29 MOKSLO STRAIPSNIAI ISSN 1941-7233 (Print), ISSN 2345-024X (Online) http://dx.doi.org/10.7220/2345-024X.14.2 PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION FOR ADOLESCENTS Tija Kriščiūnaitė 1 Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania Roy M. Kern Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania Abstract. Background. Adolescence is considered as a period of difficulties and chal- lenges. It is the period of life of many changes. It may cause stress for adolescents, which in turn may have negative impact on adolescent’s mental health and well- being. Psycho-educational groups for adolescents are one of the common interven- tions to help them to cope and gain necessary life skills. Various psycho-educational group interventions and life skills programs have been developed and used to assist adolescents to cope with the challenges of life. The authors of the programs claim that they are creating new content to address the needs of youth. However, upon closer examination there are many similarities related to the constructs and inter- ventions proposed many years ago by Alfred Adler and his followers. The aim of this article was to compare theoretical principles of Individual Psychology with the con- structs proposed by various psycho-educational programs for adolescents but with a more intense focus on the now popular Lerner’s Positive Youth Development model. Method. A literature review was conducted to explore the similarities of the principles of Individual Psychology and contemporary psycho-educational interventions. Results and conclusions. the conclusions of analysis of the review of literature indicated that a number of the theoretical constructs of the Lerner’s Positive Youth Development model and other psycho-educational programs have been proposed many years ago by Adler and his followers. Examples of psycho-educational programs based on the principles of Individual Psychology were also reviewed. The authors propose that the theory of Individual Psychology may serve as a viable theory base for adolescent in- tervention programs that lack a theoretical base. It is also proposed that regardless of interventions studies need to be conducted to support the efficacy of the models. Keywords: adolescence, intervention, programs, positive psychology, Individual Psycho- logy. 1 Address for correspondence: Mykolo Romerio universitetas, Socialinės politikos fakul- tetas, Psichologijos institutas, Ateities g. 20, V-239, LT-08303, Vilnius; el. p. tikrisciunaite @gmail.com , tel. 8 672 96181. 30 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern INTRODUCTION Adolescence Challenges For many years adolescent development has been considered as a time of significant challenges and change. It is a critical period of human development marked by changes in the person’s cognitive, physical, psychological, social development which impacts the adolescents’ re- lationships with peers and adults. All these developmental events and changes increase the probability that youth will be faced with a number of life decisions that may cause confusion and stress and other difficul- ties in their lives (Lakin & Mahoney, 2006; Reinherz & Paradis et al., 2003; Pathak & Sharma et al., 2011). It may lead to negative consequences for adolescent’s mental health and well-being. Approximately 25% of adolescents have at least one stressful expe- rience in their lives such as death of family member or other traumatic event. A number of these stressors are related to school and interper- sonal relationships. School stressors include bullying, learning difficul- ties, and challenging relationships with teachers (Zimmer-Gembeck & Skinner, 2008). Other interpersonal stressors include conflicts with parents, peers, siblings, and the challenges related to securing a com- patible relationship with a boy or girl friend. These stressors have sig- nificant impact on the adolescent’s mental health related to emotional and behavioral problems (Bartels & Beijsterveldt et al., 2011; Pathak & Sharma et al., 2011; Rabbani & Mahmoudi-Gharaei et al., 2012). This is documented by research. Reinherz & Paradis et al. (2003) claimed that during the transition to adulthood 23.2% of adolescents suffer from de- pression. One fifth of adolescents experience anxiety at one time or an- other during this period of rapid changes (Deb & Chatterjee et al., 2010). This is not surprising in that, according to Paus et al. (2008) the peak age of onset for many psychiatric disorders is adolescence. Though not all adolescents may experience these psychological consequences related to these physical, psychological and social changes, professionals agree that most adolescents could benefit from psycho-educational strategies that focus on the life skills of goal setting, problem solving, collabora- tion and the ability to obtain and seek social support (Beveridge & Berg, 2007; Fomeris & Danish et al., 2007). Though there are various theoretical perspectives such as psycho- dynamic, social-cognitive, behavioral, or constructivism approaches to International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 31 2014, 14, 29–50 p. explain adolescent development and psycho-educational interventions, this article will focus on the contributions of the Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. The theory proposes that people are creative social embed- ded human beings who employ a number of ways to reach their goals and solve the problems of life. Of critical importance in the theory is it focus on the importance of the social context and that a