International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 13 *Corresponding author - e-mail: steffenn@plan.aau.dk International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 13–32 ABSTRACT Energy efficiency improvements of buildings is widely recognized as an important part of reaching future sustainable energy systems, as these both reduce the need for energy and improve the efficiency of the heat supply. Finding the correct level of efficiency measures, depends on the type of measure, on the supply system typology as well as on the heat supply cost. As this information is often building-specific, most analyses related to energy efficiency in buildings are carried out in relation to specific renovation projects, while energy plans for larger areas make crude assumptions regarding levels of savings and costs. This article aims at improving the latter, by using a detailed heat atlas in combination with specific marginal energy renovation costs, in a study of Aalborg Municipality in Denmark. In the analysis, all buildings in the municipality are mapped at building level and both the marginal energy efficiency measure costs and the marginal heat supply costs are identified. The buildings are then sorted by their supply type, and marginal costs curves on supply and savings are compared to determine the feasible level of efficiency measures in each building. The results show that both the building type and the supply costs have a large influence on the feasible measures. Furthermore, the results show that a demand reduction of 30% in district heating areas, 35% for buildings with heat pumps and 37% for buildings with oil boilers, for the examined buildings, is socio economically feasible in a Business as Usual 2050 Aalborg Municipality scenario. 1. Introduction In 2016, the European Union made a strategy on heating and cooling [1], where energy efficiency measures like district heating and end-use heat savings are considered feasible measures. The main reason for considering dis- trict heating an efficiency measure is its ability to use excess heat from electricity production, industrial pro- cesses and waste incineration [2]. In the European Union alone, 10.2 EJ of excess heat are theoretically available from these three processes [3]. Other benefits of district heating are the relatively inexpensive heat storages [4], providing flexibility in relation to fluctuat- ing renewable energy production and the integration of renewable energy sources through heat pumps [5], solar thermal collectors [6] or geothermal energy [7]. District heating can therefore play a crucial role in the transition to 100% renewable energy systems [8]. A key issue, when considering district heating as an energy efficiency measure, is that the technology needs to move towards fourth generation of district heating [9,10] where temperature levels are reduced to improve the effi- ciency of the supply system and enabling the exploitation of low temperature heat sources while simultaneously reducing grid losses. Furthermore, district heating is also an important technology in the Smart Energy System [11,12], where cross-sector integration is a central aspect. Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply Steffen Nielsen*, Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaard and Henrik Lund Department of Planning, Aalborg University, Rendsburggade 14, DK-9000 Aalborg, Denmark Keywords: End-use; Heat Demand; Heat Planning; GIS; Energy system analysis; EnergyPLAN simulation; URL: http://doi.org/10.5278/ijsepm.3398 mailto:steffenn@plan.aau.dk http://doi.org/10.5278/ijsepm.3398 14 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply A key issue, when considering district heating as an energy efficiency measure, is that the technology needs to move towards fourth generation of district heating [9,10] where temperature levels are reduced to improve the efficiency of the supply system and enabling the exploitation of low temperature heat sources while simultaneously reducing grid losses. Furthermore, dis- trict heating is also an important technology in the Smart Energy System [11,12], where cross-sector integration is a central aspect. A central part of assessing the potential for district heating in an area is heat demand mapping, or the estab- lishment of so-called heat atlases [13]. The main reason is that the economic feasibility of district heating is highly correlated to the density of the heat demand, where areas with a high density both reduce the network length and losses, when compared to less dense areas [2]. This also means that district heating will mostly be applicable within urban areas, while other heat supply solutions are needed in rural areas and areas with lower heat densities. The recent acknowledgement of district heating, as a technology that has a crucial role in the transition towards smart energy systems, has sparked an interest in mapping heat demands. Heat demand mapping exists on different levels of detail, depending on the scope of the analysis, in which the mapping takes part. Some mapping is used for assessing district heating potentials on a national or regional level. Here, the Heat Roadmap Europe project [14] is a good example, where heat demands are assessed on a hectare level. In local studies, the mapping includes the specific building level. Such studies are typically used to examine district heating expansion potentials locally [15,16]. Additionally, mapping of the energy demand in buildings is also used by many cities in order to be able to assess building energy efficiency [17] with a view to targeting efficiency measures. Much recent research deals with various aspects of energy efficiency in buildings, which is illustrated by a recent review article that focuses on energy efficiency in multi-family buildings [18] and identifies 234 relevant references dealing with this topic. The review shows that 50% of the articles deal with environmental aspects, 30% with economic and 25% with social aspects related to energy renovation. Many articles focus on efficiency measures from a technical perspective, by examining energy savings in relation to occupancy [19] or building characteristics [20]. A crucial part of assessing the feasibility of heat sav- ings is the costs related to investing in the efficiency measures, compared to the savings in the heat supply. It is crucial to identify the right mix between renewable energy production and energy savings. Previous studies have made such investigations on an overall national level, estimating the combination of heat production and heat savings in for instance a Danish 2050 energy system [21], and in four European countries (Czech Republic, Croatia, Italy and Romania) [22]. However, these studies do not consider the geographical aspects of how different building types are located throughout a country and how that compares with the available supply options. This link is necessary, as the individual building owners need to make decisions based on the available local heat supply options. Furthermore, this article is a continuation of heating related topics already known to the journal. The editorial [23] from 2017, dealt with smart district heating and energy system analyses. Heat saving strategies were presented in [21] where the costs of energy renovation are compared to energy system costs for different district heating shares. The development of detailed heat demand maps were the main subject of [24] and [25], and their accuracy was discussed in [26]. Planning of heating sys- tems using spatial methods and different scenario paths were investigated[27]. Other work concerned the barri- ers and policy recommendations for heat savings in Denmark [28] as well as building specific case studies on cost optimal level of heat savings [29]. 1.1. Scope and structure of the article Based on the problems presented in the introduction, the article aims to find the balance between end-use savings and supply costs within different areas. It seeks to com- bine geographical knowledge on energy supply systems and the location of specific buildings with an assessment of specific supply costs and heat demand reduction costs. This allows for a much more specific assessment of the coordination of heat savings and heat supply, which enables the discussion of the consequences for different buildings types and locations. This becomes relevant when assessing the difference in savings initia- tives between buildings with access to district heating and buildings located outside district heating areas. As the geographical distribution of buildings is site specific, this is shown for the specific area of Aalborg Municipality in Denmark. Aalborg is Denmark’s third largest municipality and encompasses a variety of heat supply areas, including a large central district heating grid, some detached smaller district heating systems, as International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 15 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund well as houses heated by individual solutions outside district heating areas. The analyses are done, with a focus specifically on end-use savings in existing build- ings within the municipality. The energy demand for buildings where no renovation is implemented is included in the analysis. Furthermore, the analysis is carried out in relation to an Aalborg 2050 business as usual scenario for the municipality. The article focuses on the direct costs of the energy system includ- ing; investments, fuels and operation and maintenance, using costs from the IDA Energy Vision 2050 [30]. In the analysis, Aalborg Municipality is used as an exam- ple on how to apply the method proposed in this article. The method can be applied anywhere where the same information is available, but the results of the analysis are strongly related to the Aalborg example, as both the local heat supply systems and end-use demands are specific to Aalborg municipality. The modelling of the overall energy system in Aalborg Municipality is based on the work in the Aalborg Energy Vision [31]. 2. Methodology The basic principle of this article is to compare the mar- ginal supply costs of heat with the marginal costs of heat saving measures. The scope of the article determines that the marginal supply costs and the marginal costs of energy savings are both measured in €/kWh. The first step is to identify the location of each building using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and the supply type for each building (district heating or individual solutions). To identify the marginal supply costs in dis- trict heating, the principal methodology applied is simi- lar to [21]. The heat production cost in district heating is highly dependent on the production units used. As such, it is necessary to identify the marginal changes in heat production for different units at different levels of heat savings. For this purpose, an energy systems analysis tool is used to calculate the production of dis- trict heating, which in turn is used to identify the mar- ginal heat production costs. In this article, EnergyPLAN [32,33] is used as the energy system analysis tool to identify the marginal costs of district heating supply. EnergyPLAN is well-suited since it simulates the entire energy system, and thus captures possible synergies across the heating, electricity and gas sectors (See Section 2.3). As the aim is to identify the potential differences in heat saving potentials due to the geographical placement of each individual building and individual building characteristics, it also must consider the marginal pro- duction cost of