kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse/ international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 22-29; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.58 article history: received august 1st, 2019 ; accepted october 11th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu1, yila caiaphas makadi1, d.m. umar2 1department of geography, gombe state university, gombe, nigeria 2department of biological sciences, gombe state university, gombe, nigeria e-mail: cial0522@yahoo.com abstract this study examined the integration of remote sensing and geographic information system (rs/gis) for analyzing land use and land cover dynamics in gombe metropolitan, the gombe state capital for the period 1976 to 2016. land sat (tm) images of 1976, 1996and 2016 were used. the study employed supervised digital image classification method using erdas imagine 9.2 and arc gis 10.5 software and classified the land use into undisturbed vegetation, sparse vegetation, settlements, farmlands, rock outcrops, bare surfaces. the images were analyzed via georeferencing, image enhancement, image resampling and classification. the results obtained show an increasing settlements (from 0.36% 4.01%) and farmlands (from 24.8% 51.2%), over a decreasing of other lulc classes (bare surfaces, undisturbed and sparse vegetation, and rocky outcrops) for the time period of 1976 to 2016. these results could help city planners and policy makers to attain and sustain future urban development. it is therefore recommended that encouragement should be given to people to build towards the outskirts, like new mile 3 and tumfure, etc through the provision of incentives and forces of attraction that is available at the city center in these areas to avoid the problem of overcrowdings. keywords: urbanization, land use/cover, change detection, gombe, remote sensing, gis. introduction land is the most important natural resources on which all activities are based. land use unlike geology, is seasonally dynamic and indeed is more changing. the increase in population and human activities are increasing the demand on the limited land and soil resources for agriculture, forest, pasture, urban and industrial land uses. information on the rate and kind of changes in the use of land resources is essential for proper planning, management and to regularise the use of such resources. land use / land cover are very dynamic in nature and have to be monitored at regular intervals for sustainable environmental development (zubair, 2006). population is a very important factor or agent of change in land-use in an area. for instance, as population increases, construction of dwellings increases, thus engendering conversion of cropland and forest land to settlements. these urban land-uses are of various types which could be for industrial, commercial, government, as well as transportation purposes. the most obvious effect of urbanization an effect which is implicit in its definition is an intensification, as well as diversification, of environmental resource exploitation. there are usually changes in the land cover and landscape pattern brought about by the shift from less intensive to more intensive uses of land. such diversification of environmental resources exploitation is accompanied by increases in environmental degradation. by environmental degradation, it is meant the long-term loss in ecosystem function and productivity. its symptoms include soil erosion, nutrient depletion, salinity, water scarcity, pollution, disruption of biological cycles, and loss of biodiversity (unced, 1992). urbanization is the driving force for modernization, economic growth and development, there is yet an increasing concern about the effects of expanding cities, principally on human health, livelihoods and the environment (un-habitat, 2003). rapid urbanization, particularly the growth of large cities l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 23 especially in nigeria, is often associated with problems such as unemployment, poverty, inadequate health facilities, poor sanitation, urban slums and general environmental degradation (undp, 2008). all these pose a formidable challenge in many developing countries. the question that arises is whether the current trend in urban growth is sustainable, considering the accompanying urban challenges, especially in the developing countries (undp, 2008). studies have shown that there remains only few landscapes on the earth that still exist in their natural state. due to anthropogenic activities, the earth’s surface is being significantly altered and man’s presence on the earth and his use of land has had a profound effect upon the natural environment, thus resulting into an observable pattern in the land use/land cover over time (lambin, geist and lepers, 2003; zubair, 2006; long, et. al.,2008). ademiluyi, et al., (2008) said rapid urbanization/industrialization and large scale agriculture and major changes in human activities have been identified as the major causes of the dramatic changes in land cover and land use patterns globally. urban centers in nigeria are facing the problems of over-stretched infrastructures, environmental degradation, seasonal flooding, destruction of natural vegetation, all resulting from increase in population (joel, 2006). the movement of people from rural to urban cities in search of better livelihood lead to an expansion of urban areas and increase in social and economic activities along flood plains thus increasing the risk of urban dwellers and infrastructures to natural disasters such as floods (akinbami, akinwumi and salami, 1996; ishaya, ifetimehin and okafor, 2008). the need for quantitative information on the environmental consequences of expansion of cities in nigeria provided the basis for this study. the aim of this study is to corroborate the increasing problem of urbanization on other land uses. the study explored the implications of the increasing urban expansion, spurred up by population growth, for environmental sustainability especially in nigeria. needless to state that the attainment of sustainable development will remain a mirage in gombe in particular and nigeria in general, if the current rate of urban population growth (such as natural increase and migration) and increasing environmental decay are not matched with proportionate economic growth and environmentally friendly development practices. methods the study area is gombe town and, it is located on latitude 100 13’and 10020’n and longitude 11002’and 11016’e. the study area is limited to the urban area and environs. some 9km radius around the town has been arbitrarily demarcated for the study with union bank round about, along biu road being the centre point (fig.1).gombe is located within the sub-sahara climatic zone. it is characterized by two distinctive seasons, that is, dry season (november-april) and wet season (may-october). the dry season comes with the north-east trade winds over the region originating from sahara belt. the wind is dry and dust laden accompanied by low pressure system. the wet season comes with the south-westerly wind which is moisture laden, and originates from high pressure zone over the atlantic ocean to the low pressure zone over the sahara. the rainfall here averages 907 mm. the vegetation of gombe is within sudan/guinea savannah. this is characterized by shrubs and scattered trees with a different species of grasses. the soils are highly ferruginous, formed as a result of intensive weathering of the basement rocks. the datasets used in this study were mainly derived from landsat imageriesacquired in 1976, 1996 and 2016theses imageries were sourced fromone of the usgs websites; (https://glovis.usgs.gov/). the characteristics of theimages are shown in table 1. the geo-information software used includes;idrisi version 18 and arcgis, 10.0. the idrisi terrset was used in the image processing and analysis, while the l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 24 │ arcgis was used for visualization of the processedimages.area of interest (aoi) was extracted from the four (4) landsat scenes usingthe “window” tool in idrisi. false colour composite (rgb) of the three bandsfor each of the selected dates was made in order to increase the pictorial qualityfor easy visual interpretation and identification of features on the images. theimages were further subjected to geometric correction using the “resampling”technique. this is carried out in order to co-register the images as suggested. the images were classified using the maximum likelihood algorithm intosix classes (settlements, bare surfaces, undisturbed and sparse vegetation, rocky outcrops and farmlands). figure 1: the study area procedure for data collection l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 25 the characteristics of the satellite images used in this study are contained in table 1. table 1: characteristics of satellite imageries date of acquisition type of satellite image spatial resolution (m) 1976 landsat multi spectral scanner (mss) 30 1996 landsat thematic mapper (tm) 30 2016 landsat thematic mapper (tm) 30 the remote sensing and the geographic information system (gis) technology and applications were applied in the determination of the land cover changes.the interpretation and classification of satellite images involved subsetting and other pre-processing steps including georeferencing,colour composite and unsupervised classification; ground truthing, screen digitization of some features, supervised classification and change detection. subsetting consisted mainly in selecting and extracting the study area from the full scene images. colour composite and unsupervised classification enabled us to establish major land cover classes before ground truthing to match the reality in the field with the classified image. after ground truthing, the supervised classification enabled to proceed on land cover map composition for each image. data analysis the obtainedresult was analyzed using tables and maps. the size and area of the land cover changes were calculated and represented in hectares. the rationale for these was based on the total size of the study