number of ado- lescent and adults problems in life are related to finding one place with others or belonging. That means many of the skills needed for successful transition for adolescence to adulthood are available within the social context of the world around them. Relevance and originality of the paper: adolescents face a variety of difficulties related to this period of development which could be ad- dressed in a variety of ways. One of these ways of assisting the adoles- cent through these stressful periods could be through participation in psycho-educational groups. Researchers suggest various psycho-edu- cational interventions for adolescents of different backgrounds that could be helpful to deal with these adolescent stressors (Chaudhary & Mehta, 2012; Hayes & Morgan, 2005; Kowalenko & Wignall et al., 2002). A number of these programs claim they are original approaches. Little attention by authors, however, is used to explain the underpinnings of psychological principles and theory related to the core concepts that use a base for their psicho-educational programs. In this article the authors question and discuss a number of the concepts related to their originality of some of these concepts. Are they really new ideas or are creators of these programs using different terminology to explain psychological principles and theory which were created many years ago? If this is the case we ask a second question which is, would it not be more efficient to base their programs on theories and psychological principle already developed as oppossed to claiming there model or psycho-educational program consist of new concepts and theory? During this review and analysis of literature adolescents development will be discussed from perspective of Individual Psychology. Then the most popular psycho- educational programs for adolescents will be evaluated and presented from the perspective of Individual Psychology with special attention to Lerner’s 5 C model based programs. Finally, Lerner’s 5 C model will be compared with psycho-educational programs of Individual Psychology as well as recommendations for practitioners. 32 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern Adolescence Development from an Individual Psychology Perspective Each person is a unique human being who has his/her own mind, feelings, needs, values and plans for the future. Speaking in terms of In- dividual Psychology the individual creates his own lifestyle which was Adler’s term for personality. According to Adler (1956), life style is the basic construct that defines personality. He claims that the child forms this lifestyle by the age of five. The child develops his/her beliefs, values and problem solving strategies related to his lifestyle based on his/her subjective experiences in his/her family of origin. Adler’s idea about life style development within this within this social context has similarities to Bateson’s cybernetic model of the system theories approach where each person can influence others’ behavior (Guddemi, 2011). Adler’s ex- planation about the formation of life style have much in common with present day social constructivism movement and a variety of other cur- rent day psychological approaches such as time limit or brief therapy, cognitive systemic, and psycho-educational approaches (Watts, 2000). It shows that Adler theory is still valid and is a strong theoretical base for many of other contemporary theories. Although Adler proposed that the child’s lifestyle is stable one could raise the following question. If the lifestyle is created by the age of five with limited cognitions within the context of the social interactions in the family of origin, how does the individual integrate within this style all of the biopsychosocial changes that occur in the teenage years? One answer to this question is that though the life style remains stable, the individual can change the ways he/she is reaching his/her life’s goals (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). Each individual has an inborn potential of creativity. It helps the adolescent to manage his/her inferi- ority feelings and ways of adjusting to the social environment. Creativ- ity also helps the individual to find the best ways of reaching personal goals. However, the ability of the individual to reach one’s personal goals in a functional way in society is related to what Adler referred to as the degree of social interest that the child has acquired in their fam- ily of origin: “Social interest is the true and inevitable compensation for all the natural weakness of individual human beings. Social feeling and social adjustment are the right and normal compensations” (Ansbacher & International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 33 2014, 14, 29–50 p. Ansbacher, 1956). Social interest is not inborn, but it is an innate poten- tial which has to be consciously developed. Alfred Adler’s concept of social interest is the cornerstone of his theoretical formulations related to mental health (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). It is important for the person’s psychological well-being, and the lack of the appropriate level of social interest may be associated with psychological difficulties and some forms of psychopathology (Mozdzierz & Greenblatt et al., 2007). Adler viewed social interest as a universal, cross-cultural, innate poten- tial of each human being that requires development throughout life. The results of this developmental process are expressed through coopera- tive, communal living. Social interest is an evaluative attitude