heating for individual buildings. These costs differ due to building type and building age and that different locations enables different supply options. Here, the study assumes that the marginal cost of indi- vidual heating is equal to the fuel costs including han- dling costs divided with the efficiency of the heating technology. To identify the heat savings potential for each build- ing, geographic data of the current heat demand at the individual building level is combined with heat saving cost data on different building categories associated to different level of savings. This allows for the identifica- tion of marginal savings costs for each building. By comparing the marginal supply cost with the marginal savings costs, it is possible to identify the feasible level of saving in each supply area where the supply area is characterised by the specific heating infrastructure applied. This can be district heating, or an individual heating technology situated at the individual household. An overview of the approach is illustrated in Figure 1, and each step is described more in detail in the following sections. 3. Case study In this chapter the methodology from Chapter 2 is applied to the case of Aalborg Municipality. First, the mapping of heat demands and supply areas is explained. This is followed by an explanation of the heat saving measures used, their implementation in the energy system as well as general cost assumptions of the Aalborg energy system. 3.1. Maps of case and description of end-use heat demands This section describes the geographic scope of the anal- ysis, as well as the data used to assess end-use heat demands, heat supply costs as well as end-use heat saving potentials. 3.1.1. Supply areas in Aalborg Aalborg Municipality has 76,179 buildings with a total end-use heat demand of 2,027 GWh/year [34]. Within the municipality the heat supply systems are divided into the central area of Aalborg District Heating, other district heating areas and buildings with individual heat- ing, these are shown in Figure 2 and the percentage distribution is shown in Figure 3. 16 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply Energy PLAN model of heat supply costs Fixed heat supply costs Heat saving costs for different building categories and levels of savings Distric heating supply Feasible levels of savings for: district heating, individual heat pumps and individual oil boilers Cost curves Saving costs End-use heat demand on building level Supply costs Individual heating supply Figure 1: Methodological framework for identifying feasible end-use heat saving costs in different heat supply areas Aablorg District Heating Aablorg Municipality Other District Heating Roads Bulidings Figure 2: Heat supply areas in Aalborg Municipality International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 17 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund 3.1.2. The Danish Heat Atlas To find the end-use heat demand of the existing build- ings in Aalborg, the Danish heat atlas is used. It was first published in [35] and has been updated in several ver- sions since. The atlas has been used in various scientific publications [24,36–41]. The heat atlas provides an estimate of the annual end- use heat demand as well as other relevant information such as heat supply, construction year, building type and floor area. All this information is recorded in the Danish Building Register [42], which is a national registry cov- ering all Danish buildings. Building owners are obliged to update the informa- tion, when new buildings are built, or when major reno- vations are carried out. However, the Danish Building Register does not provide information about the end-use heat demand in the buildings, so this must be estimated based on other sources. The current version of The Danish Heat Atlas esti- mates the end-use heat demand based on another data- base named FIE [43], which includes annual heat consumption from most Danish district heating, natural gas and fuel oil providers on individual building level. The data extract from the FIE data base covers the years 2010-2014, and has 5,578,433 registered heat demand measurements, however, it only covers half of the heated Danish buildings, as some buildings are not sup- plied by district heating, natural gas or oil or due to lacking information from some of the heat providers. As the FIE database does not cover all buildings, the end-use heat demand is estimated based on a statistical analysis of the FIE data, where buildings are classified by age (9 construction periods) and type (24 buildings types) and for each combination an average demand (kWh/m2 of floor area) is found. These averages are multiplied with the total floor area of each building in The Building Register to create The Danish Heat Atlas. A more elaborate explanation of the methodology can be found in the documentation of the heat atlas, where the uncertainties of the estimates are shown for each building category [34]. In this article, only buildings from Aalborg Municipality are used. Figure 4 illustrates the level of detail, showing different building types in a part of the municipality. The example shows that the Danish Heat Atlas operates at a building level, where each point rep- resents a building, and that the main types of buildings are single-family, terrace and multi-storey. 3.2. Heat saving costs The heat savings potentials for the study are based on Wittchen, Kragh and Aggerholm [44], who assess them for the Danish building mass. The study defines a number of renovation measures as steps of activities to be taken in each individual type of building. Each level of saving is a marginal increase in energy savings with a marginal increase in costs associated to it. Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 show the level of savings, a qualitative descrip- tion and examples of the actual measure implemented. 75% 5% 4% 3% 9% 1% 3% Aalborg District Heating Other district heating Natural gas Biomass Oil Heat Pump Electricity Figure 3: Percentage share of end-use heat demand by heat supply type 18 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply Each of the seven steps has a key focus in terms of reno- vation, meaning that some of the steps deal with outer wall insulation while other deals with more energy effi- cient windows. Step 1 implements basic renovations, that brings the building up to current Danish standards. This focus on more insulation and energy label B windows. Step 2 is only cavity wall insulation in buildings without. Step 3 goes from energy label B windows to energy label Single-family Building type Terrace Multistorey Care centre Hostel Other Roads Figure 4: Example of building types from the Danish Heat Atlas Table 1: Energy savings measures and concrete initiatives in walls [45] Level Energy savings measure Cavity walls Massive walls Light Walls Basement walls 0 Point of departure Nothing Nothing Nothing Nothing 1 Basic renovation (building code) Nothing 25 mm if bad 75 mm Nothing 2 Cavity wall insulation Filled 25 mm if bad 75 mm Nothing 3 Windows (A level) Filled 25 mm if bad 75 mm Nothing 4 Insulation of ceiling and roofs Filled 25 mm if bad 75 mm Nothing 5 Good practice for insulation Filled 125 mm if bad 100 mm 100 mm 6 Energy saving focus when insulating Filled 125 mm if bad 100 mm 100 mm 7 Level 6 fully implemented Filled 125 mm if bad 100 mm 100 mm International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 19 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund A. Step 4 increases insulation of ceilings and roofs. Step 5 increases insulation across the entire building, with step 6 and step 7 implements the highest levels of insulation to all buildings. An important precondition to achieve cost-efficient energy savings is that the energy saving initiatives are performed at the same time as the general renovation of the building. This pre-condition is assumed for all costs in the study [45]. Wittchen, Kragh and Aggerholm [45] assume that a certain level of savings can be achieved at a marginal cost of zero, since this will be the basic ren- ovation house owners would do as part of the general refurbishment of their buildings. Thus Level 1 does not have a marginal cost, as shown in Figure 5. Overall, this means that the costs used in this study are based on the additional costs associated to the increased performance of each activity to achieve the energy saving. Since Wittchen, Kragh and Aggerholm [45] do not take into account potential savings in summer houses, and other minor building categories, not all building types are included in the analysis. However, the large majority of the demand is analysed. Wittchen, Kragh and Aggerholm [45] use a discount rate of 4% for their initial calculations. As the Aalborg Energy Vision’s results are based on a 3% discount rate, these had to be aligned. In this study, the marginal saving costs have been recalculated to be based on a 3% discount rate, to align cost assumptions between the two studies. Based on the data from [45] it is possible to calculate the percentage reduction of heat demand associated with each level of savings. Figure 5 shows a situation of dimin- ishing returns where most of the heat savings are associ- ated with the initial levels of savings, while the later steps do not save as much. Figure 6 plots the level of heat sav- ings with the costs, which furthermore shows that the first levels of savings have lower marginal costs than the later levels, in total giving a situation where the cost efficiency is highest in the first levels and lowest in the last levels. Table 2: Energy savings measures and concrete initiatives in roofs and windows (based on Danish window labelling) [45] Level Energy savings measure Ceiling Flat Roofs Windows 0 Point of departure Nothing Nothing Nothing 1 Basic renovation (building code) 75 mm 100 mm Energy label B 2 Cavity wall insulation 75 mm 100 mm Energy label B 3 Windows (A level) 75 mm 100 mm Energy label A 4 Insulation of ceiling and roofs 200 mm 150 mm Energy label A 5 Good practice for insulation 250 mm 200 mm Energy label A 6 Energy saving focus when insulating 350 mm partly 300 mm partly Energy label A 7 Level 6 fully implemented 350 mm fully 300 mm fully Energy label A Table 3: Energy savings measures and concrete initiatives in floors [45] Level Energy savings measure Ground deck Crawl space Basement floor Ground deck w/ floor heating Crawl space w/ floor heating 0 Point of departure Nothing Nothing Nothing Nothing Nothing 1 Basic renovation (building code) 100 mm 75 mm 100 mm 100 mm 75 mm 2 Cavity wall insulation 100 mm 75 mm 100 mm 100 mm 75 mm 3 Windows (A level) 100 mm 75 mm 100 mm 100 mm 75 mm 4 Insulation of ceiling and roofs 100 mm 75 mm 100 mm 100 mm 75 mm 5 Good practice for insulation 200 mm 150 mm 200 mm 200 mm 150 mm 6 Energy saving focus when insulating 300 mm partly 200 mm 300 mm partly 300 mm partly 200 mm 7 Level 6 fully implemented 300 mm fully 200 mm 300 mm fully 300 mm fully 200 mm 20 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply 3.3. Heat supply costs assessment using EnergyPLAN EnergyPLAN is an advanced energy system analysis tool capable of analysing the hourly operation of an entire energy system over a year [46]. EnergyPLAN is chosen to simulate the operation of the energy system to identify the marginal heating costs due to its capability of investigating the entire energy system. It includes industry, transport, electricity, heat- ing and gas demands, and potential links between these sectors. It is therefore possible to include benefits of waste heat from industry in the district heating