International Journal of the Whole Child

2021, VOL. 6, NO. 1

Motivation for Participation in Extracurricular School Clubs for Students with Severe

Disabilities

Alicia Pencea

aMiddle Tennessee State University

Dr. Alicia Pence is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Elementary and Special

Education. Dr. Pence received her Ph.D. in Special Education from the University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests are in the areas of inclusive education and

professional partnerships with families. Her current research investigates the beliefs and

preparedness of early intervention service providers that are working with families of limited

financial resources. Dr. Pence also supervises student teachers, while teaching courses related to

professional partnerships, math, and literacy. Prior to her appointment at Middle Tennessee State

University, Dr. Pence taught middle school special education in Kentucky for ten years where

she served as a resource teacher, co-teacher, and Response to Intervention Math Specialist.

Ultimately, Dr. Pence endeavors to prepare dynamic educators while maintaining strong

advocacy efforts for individuals with disabilities.

The participation of students with severe disabilities in school-based extracurricular activities

provides students with opportunities to experience a full inclusive school event. Typically,

however, students with severe disabilities remain underrepresented in extracurricular

involvement as compared to their peers without disabilities (Agran et al., 2017; Cadwallader, et

al., 2003). Understanding factors influencing students’ decisions to part icipate, or not to

participate, in extracurricular activities is a concept frequently investigated in the existing

literature for students without disabilities; however, participating in extracurricular school events

is seldom explored for students with disabilities. Research highlights two factors when

considering participation by students without disabilities in why these students select

extracurricular school activities; these factors include individual and social-environmental

motivational influences.

Individual Factors

Evidence indicates that individual (or psychological) factors contribute to a student’s decision

regarding whether or not to join an extracurricular activity. For example, Fredricks and Eccles

(2002) discuss how that out of 41 students interacting in extracurricular programs focusing on

athletics and/or art, students describe enjoyment as the most common reason to participate.

These youth describe feelings of pleasure, fun, and satisfaction as rationales to initially interact

in extracurricular activities and then, refer to these same reasons to continue their participation.

Additional fewer common reasons cited by youth to participate in extracurricular school

activities included filling their free time, gaining useful skills for future careers, as well as a

release from family/school pressures.

Weiss and Williams (2004) describe perceived competence as “…a child’s belief about his or her

own ability” (p. 228). Youth that join and continue participation in extracurricular activities

oftentimes do so because they believe they are ‘good at it.” Fredricks and Eccles (2002) describe

adolescents who positively perceive their ability to succeed in an activity as more likely to

continue investing in the same event across time because they felt they possessed the abilities to

evidence success, thus increasing their self-confidence. Increased self-worth (i.e., self-esteem)

also influences students’ decisions to participate in activities. Bohnert, Martin, and Garber

(2007), in examining the relationship between adolescent self-worth with activity involvement,

discuss how adolescents with high levels of self -worth demonstrate more involvement in

extracurricular activities during school as compared with students who did not report high levels

of self-worth. Their findings suggest students with high levels of self -worth tend to expect more

positive gains and rewards (e.g., contact with peers, awards, and honors) from participation,

which is an underlying motivation for their initial decision to become involved in activities.

Social-Environmental Factors

Social-environmental factors affecting participation in extracurricular activities also include the

roles of parents and friendships. Parental encouragement for involvement in extracurricular

activities appears to increase youth participation (Fletcher, et al., 2000; Hueber & Mancini, 2003;

Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). Through parental endorsement for participation in activities, parents

send strong messages to their children about the value of involvement. Parents with high

expectations for their child’s success in extracurricular activities become more willing to provide

access to such opportunities; thereby, parents positively impact their child’s motivation to

participate (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004; Hueber & Mancini, 2003). Parents’ decisions and

resulting behaviors (e.g., enrolling their child for music lessons, buying sporting equipment)

influence children’s interests, skills, and preferences for future activity choices. Additionally,

parents who value community civic engagement and demonstrate high involvement with

community activities provide their children with positive role models. In turn, parents’ actions

result in their children’s enhanced interaction in extracurricular participation (Fletcher et al.,

2000).

Friendship is another reason why youth choose to participate in extracurricular activities.

Specifically, peer relationships may assume heightened importance during adolescence as

compared with earlier years of development because of the red efining nature and complexity of

peer networks (Savin-Williams & Berndt, 1990). Opportunities to spend time with friends as

well as make new ones indicate links to higher involvement of youth in extracurricular activities

(Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Hueber & Mancini, 2003). Also, continued involvement in an

extracurricular activity demonstrates an increase in the likelihood youth will develop sustained

relationships with peers participating in the activity (Patrick et al., 1999).