toward life expressed through empathic understanding of others. Adler noted that the innate capacity for social interest is essential for the achievement of harmonious social living and ability to empathize and identify with others. He was certain enough in his convictions about the centrality of social interest that he posited a direct relationship between social inter- est and mental health. If so, then adolescence as a sensitive and flexible period of human development, and from a neurological perspective, the problems solving portion of the adolescent brain is still developing. This might be a favorable time to nurture the development of social interest of the adolescent. Though Adler does not provide extended descriptions in his writ- ing of adolescent development, he does provide a clear view in a few words of his ideas on this developmental stage. From an Individual Psy- chology perspective, the greatest challenge for adolescents is the same challenge faced by all age groups: finding a place of belonging and im- portance within a complex social world. In their quest for significance, adolescents rely on the skills, abilities, and assumptions about the world that they have developed thus far in life. In striving to be significant, adolescents can utilize socially useful constructive or socially useless destructive methods (Eckstein & Rasmussen et al., 1999). Adler viewed adolescence as a period when the child is striving to prove that he/she is no longer a child. Many of the expressions and behaviors exhibited in adolescence are focused on the individual attempting to prove they are of equal status of the significant adults in their lives. Many children at this time may begin to smoke, to use bad language, and to stay out late at night. Some of them may reveal unexpected oppositions to their 34 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern parents. What direction the adolescent chooses in achieving indepen- dence and equality is dictated by the level of social interest and learning from the family of origin. The child’s experiences in the family can be positive or negative in relation to which behaviors they choose to use to find their place within any given social context. If the child is abused, ne- glected, rejected or shamed, he or she may choose to act out in violent ways, withdraw from others, or participate in high risk behaviors. How- ever many of these oppositional behaviors may also be viewed as po- sition and are reflective of the adolescent wishing to emphasize their need for independence (Popkin, 2000). Therefore, adolescence could be a difficult time for parents too. This idea fits nicely with system theories approach where each individual has a power to influence others (Laszlo & Krippner, 1997). Maybe for this reason, adolescents experience a de- cline in the desire for companionship with their parents and increased number of conflicts with them (Shehata & Ramadan, 2010). Maybe that is why so many parents (and teachers) also look to adolescence as a very difficult period marked with increased risk of problems or, in other words, refer to the adolescent period as the “hormonally handicapped” years (Eckstein & Rasmussen et al., 1999). Coupled with the development of social interest is the construct of viewing all behavior of adolescents within the social context of society. This context impacts the child development and determines which seed of his/her character grows and which withers (Popkin, 2000). Therefore, the behavior of the individual must be ultimately understood from a so- cial context perspective. Within this social context adolescents are re- quired to constantly interact with peers, teachers, and family members. Those interactions significantly influence the adolescent’s development (Lubenko & Sebre, 2007; Cakir & Aydin, 2005). Being an interactive mem- ber of this social context forces the adolescent to find the most effec- tive ways of collaborating with others. This is how he/she himself can find out the best way to reach his/her personal goals and implement the tasks of life. The social context and social interactions that one encoun- ters would also parallel to some degree the construct of social interest as described in Individual Psychology (Sweitzer, 2005). Thus, the influences that the teenagers acquire from social interaction are very important for their successful development. The teachers, parents and counsel- ors can help adolescents to go through this period of life and become International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 35 2014, 14, 29–50 p. mature and responsible people. We propose that one valuable way for the adolescent to make these important transitions is by participating in psycho-educational interventions programs, where they have an op- portunity to get to know themselves, interact with other within a social context and develop social interests. Dreikurs (1968, cit. acc. Balhmann & Dinter, 2001) a contemporary of Adler proposes that to benefit from these interactions the adolescent must be involved with individuals who are encouraging. The Importance of Encouragement Adler believed that every person has an inborn potential to deve- lopment of social interest and is motivated to reach his/her individual goals in a variety of ways. To nurture social interest in youth the ado- lescent must experience large doses of encouragement which then provides the courage for the adolescent to face the challenges of life (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). This encouragement is most valuable if it is provided by significant