127 RE VIE W OF DOC TOR AL DISSERTATION “EXECUTIVE FUNC TIONS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN“ (social Sciences, psychology, 06S) PREPARED BY L AURYNA R AKICKIENĖ Vytautas Gudonis Šiauliai University, Lithuania The main idea of the doctoral dissertation prepared by Lauryna Rakickienė came from the burning practical issue, which makes this work applicable and significant from the practical point of view. The author rationally substantiates the significance of the dissertation with the research questions (that replace the subgoals) and defensible state- ments. The defensible statements highlight that executive functions of primary school children may be described by the structure of three in- terrelated factors – working memory updating, mental set shifting and response inhibition. These three factors are differently associated with achievement in primary school: working memory updating is related to achievement directly and through cognitive mediators while response inhibition – through behavioural mediators. Together with other defen- sible statements it allowed to formulate the rational research objective. The work is well illustrated – there are 8 tables, 21 figures and 11 appen- dices that depict results of the research and other relevant information that complements them. The author revealed why the topic of the dissertation is not yet explored well enough. She also flawlessly formulated and adequately highlighted the relevance, scientific novelty and practical value of the work. In pursuit of her goal – “to determine the structure of executive functions and their role in academic success of primary school children”, the author formulated adequate research questions, replacing the sub- goals of the research. SCIENTIFIC REVIEWS 128 Reviews The theoretical part of the dissertation is based on the newest psy- chological literature. The author introduces the reader to the variety of researches, masters the vast data flow, highlighting the most significant facts that are related to the goals of the research. In the literature re- view the author clarified the concept of executive function, reviewed its development, revealed conceptual and methodological problems associated with it, appropriately analysed the structure of an executive function, provided the characteristics of both the executive function and other related cognitive functions. The author attempted to relate execu- tive functions of primary school children to school success and viewed these phenomena through the light of academic achievement and so- cial success. That actualised the scientific significance of the work. This way the author demonstrated her ability to find a novel and meaningful niche for her work. After studying the theoretical part of the dissertation, I positively evaluate the author’s analytical competencies. While providing information on the research methods, the author properly introduced the reader to the structure and methodological background of the empirical study, adequately selected research meth- ods, organisation of the study and statistical analysis. The method may be characterised by a large variety of various research instruments. Posi- tive is the fact that age appropriate tasks for executive functions were developed by the author. Thanks to the rational selection and creative application of research methods in the empirical part of the study, the author was able to answer the following research questions: to what extent the three-factor (re- sponse inhibition, mental set shifting, working memory updating) struc- ture is characteristic of the executive function in primary school children; how executive function predicts intellectual ability, verbal and perfor- mance intelligence in primary school children; how executive function predicts achievement in math, reading, writing and natural sciences in primary school children; how executive functions and achievement are related – directly or through other cognitive or behavioural variables; how executive functions predict peer relations among primary school children; how executive functions and peer relations are linked – directly or through other cognitive or behavioural variables. The research results are sufficiently interpreted in context of adjacent empirical studies carried out in other countries and latest theoretical 129 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 127–132 p. works in psychology. The knowledge and insights provided in the con- clusions follow logically from the arguments given in the thesis and an- swer the research questions, formulated in the introduction. The analy- sis, carried out in the research, and the conclusions answer to the defen- sible statements and are sufficiently grounded and reliable. Positive is the fact that the author of the thesis pointed out the limi- tations of the study and provided guidelines for a further research. The analysis of the provided publications shows that the scientific papers published by the author reflect the main idea of the research, key statements, results and findings of the thesis. The summary of the doc- toral dissertation sufficiently reflects the dissertation. It should be noted that after receiving rich and socially relevant information the author of the research prepared recommendations, enhancing the practical sig- nificance of the work. In the end of the work the author formulates clear, concise and em- pirically grounded conclusions, which should be of interest to psycholo- gists from different areas. 1. Executive functions of primary school-age children are best ex- plained by the internal structure of three partly related factors (response inhibition, working memory updating and mental set shifting). The inhibition of dominant response is the most dif- ferentiated executive function, which is not related to working memory updating and mental set shifting in primary school-age children. 2. Working memory updating predicts verbal intelligence, perfor- mance intelligence and g factor of intelligence in primary school children. 3. Working memory updating is an important predictor of academic achievement in primary school: • The ability to efficiently update representations in working memory predicts better achievement in reading and writing directly; • Updating predicts achievement in mathematics through perfor- mance intelligence: children who are better at updating repre- sentations in working memory have higher intellectual abilities, and nonverbal intelligence is a direct predictor of achievement in reading and writing. 130 Reviews 4. Dominant response inhibition predicts achievement in math- ema-tics and nature not directly, but through the symptoms of hyperactivity: children who find it more difficult to suppress the dominant, but in the current situation inadequate response, are more prone to hyperactive behaviour; while achievement of chil- dren who are less able to manage their activity and attention is rated lower by the teachers. 