















































International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) 

Volume 10/ Issue 19 / 2023 
 

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EUPHEMISMS IN LATIN AND ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 

 

Dr. Karmen LAZRI 

University of Shkodra "Luigj Gurakuqi" 

Faculty of Foreign Languages 

 

Dr. Irena NDREU 

University of Tirana 

Faculty of Foreign Languages 

 

Abstract 

Just like onomastics that preserve the oldest stages of language development, euphemisms can 

also be used and studied from the point of view of construction, giving us a valuable material 

for many types and ways of word formation in the Albanian language, as well as for adverbial 

means. The earlier they are, the greater the value from a linguistic point of view. Not all ways 

of word formation can be illustrated by euphemisms.” 

Likewise, which is part of euphemisms (from old Greek eu "good" + phemi "I say", speak), are 

words used to name things and objects, whose names for various reasons have been avoided 

from use. So, we are dealing with existing lexical units that mark a new referent. Euphemisms, 

in essence, are the transfer of the name from one object to another, they are figurative 

transitions of meaning. 

Such arguments bring quite a few research and study difficulties, referring to a foreign 

language, even more so when it comes to a classical language, dead for centuries, as is the 

case of Latin. In addition, it should be known that euphemisms do not have the same 

characteristics from language to language, because this linguistic phenomenon does not 

remain only on the linguistic level, but also extends and deepens on the ethnolinguistic level, 

otherwise in the entire culture of a people. 

 

Keywords: euphemisms, Latin and Italian language, dictionaries, culture. 

 

Introduction  

At the beginning of this word, it would be enough that, before we move on to the high status 

of the use of Latin in Roman society and its literature of unparalleled levels in the world, we 

could explain that with that language - the mother and generator of some vulgar languages and 

so quickly modern, it is likely the phenomenon that occurred in a part of the Anglo-Saxon 

peoples, mainly English and German, as described by the great researcher of Popular Culture 



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in Europe at the beginning of the new era, Peter Burke, who was pays considerable attention 

to upper-class attitudes to popular culture, its 'debauchery of superstition' and exoticism. This 

cultural scholar writes: "The separation of upper and lower class cultures can be seen most 

clearly in those parts of Europe where court imitation meant that the upper classes literally 

spoke a different language from common people...In the Highlands of Scotland, in the days of 

Adam Ferguson, Gaelic became a language spoken in the home, but not in the drawing-room, 

or at any gentleman's table... At the court of Vienna it was bitterly observed that, if any one in 

Bohemia was heard to speak Czech, he was thought to have tarnished his reputation, because 

Czech was for the peasants; in Norway in the c. XVIII educated people spoke Danish – as the 

language of the Copenhagen court; likewise, in Finland, educated people spoke Swedish and 

abandoned their language to the craftsmen and peasants; so, two languages for two cultures. 

Even in the Albanian folk creativity, the word falls in the "Epos of the Kreshniks", in the plane 

of this culture we find euphemisms, such as: N'zyft e npeshkve m'a ka lye,/ In the end and in 

the top they gave fire ,/ When his soul came out for gasp, / He left me day and night." In these 

4 verses, the expression "with my soul out of breath" is a euphemism, as it avoids the use of 

the verb "to die", which in our language has so many euphemistic meanings, such as: passes 

away, goes with many, parted with alive, passed into that life, left us, died, etc. Even in the 

writer Justin Rrota, in the novels "About you" there is an avoidance of expressions and 

synonymous names, which can be marked as euphemisms not to avoid uttering a heavy and 

rude statement, but to bring an innovation in this field, for example: "In him, the lady drove 

him with his daughters, Angelina and Madalena, the lip in gas and pour sugar, friends are 

waiting; - where the phraseology "you pour sugar" is equated with "you speak sweetly". 

 

Euphemisms in the Latin language 

When we followed the terms expressed with euphemisms in the Dictionary of prof. Xhevat 

Lloshi, we did not expand to show that in Albanian linguistics, the first help in the development 

of this field was given by the linguist and albanologist Eqrem Çabej, already in the first years 

after the War of Second World War. Our author's research paper was published in the collection 

"Linguistic Studies IV", taken from the Bulletin of the Institute of Science, Tirana, 1949, p. 72-

84. The author begins by explaining that the euphemisms used in vernacular languages are of 

special interest to both the linguist and the ethnographer, they are like a bridge that leads from 

language to folklore. He claims that the phenomenon of euphemisms is widespread in all 

Balkan languages; euphemisms are part of figurative speech and they consist in the fact that a 

spirit, thing, a concept, a figure of popular belief, a disease, etc., in some circumstances is 