other such as parents, teachers, and peers. Encouragement is viewed as a very important factor for individual development and the nurturing of social interest. Encouragement strengthens a person’s confidence and his/her sense of self. It is a key to personal growth and development. As a result of encouragement, a person develops feelings that he/she belongs, which then provides him/her with the psychological resources to contribute to others within society. Individual’s Psychology interventions are orientated to encou- rage clients and help them believe in their own strengths and abilities. Encouragement can be learned and its value for creating better society is huge (Balhmann & Dinter, 2001). It is everything that a person does that makes another person to feel better, function more effectively, have greater self-confidence, and have a greater willingness to contribute to the well-being of others and society in general (Balhmann & Dinter, 2001). Therefore, apart from a personal goal, encouragement also has a social goal. Encouragement is more than just being positive. It is also not simply the denial or repression of the negative things in life. Encou- ragement is seeing both the positive and the negative and consciously choosing to pay attention to the positive, knowing that doing so is more beneficial in life than focusing on the negative. It must include mutual 36 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern respect, equality, understanding, and faith in self and others (Azoulay, 1999). The principle of equality includes listening to children and accep- ting their rights and opinions. It is important to understand feelings and hidden reasons behind behavior and to check these out with the child. Faith is the communication of a belief in the child’s strength and ability. Many adolescents think that they only have a sense of belonging if they adhere to certain requirements of others such as making good marks, being better than brother or sister, being faster, smarter, more creative, thinner, taller, and so on. Many have the impression that they do not belong and that they are unable to develop their full potenti- als and to contribute fully to society. This discouragement needs to be remedied by encouraging people to develop satisfying, psychologically healthier, and more fulfilling lives (Balhmann & Dinter, 2001). Encoura- gement is considered by Adlerian therapists and educators as perhaps the most important technique available for the promotion of change in that it is the belief by some authors that, most interpersonal problems are the result of discouragement (Carns & Carns, 1998). Encouragement is a tool that affects the child’s view of self and the world. Thus encourage- ment is used to validate a specific belief system in children (e.g., that they are capable or that cooperation is good) (Dreikurs & Grey, 1968, cit. acc. Balhmann & Dinter, 2001) which then leads to positive behaviors with others. Adolescents’ belief system may be changed using encourage- ment which is one of the key ingredients in a variety of psycho-educatio- nal programs. Psycho-educational Programs for Adolescent Development The review to follow is a representative sample judged by the authors of this article as the most representative of the field of psycho- educational programs and not a review of all programs. There is a range of interventions programs which aimed to help adolescents to cope with divorce, illness, drugs, alcohol, smoking and sex behavior. Some of these programs are designed to teach life skills, coping strategies, and self- understanding A sample of these programs are Low-Element Challenge Course (LECC), The Pen Resiliency Program (PRP), Adolescents Coping with Depression Course (CWD-A), Adolescents Coping with Emotion Program and various Life Skills (LS) programs such as “Goal”, “Helping Adolescents to Cope” or “Life Skills Education Program”. International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 37 2014, 14, 29–50 p. These programs include activities such as cooperative tasks build- ing, role playing discussion groups related to enhancing adolescent self-esteem (Chaudhary & Mehta, 2012), improving coping with nega- tive emotional problems (Kowalenko & Wignall et al., 2002; Hayes & Morgan, 2005), pro-social behavior, general adjustment at home, with peers and teachers (Srikala & Kumar, 2010), solving life problems and so- cial support (Fomeris & Danish et al., 2007). The Adolescent Coping with Depression Course (Clarke & Lewinsohn et al., 1990) was created to help adolescents to manage their emotions, understand themselves, and ex- press themselves in and appropriate way with others. Adolescents are invited to collaborate with others to participate in activities that they can perform best. In this way adolescents can receive encouragement for psychological growth (Balhmann & Dinter, 2001). Adolescent’s Cop- ing with Depression Course seems to be effective in changing negative adolescent’s thoughts to more positive ones (Kaufman & Rohde et. al., 2005). The purpose of Pen Resiliency Program is to enhance adolescent‘s resilience and improve overall well-being in youth. The major part of Penn Resiliency Program (Cutuli & Chaplin et al., 2006) helps adolescents to improve their social skills. It also helps adolescents to develop inter- action skills to help them to be more effective members of their peer group and community at large. In this program participants are encour- aged to seek social support and question their perfectionistic thoughts and behaviors. The PRP program can be used to reduce