Fostering relationships with peers evidence an influence on students’ decisions to participate in

extracurricular activities. Youth who identify with club members as sharing common values and

interests as their own are more likely to join for membership, compared to youth who perceive

club members as representing different values and interests (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Patrick et

al., 1999). Youth may also desire to expand their social networks. For instance, Patrick and

colleagues (1999) assert youth perceive their involvement in activities as increasing the extent to

which they could initiate contact with new peers, thus expanding their peer network. As youth

create new peer relationships and nurture existing ones, they continuously improve social skills,

concepts of well-being, and motivations to continue involvement in the activity. However, when

youth are unable to build satisfying peer relationships within the activity, their motivation for

involvement decreases as time spent with friends outside of the activity becomes more important

(Lovitt, et al., 1999; Patrick et al., 1999). Youth participating in athletics indicate greater

enjoyment and intrinsic motivation for continuing involvement in the activity when they have

established personal friendships with other team members (Weiss & Smith, 2002; Weiss &

Williams, 2004).

Little is known about the motivation for students with severe disabilities to participate in

extracurricular activities. Limited evidence alludes to potential explanations, such as

socialization with peers and skill acquisition; however, existing research for typically developing

peers and youth with challenging behaviors suggest additional reasons like perceived

competence, increased self-worth, and parental encouragement. There have been no empirical

studies investigating motivation, extracurricular participation, and students with severe

disabilities. Understanding what motivates students with severe disabilities to become, and stay,

involved in extracurricular activities is critical for providing evidence as to the importance of

these broad school experiences. To address these gaps in the literature, a study is warranted to

explore the involvement of students with severe disabilities in extracurricular activities.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the motivating factors for school-aged students with

severe disabilities in extracurricular school clubs. Of the variety of extracurricular activities

available in most public schools (e.g., choir, sports), school clubs were selected because research

has shown them to be the most frequented activity for students with severe disabilities (Kleinert,

et al., 2007a). Additionally, school clubs typically have many opportunities for students to

participate and are accessible to most students in the school. To address the gaps in the literature,

this study examined what motivated students to initially join school clubs and, once enrolled,

describe reasons for their continued participation.

Method

This qualitative investigation exploring the participation of students with severe disabilities in

extracurricular school clubs sought to answer the research question, “What do stakeholders

believe motivates students with severe disabilities to participate in school clubs?” To explore the

phenomenon of motivation, in-depth interviews were conducted with parents of students with

severe disabilities, school club sponsors, and special education teachers. Bandura’s theory of

self-efficacy (see Bandura, 1991) was also used to inform the design of this study as well as to

explain the construct of motivation. Therefore, for purposes of this research, motivation was

defined as being a perspective given by an individual about the rationale, reasoning, and/or

purpose for the involvement of a student with SD in a school club.

Three students with severe disabilities, along with their parents, school club sponsors, and

special education teachers were purposefully selected to participate in this study. For this project,

a student with a severe disability was defined as having extensive support needs (e.g., autism,

intellectual disability) and meeting eligibility criteria for the state’s alternative assessment.

Extracurricular school clubs were defined broadly to include any student -interest organization

that had regular scheduled meetings and were open to all students. Each student participated in

one school club related to either spirit, leadership, or service.

Three students with severe disabilities were the focal participants in this study. These students

had previously identified intellectual disabilities, with one of them also having a rare

neurological disorder that impacted her fine and gross motor abilities. Students were receiving

special education services in their local public secondary schools and ranged in ages from twelve

to fifteen years. The time that students spent in school, typically involved spending most of the

day in special education self-contained classrooms, while occasionally included with their peers

without disabilities for elective courses (e.g., music, choir).

Data Collection and Analysis

Interview data were collected for three club sponsors, three special education teachers, and the

parents of three students with disabilities. In total, fifteen semi-structured interviews were

conducted (i.e., two for each club sponsor, two for each special education teacher, and one for

each parent). Each interview took approximately one-hour to complete, was audio recorded, and

consisted of one to two specific questions related to student motivation for (a) joining the school

club, and (b) continued participation in the club. Interview questions were developed based on

the literature in the field and the researcher’s experience facilitating extracurricular opportunities

for students with severe disabilities. Interview questions were piloted with four non-participants

of similar backgrounds as the research participants. Subsequently, minor revisions were made to

the interview questions to provide greater clarity.