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avoided to be called by the name it has, and this name is replaced by a name another one, which 

covers the first one. One of the reasons for such an action, writes our albanologist, is fear, and 

other factors such as shame, the fear of hurting the feelings of others or the good habits of 

society, and others like these are the motivations that breed euphemisms in a language. Çabej 

continues writing, seemingly bringing examples of euphemisms from animals (wolf - beast), 

as for example, in Pukë; then it passes to the Slavic peoples who use, it seems, the term medved 

(honey-eater) for the bear. Even in the ancient Indo-European languages, the linguist claims, 

there were euphemisms, such as for the bee (honey), for the fox (red fox), among the Celts, the 

Italians, in Brittany, etc. 

As far as Roman society is concerned, which used Latin as a spoken and written language, 

Çabej used the term "weasel", which in that world was considered a demonic being and that is 

why there is no quarrel with its name. Hahni, the scholar who brings the example of the weasel, 

goes further, showing that the ancients believed in the transformation of a woman into a weasel 

and vice versa, and the ancient legends connected this with the birth act of Hercules, from his 

mother Alcmene. For another scholar, Eliani, the great linguist Çabej, tells us that he has 

documented that Lala's bride was a human, did magic, poisoned and was infertile in illicit love, 

and the anger of the deity Hakate turned her into a malevolent animal. The term bullari (house 

clock) is also treated in the same way. In popular languages, we learn from Çabej, that words 

and euphemistic terms are generated from diseases, from figures of popular beliefs, customs 

and customs. 

Another linguist, of a younger generation, will line up for a certain place in our format, because, 

apart from the only monographic book by the authors Osmani and Pepa, related to this 

linguistic phenomenon, in our literature, there are also provided help to Prof. Gjovalin Shkurtaj, 

in the well-known work "Ethnography of Albanian speech". In the line of voices lined up by 

Gj.Shkurtaj, in our interest, there is also a reflection to a certain extent of euphemisms, such as 

names or terms for animals that, in our language and in the provinces of Albania, are called by 

euphemisms, such as: kuçedra - nana of the well, snake, -tox, viper-cap, bee - the blessed one, 

wolf - the skunk, fox - the shrew, bukula, -the beauty of the mice, the rabbit - the dress, the owl 

- the owl, the crow - the bird that brings mourning, the duck wild-scissors, long-eared donkey, 

and others for diseases and animal reproduction. 

Without dwelling on the etymology of the word, after we have passed it on to the corresponding 

bud where some euphemisms from the Dictionary of Xh. Lloš, we have seen as terms or names 

of plants and animals, included in the work by our author, but in passing we are mentioning 

that explanations for the origin can be found in the Dictionary of the Kosovar researcher Mikel 



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Ndreca: euphemism/-zmi, m. Gr. good + I speak softly: it is a word or expression that is used 

instead of another word or expression, which we should not or do not want to speak, a word 

or expression that is soft or softened; for example: "passed away", for "died"; "brinoç" for 

"devil" etc. 

Likewise, in a foreign dictionary, in the Etymological Dictionary of the Italian language, where 

we read: Euphemism s.m. dal greco euphemismós (= di buon auspicio), da euphemizesthai (= 

ugare bune parole); cof. anche éu-significato in linguistica, rhetorical figure mediante la quale 

si sostituiscono alcune parole ad altre per convenienza o per decenza. 

Our explanation, in order to come to the phenomenon of euphemisms in the Latin language, I 

think should be started, first, from the fact that the Roman civilization was an embedded urban 

civilization and culture, not a civilization and culture of shepherds or nomadic tribes or tribes. 

The second, the Latin language, throughout world culture (and linguistics at the same time) is 

based on scientific terminology, because the terms of many fields of knowledge are built on 

that language. Thirdly, euphemisms for peoples and their cultures are neither the same nor 

close. For example, we cannot pretend to look for the euphemism "gagged" for the wolf in the 

Latin language, because this denominative term belongs to pastoral peoples in the period of the 

formation of tribes or tribes. 

The Italian linguist Stefano Telve in his recent work "L'italiano: frasi e testo", when he writes 

about rhetorical figures, immediately switches to euphemistic expressions. He emphasizes: “A 

clearly allusive rhetorical means is, for example, reticence, which occurs when one deliberately 

leaves the expression of thought half-finished. It is a widely used resource in advertising 

language (winking, allusive) and involves a particular interpretative commitment on the part 

of the recipient, because it is equivalent to a call for co-responsibility in completing and 

activating the message. Other mitigating rhetorical figures are the litote (saying one thing while 

denying its opposite: He's not a genius. 'He's not very intelligent', I don't mind your idea at all 

'I share your idea'), the periphrasis (saying one thing with several words, as happens in many 

euphemisms: differently able 'handicapped' (and the depersonalized use of the personal 

pronoun (plural of modesty: we instead of I).  