adolescents’ anxiety, behavioral problems and depression symptoms (Reivich & Gill- ham, 2010; Cardemila & Reivich et. al., 2007). Though not referenced in the content of the program, a number of the group dynamics, social skills, social support, and working on belief systems of adolescents are similar to many of the principles inherent in the theory of Individual Psy- chology. Another program which reflects principles of Individual Psychology and behavioral, cognitive, and affective components and designed to promote positive change is the Low-Element Challenge Course. This group-oriented program helps participants learn to share responsibil- ity, develop cooperative problem-solving skills, increase self-confidence and well-being (Glass & Myers, 2001). LECC’s has as a primary goal to improve the individual’s self-concept through elements of trust build- ing, goal setting, and problem solving. Structured group exercises 38 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern require participants to share responsibility and solve problems as a team. It keeps focus on cooperation and this is similar to social interest, a phenomenon that forms the foundation of healthy behavior. The LECC program encourages participants to create a cohesive group that makes each member feel that they belong to the group and helps them de- velop a positive self-worth. It is achieved by cooperation demonstrated among the participants. These are very similar to Individual Psychology goals for interventions. Another important commonality is the encour- agement component of the program. In LECC encouragement is used to strengthen relationships among group members by suggesting that they can be successful in the challenges as well as in life. The process focuses on success and skills rather than focusing on failure or lack of ability (Glass & Myers, 2001). Research shows that after participating in LECC, adolescents were more able to cooperate with each other and apply their skills in solving everyday life problems (Glass & Myers, 2001). LECC is also efficacious in increasing group cohesion, collaboration and self-disclosure (Glass & Benshoff, 2002). In Individual Psychology terms, these results may be interpretated as increasing adolescents‘ so- cial interest. Model of Positive Youth Development One of the most popular contemporary approaches to adolescent’s development is Lerner’s Positive Youth development (PYD) model or more specifically Lerner’s 5 C model. It has emerged over the past 20 years and now its popularity has become used in other countries. This theoretical model includes not only recommendations of methods to lead psycho-educational groups but also involves a broader view of adolescent development. To address the question or statement propo- sed earlier in the article that some programs may have many similarities to past theories and in particular the theory of Individual Psychology, the authors have selected this model to build a case to support this assumption. There are a number of studies (Jelicica & Bobeka et al., 2007; Lerner & Lerner, 2011; Schwartz & Phelps et al., 2010) that indicate the significance of PYD model related intervention programs as it relates to mental he- alth of adolescents. However, it appears to lack any systematic theoreti- cal position that would add credibility to its assumptions of adolescents’ International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 39 2014, 14, 29–50 p. development. This brings into question whether this model is really new or simply a mixture of long forgotten personality and psychological the- ories which are not clearly addressed in the content of the model. Briefly, the tenets of the PYD model are designed to address ado- lescents’ strengths and inner resources. It includes a view that each human being has a potential to change (Bowers & Li et al., 2010). It also attempts to empower adolescents and their sense of community (Lakin & Mahoney, 2006). In the PYD intervention, adolescents are seen as re- sources to be developed rather than problems to be managed (Lerner & Lerner, 2008). The PYD model is a systemic approach in that it views development throughout the life span as a prod uct of relations between the individual and others within their particular social context. The PYD accents the potential that individuals have for systematic change across life which means that adolescents’ development can be significantly al- tered in a positive way by factors in different social environments (Lerner & Lerner, 2008). In many ways the assumptions of the PYD model paral- lel assumptions set forth in the constructs of the positive psychology movement. Positive psychology also accents the human strengths. Like the PYD model, positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions (Gable & Haidt, 2005). It means that the PYD model should have a great value for adolescents’ developmental trajectories and for the community. To follow are some insights on the similarities of the model to the Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. Individual Psychology Interventions and Lerner’s 5C’s Model Approach Lerner’s PYD model views adoles cence through the lens of sys- tem theories and thereby proposes that one should view the process throughout the life span and that adolescent behavior is a product of the individuals and world. It is a holistic approach similar to Individual Psychology. The model also emphasizes the important of the adoles- cent to feel empowered and to cooperate with others (Lerner & Lerner, 2008). This is similar with Adler’s thoughts about