grid and combine this with the consequences of changes in heat demand. Furthermore, due to EnergyPLAN being based on hourly operation it allows for detailed analysis of the operation of storages, including thermal storages. This again increases the details of the modelling, taking into account the flexibility of the energy system. Figure 7 illustrates the overall elements of the sectors included in EnergyPLAN and highlights the links in the district heating system. EnergyPLAN have been used in similar studies, for assessing the link between energy savings and energy production [21,22,47], has previously been applied to model e.g. countries [30,48–53] and local areas [54–57] with district heating, and has been applied in more than 100 peer-reviewed journal articles [58]. EnergyPLAN is used for modelling the energy system of Aalborg. The scenario used in this paper is a 2050 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 P er ce nt ag e he at s av in g Renovation level Farmhouse Single-family Multi-family Multi-storey Service sector Institutions Figure 5: Total heat savings percentage by increasing the renovation level on an overall level [45] 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 H ea t s av in g co st [€ /k W h] Renovation level Farmhouse Single-family Multi-family Multi-storey Service sector Institutions Figure 6: Marginal heat saving costs by increasing the renovation level [45] International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 21 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund business as usual scenario (BAU). The 2050 BAU sce- nario is created by extrapolating current energy demands in Aalborg based on a 2016 energy account of Aalborg [51]. The increase in demands is based on the overall expectations for Denmark and Aalborg based on the Danish Society of Engineer’s energy vision of Denmark [59]. Thus the assessment of savings is taken into account in a scenario for 2050 for Aalborg Municipality. 3.3.1. Assumptions for the Aalborg Municipality energy system The Aalborg 2050 BAU is modelled as the entire energy system, and thus includes industrial, transport, electric- ity, heat and gas demands. The electricity demand is modelled as Aalborg’s share of the entire Danish electricity demand, identified in [59] before savings. A large coal-fired CHP unit, as well as renewable energy, supplies this demand. All parts outside the heating system are unchanged in the analyses, but changes to the heating system affect the overall operation of the entire system. For instance, that changes in heat demand can affect the production of electricity in a combined heat and power plant. The overall system operation and layout is described in [60]. The heating demands are identified using the aforemen- tioned GIS data. The GIS analysis also identifies supply methods for each demand, thus allocating the heat demands to different boilers, heat pumps or district heating areas. The inputs for heat demands are found in Table 4. Fuel Electricity Heat Hydrogen Steam CO2 Hydro water Hydro storage Electricity demand Cooling demand PP Process heat demand Fuel RES electricity Hydro power plant Import/Export fixed and variable Heat pump and electric boiler Boiler Geothermal and solar heat Electricity storage system CHP Cooling device Electrolyser Heat demand Gas storage Impo/ Export gasrt H2 storage Absorption heat pump Industry CO2 Vehicles Cooling demand Heat pump and electricelectric electric boiler Boiler CHP Cooling devicedevicedevicedevice Electrolyserrr HeatHeatHeatHeatHeat demand H2 storage Absorption p pp pheat pump Heat storage Transport demand Hydrogenation Transport Water Cooling Desalination plant Biomass conversion Rockbed Storage Figure 7: EnergyPLAN structure [46]. Within the red square the district heating sector can be found Table 4: Final energy for end-use heat demands by supply type [60] Heat demand [TWh] Energy demand [TWh] Heat demand (central district heating) 1.80 2.28 Heat demand (decentral district heating) 0.07 0.10 Individual heat demand (oil) 0.11 0.14 Individual heat demand (natural gas) 0.02 0.02 Individual heat demand (biomass) 0.06 0.09 Individual heat demand (electric boiler) 0.06 0.01 Individual heat demand (heat pumps) 0.03 0.06 22 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply The associated costs for the system are based on the EnergyPLAN cost database [61] using 2050 prices. Important for this study are the fuel costs and the costs for the units being changed with the re-design of the district heating system due to changes in demand. The costs do not include taxes as the analyses are conducted with socio-economic feasibility in mind rather than busi- ness economic feasibility. The fuel costs are found in Table 7 and the investment costs and capacities for the heating system in Table 5 and Table 6. To investigate the marginal changes in heat produc- tion costs at lower heat demands in the district heating areas, three parameters were changed. 1) The actual heat demand was lowered to the new value as identified by implementing the levels of savings. 2) The hourly heat demand load profile was changed to reflect that the hot water consumption and grid loss remained constant, thus the heat savings only affect the space heating demand in line with [21]. 