Mueller, 2000; Roskies, Louis-Guerin, & Fournier, 1993), this study takes into consideration spe- cific attitudinal variables, which might help to understand individual re- actions to job insecurity. Specifically, this study aims to explore the role of career factors (in the form of attitudes and beliefs) as potential mode- rators of the relationship between job insecurity and future-related fi- nancial/social strain. Furthermore, it takes into account the objective or- ganizational characteristics, which might, in turn, determine the strength and outcomes of job insecurity. Both the career factors and the organi- zational factors are discussed below. Career factors. Career factors are quite rarely explored in job inse- curity research. An exception is perceived employability, which domina- tes such studies. It is defined as a perceived ability to find another em- ployment that would be similar to the present one (Berntson, Sverke, & Marklund, 2006). In other words, perceived employability reflects how a person evaluates himself as a member of the labour market and how he perceives his chances of controlling his employment situation. Employa- bility can be hypothesized to have a mitigating effect in case of job inse- curity, as it should enable a person to retain at least some ‘career control’. In line with this, several previous studies have found it to be directly related to reduced job insecurity (De Cuyper, Mäkikangas, Kinnunen, Mauno,  & De Witte, 2012) or to act as a moderator of the relationship between job insecurity and its negative outcomes (Silla, De Cuyper, Gra- cia, Peiró, & De Witte, 2009). However, the results are not unambiguous, raising many questions about its role in insecure work situations and cle- arly indicating the need for further research on this issue. Another career variable, career exploration, comes from the career construction paradigm and research on career adaptability (Super & Kna- sel, 1981; Savickas, 1997) that focuses on personal qualities necessary for adequate career development. It reflects an active interest in deve- loping one’s career and is considered as one of the main components 28 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte of career adaptability (Blustein, 1997; Savickas, 1997). Contrary to em- ployability, career exploration is not related to self-evaluation; it reflects a proactive approach towards career planning by attempting to gain more information about career possibilities. A number of studies (e.g., Zikic & Klehe, 2006; Ebberwein, Krieshok, Ulven, & Prosser, 2011; Brown, Bimrose, Barnes, & Hughes, 2012) have shown career adaptability factors to be beneficial in actual career transitions, raising a question about their role in situations where such career change is only expected, but has not yet been undertaken. The third career variable, on the contrary, belongs to the category of variables reflecting negative attitudes towards career planning, which can also be powerful predictors of individual reactions to job insecurity. This category includes such factors as perceived career barriers (Swan- son, Daniels,  & Tokar, 1996), dysfunctional career thoughts (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon,  & Saunders, 1998) or career uncertainty (Orn- dorff & Herr, 1996; Ito & Brotheridge, 2001), to name just a few. This study focuses on career uncertainty, as this variable is the most person-centred. It reflects having serious doubts about one’s vocational choice as well as doubting the chances to set and reach goals in the given career field. To some extent, it can also be related to low perceived control of personal career and, therefore, is hypothesized to have at least some explanatory power in job insecurity–strain relationship. Organizational factors. The objective situational factors within the organization are thought to foster job insecurity (De Cuyper, De Witte, & Vander Elst, 2010; Sverke et al, 2002), therefore, their addition is a very important part of this study. Although many studies do control for ‘objective’ personal characte- ristics (i.e. socio-demographics), not many attempt to explore job inse- curity in objectively different organizational contexts. Whereas, a more profound look at the contextual factors (such as sector or organizational change) would be beneficial, as it can provide additional information on how perceptions of job insecurity develop or how they are responded to. For example, it may be implied that the relationship between job in- security and social/financial strain would differ in the public and in the private sector, as they are quite different regarding job security, working conditions, prospects for employee career development, etc. Similarly, organizational change is an essential factor in exploring job insecurity and its outcomes, as changes within the organization (e.g., restructu- 29 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. ring) are thought to prompt job insecurity, which, in turn, leads to strain (De Cuyper et al., 2010). Therefore, while the subjective factors (i.e. the career factors in this study) may be implied to have a buffering effect on the relationship between job insecurity and strain, it is nonetheless important to investigate whether it would be observed in different orga- nizational contexts. Hypotheses H1: Qualitative and quantitative job insecurity are positively related to financial and social strain. H2: Career variables moderate the link between job insecurity and fi- nancial/social