area. results and discussion sequel to the general objective of this study, it was observed that there was an exponential growth in the city which have led to the quest for land, housing and other facilities/infrastructures that have given rise to changes in land cover, thus, reduction and loss of other land uses. figures 1, 2 and 3 present the lulc of the study area during the study period. the statistics of the land use/land cover distribution for each study year as derived from the imageries is presented in table 2. the supervised classification system using the maximum likelihood classifier as explained in the methodology was used for the analyses of the imageries. figures 1, 2 and 3 shows the classified maps adopted in this study. table 2: land-use/land cover distribution l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 26 │ land use classes 1976 (hectares) % 1996 (hectares) % 2016 (hectares) % undisturbed vegetation 21374.37 23.75 6052.50 6.70 1235.52 1.37 sparse vegetation 33986.25 37.76 18373.77 20.42 8721.90 9.69 settlements 324.45 0.36 978.84 1.09 3615.03 4.01 farmlands 22327.56 24.81 38697.12 43.00 46112.94 51.24 rock outcrops 1962.45 2.18 13916.34 15.46 15286.95 16.99 bare surfaces 10024.92 11.14 11981.43 13.31 15027.66 16.70 total 90,000 100 90,000 100 90,000 100 the supervised classification system using the maximum likelihood classifier as explained in the methodology was used for the analyses of the imageries. figures 1, 2 and 3 shows the classified maps adopted in this study. figure 1: classified land use land cover of 1976 l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 27 figure 2: classified land use land cover of 1996 figure 3: classified land use land cover of 2016 as shown in figure 4.4, the land-use/ land-cover distribution pattern in the year 1976 shows that sparse vegetation occupies 38% of the land-use category in the study area, followed by farmlands and undisturbed vegetation with a percentage of 25% and 24% respectively. this means that the vegetation as at then was readily abundant and there was available farmland with less competition on landuses. the bare surfaces had about 11% while rock outcrops had only 2%. the least of the landuse was settlement which occupies about 0.4%. l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 28 │ the land-use/land-cover distribution for 1996 also shows that farmland occupies over half of the land-use distribution (43%) with almost two times increase from the 1976. this isfollowed by sparse vegetation 20% a decrease from 1976 land-usedistribution, others on the increase are also rock outcrops, bare surfaces and settlements having 15%, 13% and 1% respectively. however, the undisturbed vegetation reduced to about 7% due to increase in settlements and farmlands. in 2016, the land-use distribution shows increased in settlement which occupies 4%, while the farmlands occupied 51% of the land-use distribution making it the highest land-use/ land-cover category in the study area. undisturbed vegetation showed a decrease occupying only 1% of the total area. the remaining land-cover categories of rock outcrop (17%) and bare surfaces (17%) showed an increase in these areas compared to the previous years except sparse vegetation that also showed a rapid decrease to 10% from 38% of 1976 and this is attributed to land-use conversion for other urban activities and increased population pressure.this conforms to the studies of chigbu, et al., (2011) who noted a significant disparity and trend in vegetation landcover due to rapid urbanization and socio economic activities. as well as oluseyi, (2006) that discovered that the land use types that are subject to major changes are vegetal covers and sprawl development. conclusion urbanization and ineffective legal frameworks had been discovered to be the major impediments to the ever growing land use changes in nigeria. this has however contributed immensely to the poor economic structures and environmental degradation. the creation of gombe state and gombe as a state capital has attracted a lot of people to the area thus contributing to the physical expansion of the city. results of this study indicate that, supervised classification provided satisfactory results in terms of distinguishing settlements, bare surfaces, undisturbed and sparse vegetation, rock outcrops and farmlands. the main change observed for the time period of 1976 to 2016 was the decrease of undisturbed and sparse vegetation areas due to urbanization. settlements are increasing in the study area as well as farmlands. land use/land cover mapping and detection of changes shown here may not provide the ultimate explanation for all problems related to land use/land cover changes but it serves as a base to understand the patterns and possible causes and consequences of land use/land cover changes in the area. references ademiluyi. a.i., okude, a.s., and akanni, c.o. (2008) “an appraisal of land use and landcover mapping in nigeria,” african journal of agricultural research, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 581-586. akinbami, j. f. k, akinwumi, i. o. and salami a. t (1996), implications of environmental degradation in nigeria, natural resources forum, 20 (4), 319 – 332. chigbu,n.igbokwe,j.i and orisakwe,k.u (2011).analysis of land use land cover changes of aba urban using medium resolution satellite imageries:bridging the gap between cultures marrakech, morocco. ishaya s., ifatimehin, o.o. and okafor, c. (2008). remote sensing and gis applications in urban expansionand loss of vegetation cover in kaduna town, northern nigeria, am.-eurasian journal of sustainable agriculture,2(2): 117-124. joel,i.i.(2006).mapping and spatial characterization of major urban centers in part of south eastern nigeria:promoting land administration and good governance fig regional conference ghana. l.a. mbaya1, g. o. abu, yila caiaphas makadi, d.m. umar effect of urbanization on land use land cover in gombe metropolis international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 29 lambin, e. f., geist, h. j., and lepers, e. (2003). dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. annual review of environment and resources, 28, 205-241. long, h., wu, x., wang, w. and dong, g. (2008) “analysis of urban-rural land-use change during 19952006 and its policy dimensional driving forces in chongqing, china”.sensors, 8, 681-699. oluseyi, f (2006) urban land use change analysis of a traditional city from remote sensing data:the case of ibadan metropolitan area, nigeria humanity & social sciences journal 1 (1): 42-64. unced (united nations conference on environment and development (1992).agenda 21, rio de janeiro. un-habitat, (2003).the challenge of slums.global report on human settlements 2000. earthscan, london. undp (2008). human development report 2007/2008: country fact sheets: nigeria. united nations, new york. zubair, a. o. (2006): change detection in land use and land cover using remote sensing data and gis (a case study of ilorin and its environs in kwara state). m.sc project submitted to theuniversity of ibadan kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 14-21; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.57 article history: received march 18st, 2019 ; accepted november 21th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria egbe, c.a. and dada a. a department of environmental management and toxicology, michael okpara university of agriculture umudike, abia state, nigeria e-mail: egbecypral@gmail.com abstract the study analyze the physical, chemical and biological properties of sludge (domestic waste water) in umuda-isingwu, umuahia-ibeku and ihie-ndume in umuahia north local government area of abia state. simple random sampling technique was adopted for the study. data obtained from laboratory analysis of the water samples was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques notably mean, flsd and f -test. the mean values of the physical and chemical parameters were compared with son’s and who’s permissible limits. in the chemical properties cod had a mean range of 69.03 ± 0.06 to 80.03 ± 0.06 with all the means showing significant difference among each other (p ≤ 0.05). the highest tss was observed in ibeku at 921.03 ± 0.06. nickel had a range of 7.42 ± 0.01 to 8.71 ± 0.01 mg/l with all the means showing significant difference (p ≤ 0.05). po4 had its highest concentration in ihie ndume community with a mean of 54.03 ± 0.06 mg/l. none of the means of ph was seen to be above the who permissible limit of 8.5, as the mean range of ph was between 6.11 ± 0.01 to 7.76 ± 0.01. the e. coli load was high at umuda isingwu, followed by ibeku and then ihie ndume. p. aeruginos and s. aereus was not observed in ihie ndume. the presence of fecal coliform bacteria is an indicator that a potential health hazard exists for individuals exposed to the source of water. nickel was found to be slightly elevated at most of the sites above who. trace metals have been implicated to be responsible for certain health disorders. the po43 levels varied along the sampling community sites with some sites values having relatively higher values. in general the quality of these waste water cannot be guaranteed as most of the indicators were higher than the who and son standards. this paper assumes that waste water evaluated pose huge treat to the immediate environment and should be investigated further in addition to epidemiological evaluation of the community to rule out occurrence of water-borne diseases.. keywords: physical, chemical biological properties and waste water introduction according to (said 2001), environmental public health have been defined as the control of all those factors in man’s physical environment that exercise or may exercise deleterious effects on his physical development, health or survival. it is thus the science and act of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health (said 2001). every environment with poor public health possess health hazards to the human population and the entire environment. one of the major sources of poor public health actions is from the discharges of domestic waste water (sludge) into the environment. wastewater