All interview data were analyzed using open-coding and constant comparative methods (Lincoln

& Guba, 1985). Individual interviews were coded, one at a time, by the researcher and a second

coder (i.e., graduate student). Both coders met multiple times to discuss and compare codes.

Codes were then defined and recorded in a master codebook, and interview data were analyzed

again to apply the codes. These coding procedures were repeated for each set of interview data

until coders agreed data reached saturation. Final codes were then merged into categories which

led to emerging themes that were represented across all interview data (Miles, et al., 2014).

Measures were taken during the data collection and analysis stages to ensure trustworthiness and

credibility of findings. First and second level member checking procedures were employed so

that participants could have many opportunities to provide feedback (e.g., clarify a response).

Investigator triangulation allowed for multiple perspectives from several investigators (i.e.,

researcher, second coder, second researcher) throughout data analysis. For example, the

researcher peer debriefed during weekly meetings with a second researcher to discuss emerging

codes, categories, and themes. Lastly, a researcher identity journal was used consistently

throughout the study. This journal provided a space for the researcher to challenge personal

assumptions, perspectives, and biases.

Findings

Findings are organized by themes that emphasize commonalities across all interview data (Stake,

2006). The first two themes (i.e., who you know matters, what you know matters) relate to why

students initially joined clubs. Although several examples of motives for students joining clubs

(i.e., recruitment efforts by club members, prior experience participating in clubs, variety of

extracurricular activities from which to choose, relationship with the club sponsor, adult

advocated for the student) were identified, data describing the most prominent reason students

with severe disabilities enrolled in extracurricular activities were used in order to engage in

activities they enjoyed with their friends. The last theme (i.e., finding a niche) explains

motivators that influenced students’ ongoing participation in club activities. In general, students

were motivated to continue their involvement because they liked being part of a group and they

were continuously encouraged to participate; identified as less frequent motives included related

to having a relationship with peers outside of club activities and learning new skills.

“Who” You Know…Matters

Ultimately, students were motivated to take part in club activities because they perceived these

events as fun activities that they could experience with someone they knew. In each case, there

was at least one club member (e.g., childhood friend, peer mentor, sibling) who assumed an

integral part in motivating students to join the clubs. In fact, all the students with severe

disabilities who became club members evidenced pre-existing relationships with individuals/club

members with whom they already felt comfortable. Interestingly, two of the club members

indicated relationships with typical students emphasizing providing mentoring or personal

support as contrasted with reciprocated friendships. For example, one student with a severe

disability that participated in a leadership club had a preexisting relationship with a club

member. Adult participants strongly believed that the student’s awareness of this relationship

was a key motivator for her wanting to get involved in the club. The relationship between the

student with a severe disability and the peer typically consisted of partaking in school activities

together, like eating lunch at the same table or saying hi to each other in the hallway. This

relationship did not, however, extend beyond the school day to other common social activities

such as attending sleepovers or talking on the phone together. Irrespective of the parity in this

relationship, the peer oftentimes spoke to the student about the particular club and would

frequently invite the student to attend club activities.

In another case, adult participants agreed that the sibling of a student with a severe disability was

a major reason for joining a spirit club. The student with severe disabilities sibling was heavily

involved in the spirit club the year prior to the student showing an interest in joining. In

particular, the club sponsor believed that the student’s sibling frequently encouraged him to join

the club, and even “drug him along [to club activities]” before he was a club member. The

student’s mother also conveyed strong viewpoints about the profound role that the sibling had on

her son’s eagerness to join the club by stating, “He just knew right away that he wanted to be a

part of it [the club].”

“What” You Know… Matters

Students’ interests, experiences, and skills influenced the types of clubs they chose to join. Club

selection had more to do with students’ familiarity with certain activities and knowing how to

participate in the activities than their belief that a club sounded intriguing or their desire to

experience something new and different. Before deciding to join a club, students participated in

leisure activities with their families. Due to these experiences, students selected to participate in

club activities at school that closely resembled their family activities. In turn, membership in

familiar clubs meant that students could capitalize on previously learned skills that closely

aligned with what was soon becoming an area of leisure interest.

Family experiences helped to cultivate a sense of curiosity and personal interest for students with

severe disabilities. These experiences also afforded students with opportunities to gain skills

required for participation. In one student’s case, her mother discussed how she had grown to

enjoy cooking, a skill that was important for her participation in a service club. “I always try to

include my daughter in everything [in the kitchen] … I think the club drew her [in] because that

is what we do all the time [at home].” Importantly, the student’s engagement in family cooking

helped her to acquire skills (e.g., making simple measurements, following a cooking recipe) that

were utilized in various club activities such as preparing and serving food at a local community

center.