social interest. It also emphasizes importance of collaboration among human beings. The he- althy individual is the one who lives in society and works for its benefit. Whether he wants it or not, society derives a certain advantage from his 40 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern work. Development of social interest is very important for the individu- al’s well-being, because group life proved to be a necessity (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). It alone enabled man, through a division of labor, to solve problems in which individual as such would have been condem- ned to failure. The importance of encouragement and empowerment is also mentioned: “If a child is to draw together his powers and overcome his difficulties, there must be a goal for his movements outside of him- self, a goal based on interest in reality, interest in others, and interest in cooperation.” – (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). In the PYD model, re- lationships with others are also viewed as one of significant factors for youth mental health. Relations between the developing individual and the multiple levels of his or her context are believed to be the basic pro- cesses of development. This is similar to one of the major assumptions of Individual Psychology that the life style of a child is strongly influenced by his experience in his family, and later in broader social context out- side the home, in school, work and other social settings. Both models of adolescent behavior emphasize that healthy, positive development is an outcome of the bidirectional, person-context system (Zimmerman & Phelps et al., 2008). Therefore, successful adolescent development can be promoted by making a supportive environment for adolescents. It can be realized by intervention programs for adolescents. Interventions programs for adolescents based on the principles of Individual Psychology and Learner’s 5 C models also have much in com- mon. The main interventions of PYD are based on what the author refers to the “five Cs” model (see the table 1). Table 1. Comparison of basic concepts of Adler’s Individual Psychology based interventions and Lerner’s PYD model 5 C’s Theorist A. Adler L. Lerner Model E 5 groups Crucial Cs 5 C groups Basic concepts of theory/ model Education Capability Competence Equality Courage Character Empowerment Self-worth Confidence Empathy Belongingness Connection Encouragement Encouragement Compassion Aims of psycho-educational models Social interest Social interest Contribution (6 C sum of 5 Cs) International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 41 2014, 14, 29–50 p. The five Cs, proposed by the author, state that these five characteris- tics enable an adolescent to make an optimal, or idealized, transition to the adult world. Such a youth will become a generative adult, a person who simultaneously makes productive contributions to him- or herself, to family and community. From these five Cs the author proposes that the individual will develop a sixth C which involves contributing to so- ciety (Lerner & Alberts, et al., 2006). The Crucial Cs model proposed by Bettner (Bettner & Lew, 1989; cit. acc. Bettner & Shifron, 2003) is very si- milar to Lerner’s “five C” model. The Crucial Cs model is based on Adler’s writings. It emphasizes a person’s self-worth, the person’s ability to con- nect and feel capable, feel important and confident in his/her abilities. It also encourages adolescents to use they creative potentiality. This model can be taught to children, adolescents and adults (Bettner & Lew, 1989, cit. acc. Bettner & Shifron, 2003). The basic aim of this model is to help adolescents develop coping and development skills based on each of the critical Cs. When comparing the Lerner Cs and Critical Cs many similarities could be seen. For example, “I believe I have a place or I be- long” is similar to Lerner’s C of connection “I believe that I can do it”, which is capable in Crucial C model. This is identical to Lerner’s C of Com- petence. It means a positive view of one’s actions in specific areas, including social, academic, cognitive, health, and vocational. Social competence refers to interpersonal skills (e.g., conflict resolution). Academic compe- tence refers to school performance as shown, in part, by school grades, attendance, and test scores. Cognitive competence refers to cognitive abilities (e.g., decision making). Health competence involves using nu- trition, exercise, and rest to keep oneself fit. Vocational competence in- volves work habits and explorations of career choices (Lerner & Lerner, 2008). This is a broad definition of competence in that it includes all parts of life, and appears to be broader than Bettner’s and Lew’s (1989) model. It fits well, however, with Adler’s view of creativity, because to be capa- ble or, in other words, have competences means to have the courage to do things in a different way (Shifron & Bettner, 2003). It also means managing one’s environment and pursuing individual goals. The Critical C of “I believe I can make a difference”. Is similar to Lerner’s C of confi- dence which is described as an internal sense of overall positive self-worth and self-efficacy. “I believe I can handle it” becomes courage. Courage could be viewed as Lerner’s Character and Compassion/Caring which 42 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern means respect for societal and cultural norms, possession of standards for correct behaviors, a sense of right and wrong (morality), and integrity and a sense of sympathy and empathy for