strain. H3: The link between job insecurity, career variables and financial/so- cial strain is determined by objective organizational characteristics (i.e. sec- tor and organizational change). ME THODS Participants The sample consisted of 205 respondents employed in various Li- thuanian organizations. It was composed by contacting representatives of different organizations and sending them an invitation to participate in the study. Respondents’ mean age was 36.26 years (SD=11.38) and their average tenure was 7.85 years (SD=8.01). Slightly over half of the respondents were employed in the public sector (56%), the rest of them represented the private sector (44%). Regarding organizational change (restructuring, merge, lay-offs), nearly half of the respondents reported no change (49%), while the rest of them reported having experienced one or more types of change in their organizations (51%). Measures and procedure The survey was conducted online and included the following mea- sures: 1) A short socio-demographic question list, including questions on age, gender, tenure, sector, experience of organizational change, etc. 2) Job Insecurity Scale (De Witte, 2000). It is a four-item scale measu- ring quantitative job insecurity (i.e. the perceived threat to lose one’s job), further validated in the study of Vander Elst, De Witte and De Cuyper 30 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte (2013). Additionally, a new short four item qualitative job insecurity scale (measuring the perceived threat of experiencing unfavourable changes in working conditions) was used, developed by De Witte and De Cuyper. 3) Financial Strain Scale (Meireman, Meuleman, Billiet, De Witte,  & Wets, 2004) consists of four items measuring strain related to one’s fi- nancial standing in the future. 4) Social strain was measured using the Latent Benefits Scale (adap- ted from Muller, Creed, Waters, & Machin, 2005). It measures strain rela- ted to being unable to satisfy the latent benefits of the job in the future (e.g. losing opportunity to make new contacts, to retain social status, etc.). The adapted version consists of five items. 5) Employability Scale (De Witte, 2000). It is a four-item scale mea- suring perceived employability (a belief about one’s ability to find a job equitable to the present one). 6) Career Exploration Scale was designed specifically for this study. It has a unidimensional structure and consists of six items measuring the frequency of career exploration behaviours (e.g. seeking for information about training, exploring new career opportunities, etc.) within the last year. 7) Career Uncertainty Scale, designed specifically for this study, has a unidimensional structure and consists of four items measuring the frequency of career uncertainty related thoughts within the last year (e.g. being uncertain about reaching career goals, questioning one’s ca- reer choices, etc.). All responses were marked on a five-point scale ranging from ‘totally disagree’ to ‘totally agree’, except for the Career Uncertainty and Career Exploration scales which were marked on a five-point scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘very often’. The first five scales were chosen and included in the survey in colla- boration with Prof. Hans De Witte and dr. Tinne Vander Elst as part of an ongoing international study on job insecurity. In order to prepare the Lithuanian version of the scales, three independent translators transla- ted the items. The final version was obtained by comparing draft trans- lations and selecting the most precise wordings. Before the launch of the study, all items were repeatedly reviewed by a language editor. Finally, all measures were checked for reliability and factor structure: the relia- bility coefficients and the summary of exploratory factor analyses are provided in Table 1. 31 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. Data analysis The data were analysed using SPSS software. Multiple regression analysis was run in order to determine the predictors of financial and so- cial strain. In addition, the MODPROBE macro (Hayes, 2009) was used to run the moderator analysis which allows a check for interaction effects. RESULTS Firstly, the data were analysed in the full sample (N=205). A regres- sion analysis was conducted in order to determine the predictors of financial and social strain. Two 3-block hierarchical regression models were built, the first one having financial strain as an outcome variable, whereas in the second model social strain was set as an outcome. Only background characteristics (i.e. age, gender and monthly salary) were entered in the first step of the analysis, quantitative and qualitative job insecurity were included in the second step, and all career variables were included in the third step. Table 2 provides means, standard deviations and scale intercorrelations of the main variables. The results of regres- sion analyses are provided in Tables 3 and 4. Table 1. Scale reliability coefficients and the summar y of explorator y factor analyses results Scale No. of factors Eigenvalues % of variance Range of factor loadings Cronbach α Job insecurity: 2 – 72.93 – – quantitative – 4.37 54.72 .72–.88 .88 qualitative – 1.46 18.21 .75–.85 .85 Financial strain 1 2.97 74.35 .75–.90 .88 Latent benefits 1 2.99 59.79 .68–.81 .83 Employability 1 3.06 76.42 .84–.91 .90 Career exploration 1 3.87 64.47 .75–.88 .89 Career uncertainty 1 2.51 62.72 .74–.84 .79 32 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the