3) The capacity of the peak-load boilers in the district heating network is adjusted to reflect the heat savings and reduced demands. This reflects that with lowered heat demands due to better insulation, less peak capacity is needed. Therefore, several potential energy systems are designed that can supply the reduced energy demands. The difference between these heating systems represent the marginal changes in production costs. The demands that the energy systems need to supply represents a per- centage reduction of the initial heat demand in the dis- trict heating system in Aalborg. Table 8 shows the resulting changes to the district heating system, with a changed demand. Based on these changes it is possible to calculate the marginal heat production costs with increased savings. These can be seen in Figure 8. It should be noted that this calculation only is done to determine the marginal production costs with increased savings level. To identify the actual savings rate, the marginal production costs must be compared with the marginal savings costs. Table 5: Capacities and investment costs for district heating [60] Capacity [MW] Specific investment [M€/MW] Fixed O&M [% of investment expenditures] Lifetime [years] CHP unit 323 el / 422 Th 1.78 1.64 40 Boiler unit 800 0.05 3.4 25 Table 6: Capacities and costs for individual heating [60] Capacity [1000 units] Specific investment [M€/1000 units] Fixed O&M [% of investment expenditures] Lifetime Indv. fuel boiler 10 2.7 6.7 20 Indv. electric heat 3 3.0 0.8 30 Indv. heat pump 2 7.6 2.22 15 Table 7: Fuel prices [60] Fuel type Basic Fuel price [€/kWh] Coal 0.010 Fuel oil 0.042 Natural Gas 0.029 Biomass 0.022 Table 8: Changes to the district heating system as consequence of space heating savings in Aalborg in a 2050 scenario Savings rate in space heating Heat supplied to the district heating grid [TWh] Resulting heat demand in buildings [TWh] Peak-load boiler capacity [MW] Heat and electricity system cost [M€] 0% 2.28 1.80 800 668 15% 2.02 1.54 689 656 30% 1.76 1.28 578 646 45% 1.50 1.02 467 637 60% 1.23 0.75 357 631 75% 0.97 0.49 246 628 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 23 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund To investigate the marginal heat production costs of changes in the individual heat supply, this study assumes that it is reflected in the fuel costs for individually heated buildings. The assumed fuel costs are found in Table 9. Figure 8 shows the marginal heat supply costs as the heat demand is reduced in Aalborg Municipality. 4. Results Based on the GIS analyses and costs presented in the methodology, it is possible to identify marginal cost curves for both production of energy in the Aalborg energy system and the energy saving in each individual building. The buildings and renovation levels are aggre- gated based on supply. Figure 9 shows the marginal cost curves for supply and savings for the central district heating area, where Figure 10 shows the curves for the individually heated buildings. From the intersection between the two curves in Figure 9, the socio-economically feasible renovation level in each supply area is identified, associated to the specific buildings that need to be renovated and the extent of this renovation. The overall energy efficiency increase for each supply area can be seen in Table 10. It is important to note that not all buildings in Aalborg Municipality are included in the analysis. Table 10 therefore includes both the specific savings in the build- ings included, and the influence on the total energy demand. One example is that the electric heating cate- gory contains many summer cabins that are not reno- vated, which means that even though the modelled buildings have to reduce the heat demand with 33%, it 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 00.511.52 M ar gi na l c os t [ E U R /k W h] Energy carrier consumption [TWh] District heating Oil Natural gas Biomass Heat pump Resistance boiler Figure 8: Marginal heat production costs for reduction in heat production. The solid line is the district heating supply with different levels of demand, while dashed lines are marginal supply costs for individually heated buildings Table 9: Marginal costs for changing the heat demand in individual heating Fuel type Heat efficiency Fuel price for indv. heating incl. handling costs [€/kWh] Resulting heat price [€/kWh] Oil 0.80 0.071 0.089 Natural Gas 0.85 0.044 0.052 Biomass 0.69 0.037 0.054 Electricity (boiler) 1.00 0.077 0.077 Electricity (heat pump) 3.10 0.077 0.025 24 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply Table 10: Specific savings in modelled buildings and influence on total heat demand GWh savings Savings in modelled buildings Total heat demand reduction Central district heating 450 30% 25% Individual oil 27 37% 24% Individual gas 4 36% 20% Individual biomass 11 34% 18% Individual heat pumps 6 35% 23% Invidividual electric boiler 2 33% 3% 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.80.911.11.21.31.41.51.61.71.8 E U R /k W h Heat demand in the Aalborg district heating area [TWh] Figure 9: Heat saving costs and heat supply costs in district heating -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 00.020.040.060.080.10.12 E U R /k W h TWh Oil Ngas Biomass Hpump E. heating Oil Ngas Biomass Hpump E. heating Figure 10: Heat savings costs and heat cost for individual heating. The dashed lines indicate marginal heating costs and the bold lines the marginal saving costs International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 25 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund only affects the total heat demand for electric heating with a 3% reduction since most buildings with electric heating won’t be renovated. For the central district heat- ing area, however, the 30% savings potential can reduce the overall heat demand by 25% due to the large share of houses connected to the central district heating system. It is now possible to identify results for each building type in all supply areas. For this analysis, the paper focuses on the district heating area, and the most and least expensive individual heating technology respec- tively, oil and heat pumps. Figure 11 and Figure 12 show the amount of energy reductions at each level, dependent on the construc- tion year of the building. For district