others. This is like Adler’s view of social interest. The Person’s ability to be empathetic depends on the level he/she has of social interest (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). The person needs courage in order to be productive and to adapt well in society. Development of social interest without courage is impossible. Both of these models are considered as cornerstones of emotional well- being of adolescents (Lew, 2002; Gestsdottir & Lerner, 2007). When one or more of the crucial Cs is missing, feelings of discouragement emerge. These feelings interfere with development of social interest. You cannot be available to others when you are feeling alienated, unnecessary or inferior. With courage, children are more likely to develop respect for self and others and find creative solutions to various problems. Encou- raged adolescents know how to contribute to others from their “private treasures” (strengths), and thus feel a part of the group. The task of the adult is to trigger the youngster’s talents and to show them how they are needed and can contribute to their families, friends, schools and com- munities (Shifron & Bettner, 2003). There are other interventions based on Adlerian principles that can be used for adolescent empowerment and promotion of mental health. Research on the PYD emphasizes the importance of empowerment for healthy adolescents’ development (Scales & Benson et al., 2011; Rus- sell & Muraco et al., 2009; Travis & Ausbrooks, 2012). An Adlerian based intervention created by two individuals in North America has a similar focus. The E5 group intervention created by W. Wingett and A. Milliren (2008) also highlights the value of empowerment. Personal empower- ment to meet the challenges in life occurs in the group atmosphere characterized by equality, empathy, encouragement and education. In this model like Lerner’s five C, adolescents are viewed as active agents who can solve the challenges of living and create solutions to their pro- blems. It can be done more effectively and efficiently if adolescents have an accurate understanding of themselves, their assets, strengths, and resources and know how to use them to improve the quality of their lives and thus, the lives of others. This model also is very similar with Lerner’s five Cs and theoretical base of Positive Youth development. In the context of the E5 Groups, “empowerment” is defined as the process International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 43 2014, 14, 29–50 p. of increasing personal and interpersonal potential to create the oppor- tunity for individuals to improve their life situations because they are creative and can do it. People need to be able to move from a sense of “can’t do” to a sense of “can and will do”. These Adlerian principles of E5 are similar to Lerner’s C of competence. It includes abilities of finding creative solutions in problematic area of life. C of confidence is expres- sed when people can understand themselves and others in a realistic fashion by focusing on their strengths and inner resources. In this way people can be able to meet the challenges of living. The E5 group model emphasizes the principle of equality. Equality here is defined as different people having the same status and being treated in the same way within a group setting, particularly in the areas of respect and dignity. Empathy demonstrates an understanding of the thoughts, feelings, and beha- viors of another individual or individuals as seen through their eyes. This fits with Lerner’s C of connection when one’s feel a part of contributing human relationships. It is, like Adler said, why people are socially embed- ded, they are social beings who want to belong, find their places in the world, and they want to develop a senses of meaning and significance. This is similar to the two Lerner’s Cs of character and caring for others. It means respecting societal and cultural rules, successful adaptation in society, and having morality norms (Bowers & Li et al., 2010). This fits with the definition of social interest, because social interest is also the successful adaptation to the challenges of living resulting in a self-per- ception of contribution, cooperation, and connection (Wingett & Milli- ren, 2008). Though the E5 model is relatively new with no empirical research testimonials by past participants are encouraging. According to the authors, past participants indicate that they believe it enhances ways of developing social interest as well as problem solving skills in ado- lescents. W. Wingett and A. Milliren (2008) noticed that after E5 group participation individuals increased their ability to identify the assets, strengths, resources, and creativity of other individuals and themselves. Group members actually became more focused on the positive and re- ported that they also improved in that capacity with friends and family members. It means that group members actually learn how to contri- bute to others by verbalizing the assets, strengths, resources, and crea- tive abilities of other individuals. There is a tremendous feeling of empo- 44 Tija Krišč¡ūnaitė, Roy Kern werment and self-worth as one hears the list of strengths read to them. Group members experience an environment of social equality based on empathic listening and positive feedback. Because group members en- courage others and are encouraged by others, they develop a skill that can be incorporated in all areas of life such as work or school, friends, and family. As a result, E5 group participation helps to provide members with an increased sense of