if not properly managed can become a point source of pollution which can become health hazard for the health of human populations and the environment. the environmental impact of wastewater may cause changes waters, decreased level of dissolved oxygen, bioaccumulation in aquatic life, release of toxic substances and decreased ground water quality (mahmood and maqbool, 2006). diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and protozoa are the most common health hazards associated with untreated waste water. many microbial pathogens in waste water can cause chronic diseases with long-term effects such as degenerative heart disease and stomach ulcer (paillard et al., 2005). these egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 15 debilitating ailments can be fatal and have been known to impair human productivity. besides the untreated waste water when poorly managed defaces the environment and makes the aestheties foul in nature. umuahia north just like the rest of the world is faced with water problems related to the management of domestic wastewater. this is due to extensive or increasing population density and highly urbanized societies (epa, 1993; mccasland et al., 2008). the effluents generated from domestic activities in umuahia north constitute major sources of the natural water pollution load. this is a great burden in terms of waste water management which can consequently lead to a point-source pollution problem. this will not only increase treatment cost considerably, but also introduces a wide range of chemical pollutants and microbial contaminants to water sources (epa, 1993, 1996; eikelboom and draaijer, 1999; amir et al.2004). the paper is therefore designed to examine or assess the physical chemical and biological properties in the domestic waste water (sludge) in selected communities in umuahia north, abia state with the aim of suggesting management strategies for human use. method the study was carried out in umuahia north local government area of abia state, nigeria. umuahia north has an estimated area of 245km2 and a population of 220,660 people (npc, 2006). it lies between latitude 5°33'28.8" and longitude: 7°28'7.28". the estimated terrain elevation above sea level is 146 meters. the local government area is bounded in the north and northeast bende ; to the south by umuahia south; to the east by obowo l.g.a of imo state; and the west by ikwuano lga. the major towns in the area are ama achara, okahia uga, umu agu, umu opara, ohia, ama ogugu, umu egwu,and umuahia.others include umuahia ibeku, isingwu, umuawa, ohokobe, ohokobe ndume, umuohu ndume, ugba, nkata, amuzukwu, ubani, ihie ndume, mbom, ameke,isiadu and ama eke (wikipedia, 2015). the study are has human economic activities both commercial industrial and domestic which produce waste water (sludge) on a daily basis. the sampling method adopted was the simple probabilistic and random type. it is a method of selection in one step that can make inferences about the population, given the observations from the sample and ensures that every possible sample size has an equal chance of being selected. secondary data was obtained from both published and unpublished information as well as data from government agencies a random sampling technique was adopted for the study. a total of three communities were sample alternately for the studyviz; umuahia ibeku, ihie ndume, and isingwu. the communities were selected based on their daily domestic activities and the peculiar characteristics of volume of waste water generated in the area. collection of waste water samples waste water samples were collected from study locations at regular intervals along the respective drainage channels from april may, 2017. the water samples was collected in 1 litre plastic containers which were rinsed prior to the collection with distilled water .water samples from each location was taken to laboratory and were analyzed for the following physical and chemical characteristics: temperature, ph and dissolved oxygen (do) will be determine institute and other parameters like turbidity, total http://ng.geoview.info/ama_achara,501522766n http://ng.geoview.info/okahia_uga,501497354n http://ng.geoview.info/umu_agu,501495098n http://ng.geoview.info/umu_opara,501480911n http://ng.geoview.info/ohia,501524372n http://ng.geoview.info/ama_ogugu,501444747n http://ng.geoview.info/umu_egwu,501522863n http://ng.geoview.info/umuahia,501540893n http://ng.geoview.info/umuahia_ibeku,501540916n http://ng.geoview.info/isingwu,501500557n http://ng.geoview.info/umuawa,501524261n http://ng.geoview.info/ohokobe,501497304n http://ng.geoview.info/ohokobe_ndume,501497305n http://ng.geoview.info/umuohu_ndume,501497386n http://ng.geoview.info/ugba,501469966n http://ng.geoview.info/nkata,501472300n http://ng.geoview.info/amuzukwu,501429576n http://ng.geoview.info/ubani,501493293n http://ng.geoview.info/ihie_ndume,501479681n http://ng.geoview.info/mbom,501517466n http://ng.geoview.info/ameke,501412941n http://ng.geoview.info/isiadu,501483667n http://ng.geoview.info/ama_eke,501517609n egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 16 │ suspended solids (tss), total dissolved solids (tds), total solids (ts), biological oxygen demand (bod), chemical oxygen demand (cod), salinity, alkalinity, nitrate, sulphate, carbonate and phosphate (apha, 1992). the microbial load and management strategies of domestic waste water in the study area the data collected under this objective was analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis such as charts, tables, mean and standard deviation to summarize the environmental and health implications of domestic waste water with the aid of statstica software package. results and discussion table 1 showed the chemical compositions of waste water evaluation from the sampled communities. chemical parameters observed are, dissolvable oxygen (do), chemical oxygen demand (cod), biological oxygen demand (bod), total soluble solids (tss), nickel and phosphate. the highest do was observed in ibeku community at 3.11 ± 0.01. however, the means of the various communities showed significant difference among each other for example cod had a mean range of 69.03 ± 0.06 to 80.03 ± 0.06 with all the means showing significant difference among each other (p ≤ 0.05). the highest tss was observed in ibeku at 921.03 ± 0.06. nickel had a range of 7.42 ± 0.01 to 8.71 ± 0.01 mg/l with all the means showing significant difference (p ≤ 0.05). po4 had its highest concentration in ihie ndume community with a mean of 54.03 ± 0.06 mg/l, but do among the communities did not exceed the who permissible limit of 5.00 mg/l. however, bod, ni exceeded its who permissible limits. see table below. table 1: chemical parameters of waste water from three communities in umuahia each value is a mean of 3 replicates ± standard deviation. values in the column having a lower difference source; researchers field work (2017) note: each value is a mean of 3 replicates ± standard deviation. values in the column having a lower difference in value to its lsd are significantly different (p < 0.05). communities do (mg/l) cod (mg/l) bod (mg/l) tss (mg/l) ni (mg/l) po4 (mg/l) ibeku 3.11 ± 0.01 69.03 ± 0.06 39.86 ±0.06 921.03 ±0.06 8.71 ± 0.01 51.76 ± 0.06 ihie ndume 2.68 ± 0.01 78.79 ± 0.06 37.59 ±0.06 816.0 ± 0.06 7.80 ± 0.01 54.03 ± 0.06 umuda isingwu 2.51 ± 0.06 80.03 ± 0.06 40.17 ± 0.06 809.0 ± 0.06 7.42 ± 0.01 51.04 ± 0.06 total mean 8.8 ± 0.08 227.85 ± 0.18 117.62 ± 0.18 2546.03 ±0.18 23.93 ± 0.03 156.83 ± 0.18 lsd0.05 0.01489 0.0944 0.0673 0.1153 0.01153 0.01150 who permissible limits 5.00 3.00 0.10 egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 17 physical parameters of waste water from three communities in umuahia table 2 below showed varying composition of temperature, ph, electrical conductivity (ec), and turbidity among the three communities in umuahia. for example temperature had a range of 27.96 ± 0.01 0c to 30.07 ± 0.06 0c as was observed from the three communities, the means of the three communities were above the world health organisation permissible limit of 23.50 0c. means of ph was seen to be above the who permissible limit of 8.5, as the mean range of ph was between 6.11 ± 0.01 to 7.76 ± 0.01. all the means of ec were above the who permissible limit of 400.00 µs/cm. such trend was also observed for turbidity which had a range of 33.42 ± 0.01 ntu to 36.40 ± 0.01 ntu. also all the means of the various parameters were significantly different from each other. table 2: physical parameters of waste water from three communities in umuahia communities temperature oc ph ec (µs/cm) turbidity(ntu) ibeku 30.07 ± 0.06a 7.76 ± 0.01a 1811.33 ± 0.57a 33.42 ± 0.01b ihie ndume 27.96 ± 0.01c 6.92 ± 0.01b 1635.67 ± 0.57b 34.93 ± 0.01b umuda isingwu 28.73 ± 0.06b 6.11 ± 0.01c 1627.33 ± 0.57c 36.40 ± 0.01a total mean 86.75 ± 0.13 20.79 ± 0.03 5074.33 ± 1.71 104.75 ± 0.03 lsd0.05 0.0944 0.01153 1.153 0.01153 who permissible limits 23.50 8.50 400.00 5.00 source: researchers field work, (2017) note: each value is a mean of 3 replicates ± standard deviation. values in the column having a lower difference in value to its lsd are significantly different (p < 0.05). microbial evaluation of waste water from three communities in umuahia table 3 below shows microbial load of the waste water from ibeku, ihie-ndume, and umudaisingwu. ihie-ndume had the highest fecal coliform at 9.34 ± 0.07 while ibeku with 7.02 ± 0.09 showed the lowest fecal coliform. the faecal streptococci had a range of 4.91 ± 0.78 to 6.85 ± 0.11 with umuda isingwu, showing the load of streptococci. the e. coli load was high at umuda isingwu, followed by ibeku and then ihie ndume. the p. aeruginos and s. aereus was not observed in ihie ndume. table 3: microbial load of waste water from three communities in umuahia parameters ibeku ihie ndume umuda isingwu fecal coliform 7.02 ± 0.09 9.34 ± 0.07 7.83 ± 0.07 total coliform 7.98 ± 0.13 7.42 ± 0.71 8.78 ± 0.13 faecal streptococci 6.76 ± 0.16 4.91 ± 0.78 6.85 ± 0.11 e. coli 6.19 ± 0.12 4.19 ± 0.94 7.63 ± 0.14 p. aeruginos 6.31 ± 0.15 5.11 ± 0.00 s. aureus 3.34 ± 0.11 3.34 ± 0.00 total mean 37.6 ± 0.76 25.86 ± 2.5 39.4 ± 0.45 