heating and heat pumps, savings up until Level 4 are feasible, whereas for the most expensive heat source, oil, the buildings can be renovated up until Level 5. The results show that Level 1 savings can achieve savings in all build- ings, just as well as installing Energy label A win- dows (Level 3). However, Level 2, and Level 4 and 5 primarily achieve a significant amount of energy reductions in buildings constructed before 1973, since these steps are already implemented in newer buildings in Denmark. Furthermore, the figures also illustrate that the build- ing mass is newer in the district heating area, compared to the buildings with individual oil boilers and heat pumps. Figure 11 shows that it is feasible to conduct savings in the newer building mass, but since most buildings already have better insulation standards there is less feasible savings to make. In both the oil and the heat pump-heated buildings, most of the savings can be achieved in buildings older than 1930. For oil-supplied buildings it also seems feasible to refurbish to level 4 or level 5, which is not relevant in the heat pump-heated houses. However, here it might be more feasible to change to a different supply technology. Figure 13 and Figure 14 show the achievable saving in each building type based on the level of renovation, Figure 13 shows the results for district heating, while Figure 14 shows for individual oil and heat pump heated buildings. First, it is clear from the comparison that the individ- ually heated buildings are almost exclusively single-fam- ily houses and farmhouses. In the district heating area, the type of buildings is much more diverse. The potential for saving energy is largely split between apartment buildings and single-family houses, with some amount of savings achievable in schools, universities, offices and terrace houses. Apartments and offices together account for almost 33% of the feasible potential for heat savings. It should also be noted that, even though the district heating is in denser urban areas with a more diverse building stock, 33% of the heat savings potential is still in single-family buildings. 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S ai nv gs [M W h/ ye ar ] District heating <1850 1850-1930 1931-1950 1951-1960 1961-1972 1973-1978 1979-1998 1999-2006 2007< Figure 11: Heat savings by construction year for buildings using district heating 26 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S av in gs [M W h/ ye ar ] District heating Other commerce Other institution Theatres, etc Day cares Care centres Apartments Hospitals Hotels etc Dorms Offices Single family houses Terrace houses Farmhouses Transport Teaching Figure 13: Heat savings by building type for district heating 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S ai nv gs [M W h/ ye ar ] Oil <1850 1850-1930 1931-1950 1951-1960 1961-1972 1973-1978 1979-1998 1999-2006 2007< 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S ai nv gs [M W h/ ye ar ] Heat pumps <1850 1850-1930 1931-1950 1951-1960 1961-1972 1973-1978 1979-1998 1999-2006 2007< Figure 12: Heat savings by construction year for buildings using oil and heat pumps International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 27 Steffen Nielsen , Jakob Zinck Thellufsen, Peter Sorknæs, Søren Roth Djørup, Karl Sperling, Poul Alberg Østergaarda and Henrik Lund 5. Discussion Usually, the detailed building level perspective is only used for specific buildings and not on a municipality scale. With this type of detailed analysis on a municipal scale, it is possible to provide insights into the costs difference of end-use heat savings in relation to both the type of buildings and the heat supply. Another strength of the methodology is that it examines energy savings at an aggregated level for district heating, where the savings in individual buildings influence the production costs of the system, which again is valuable information from a planning perspective. In the analysis, the focus is on the feasibility of savings with the current heat supply, however, the analysis could also be expanded to look at future renewable energy systems. Overall, with the sug- gested approach it becomes possible to identify feasible levels of heat savings in buildings on a concrete level, and considering the specific supply system. It is, however, possible to further the analysis, as some generalisations have been made. This is mainly due to the simplifications necessary when analysing the buildings of a whole municipality. One of these simplifications is that even though the data is presented at a building level, both the heat consumption and the renovation costs are based on averages for the building classifications. It would be more precise if the heat consumption and costs collected specifically for each building. However, this type of data is not available on the scale of this analysis. The data used for the current end use heat demands in the buildings are based on a statistical model of measured data from the supply companies. As such, this model is best in the building categories, where much data is avail- able, which is also why the analysis only focuses on some building types. Thus, the heat saving potential in the municipality could be higher if other buildings were included. Similarly, the model used for the heat savings estimates only deals with specific types of savings, where other types of saving measures are not present e.g. mechanical ventilation or A+ windows. Including more types of saving measures could potentially increase the feasible saving potential, while on the other hand these might be more expensive than the ones already included. Thus, the results do depend on what energy savings are seen as part as the general refurbishment and what are extra initiatives. On the more technical side, some parts of the system are not adjusted when implementing the heat savings, e.g. introducing a higher co-efficiency of performance for heat pumps. The same could be said for the district heating systems, where lower building tem- peratures, potentially reduce network losses, increase supply efficiencies and enable lower temperature heat sources as part of the supply. 