Similarly, one student participated in the spirit club and had been raised in a family environment

that valued participation in community activities (e.g., sports). In fact, the student spent the

majority of his childhood attending his older sibling’s basketball and football games. He was

described as having a “good understanding” of the basic rules that govern common sporting

events such as basketball. Through his involvement in sporting events with his family, he also

mastered the skill of cheering (i.e., appropriate voice inflection, use of hand signals). The

student’s mother remarked on how the spirit club became a natural fit for her son, “He identifies

with sports fandom because that’s what we do all the time…since he was born. I think it’s just so

much a part of what we do as a family.”

Finding a Niche

Students’ reasons for wanting to join clubs revolved around their desire to participate in activities

they enjoyed and, sometimes, with peers that they already knew. However, their motivation for

continued membership stemmed from finding their own niche, a place where they fit -in with

their peers, within the larger context of their school communities. Students continuously looked

forward to going to club activities and “being with their friends.” On the days that clubs met,

students spoke often about their excitement about upcoming club activities; while at home, clubs

were an important topic of conversation around the evening dinner table. One club sponsor

noted, “This is her [student with severe disability] club. This is where she comes on Wednesdays

once a month…she doesn’t want to miss anything because she is having so much fun.”

Students were also committed club members who took great pride in their affiliations with the

club. They demonstrated their commitment by attending many of the club meetings and events as

well as signing up for volunteer activities. As one club sponsor stated, “If she [student with

severe disability] signs up for an activity, I know that she will show up for it.” Students w ere also

perceived to have participated in more activities than many of their peers. For instance, one

student with a severe disability won a selfie-stick for being one of her club’s highest sellers of

raffle coupons. As students’ commitment to their clubs deepened, so did a newfound sense of

pride for their schools. “I think he considers himself a Lion…he’s proud of that,” the spirit club

sponsor commented as she discussed how the student wore blue and grey school colors almost

daily.

After approximately two months of participating, students with severe disabilities became

increasingly accustomed to the different types of club activities and routines. As students’

awareness for club rituals strengthened, so did their comfort as club participants. These growing

positive experiences led to a greater sense of self -confidence in their own abilities to be

contributing club members, fueling their motivation for continued involvement. The club

sponsors took notice of the positive changes in students. The leadership club sponsor remarked

on one student’s more recent involvement: “I think she feels more comfortable now…especially

since she has gotten to know so many of the [club] members through the activities she came

to…she doesn’t seem as shy anymore.” Interestingly, the student was later nominated and

elected, by her peers, for an official officer role in the club.

Emotional support from students’ families and individuals in the school clubs, also enabled

students to find their niche. Club sponsors oftentimes used phrases such as “considerate,”

“tolerant of (student’s) idiosyncrasies,” “patient,” and “accepting” to describe club members

without disabilities. Club sponsors were also continuously reinforcing the same expectations for

everyone. One club sponsor spoke extensively about her personal belief in the importance of

following the basic principle of “treat everyone the same” while participating in the club.

Essentially, club sponsors strongly believed that each club member should be expected to attend

meetings, participate in club events, and follow appropriate social norms (e.g., raising your hand

before speaking, not touching other club members). In addition, encouragement from parents

was paramount to students’ ongoing participation in club activities. Parents ultimately placed

great value in their children being involved in school activities with their peers. As one parent

remarked, “I like that she is working with peers [in the service club] and getting out of that

special class all day…it’s good for her.” Encouragement from parents happened often. Another

parent reinforced the importance of extracurricular activities by telling her child, “the best part of

school is being involved and getting to know the people you go to school with.”

Discussion

Students with severe disabilities joined clubs for the same reasons as their peers without

disabilities. Youth with and without disabilities simply wanted to have fun with their friends

while participating in activities they enjoyed. This f inding is supported in the existing literature

on extracurricular activities (Bohnert, et al., 2007; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Hueber & Mancini,

2003). Research for typically developing students also describes these youth sometimes indicate

more sophisticated reasons for deciding to join an activity, such as a desire to expand their social

network (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Hueber & Mancini, 2003). In contrast to this literature,

students with severe disabilities associated joining a club with people with w hom they had a pre-

existing relationship (e.g., childhood friend, sibling) and might not have perceived the

opportunities to make new friends as a potential motivator. Complicating the issue of expanding

peer relationships is the disenfranchisement that is often experienced by students with severe

disabilities. Students, who are spending large amounts of time in classrooms separate from their

peers, have fewer opportunities to create or maintain social networks with peers that are outside

the purview of the school day.