source: researchers field work, 2017. egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 18 │ note: each value is a mean of 3 replicates ± standard deviation. values in the column having a lower difference in value to its lsd are significantly different (p < 0.05). discussion the study revealed in table 2 that the ph values of the waste water appeared to be slightly acidic to neutral as it had values at 6.11 – 7.76 and below the permissible limit by who. the reduction in ph level in the sampled communities is probably due to the presence of organic waste which is discharged into some parts of the water. this can also be due to the fact that the areas this occurred is used as urinary. urine contains uric acid that can increase the acidity of water (kayima and kyakula, 2008) and this may have been a contributory factor. carbon-dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid. although this is weak acid, large amounts of it will lower the ph and when waters with low ph values come into contact with certain chemicals and metals, this often makes them more poisonous than normal. also, temperature of waste water emerging from industrial area may affect soil texture, if directly discharge on to the land. it may increase the microbial activity and may decrease fertility of soil (rani et al., 2007). moreover if waste water effluents are directly discharged into water it may harm to water living organisms. the result showed that the ec value was generally high in all the communities. the high ec in the water can be attributed to the lack of dilution effect and other natural processes inside the water. the result was not in agreement with the observation of akpan-idioka (2008). however, there was a significant variation in the ec values among the locations of the waste water. this result also implies that the waste water may not be palatable for domestic and agricultural use. the po43levels varied along the sampling community sites with the some sites values having relatively higher values some. the range of the values obtained in this study agrees with the high to moderate levels of po43in southern nigeria rivers. (okeke and adinna, 2013). however, most of the values recorded may be because of seasons related also another factor that could contribute to this phenomenon is the input of po43from detergents used in various car wash centers close to the site. although phosphates are not toxic and do not represent a direct threat to animals and other organisms, they do represent a serious indirect threat to water quality (dhameja, 2012). nickel was also found to be slightly elevated at most of the sites above who. trace metals have been implicated to be responsible for certain health disorders. some of them are known human carcinogen and has been reported to originate from impurities in phosphate fertilizers (onyenechere et al., 2011). other possible source which includes, metal smelting and refining, leachates from nickel-cadmium batteries discarded carelessly. the first explanation seems more plausible as there is extensive agricultural activity within the study areas, with potential high use of npk fertilizers. elevated levels of these heavy metals beyond who levels may suggest that there may be a possible link with activities of people in terms of waste discharge. also metals may enter the water through geological weathering and human activities such as passing product and waste pipes through the waste water log, causing the leaching of the pipe metallic components into the river. jayalakshmi and lakshmi (2014) evaluated assessment of microbiological parameters of water and waste waters in and around vijayawada and recorded a positive presence of pseudomonas aeruginosa, staphylococcus aureu, and e. coli which is in agreement with the observation of this research project as presented in table.3. the presence of these organisms in water can change the quality of water. egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 19 their presence could be attributed to the ubiquitous nature of microorganisms and the contaminated state of the river by industrial effluent which increases the organic content of the river there by providing excellent nutritional source for the propagation of microorganisms. the presence of faecal coliform bacteria is an indicator that a potential health hazard exists for individuals exposed to the source of water, moreso the variations observed among communities may be because bacterial colonies vary according to the seasons as well as to the locations. the highest number of bacterial colonies recorded with the value of 8.78 ± 0.13 cfu/ml in umuda-isingwu, could be attributed to rapid proliferation of microorganisms which aid in the degradation of organic matter present in the waste water. the presence of e. coli may suggest possible health hazard break up around this communities because e. coli and certain strains of pseudomonas, may affect the newborn and have also been implicated in gastrointestinal disease outbreaks (metcalf and eddy, 2003). conclusion in nigeria, most of the waste water log empties its self into rivers or streams through rain water run-off and sometime do not flow out due to lack of proper drainage system after discharge in few cases this water is used for agricultural purposes. the quality of this water body cannot be guaranteed due to constant disposal of human waste into these waste water, as well as high vehicular traffic and home and road side laundry by locals. an aggregation of these activities obviously has a significant impact on the hydrological balance of the streams in umuahia, as well as the livelihood of locals of these communities. presently, very little, if anything has been done at integrated level concerning domestic waste water pollution abatement in nigerian waters. moreover, there is very little or no institutional memory in nigeria on the influence of industrial or domestic waste on human health. therefore a detailed campaign should be put in place, elucidating the mechanism of water pollution especially with regard to these toxic domestic wastes. there should also be a review of the recycling processes to meet best practices while government and industries list should involves also new technologies of treatment plants that can meet the demands of increasing waste water discharge in these areas. it is imperative that local people residing within these communities adopt proper drainage systems and sanitation practices to reduce the chances of pollution of their water sources and the environment. this study assumes that the waste water evaluated pose huge treat to the immediate environment and should be investigated further especially an epidemiological evaluation in the communities to ascertain the outbreak occurrence of water-borne diseases. daftar pustaka abdullahi, i., humuani k. and aliyu, m. d. (2013). the challenges of domestic wastewater management in nigeria: a case study of minna, central nigeria. international journal of development and sustainability 2 (2): 1169-1182 abraham, p. j. v., butter, r. d., and sigene, d. c. (1997). seasonal changes in whole-cell metal levels in protozoa of activated sludge. ecotoxicology. environ. saf. 38: 272-280. borchardt, d. and statzner b (1990). ecological impact of urban runoff studied in experimental flumes: population loss by drift and availability of refugial space. aquat. sci. 52: 299-314. egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 20 │ boyd, c. e. and tucker, c. s. (2012). “pond aquaculture water quality management,” springer science and business media cdc (2002). u.s. toxicity of heavy metals and radionucleotides. department of health and human services, centers for disease control and prevention. savannah river-site health effects subcommittee (srshes) meeting. chambers, p. a., allard, m. w., marsalek, j., lawrence, j., servos, m., busnarda, j., munger, k. s., adare, k., jefferson, c., kent, r. a. and wong, m. p. (1997). impacts of municipal effluents on canadian waters: a review. water qual. res. j. can. 32(4): 659-713. epa (2000). nutrient criteria technical guidance manual-rivers and streams. epa-822-b-00-002. washington dc. glibert, p. m. (2014). “harmful algal blooms in asia: an insidious and escalating water pollution phenomenon with effects on ecological and human health,” asianetwork exchange: a journal for asian studies in the liberal arts, 21: 52-68. hamada, s., and slade, h. d. (1980). biology, immunology, and cariogenicity of streptococcus mutans. microbiol. rev. 44:331–46. hamilton, i. r., and bowden, g. h. (2000). oral microbiology. in encyclopedia of microbiology, vol. 3. kris, m. (2007), “wastewater pollution in china”, available at http://www.dbc.uci/wsu (accessed 12 january 2013). laliberte, g., proulx, d., de pauw, n. and de la noue, j. (1994). “algal technology in waste water treatment,” chapt. 