According to the numerous Italian-Latin and Latin-Italian dictionaries, which we possess or 

with which we were acquainted during higher studies or even in the state high school program 

in Italy, we say with conviction that euphemisms in the Latin language are mostly found in the 

proverbs, maxims and historical sayings from famous people, such as philosophers, statesmen 

and military geniuses. We are talking here about expressions or ways of saying throughout the 

centuries or even to this day in the spoken discourse, but also in the written one. For example, 



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if there is talk during a lecture about a danger that is approaching and is so certain, the word 

falls, about a border attack between states or about a situation when an attack is expected from 

the sea, we think of the ancient Latin saying "Hannibal ante portas”; which evokes the desperate 

call of the Romans at the time when the leader of Carthage, Hannibal, after the battle of Cana, 

with a great victory over the Roman legions, reached the walls of Rome. In addition to the use 

of maxims or such sayings, care must be taken to put them in the right and appropriate context, 

otherwise they turn into a source of humor and strip the speaker of culture. If a politician today 

takes the word with pathos and describes the risk of a flood due to the opening of the gates of 

the Drin, next to the HCs on it, and uses "Hannibal ante portas", the situation becomes 

ridiculous and reveals the vanity his. Ali Jashari, author of the work "Dictionary with borrowed 

expressions in the Albanian language", has aptly given two uses of a Latin maxim known and 

used throughout human history, since the time when the Roman writer Vegeci created it, in the 

prologue of the work "De Re Militari": "Qui desiderat pacem, preparat bellum" - if one wants 

peace, let him prepare for war. This in the time of the Romans (but even today it means that 

peace is never safe without the protection of bayonets. Here is what Anton Harapi wrote in his 

declaration, in the years of the Second World War: "Besides, in addition to the external world 

peace, we will look with the left, especially the peaceful civil peace: this will be the biggest 

cause, not only for those who have the reins of the state in their hands, but also for every 

Albanian, who love Albania, why did that old man say: Si vis pacem, para bellum." 

While the other usage, quoted according to Lenin, instead of excellent personal relations began 

dry working relations, based on the permanent account, according to the formula: si vis pacem, 

para bellum - seems out of place, since social relations between people of social groups, do not 

reach the war match. Or from Virgil: "Sunt lacrymae rerum" - an expression taken from the 

Aeneid (I, 462) Sunt lacrymae rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt - there are tears in life and 

human suffering grieves the mind. (These are the words of Aeneas to the faithful Acanthus). 

The euphemism here is not built for a concrete name, as Virgil writes, but on abstraction, which 

is based on the lexemes "suffering", "misery", "mind". All maxims have meaning: affairs cause 

tears, the way of the world is tragically inevitable; the expression is used to say that non-

spiritual things seem to pity the sufferings of man; they seem to weep for misfortune. 

Euphemisms are related to the field of ethnography, folklore, from the plant and animal world, 

from mythology, religious beliefs, diseases, birth, death, etc. But a large part of euphemisms 

in modern languages, in our times, certainly come from relationships in society, from people's 

relationships with each other, even with the appearance of the weather. Not all of these 

indicators appear in the composition of euphemisms in the Greek and Latin languages, 



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languages that have been dead for centuries. As mentioned above, the phenomenon of 

euphemisms in Latin is quite special and has three sources: 

A. Of the proverbs still remaining today in world culture. 

B. From the prominent sayings of prominent people in history. 

C. Of the maxims, which constitute universal sayings. 

The basis of euphemisms in the Latin language are metaphors, the change of the first meaning; 

the word, the phrase "casus belli", which comes from the Roman expression in cases where 

there is or arises a "cause for war" between two states; but in other situations, for example, in 

the linguistic act of a fierce polemic, which goes up to heat or physical occupation; one of the 

protagonists can use that the raised argument should not become a "casus belli", because they 

were friends or partners among themselves! 

It is emphasized that the role of euphemisms does not stand out when they appear separately; 

especially they raise the level of the lecture or oratory when they are placed in complete lecture 

texts. We are bringing a short passage from the books of the Italian Classical High School, 

written by a high school graduate who also has Greek and Latin languages in his study program. 