connection with other people. Though re- ports by the authors of the benefits of the group model are positive, the model at this point lacks an empirical base. Discussion and Conclusions A review of the literature indicated there are a number of psycho- educational programs that have been developed for adolescents. Our review indicated that a number of these programs have some empirical base but with little theoretical base to anchor their findings. We have attempted to build the case that a number of these programs, and one in particular, could be enriched by reviewing the way the principles of Individual psychology are quite similar to principles expanded in their programs and maybe of value to support their programs in the future. To demonstrate this idea we chose one of the most known current psycho- educational programs for adolescents and propose its similarity to cons- tructs developed many years ago by Alfred Adler. Analysis of literature revealed, that Lerner’s five C model has much in common with Adlerian interventions for adolescents. Two basic con- clusions could be made. First, many of the contemporary models used to create adolescents development programs, we believe, have their base in Individual psychology. Second, a number of the so called new directions of psychology science are not that different from the ideas proposed by Adler many years ago. This means that Adler was possibly closest to the “truth” about human development. Our literature review poses the following question. Could it be that something labeled as “new and original” by some authors of psycho-educational programs may simply be a case that they are not completely cognizant of one or more theoretical positions developed many years ago? For example, Adler’s theory and techniques related to Individual Psychology were de- veloped many years before Lerner’s 5 C model but our analysis of the International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach Tarptautinis psichologijos žurnalas: biopsichosocialinis požiūris 45 2014, 14, 29–50 p. model demonstrated a large number of overlapping principles. We pro- pose there is nothing wrong to use “old” ideas for creating and finding really new things, but still, it should be documented or referenced from where the initial ideas have evolved. It does, however, support that the theory of Individual Psychology has merit in that a current psycho-edu- cational model for adolescents has so much in common with the theory developed many years ago. Recommendations It is proposed that the practitioners consider the value of the theory of Individual Psychology when creating psycho-educational interven- tions with adolescents. Keeping in mind Individual Psychology concepts and principles of human development programs for adolescents could be made more efficacious by orientating activities in the group into promotion of self-esteem and changing a person’s life style by recons- tructing his/her primary experience and world view into a more positive one. Second, a research based theory like Individual Psychology may provide practitioners and researches with a strong theoretical base to measure some of the constructs being taught in the psycho-educational programs. To conclude, programs and principles discussed in this article could be used as a basis for promoting adolescents’ mental health by use in in- dividual and group settings. 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Kern Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Lietuva Santrauka. Įvadas. Paauglystė dažnai yra siejama su įvairiais iššūkiais ir sunkumais. Tai laikotarpis, kuomet paaugliai susiduria su įvairiais pokyčiais, kurie sukelia stresą, o tai gali neigiamai paveikti jų psichinę sveikatą ir gerovę. Psichoedukacinės grupės paaug- liams yra vienas iš būdų, galinčių padėti įveikti su pokyčiais susijusius sunkumus ir įgyti gyvenimo įgūdžių. Egzistuoja daugybė įvairių gyvenimo įgūdžių ugdymo programų, skirtų padėti paaugliams įveikti kylančius gyvenimo iššūkius. Šių programų kūrėjai tvirtina, kad jos yra paremtos naujais ir šiuolaikiškais metodais, atitinkančiais paauglių poreikius. Tačiau pažvelgus atidžiau galima pastebėti daugybę panašumų, susijusių su Individualiosios Psichologijos konstruktais, kurie A. Adlerio teorijoje egzistavo jau prieš daugelį metų. Tyrimo tikslas. Šios literatūros apžvalgos tikslas yra palyginti Individualiosios Psichologijos principus su daugelyje psichoedukacinėse programose paaugliams naudojamais konstruktais, skiriant ypatingą dėmesį šiandien vis populiarėjančiam Lernerio pozityvios jaunimo raidos modeliui. Metodika. Sie- kiant atskleisti panašumus tarp Individualiosios Psichologijos principų ir šiuolaikinių psichoedukacinių programų paaugliams buvo atlikta literatūros apžvalga. Rezultatai ir išvados. Literatūros analizė atskleidė, kad daugybė teorinių Lernerio pozityvios jaunimo raidos modelio konstruktų ir kitų psichoedukacinių programų principų buvo pasiūlyti prieš daugelį metų Adlerio ir jo pasekėjų. Taip pat buvo apžvelgtos psichoedukacinės programos paaugliams, paremtos Individualiosios Psichologijos principais. Individualiosios Psichologijos teoriniai principai gali būti naudojami kaip perspektyvi teorinė bazė, pagrindžiant psichoedukacinės programas paaugliams. Tačiau, nepaisant intervencijose naudojamų modelių, reikalingi tolimesni tyrimai, pagrindžiantys psichoedukacinių programų paaugliams efektyvumą. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: paauglystė, intervencinės programos, pozityvioji psichologija, Individualioji psichologija. Received: 07-18-2013 Accepted: 07-04-2014