11. algae and water pollution. egbe, c.a. and dada a. a analysis of effects of physical, chemical and biological properties in domestic waste water (slugde) on environmental health in abia state, nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 21 nzegbule, e.c., onyema, m.c. and ndelekwute, s. c. (2011) plant species richness and soil nutrients in a 35-year old cashew nut plantation in isuochi, southern nigeria. international society for tropical ecology of the federal department of forestry, abuja, nigeria (final report). okeke, p.n. and adinna, e.n. (2013). water quality study of otamiri river in owerri, nigeria. universal journal of environmental research and technology, 3(6): 641–649. microsoft word 456-article text-2220-1-10-20210529.docx doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i1.456 research synergy foundation available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 01-06 students’ perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence from university of muhammadiyah banda aceh, indonesia siti safura1 1muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia abstract the pandemic of coronavirus has influenced all levels of education in the whole world. this impact forces the ministry of education to switch from traditional education to online education. as a result, educators must run this policy to teach the classroom and students must adapt to this situation. this research aimed to find out students’ perception of online learning during the coronavirus pandemic. this research employed the descriptive quantitative research method and gathered data by distributing the questionnaires. the object of this research was twenty-seven students with the number of populations was thirty-one students from different semester of the english department, university of muhammadiyah aceh. the obtained data was analyzed through descriptive analysis to see how online class is perceived by students during pandemic. the result of this research shows that the students shared the positive perceptions towards online learning during the coronavirus pandemic. the finding also displays the hesitation of students about the difficulty faced in having the online class. keywords: coronavirus, pandemic, students perception, online learning introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license when ministry of education makes a policy to learn from home or take the classroom at home through online learning (hidayat, 2020) during covid-19 pandemic period, this model of learning is considered as the current model in the educational system. this model of education has become a wide spread practice over the years as an integrated technology in education(agung & surtikanti, 2020). online learning is the process of education that takes place over the internet. it is often referred to as e learning (kessler, 2018). e-learning has grown in significance as media to develop educational quality. the use of this model in the teaching-learning process causes many changes in educational activities. during covid 19, this model of learning becomes a highlight at all levels of education. this situation forces teachers and students to use technology as media to have an online class. this technology is naturally helpful for educators in having a classroom. it facilitates all educational activities by the end of the decade. rey (2016) stated that online learning is a way to structure the instruction in which supports content organization optimally and student interaction. moreover, mamattah (2016), bali & liu, (2018) revealed online learning is an innovative idea and creative learning technology that motivate students to the chance and improve learning by using a variety of technology. on the other hand, the use of online learning also has a limitation in which it will have a challenges itself, such as internet connectivity (priyanka gautam, 2020), troubleshooting of technology (bagata, 2020), and misunderstanding of communication(mohammad alawamleh, lana mohannad al-twait, 2020). it is no doubt that the presence of covid 19 has a significant impact on the system of education that could give benefits, however, it also takes a challenge for the educational world. it is due to students face a new form of learning that requires adaption with the online system. thus, the researcher aims to corresponding author sitisafura11@gmail.com international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 01-06 students perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence of muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia siti safura 2 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) conduct a study regarding students’ perception of using online class during pandemic at english department, university of muhammadiyah aceh. literature review there are some advantages of online learning that give benefit in learning activities during the pandemic. firstly, online learning gives educators and students flexibility and accessibility to complete their classroom, in which, they can attend the class or work from home without necessarily having class in institutions or campus (mcdonald, 1999). regarding to this, this online education is considered could increase students’ interest and motivation, due to students are free to choose their time and place for their learning and conduct all learning activities at home. secondly, the benefit of online education is more affordable as compared to face-to-face learning. this reduces financial costs such as transportation, students’ meals, and paperless learning (priyanka gautam, 2020). also, cavanaugh et al., (2009) stated that “online programs have little or no cost to educational facilities, transportation, and associated staff.” so, it is good news for students, educators, and institutions to eliminate the budget cost in this pandemic. last, this online education changes the educational system during the pandemic. educators change their learning styles to provide the teaching-learning process. they develop the content of the material to ease in understanding. the effectiveness of online learning depends on how the content is designed to overcome and understand the obstacles faced by students (muthuprasad et al., 2021). as well, ferreira et al., (2018) stated that an educator must be able to explore and use all technologies related to the learning process. it definitely improves the teachers or lecturers of using technology as supposed the technology application increase over time. aside from the advantages of e-learning during the pandemic, it also has limitations. it is about readiness. the rapid growth of technology makes students, educators, parents, and institutions not ready to utilize technology in learning activities. it forces all levels of students, educators, parents, and institutions to use e-learning applications to learn or work at home during this pandemic (hidayat, 2020). consequently, it makes the teaching-learning process unsuccessful. apart from readiness, the technological issues regarding internet connectivity become a big challenge for all levels of people to complete their learning activities. the internet has grown in leaps and bounds over the past few years, in smaller cities and towns, but a consistent connection with decent speed is a problem (priyanka gautam, 2020). additionally, the issue of using the internet, in which it takes cost to purchase the internet, becomes the concern issues in this time of the pandemic. this is absolutely unfavorable to the education process. last, online education is considered not effective in the way of transferring knowledge and providing information. the way how educators communicate and interact with the students can be an obstacle during an online class. the online interaction is one of the triggers of understanding the content of the material. as indicated from the journal of mohammad alawamleh, lana mohannad al-twait (2020), some students perceived the medium as “faceless,” and there could be misunderstandings. concerning this, students become unsatisfied and less motivated to learn with this model of learning. pertaining to the explanation above, online learning is highlighted as an effective and successful way to have teaching learning process during coronavirus. this study solely focuses on students’ views toward the use of online class in terms of positive and negative aspects. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 01-06 students perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence of muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia siti safura │ 3 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) research method this research is quantitative research method. this research was conducted at the english department, university of muhammadiyah aceh. the questionnaires are employed as instruments to collect data for this research. this questionnaire was adapted and modified from (sari et al., 2020) and (bagata, 2020) which questions about students’ perception in the use of online learning during pandemic. then, the questionnaire was distributed online by using google form to 27 students from different semesters with the number of populations was 31 students. the instrument was developed with a total of 22 questions using a likert scale with four alternative answers, namely: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). the likert scale was used to measure attitudes, opinions, and perceptions of events or social phenomena (riduwan, 2007). to ease students in understanding questions, the questionnaire was divided into positive statement and negative statement, each consist of 11 questions regarding the benefit and difficulty of online learning. to analyze the data, descriptive analysis was applied to know students’ perception of online class during pandemic covid 19. descriptive analysis is a way to review or explain the collected data as it is (purwanto, 2007). findings and discussion the result of questionnaires regarding students’ perception of online learning during the coronavirus pandemic shows that the different perceptions of participants in filling out the questionnaire items. the participants tend perceiving that online learning has benefits during the pandemic, compared to the problem faced. to ease in analyzing and understanding the result of data, the researcher provides the description of data at once. indeed, the results of questionnaires are described as follows: figure 1. student’s perception of benefits of online learning from figure 1, it can be seen that there are 3 participants (11.1%) who choose strongly agree, 15 participants (55,6%) prefer to agree, 6 participants (22.2%) choose disagree, and 3 participants (11.1%) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 01-06 students perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence of muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia siti safura 4 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) decide strongly disagree. this figure indicates that the using of online learning during pandemic gives good impact for students. in other words, students could enjoy class and understand the material given by lecturer through online system. figure 2. students’ perception of challenges of online learning from figure 2, it can be seen that there are 3 participants (11.1%) who choose strongly agree, 11 participants (40.7%) who prefer agree as well as disagree, and 2 participants (7.4%) who vote strongly