It is about the writing of a short essay, and the strong reaction of a student, who, according to 

him, had not received the grade he deserved:  ”Sir, there is no other way to complete that 

"something" that is required as an Actus reus; yes, yes, let's call it that, because the essay was 

made Ad unguem for a student like me!!! The end, Age quod agis, Mr. Teacher, if it is not 

unexpected that Alea iacta est and I am sorry, because, without any kind of debate someone 

(some) are acting caught after an Arcades ambo! In the end, my dear teacher, for the evaluation 

of my essay I think that an Argumentum ad hominem is being used, without any reason or 

objectivity! For this I believe in Audentes fortuna juvat, because Caeca invidia est, as the 

historian Titus Livy said!!! However, as a student, I have to obey as the saying "Iurare in verbo 

magistri!”   

 

 

  

1. Of course, the density of these euphemisms above was made for educational and 

didactic purposes, in the case of our high school student, to evaluate him with the 

highest grade, related to the ability of this use, in a competition or methodical test. 

2. Besides, what should be said in these cases, the use of euphemisms like these in the text 

or in oratorical speeches, has value for special and cultured audiences. 



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3. Also, it should be noted that Latin maxims and sayings turn into euphemisms, especially 

when they are used in other languages, the word comes, in today's modern languages, 

because their meaning does not come out directly, but softened, as it is also the 

definition or definition of the euphemisms we gave above. For example, if we are 

analyzing an action not done or well planned by someone, we can say the euphemistic 

maxim "Cerebrum non habet", which means that the action lacks a brain and which is 

an expression used by the great Greek fabulist Phaedrus , put in the mouth of the fox, 

who found a mask and, amazed by it, said: "Beautiful, but brainless." But it would be 

an insult or a serious lack of ethics, if someone uses "Cerebrum non habet" in front of 

a beautiful lady, when she is not successful in her work! Not infrequently, even within 

a phrase, which is placed in the middle or at the end of a narrative, conversation or 

counter-argument, the polemicist can use the euphemistic, softened maxim "In vino 

veritas" - in the wine is the truth or meaning "What's in the belly, the bardhak brings 

out" - instead of addressing someone "What's Marrina talking about!" You're drunk and 

you don't know what you're talking about! Shut up, drunkard.” People say in such cases 

"Drink wine, don't drink your mind!", which is a moderately mild or moderately harsh 

euphemism. 

4. Even in the use of some euphemistic expressions - syntagmas, care must be taken to 

find the right place during the course of the lecture. Again, from Ali Jashari we are 

approaching two cases, one of which is not hit. We are talking about "summa 

summarum", an expression taken from the work of Lucretius "Re rerum natura, V, 361-

363), which has the meaning: the essence of the essence, the conclusion, the end of 

things. * The sub-dialects of Gehrish, summa summarum, have undergone Max 

Muller's well-known "phonetic-decay" incomparably more markedly than the dialects 

of Tosh. (Selman Riza, TMA); Valentini's summa summarum work has several 

horizons or planes. It seems that Valentine's work is called summa summarum!!! 

 

Some euphemistic expressions, more hit, compared to the explanations given to them: 

• Cuius regio eius et religio - according to the country and faith, with the understanding 

that a person must submit to the customs and rules of the country where he goes and 

lives. 

• Dente lupus, cornu taurus petit - the wolf attacks with teeth, the bull with horns (Oraci), 

in this world everyone defends and attacks with the weapons that nature has given him. 



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• De te fabula narratur – fable speaks for you, an expression used to draw attention to 

someone, who is being spoken of figuratively. 

• Dum vivimus, vivamus – while we are alive, let us live; epicurean philosophical 

expression; every man lives in his own way. 

• Ego sum qui sum – I am who I am, an expression that is usually used with the meaning 

that every person should be accepted as he is: with the good and the bad that he has. 

• Eiusdem furfuris – from the same dough; it is used in a negative sense for two people 

(bad and vices) who look and act alike. 

• Est modus in rebus – Everything has a measure (Horace); you cannot take action 

• that exceed all limits. 

• Ex cathedra - from the cathedra, podium. When a man speaks with complete 

competence and confidence; ironically used for people who pass themselves off as 

competent and confident in what they say. 

• Faciamus experimentum in corpore vili – we do experiments on the plebeian body; 

statement that 

• it was mainly dedicated to doctors who gained experience (experimented) by visiting 

and treating worthless people. 

• Facit indignatio versum – anger makes verses burst; expression used by poets who find 

their inspiration as a reaction to a stifling reality. 