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S ai nv gs [M W h/ ye ar ] Oil Other commerce Other institution Theatres, etc Day cares Care centres Apartments Hospitals Hotels etc Dorms Offices Single family houses Terrace houses Farmhouses Transport Teaching 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 S ai nv gs [M W h/ ye ar ] Heat pumps Other commerce Other institution Theatres, etc Day cares Care centres Apartments Hospitals Hotels etc Dorms Offices Single family houses Terrace houses Farmhouses Transport Teaching Figure 14: Heat savings by building type for oil and heat pumps 28 International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol. 25 2020 Smart Energy Aalborg: Matching end-use heat saving measures and heat supply costs to achieve least-cost heat supply Another important aspect in the analysis, is that all the costs used are socio-economic costs, where the current tax and tariff systems are neglected. In other words, the analysis does not look at the conditions for the individual building owner, and the saving mea- sures that are feasible in this analysis are not neces- sarily feasible in a private economic context. Also, the building owner gets additional benefits of improving the energy efficiency of the building, such as improved comfort, indoor climate and a higher property value, which has not been included in this analysis. This is a crucial aspect towards implementation, as both taxes, subsidies and tariff structure can have a significant impact on the feasibility for the individual building owner. Another relevant topic related to the feasibility of heat savings, could be related to the ownership of the buildings [62], which is only indirectly touched upon, by looking at building types. Typically, it is easier to implement heat savings in buildings with only a single owner, as this owner will get the full benefit of the heat saving measures. However, in other cases, e.g. in some social housing projects, it is actu- ally a benefit that the owner can renovate larger build- ing blocks with feasible loaning options available, as opposed to privately owned multi-storey buildings without the same options. This becomes relevant as a large part of the savings potential in the district heat- ing area is found in apartments. 6. Conclusion With the focus on the importance of energy efficiency in buildings in relation to the renewable energy transition, and the availability of more detailed data on both build- ing demands and energy efficiency measures, this article focuses on developing a new method for analysing the heat demands in a regional context. The article uses the Danish municipality of Aalborg as a point of departure. The article uses the Danish Heat Atlas, which includes building level information, to estimate the heat saving potentials as well as the cost for seven different heat saving levels, for the whole municipality. The levels of savings used are: 1. Basic renovation (building code) 2. Cavity wall insulation 3. Windows (A level) 4. Insulation of ceiling and roofs 5. Good practice for insulation 6. Energy saving focus when insulating 7. Level 6 fully implemented The saving costs are further compared to the supply costs, which are modelled in the hourly energy system analysis tool EnergyPLAN. In the analysis, buildings with the same supply costs are aggregated together and the feasible point between energy efficiency measures and supply is found. The analysis only focuses on energy effi- ciency measures in six building types, but to find the supply costs of district heating, the energy demand from other building types are included in the analysis. The overall result shows that a demand reduction of 30% in district heating, 35% for heat pumps and 37% for oil, for the examined buildings, are feasible. Furthermore, it shows that Level 1 and 3 savings are feasible in almost all buildings, while Level 2, 4 and 5 are mainly feasible in buildings older than 1973. Buildings of this age and older are also the ones with the largest efficiency potential energy wise. For district heating it is feasible to go to Level 4 energy savings, while for the buildings with oil-boilers, it is feasible to go to Level 5 savings and for heat pumps it is only feasible to go to Level 3. For buildings older than 1930, efficiency measures to Level 5 is relevant, no matter if the supply is heat pump or oil, however, the buildings supplied by oil boilers would probably be better off changing supply. In addition, there is a difference between the building types of the district heating and the individual heating, where the district heating area has a substantial share of offices and apartments, the individual heating is mainly in single-family building and farm houses [42]. The article shows an example of Aalborg Municipality, but using the same methodology in other places would most likely show that it is very important to be able to distinguish different building and supply types, when assessing the level of heat savings that should be imple- mented as the renovation decisions have to be made on the individual household level and we need to support them with the correct information. It is important to note, that this article is based on socio-economic costs, and that it would be necessary to supplement it with private economic analysis, to determine if the savings measures are feasible in a given setting. 7. 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