disagree. this figure displays the similar voting between “agree” and “disagree” that could indicated the uncertainty of participants in perceiving the online learning during pandemic. this may happen because some students are familiar with online class, but some others get difficulty with learning online system. to see the significant comparison between benefits and challenges of online learning are displayed as follows: figure 3. the comparison of students’ perception international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 01-06 students perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence of muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia siti safura │ 5 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) online learning during covid-19 pandemic is illustrating how important education in life. the presence of coronavirus forces education system or institutions to stay readiness in implementing learning. this research is aimed to know how the students perceive online learning during coronavirus, whether it has benefits or difficulties. this research found that the majority of students (55.6%) perceive that online learning assist them in this situation. students can improve their learning, encourage their motivation, and understand the material through online classroom. this study is supported by a result of a study by yulia (2020) that found the use of online class during pandemic is the effective way to keep learning. similarly, the study conducted by hidayat (2020) which found that online learning is an interesting and fun media in learning. meanwhile, this research found the unpredicted finding regarding the difficulties faced by students during online learning in terms of the similar result between agree and disagree which is 40,7%. in voting this statement, students felt not sure about the difficulty of using online learning. this finding can be assumed that online learning is not a significant obstacle for them. this finding is in line with a study conducted by bagata (2020) which found that online learning was not a challenged to learn during this situation (pandemic). therefore, from the explanation of finding above, the students’ perception of online learning as online education tends to create the positive impact compared to the negative impact. conclusion during the coronavirus pandemic, the online learning model is applying at all levels of education. the high speed of this virus forces the system of education to transform a face-to-face class to the online class. this research is conducted to see students’ perception of online learning during the covid 19 pandemic. this current research concludes that online learning has a good contribution for students during this pandemic. even though online class perceived could give the positive effect for helping students in studies and encourages their learning, online class actually has the challenges for students. for further researches, it suggested to see specifically the challenges of online classes and explore how to overcome the difficulty of online education becomes a trend in the education system. references agung, a. s. n., & surtikanti, m. w. (2020). students’ perception of online learning during covid 19 pandemic: a case study on the english students of stkip pamane talino. soshum : jurnal sosial dan humaniora, 10(2), 225–235. https://doi.org/10.31940/soshum.v10i2.1316 bagata, d. t. r. (2020). efl university students’ perception of the use of online learning platform in the covid 19 pandemic. jurnal penelitian, pendidikan, dan pembelajaran unisma, 15(34). http://riset.unisma.ac.id/index.php/jp3/article/view/8102 bali, s., & liu, m. c. (2018). students’ perceptions toward online learning and face-to-face learning courses. journal of physics: conference series, 1108(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742 6596/1108/1/012094 cavanaugh, c. s., barbour, m. k., & clark, t. (2009). research and practice in k-12 online learning: a review of open access literature. international review of research in open and distance learning, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v10i1.607 ferreira, j., behrens, m., torres, p., & marriott, r. (2018). the necessary knowledge for online education: teaching and learning to produce knowledge. eurasia journal of mathematics, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 01-06 students perception of online learning during covid-19: an evidence of muhammadiyah banda aceh university, indonesia siti safura 6 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) science and technology education, 14(6), 2097–2106. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/86463 hidayat, a. (2020). student s ’ perceptions of e-learning during covid-19 pandemic. 2(2), 34–45. kessler, g. (2018). introduction to teaching and technology. the tesol encyclopedia of english language teaching, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eeltv06b mamattah, r. s. (2016). students ’ perceptions of e-learning. lingkoping university. mcdonald, d. s. (1999). improved training methods through the use of multimedia technology. journal of computer information systems, 40(2), 14–22. mohammad alawamleh, lana mohannad al-twait, g. r. a. (2020). the effect of online learning on communication instructors and students during covid-19. asian education and development studies, 9(4), 1–12. muthuprasad, t., aiswarya, s., aditya, k. s., & jha, g. k. (2021). students’ perception and preference for online education in india during covid -19 pandemic. social sciences & humanities open, 3(1), 100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100101 priyanka gautam. (2020). advantages and disadvantages of online learning. in elearning industry. https://elearningindustry.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-online-learning purwanto. (2007). inferential statistic lab guide. rey, p. g. (2016). measuring teachers and learners’ perceptions of the quality of their online learning experienceno title. distance education, 37(2), 146–163. riduwan, h. s. (2007). introduction to statistics for research: educational, social, economic and business. alfabeta. sari, w. p., pramesti, d., & kusuma, a. i. (2020). student’s perception of online learning in pandemic. proceding “international webinar on education 2020,” 201–207. yulia, h. (2020). online learning to prevent the spread of pandemic corona virus in indonesia. eternal (english teaching journal), 11(1), 48–56. https://doi.org/10.26877/eternal.v11i1.6068 183_ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 79-90 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.183 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (april 15th, 2020); accepted (may 26th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of addition theory anik twin twiningsih sd negeri laweyan no.54 surakarta anik.twin@gmail.com abstract the objective of the study is to determine the improvement of student learning outcomes through the media magic box (magic box) based on stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) on the concept of addition. the subject of the research was class i students in one of the public elementary schools in surakarta city semester i of 2018/2019 academic year as many as 24 students, consisting of 7 male students and 17 female students. the method of the study was classroom action research (car) with patterns: planning, implementing, observing, reflecting, and revising. the data were collected by using discussion, observation, tests, field notes, and documentation. based on the results of the study, it was found that student learning outcomes had increased from cycle i to cycle ii. the cycle i was 70.83%, and cycle ii was 91.66%. the conclusion of the study is by using instructional media teaching aids magic box (magic box) based on stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) on the concept of addition theory can improve student learning outcomes in first-grade elementary schools in surakarta city semester i in the academic year of 2018/2019. keywords: learning outcomes, magic box medium, stem-based, addition theory this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the current education paradigm is no longer teacher-oriented but has shifted to student-centered learning (habimana & stambach, 2015; ahrari, et al., 2016). this implies that learning strategies in the 21st century must have a learning syntax that prioritizes the needs of students (chukwuyenum, 2013; mosher, et al., 2014;; wulandari et al., 2014). teachers as facilitators of learning in the school environment must be more creative and innovative in creating a learning climate in the classroom so that students would be curious (smith, 2015; cargas, williams, & rosenberg, 2017). the ability of teachers to explore student knowledge is needed so students are motivated to explore their potential through identification and analysis to produce critical thinking skills (nargundkar et al., 2014; syawaludin et al., 2019; qomariyah, 2016). the 2013 curriculum is learningoriented to the development of 21st century learning. 21st century learning provides learning to students how to think (way of thinking), how to work (way of working), use of tools for work (tools for working), anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 80 | and life skills (skill for living in the world). 