The current data substantiate the claim that having fun is an underlying motivator for joining

activities, holding equal value for students with and without disabilities. However, students with

severe disabilities might not be able to accurately assess their preference for certain activities

because they have few experiences to compare an event, since past research has shown that

students with intellectual disabilities have limited leisure time activities in which they partake

(Buttimer & Tierney, 2005; McGuire & McDonnell, 2008; Orsmond, et al., 2004; Solish, et al.,

2010). Moving forward, it will be imperative for students with disabilities to be provided with

multiple opportunities to experience a wide range of extracurricular activities. Through these

experiences, students will have a deeper understanding of what having fun feels like and be

better positioned to make choices about the activities in which they choose to participate.

Once an extracurricular activity is selected, it is important students with severe disabilities feel

motivated to continue their involvement. Parent encouragement remains a significant motivator

for students with and without disabilities. These current data demonstrate the importance of

parental encouragement for students with severe disabilities joining in extracurricular activities

and support the existing research describing how parents’ high expectations for students

influence the motivation of students without disabilities (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004; Hueber &

Mancini, 2003). These results emphasize the important role for parents in supporting youth

involvement. However, parents’ support is especially significant for students with disabilities as

many will require additional efforts to participate in activities. For instance, activity buses taking

children home after school might not be equipped to transport students with complex support and

physical needs. As a result, students with severe disabilities may need to rely on their parents for

coordinating or providing transportation. Essentially, the influence of parent encouragement is

far-reaching, providing important motivation for students as well as access to activities.

Students without disabilities continue involvement in extracurricular activities because of their

positive self-concepts (i.e., high self-confidence, increased self-worth), as many of these youth

have a reputation for being hard workers and over achievers. As these youth maintain their

involvement, their self-concepts continue to improve as they are reinforced by positive gains and

benefits (e.g., improved athletic skills, increased time with peers) (Bohnert et al., 2007; Fredricks

& Eccles, 2002; Weiss & Williams, 2004). On the contrary, students with severe disabilities only

begin to develop a positive self-concept across an extended period of time, and after their initial

involvement. In part, this might result from the need for additional time and supports for students

with severe disabilities to establish new club routines and interactions with peers. Club

facilitators become integral in aiding the improvement of self -concept for students with severe

disabilities. Through active, ongoing, collaboration with the special education teacher to

understand effective strategies for supporting students with severe disabilities in club activities,

facilitators become better positioned to create and sustain a supportive welcoming climate. As a

result of these ongoing concerted efforts, students with severe disabilities will likely have greater

intrinsic motivation, through improved self-concept, to continue their involvement.

Limitations

There are limitations to this study that should be considered when interpreting findings.

Findings from interviews with adult participants (i.e., special education teachers, club sponsors,

parents) are based on the perceptions of these individuals. Although these perceptions offer

important insights into the underlying motives for why students were involved in clubs, they

might not be an accurate representation of views held by students themselves. For instance, the

findings related to leisure preferences for students with severe disabilities consistently

demonstrate the mismatch between students’ actual preferences when compared to their parents’

preferences for them (Buttimer & Tierney, 2005). In addition, others involved in school club

activities, like peers or paraprofessionals, might represent other insights not captured in this

study.

Implications for Research and Practice

In order to provide an inclusive and holistic life experience for both students with and without

severe disabilities, continued research examining motives for students with severe disabilities

involvement in extracurricular activities is beneficial. For example, comparing factors associated

with joining and participating in extracurricular programs for students with and without

disabilities would support school personnel and club facilitator’s efforts. Significantly, it will be

imperative for future studies to include the authentic youth voice of students with disabilities.

Innovative methods for capturing students’ voices through artwork, collective stories, and

interviews indicate potential for learning more about this topic.

Findings from this study also indicate critical implications for practice. Foremost, it is important

for special education teachers to use evaluative tools beyond preference assessments to

determine leisure preferences for students with severe disabilities. For instance, affording

students with opportunities to explore and try-out various extracurricular activities will be

essential for helping students to establish preferred interests. Secondly, it will be essential for

club sponsors to maintain standards which cultivate an inclusive-shared space that consistently

promotes a culture of high expectations, acceptance, and openness for every club member. To

help nurture club members positive self-concepts, club sponsors encourage members to share

their unique qualities in the safety of the club environment where club members’ differences are

seen as benefits. Ultimately, a collaborative and supportive approach involving all membership

in the extracurricular activity (e.g., special education teachers, club sponsors, parents, peers)

becomes a necessary component to full inclusion in extracurricular opportunities for students

with severe disabilities.

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