variables analyzed in the study (N=205) Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Quantitative job insecurity 2.23 .88 – Qualitative job insecurity 2.65 .80 .52** – Financial strain 3.01 .94 .41** .57** – Social strain 2.20 .73 .41** .47** .49** – Employability 2.95 .88 –.33** –.36** –.37** –.30** – Career exploration 3.27 .86 –.01 –.03 –.12 –.12 .26** – Career uncertainty 2.49 .85 .21** .41** .30** .32** –.20** .10 – ** p<.01 Table 3. Hierarchical regression model predicting financial strain Financial strain Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Gender (ref. male) .00 Gender .04 Gender .04 Age .24*** Age .08 Age .06 Monthly salary –.27*** Monthly salary –.10 Monthly salary –.08 – – Quantitative job insecurity .13* Quantitative job insecurity .13* – – Qualitative job insecurity .48*** Qualitative job insecurity .45* – – – – Employability –.08 – – – – Career exploration –.05 – – – – Career uncertainty .08 R2 .13 R2 .40 R2 .42 ∆R2 – ∆R2 .27*** ∆R2 .02 F(3;201)=9.58*** F(5;199)=26.83*** F(8;196)=17.35*** Note: Results are based on standardized (Beta) coefficients * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 33 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. Table 4. Hierarchical regression model predicting social strain Social strain Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Gender (ref. male) –.02 Gender .02 Gender .01 Age .22** Age .12 Age .08 Monthly salary –.15* Monthly salary –.01 Monthly salary .03 – – Quantitative job insecurity .21** Quantitative job insecurity .20** – – Qualitative job insecurity .31*** Qualitative job insecurity .24** – – – – Employability –.10 – – – – Career exploration –.04 – – – – Career uncertainty .16* R2 .07 R2 .25 R2 .28 ∆R2 – ∆R2 .18*** ∆R2 .03* F(3; 201)=4.92** F(5; 199)=13.24*** F(8; 196)=9.60*** Note: Results are based on standardized (Beta) coefficients * p < .05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 According to the results, all predictor variables explain approxima- tely 42% of variation in the outcome variable financial strain in the first model and approximately 28% of variation in the outcome variable so- cial strain in the second model. In both cases, qualitative and quantita- tive job insecurity seem to be the strongest predictors. Subsequently, a similar analysis was conducted in the split sample in order to test the role of organizational context. Four subsamples were obtained by splitting the total sample according to the following para- meters: public sector (N=115) vs. private sector (N=90); reported recent organizational change (N=105) vs. no recent organizational change re- ported (N=100). Job insecurity and career factors were set as predictors of strain; background variables were not included, as they had shown to be significant in the first step only in the previous analyses. The results are provided in Table 5 and Table 6. The results revealed slightly different prediction patterns in the four subsamples suggesting the role of context in explaining the occurrence of financial and social strain. Similarly to the previous analysis in the total 34 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte sample, both qualitative and quantitative job insecurity are the stron- gest predictors, although it should be noted that they are not significant in all cases. Table 5. Predictors of financial strain in the split sample Predictors Subsample Public sector Private sector Recent organizational change – yes Recent organizational change – no Quantitative job insecurity .17 .20* .28** –.03 Qualitative job insecurity .42*** .53*** .33** .62*** Employability –.10 –.02 –.17 –.10 Career exploration .09 –.23** –.04 –.12 Career uncertainty .10 .11 .13 .02 R2 .39 .47 .43 .44 F value F(5;109)=13.74*** F(5;84)=15.10*** F(5;99)=14.66*** F(5;94)=14.89*** Note: Outcome variable: financial strain; results are based on standardized (Beta) coefficients * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Table 6. Predictors of social strain in the split sample Predictors Subsample Public sector Private sector Recent organizational change – yes Recent organizational change – no Quantitative job insecurity .31** .10 .32** .06 Qualitative job insecurity .24* .25* .35** .15 Employability –.10 –.11 .05 –.24* Career exploration –.05 –.10 –.07 –.12 Career uncertainty .10 .23* –.01 .34*** R2 .34 .23 .33 .36 F value F(5;109)=11.11*** F(5;84)=5.07*** F(5;99)=9.53*** F(5;94)=10.57*** Note: Outcome variable: social strain; results are based on standardized (Beta) coefficients * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. One of the striking findings is that quantitative job insecurity seems to be as important as qualitative job insecurity in the public sector, when predicting social strain. However, especially organizational change seems to change the impact of job insecurity. Quantitative and quali- tative job insecurity seem to be equally important in predicting strain when there have been recent organizational changes. When no such changes occurred, both kinds of insecurity are unrelated to social strain, whereas only qualitative job insecurity affects financial strain. In order to better explore the role of career variables, the moderator analysis was carried out separately in all four subsamples. It allows the detection of interaction effects between job insecurity and career va- riables when predicting financial/social strain. As the analysis is carried out in the split sample, it enables the evaluation of the role of sector