21st-century learning as a reference for curriculum development in 2013 provides learning experiences oriented to the development of critical thinking skills (kim & song, 2013; schoenberger-orgad & spiller, 2014; noprianda, noor, & zulfiana, 2016). critical thinking skills in students can be built through various strategies. one way to build critical thinking skills through stem-based learning (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) in education (jauhariyyah, et al., 2017; ngabekti et al., 2019) stem learning (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) is learning that refers to an approach in education about science, technology, engineering, mathematics is integrated into the educational process that focuses on solving problems in daily life and professional life (ghanberi, 2015; bahrum et al., 2018). according to jaka afriana (2016) “stem is a scientific discipline that is closely related to each other. science requires mathematics as a tool in processing data, while technology is the implementation of science.” the implementation of stembased learning teaches students how concepts, principles, scientific techniques, technology, techniques, and mathematics are used in an integrated way to develop products, processes, and systems that useful for human life (jho et al., 2016; bahrum et al., 2018). student learning experiences that are expected through stem-based learning include mastery of knowledge, attitudes, and skills to identify questions and problems in student life, explain natural phenomena, design and draw conclusions based on evidence about problems related to stem (erwin, 2017; bati et al., 2018). stem-based learning (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) has a close relationship with the development of 21st-century learning, so it is very important to apply it in the classroom (immermen, 2011; khaeroningtyas et al., 2016). stem-based learning is one alternative learning that is potentially used to build 21st-century skills. stem literacy-based learning can be covered in inquiry learning-based cooperative learning models (setiawan, 2016; fathulla, 2019) theoretical perspectives research method the study was conducted with research subjects to class i students at public laweyan elementary school, surakarta in the semester i of 2018/2019 academic year for 24 students, consisting of 7 male students and 17 female students. the method used in this study was classroom action research (car) with patterns: planning, implementing, observing, anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 81 reflecting, and revising. the data was collected through the method of discussion, observation, tests, field notes, and registration. data were analyzed from the implementation of actions developed during the reflection process to the preparation of the report. while the data analysis technique used was comparative descriptive analysis, which was requested by comparative descriptive analysis was an analysis that discussed the assessment of values between cycles with work indicators. this class action research sets the following indicators of thriving: 1. if students have shown a 75% increase in learning outcomes after using stembased magic box media. 2. if students have shown a 75% increase in learning outcomes after using stembased magic box media 3. if students show 75% complete learning outcomes according to kkm standards after using stem-based magic box media. literature review 1. learning media learning media contains meaning as an introduction to the message from the source of the message in this case the teacher, to the recipient of the message in this case is the student (mahnun, 2010; adnan et al., 2017). learning media is “software” in the form of messages or educational information that is presented by using a hardware device so that the message/ information can be received by students (muhson, 2010; sari & setiawan, 2018). the learning media functions to present objects that cannot be seen by students directly or objects that are too micro to be seen directly, for example, enlarging small objects, presenting events that are located far away, complex, complicated, which directly rapidly or slowly become systematic and simple (primasari, 2014; ntobuo et al., 2018). based on opinions it can be concluded that the learning media is a teaching media is a medium and channel of messages from teacher to student in the form of messages or educational information so that it can be seen immediately rapidly or slowly becoming systematic and simple. 2. stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) stem literacy or scientific and technological literacy refers to the ability to apply scientific knowledge, identify problems and draw conclusions based on evidence to understand and make decisions about nature and natural changes as human activities in everyday life (lee et al, 2013 ; permanasari, 2016; mutakinati & anwari, 2018). stem literacy refers to: (1) the anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 82 | knowledge, attitudes, and skills of an individual to identify questions and problems in real life, describe something natural and design (natural and design world), as well as draw facts-based conclusions about issues issues stem, (2) an individual's understanding of the characteristics of stem disciplines as a form of human knowledge, inquiry and design, (3) an individual's sensitivity about how stem created our material, intellectual and cultural environment, and (4) an individual's desire to be bound in stem issues and, are bound by ideas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics as a constructive, caring and reflective citizen (bybee, 2013; lee et al., 2014; suwarna, 2015; katz-buonincontro, 2018). “science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) is a new approach in the development of education that integrates more than one discipline” (aldila, 2017; bahrum et al., 2018). from the above opinions, it can be concluded that stem learning is the ability to use science and technology to solve problems in real life and be able to draw conclusions based on evidence to create a constructive, caring and reflective personality towards nature and changes in nature as human activities in daily life. 3. numeracy literacy numeracy literacy is knowledge and skills to (a) use a variety of numbers and related symbols with mathematics basics to solve practical problems in various contexts of daily life and (b) analyze information displayed in various forms (graphs, tables, charts, etc.) and then use the interpretation of the results of the analysis to predict and make decisions (ministry of education and culture, 2017; chiu, 2018). one's mathematical literacy includes the ability to formulate, apply and interpret mathematics in a variety of contexts, including the ability to do mathematical reasoning and use concepts, procedures and facts to describe, explain or predict phenomena or events (qasim et al., 2015; levels, m. , dronkers, j., & jencks, 2017; lei et al., 2018). from the two opinions above it can be concluded numeracy literacy is knowledge or skills in understanding mathematical concepts related to numbers and symbols so that they can solve problems and explain phenomena or events. 4. stem-based magic box media specifications learning for elementary school is identical to holistically learning, therefore learning must be presented attracting student motivation in learning. interesting learning must be presented challenges, anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 83 especially in enhancing higher-order thinking skills and applying technology in solving real-life problems (chiang & lee, 2015; mutakinati & anwari, 2018). stembased learning (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) provides a more valuable learning experience because it builds the mindset of students to be more critical and creative and is skilled in applying technology as a tool in solving problems in real life (chukwuyenum, 2013; roberts et al., 2018). the use of mathematics learning media by empowering stem-based magic box learning media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) in learning the concept of class i added in addition to improving student learning outcomes, on the other hand also to improve the culture of numeracy literacy in students (levels, m., dronkers, j., & jencks, 2017; liliawati et al., 2018). the use of mathematics learning media by empowering stembased magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) is the result of the teacher's creativity, is expected to further encourage students' learning motivation because it is presented in the form of simple mathematical teaching aids which present the substance of stembased numeracy material (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) which are adjusted to the basic competencies that are the objectives of learning in each theme (chiu, 2018; kurup et al., 2019; herro & quigley, 2017). findings and discussion cycle i the results of the observation and evaluation of student activities in the first cycle are as follows. table 1. student learning outcomes in the cycle i learning activity magic box application based on stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) no score frequenc y percentage category description 1 90-100 6 25,00% excellent complete 2 80-89 11 45,83% good complete 3 70-79 7 29,16% sufficient incomplete total 24 complete 17 70,83% incomplete 7 29,17% based on table 1 above it can be seen that the total number of students that there are 17 out of 24 students with a percentage of completeness of 70.83%. in cycle i anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 84 | learning activities have shown that student learning outcomes have improved by applying the stem-based magic box media-based learning model (science, technology, engineering, mathematics), although it has not reached the completeness level standard of 85% of the total number of students. evaluation of actions in the first cycle of the results of observations, observations when implementing actions where the learning process occurs and the results of the evaluation of researchers and class teachers hold discussions including the conclusion: a. students do not understand the concept of addition by using stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) as a whole. b. each student has not been able to practice optimally because of the limited time that has been provided c. average test results do not meet the minimum standards for completeness. cycle ii the results of observations and evaluations carried out student activity activities in the first cycle of classroom action research as follows table 2. student learning outcomes in cycle ii learning activity magic box applications based on stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) no score frequenc y percentage category description 1 90-100 9 37,50% excellent complete 2 80-89 13 54,16% good complete 3 70-79 2 