• Favete linguis – shut up; keep calm (Horace)! In ordinary use it is used as a call to keep 

"a minute of silence", in honor of the dead; a minute of silence. In any language 

situation a the expression, in the Albanian language, comes to mind: "Rest!", "Shut 

up!", "Shut up!"; in Italian it is also insulting and offensive "Chiudi il becco!" - close 

the door! Even more serious comes in our language, in such situations of use, such as: 

"Close the shoe!" - where the organ of speech "mouth" is metaphorized in "shkarpe" - 

old shoes destroyed! 

• Flama fumo est proxima – the flame comes after the smoke (Plautius); care must also 

be taken about things  seemingly insignificant things that suddenly become important. 

• Frangar, non flectar – it breaks me, but it does not defeat me; used for people with a 

strong character, who do not bend easily and do not give up their principles/ 

• Gladiator in arena consilium capit – the gladiator in the arena makes the plan (Seneca), 

it makes sense it's too late to make plans; on the battlefield you don't have time for 

plans. 



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• Hodie mihi, cras tibi - today me, tomorrow you. Epitaph that is placed in cemeteries; 

the expression  is usually used to indicate at some point, that as I you too will make the 

same path and difficulties to reach one result. 

• Imperium in imperio - a state within a state; in antiquity there were citizens and social 

classes who were exempted from the laws of the state they lived in. In our time, it takes 

the meaning of the privileges that a group of people create for themselves, to break the 

laws without having consequences. 

• In silvam non ligna feras insanius – there is no point in bringing wood to the forest; 

with meaning do not undertake useless, meaningless things. 

• Lex mala, lex nulla - a bad law is no law; expression by Thomas Aquinas that sought 

• the perfection of laws in order not to leave a path for their abuse. Ignorance of the law 

(a crime not provided for in the law), does not excuse the guilty. 

• Medice, cura te ipsum - doctor, cure yourself! Such a well-known expression that is 

used for those people who constantly talk and correct the faults of others, at a time when 

they have most of them for themselves. From the fabulist Fedri, we learn that "the crab 

constantly criticizes his daughter for walking backwards." 

• Nescit vox missa reverti – the word once taken out of the mouth cannot be taken back; 

the meaning is that before we speak, we must think carefully about what we say: 

measure before you speak. 

• Non omnia possumus omnes – not everyone knows how to do everything (Virgil): in 

the sense that not all people have all capacities in a field of  assigned. 

• Oleum et operam perdidi - I spent oil and toil; expression used when it's a waste of 

work, when you don't get the expected result, no matter how much you spent, first 

sweat. 

• Paucis temeritas est bono, multis malo - a little courage is necessary, too much is 

harmful. Cicero expresses this sentence a little differently: "Courage belongs to the 

young and restraint to the old." So, not always courage helps you overcome situations, 

you also need prudence. 

• Quod fuimus lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus - praise for what I was, if you don't 

like who I am. The contribution of people should not be forgotten, but must be 

evaluated; we should not forget the good deeds or deeds of people that are impossible 

today. 

• Qui habet aures audiendi, audiat – whoever has ears to hear, let him hear. 



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• Regnare nolo, liber ut non sim mihi - I would rather not reign than lose my freedom.It 

is the answer given by the wolf to the dog, which enjoyed all the good things in man, 

but remained tied up all day.  

 

Linguists have made studies that most of these euphemisms are like this, because they are 

compared with their explanations, for example, in the maxim "Si vis amari, ama" - if they want, 

I love (Seneca); with love, understanding and kindness the hearts of others are won. The 

expression is used in cases where we want to warn those who only love themselves and the 

euphemism is used instead of the expression "You are selfish!" "You don't love anyone!" 

 

  

Bibliography  

 

*** ASH, IGJL, Grammar of the Albanian language I, 1996. 

*** ASHSH, IGJL, Dictionary of the Albanian language, Tirana, 2006. 

Burke, P. (1996). Popular culture in Europe at the beginning of the new era, Arbri, Tirana, 

CEU, Budapest. 

Lloshi, X. (2010). Dictionary of names of animals and plants in Albanian-Latin and Latin-

Albanian, Logos A, Biblioteka Fjala. 

Lloshi, X. (2012). Albanian language stylistics and pragmatics, Albas, Tirana. 

Palaj, B. & Kurti, D, (2007).  Visaret e Kombit (Songs of the Kreshinikis and Legends), Edition 

III, Franciscan Publications, Shkodër. 

Rrota, J. (2005). Around votre (Novels, Romances, Walks, legends, etc.), Edition II, Franciscan 

Editions, Shkodër. 

Topalli, T. (2011). Text language, Shkodër. 