and organizational change as well. In the moderator analyses, qualitative and quantitative job insecurity were set as main predictors of financial or social strain. Career variables were, in turn, set as moderators (one at a time, the rest of the variables including as covariates in the model). To avoid multicollinearity, both in- teraction variables were centred. According to the results, a few interactions were significant. Two significant interactions were obtained in the private sector subsample, two in the subsample with reported organizational change, and two in the subsample with no organizational change reported. No significant interactions between job insecurity and career variables were obtained in the public sector subsample. The results of the statistically significant interactions are summarised in Table 7. Table 7. O ver view of the significant interactions between job insecurity and career variables in predicting financial and social strain Subsample Main predictor Moderator Outcome Model statistics Private sector Quantitative job insecurity Employability Social strain R2=.28 F(6;83)=5.33, p=.000 Private sector Qualitative job insecurity Career uncertainty Social strain R2=.29 F(6;83)=5.54, p=.000 Organizational change – yes Qualitative job insecurity Career exploration Financial strain R2=.45 F(6;98)=13.40, p=.000 Organizational change – yes Qualitative job insecurity Employability Social strain R2=.36 F(6;98)=9.04, p=.000 Organizational change – no Qualitative job insecurity Career uncertainty Financial strain R2=.48 F(6;93)=14.02, p=.000 Organizational change – no Quantitative job insecurity Employability Social strain R2=.43 F(6;98)=11.67, p=.000 36 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte Figures 2 to 7 illustrate conditional job insecurity effects on financial/ social strain under different values of the moderator. The solid lines show the link between job insecurity and strain under low values of the mo- derator (1SD below mean), whereas the dotted lines illustrate the same link when values of the moderating variable are high (1SD above mean). Figures 2 and 3 show the results that were obtained in the private sector subsample: While employability buffered the positive relations- hip between quantitative job insecurity and social strain, qualitative job insecurity was related to higher levels of social strain when employees experienced more career uncertainty. Figure 2. Interaction between quantitative job insecurity and employability predicting social strain in private sector subsample Figure 2. Interaction between quantitative job insecurity and employability So ci al s tr ai n 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low empoyability High empoyability Low quantitative JI High quantitative JI Figure 3. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncertainty predicting social strain in private sector subsample So ci al s tr ai n 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low career uncertainty High career uncertainty Low qualitative JI High qualitative JI Figure 3. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncer tainty predicting social strain in private sector subsample Figure 3. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncertainty predicting social strain in private sector subsample 37 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. Figure 4. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career exploration Fi n an ci al s tr ai n 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low career exploration High career exploration Low qualitative JI High qualitative JI Figure 4. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career exploration predicting financial strain in repor ted organizational change subsample Figures 4 and 5 show the moderating effects between job insecu- rity and career variables in the subsample with reported organizational change. These figures demonstrate that career exploration mitigates the relationship between qualitative job insecurity and financial strain. Employability was, however, found to increase the relationship between qualitative job insecurity and social strain. Figure 5. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and employability predicting social strain in reported organizational change subsample So ci al s tr ai n 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low employability High employability Low qualitative JI High qualitative JI Figure 5. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and employability predicting social strain in repor ted organizational change subsample Furthermore, Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the moderation results ob- tained in the subsample with no reported organizational change: Unexpectedly, the relationship between qualitative job insecurity and 38 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte financial strain was stronger when employees experienced lower levels of career uncertainty. Furthermore, employability buffered the relations- hip between quantitative job insecurity and social strain. These results seem to suggest that employability is important in the job insecurity- social strain relationship, whereas career exploration and career uncer- tainty seem to act as moderators of the relationship of job insecurity and financial strain (with one exception). Figure 6. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncertainty predicting financial strain in subsample of no organizational change Fi n an ci al s tr ai n 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low empoyability High empoyability Low qualitative JI High qualitative JI Figure 6. Interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncer tainty predicting financial strain in subsample of no organizational change Figure 7. Interaction between quantitative job insecurity and employability predicting social strain in subsample of no organizational change So ci al s tr ai n 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low qualitative JI High qualitative JI Figure 7. Interaction between quantitative job insecurity and employability predicting social strain in subsample of no organizational change 5 4.5 4 3.5 Low career uncertainty High career uncertainty 39 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. DISCUSSION The results of this study allow for the exploration of financial and so- cial strain as the outcomes of job insecurity. The first hypothesis suggest- ing the link between job insecurity and strain was confirmed, as both social and financial strain are quite well predicted by perceived level of job insecurity. However, the results are more consistent when finan- cial strain is set as an outcome (in this case, job insecurity is often the only significant predictor). These results may suggest that perceived threat of losing the job or its valued features affects the anticipated fulfil- ment of manifest work functions first, and probably more strongly, com- pared to latent work functions. In the research literature, the role of man- ifest and latent work functions is understood and interpreted differently. Some studies underline the importance of latent functions (e.g., Paul et al., 2009; Selenko et al., 2011) by linking their (un)fulfilment to unemploy- ment related stress. Others argue that the loss of both latent and mani- fest work benefits might be treated as a serious stressor causing threat to the well-being (Hoare & Machin, 2009). Others, yet, emphasize the role of manifest work functions and their accompanying benefits – for example, Lim and Sgn (2006) have found a positive link between job insecurity and what they called ‘money anxiety’. Unfortunately, a wider compari- son of our own and similar studies is quite complicated due to different methodologies and different definitions of stressor variables that were measured. Another point, which turned out to be worth attention in this study, is the distinction between quantitative and qualitative job insecurity. At the measurement level, many studies do not distinguish between the two and measure an aggregate indicator of job insecurity. Our re- sults, however, have revealed slightly different results regarding their relationship with social and financial strain. As argued by De Witte et al. (2010), both quantitative and qualitative job insecurity can lead to nega- tive outcomes, and the strength of their negative effect depends on the outcome under consideration. Focusing on the benefits that come with employment, quantitative job insecurity would be expected to have a stronger negative effect. However, based on our results, qualitative job insecurity was found to be a better predictor of social and financial strain. A possible explanation of this lies in the source(s) of insecurity. 40 Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Tinne Vander Elst, Hans De Witte Although quantitative job insecurity is defined as more threatening, its relevance is rather dependent upon external conditions (i.e. upon an objective threat to lose one’s job); therefore, it seems to be the context that ‘determines’ the impact of job insecurity. A subsequent question of this study concerns the moderating role of career variables. Preliminary results are in line with earlier arguments (e.g., Berntson et al., 2006; Blustein, 1997; Zikic & Klehe, 2006; Orndorff & Herr, 1996) about the mitigating effect of such variables as employability and career exploration, and the exacerbating effect of career uncertainty. On the other hand, the second hypothesis cannot be fully confirmed as only a few significant interactions were obtained and the moderator ana- lysis has posed many questions. Employability taken as an example, the results are rather contradictory. In the private sector or when employees report no organizational change, low employability seems to strengthen the link between job insecurity and social strain. These results imply the deteriorating role of low employability (and the mitigating effect of high employability in reverse) and are consistent with findings obtained in similar studies (e.g., Silla et al., 2009). However, in case of ongoing orga- nizational change, namely high employability is related to significantly stronger link between qualitative job insecurity and social strain. These results may be interpreted in several ways. First, they can be explained by the extent of subjective situational control: It seems that ongoing change within the organization creates such a situation that cannot be perceived as controllable and, in this way, is restricting for those who demonstrate higher levels of employability. Second, high employability is more or less associated with ranking oneself well as a professional. It is, therefore, possible that anticipated change in the workplace is asso- ciated with greater threat to one’s status. Finally, one may not reject the idea that employability should be treated as a direct antecedent of job insecurity and not as a moderator of its effects. Similar interpretations apply to other career variables as well. For example, career exploration has shown to be a direct predictor of lower financial strain (in the private sector subsample). However, the ongoing organizational change possibly creates such a situation that restricts ca- reer opportunities; therefore, high career exploration seems to bring a reverse effect. 