5. The relationship between executive functions and achieve- ment in mathematics differs depending on the way of assessing achievement: teacher ratings are predicted by working memory updating but performance on achievement tasks is predicted by inhibition of prepotent responses. 6. When executive functions and intelligence are included together in the prognostic models of achievement of primary school chil- dren, executive functions predict achievement better than intel- ligence does: • Performance intelligence is a mediator of the relationship be- tween working memory updating and achievement in math- ematics, but does not predict achievement in reading, writing or nature; • Verbal intelligence does not predict achievement in any of the studied areas of academic achievement. 7. Prognostic relationship between any of the executive functions and peer relationships of primary school-age children has not been found. Psychologists, as well as educators, will be interested in practical rec- ommendations provided by Lauryna Rakickienė: The work revealed the importance of the executive functions for the academic success of primary school-age children. This is important in- formation for the educators and psychologists working in the field of education. The results of the study allow considering that importance of intelligence for academic achievement of elementary school children is possibly overestimated. When executive functions and behavioural variables (learning-related behaviour and hyperactivity) are included into the prognostic models of academic achievement, neither verbal nor performance IQ does not predict evaluations of primary school children‘s achievement provided by the teachers in reading, writing or natural 131 International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach 2015, 16, 127–132 p. science. Working memory updating is a much more reliable cognitive predictor of achievement, while response inhibition is related to a higher achievement through the behavioural mediator: teachers are prone to view math and natural science achievement of children who show less symptoms of hyperactivity as higher and children with better response inhibition show fewer symptoms of hyperactivity. Given the exceptional significance of working memory updating for school achievement it is assumed that teaching in primary school is too much based on memory, so we would like to recommend teachers use alternative tasks that are less dependent on memory more often. How- ever, it should be borne in mind that the updating in working memory is fundamentally different from passive memorization and reproduction of information. It is the basic executive function, necessary for completion of virtually all cognitive tasks (this is confirmed by a strong correlation between memory updating and general intellectual abilities), so it is not possible to avoid relying on working memory updating in the process of education. As difficulties in executive functioning and especially in updating of representations in working memory may be related to poor academic achievement in elementary school, the problem of assessing executive skills in practice becomes topical. No instruments of assessment of ex- ecutive functions are included in the current process of assessment of cognitive abilities in Lithuania; the intelligence scale showing cognitive strengths and difficulties of the child is used in most cases. However, having in mind that working memory updating predicts both academic achievement and intelligence scale scores of primary school children we can consider that, in some cases, assessment of working memory would be no less informative and more appropriate as well as less troublesome and less expensive than intelligence testing. While assessing cognitive abilities of children it would also be worthwhile to pay attention to their ability to inhibit inappropriate responses which may affect achievement of students not directly, but through the effect on their behaviour. This could be especially important for children characterized by excessive ac- tivity and difficulty in concentrating. Although the scientific community recognizes that these symptoms have cognitive basis, teachers often still equate the hyperactivity of children with the lack of discipline and be- lieve that such children could change their behaviour with willpower. 132 Reviews The linkage of symptoms of hyperactivity with difficulties in a particular field of cognitive activity could help change this notion and open up op- portunities of effective aid for the student. Finally, it is worthwhile to consider training of executive functions, efficacy of which has been proven by recent research (Espinet et al., 2013; Diamond et al., 2011). Children with weaker executive abilities should be identified and attempts to strengthen their executive functions should be made before the onset of school, so that the children’s chances for high achievement could be maximised. An exclusive feature of the Lauryna Rakickienė dissertation is a par- ticularly strong and analytical theoretical part where the author views the results of other researchers through the prism of critical thinking, raises original assumptions and provides rational interpretations which indicates scientific maturity of the defendant. The author is an expert in the field of her research, being able to correctly apply adequately se- lected research methods and evaluate their limitations, as well as to con- vincingly present her findings to academic community in publications. Lauryna Rakickienė’s doctoral dissertation “Executive Functions and School Success in Primary School Children” is a topical, independent, complete academic work of lasting theoretical and practical value, cor- responding to the requirements of Research Council of Lithuania, so the author deserves to receive a doctoral degree (Social sciences, Psychol- ogy 06S). L AURYNOS R AKICKIENĖS DISERTACIJOS „PR ADINIO MOKYKLINIO AMŽIAUS VAIKŲ VYKDOMOSIOS FUNKCIJOS IR MOKYKLINĖ SĖKMĖ“ (PSICHOLOGIJA 06 S) RECENZIJA Vytautas Gudonis Šiaulių universitetas Santrauka. Pagrindinė Laurynos Rakickienės daktaro disertacijos idėja kyla iš labai ak tua- lios praktinės problemos, tad šis mokslinis darbas svarbus ir vertingas praktiniu po žiūriu. Disertacijoje pagrįstas mokslinis idėjos aktualumas bei naujumas, pateikta nau jausios mokslinės literatūros analizė, pagrįsti ginamieji teiginiai, tinkamai atliktas tyrimas, moksliškai pagrįstos išvados, naudingos rekomendacijos. Analizuojamos ir re - cenzijos autoriaus įžvalgos. Disertacijoje pateikti duomenys gali būti naudingi ir mo - kytojų veikloje.