41 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. Interesting effects were obtained when analysing the interaction between qualitative job insecurity and career uncertainty. First, under high career uncertainty, qualitative job insecurity was found to be signi- ficantly related to increased social strain (in the private sector subsam- ple). These results are very well interpreted in the context of the career adaptability paradigm (Savickas, 1997; Brown et al., 2012). Career uncer- tainty reflects lack of belief in being able to plan one’s career effectively; therefore, it is not surprising that it ‘strengthens’ the job insecurity effect. On the other hand, in certain cases, the insecurity-strain relationship is stronger when career uncertainty is low, suggesting that taking charge of one’s career might evoke even stronger reactions to anticipated change in the workplace. Finally, this study has confirmed the third hypothesis drawing at- tention to contextual factors that may also affect the way in which job insecurity is perceived and responded to. As expected, organizational factors, such as ongoing change and sector, do play a role as job insecu- rity effects were quite different across different subsamples. CONCLUSION To sum up, this study emphasizes the importance of understanding how personal variables (i.e. career attitudes and beliefs) change the su- bjective experience of job insecurity in objectively different contexts. Our preliminary findings have revealed that, in specific cases, career va- riables might act as moderators between job insecurity and financial or social strain, therefore, determining the extent of experienced strain. It is important to note that these variables are not necessarily the ‘mitigators’ of job insecurity: According to our results, their role is determined by contextual factors and might change from context to context. LIMITATIONS The results obtained in this study suggest an under-explored rese- arch perspective; however, only a few significant interactions were obtai- ned indicating a need for inclusion of additional personal or contextual factors that would have more explanatory power. 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Job loss as a blessing in disguise: The role of career exploration and career planning in predicting reemployment quality. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69 (3), 391–409. 45 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 23–45 p. K AR JEROS VEIKSNIŲ SVARBA KOKYBINIO IR KIEKYBINIO NESAUGUMO DARBE R AIŠK AI SKIRTINGAME ORGANIZ ACIJOS KONTEKSTE Ieva Urbanavičiūtė, Dalia B agdžiūnienė, Jurgita Lazauskaitė -Zabielskė Vilniaus universitetas, Vilnius, Lietuva Tinne Vander Elst Leveno katalikiškasis universitetas, Belgija Hans D e Witte Leveno katalikiškasis universitetas, Belgija, Šiaurės vakarų universitetas, Pietų Afrika Santrauka. Tyrimo problema. Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjami psichologinio nesaugumo darbe ypatumai, t. y. siekiama įvertinti karjeros veiksnių (įsidarbinamumo, domėjimosi savo karjeros galimybėmis ir netikrumo dėl karjeros) reikšmę kokybinio ir kiekybinio nesaugumo kontekste. Straipsnyje pateiktas tyrimas, kuriame nagrinėjama, kaip minėti karjeros veiksniai siejasi su darbuotojų nerimu dėl finansinės ir socialinės padėties ateityje, kuris laikomas tiesioginiu darbuotojų atsaku į patiriamą nesaugumą darbe. Taip pat tyrime atsižvelgiama į objektyvius konteksto veiksnius (organizacijoje vykstančius pokyčius ir sektorių), kurie, manoma, turi nemažai reikšmės psichologinio nesaugumo darbe raiškai. Metodika. Tyrimas atliktas internetinės apklausos būdu. Jame dalyvavo 205 įvairių Lietuvos organizacijų darbuotojai. Jie pildė klausimyną, matuojantį nesaugumą darbe, karjeros veiksnius ir nerimą dėl finansinės / socialinės padėties ateityje. Duomenų analizė buvo atlikta ir pilnoje imtyje, ir ją išskaidžius pagal parametrus, atspindinčius organizacijos kontekstą (organizacijoje pokyčiai vyksta, organizacijoje pokyčių nėra; organizacija priklauso privačiajam, viešajam sektoriui). Rezultatai ir išvados. Hierarchinės regresijos analizė parodė, kad kokybinis ir kiekybinis nesaugumas darbe tiesiogiai susijęs su nerimu dėl būsimos finansinės / socialinės pa - dėties. Kita vertus, nustatytas skirtumas tarp kokybinio ir kiekybinio nesaugumo (pastarasis yra kiek stipresnis prognostinis veiksnys, ypač prognozuojant nerimą dėl būsimos finansinės padėties). Moderacinė analizė atskleidė, kad keletu atvejų karjeros veiksniai moderuoja ryšį tarp kokybinio / kiekybinio nesaugumo darbe ir nerimo dėl būsimos finansinės / socialinės padėties. Taip pat nustatyta, kad organizacijoje vyks- tantys pokyčiai bei sektorius, kuriam organizacija priklauso, iš dalies determinuoja nesaugumo darbe raišką. Apibendrinus tyrimo rezultatus, atkreipiamas dėmesys į in- dividualių karjeros veiksnių reikšmę subjektyviam nesaugumo darbe suvokimui skirtingomis organizacinėmis aplinkybėmis. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: psichologinis nesaugumas darbe, nerimas dėl ateities, įsidarbina- mumas, karjeros veiksniai. Received: December 16, 2013 Accepted: December16, 2014