8,34% sufficient incomplete total 24 complete 22 91,66% incomplete 2 8,34% based on table 2 above, it can be seen that the number of students who have completed 22 of 24 students with a percentage of completeness of 91.66%. in cycle ii learning activities have shown that student learning outcomes increase to the maximum. improving learning by empowering through the use of media student learning outcomes in learning activities after the stem-based magic box application (science, technology, engineering, mathematics). based on the results of the learning process activities through stem-based magic box media (science, technology, anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 85 figure 1. graph of application results for using stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) engineering, mathematics) it is known that learning outcomes increase. in learning activities before applying stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) it is known that student learning outcomes have not experienced changes, as evidenced by student learning outcomes still reaching completeness of 70.83% in cycle i, this is due to learning activities haven't implemented stem-based magic box (science, technology, engineering, mathematics). this is consistent with previous research that learning conducted before implementing stem-based learning (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) results in student learning output not experiencing significant changes in achieving maximum levels of learning mastery (suwandi & istiyono, 2017; mutakinati & anwari, 2018; carlisle & weaver, 2018). changes in student learning outcomes increase in learning outcomes after applying stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics), so that there are changes both in the activities of students and teachers, which in the end obtained student learning outcomes reach the level of completeness 91, 66% in cycle ii. this success describes quantitative results that the stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) provides the effectiveness of learning in students so that it can improve student learning outcomes. these results are consistent with previous research that stem-based media learning makes the learning process centered on students so that it can involve students 'learning 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 learning outcomes cycle i learning outcomes cycle ii 70.83 91.66 29.17 8.34 complete incomplete learning outcomes anik twin twiningsih improving student learning outcomes through stem-based magic box medium in the concept of... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 86 | activeness in class, train students' skills in counting, communicate, students feel easier, understand the concept of learning so students have more experience, build knowledge so that students' selfdevelopment can be explored to improve student learning outcomes (bati et al., 2018; bahrum et al., 2018; roberts et al., 2018). learning in the classroom using stembased magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) is seen as an effective way to improve student learning outcomes (khaeroningtyas et al., 2016; herro & quigley, 2017; ngabekti et al., 2019). conclusion based on the results of the learning process activities through the stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) it is known that learning outcomes increase, as evidenced by student learning outcomes still reaching the completeness of cycle i 70.83%, this is because the learning activities have not implemented the box magic based on stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics). changes in student learning outcomes increase in learning outcomes after applying stem-based magic box media (science, technology, engineering, mathematics), so there are changes in both the activities of students and teachers, which in the end obtained student learning outcomes reach the level of completeness cycle ii 91.66%. references ahrari, s., samah, b. a., hassan, m. s. h. bin, wahat, n. w. a., & zaremohzzabieh, z. 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(2014). problembased learning in teacher education : trajectories of change faculty of education. international review of social sciences and humanities, 2(1), 657–662. https://doi.org/0949149x/91 251.edited.format available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 107-113 corresponding author jihyun.kim@guttman.cuny.edu doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.xx research synergy foundation research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim1, christopher roth1, sheng zhang2 1 guttman community college, city university of new york (cuny), united states 2 advanced science research center (asrc), united states abstract this article illustrates how the authors transformed "research in the classroom" into chemistry courses at a two-year college in the form of a short course-based research experience. the students worked in groups to research nanomaterials, came up with a series of carbon nanoparticles precursors from waste materials, and developed simple and cost-effective methods to produce carbon nanoparticles. not surprisingly, students became more active learners as they were in charge of learning and were given authority to modify lab activities with their learning experience progressing. a deeper approach to learning helped students better appreciate chemical sciences, increase conceptual learning, and become responsible citizens. the project helped improve students’ critical thinking skills and raise awareness of the relevance between students’ learning in chemistry and real-life experience. it also provided a platform to discuss sustainability, green chemistry, and nanomaterials. to increase the efforts for student success, academic technologies were utilized to aid the project. keywords: chemistry; course-based research; nanomaterials; academic technology this is an open-access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction teaching and motivating students are challenging tasks in a typical chemistry course, especially in a two-year college environment (widanski et al., 2009; cohen et al., 2019). most students view chemistry as math-intensive and irrelevant to their daily life. they also perceive the learning experience in chemistry courses as ineffective and uninspiring, quickly losing interest and eventually dropping out of the course. given these circumstances, a perpetual endeavor among faculty members teaching chemistry is how to make students interested and excited in learning about the subject (hagedorn et al., 2012; chen, 2013). to promote and enhance the learning experience in chemical education to further student engagement, we implemented a short course-based undergraduate research experience (cure) in general chemistry courses. the benefits of integrating a cure into the course-context have been well documented (mcdonald et al., 2019). in cures, students conduct authentic research in a classroom setting and gain four elements of research experience: the use of science practices, novel discovery, collaboration, and iterative feedback (auchincloss et al., 2014). providing cures in traditional courses could reach a broader audience of students who might be ineligible for taking part in a mentored early research experience (hurtado et al., 2008; kuh, 2008). cures also offer metacognitive benefits in problem-solving (wei & woodin 2011; dahlberg et al., 2019). however, developing cure courses requires strong logistical planning, institution-wide backing, and financial support (bangera & brownell, 2014). to overcome these barriers, the shorter (or mini) cures version is a growing alternative pedagogy (tomasik et al., 2013). it has proved to be as effective as standard cures in enhancing the student approach to problem-solving (stein et al., 2004; dahlberg et al., 2019). it is also easy to integrate into an existing course as an embedded module (howard & miskowski, 2005). the overarching goals of the project are to increase awareness of environmental issues, connect learning from the classroom to the real world, and develop analytical and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) 108 | critical thinking skills. to achieve these goals in the form of a short course-based undergraduate research experience, students in general chemistry embark on a scientific journey to develop a facile preparation of carbon nanomaterials from biomass and/or waste. the students were introduced to nanoscience topics at the beginning of the semester as the authors shared their current research related to nanoscience to recruit potential stem majors. to some extent, students deemed nanomaterials as aspects of their daily lives, from cosmetics to drug delivery (ray et al., 2009), and learned of the integration of green chemistry to nanotechnology. the growing need to incorporate nanomaterials into undergraduate chemistry curricula has been widely discussed, yet there have been few activities at an entry-level (ping, 2009; sharma et al., 2012; acs curriculum guidelines, 2015; park, 2019). theoretical perspectives research method "general chemistry" is a four-credit course in which lecture and lab are combined, typically with twenty to twenty-four students enrolled, and four sections offered every semester. the short cure was implemented to a first sequence of general chemistry for science and allied health program majors. it is noteworthy that the college offers a twelve-week schedule and two community days in the fall/spring semesters. in order to streamline instructions, well-planned community days, in-class lab activities, and a field trip to core science facilities are crucial to make the project fruitful. the structure of the short course-based research project addressed herein required three full class sessions and two community days; students worked in groups of three to four on the project. in session one, students learned about nanomaterials and their applications. as a group, they were given reading materials on carbon nanomaterials as well as relevant articles from scientific american and chemical and engineering news (c&en). they brainstormed what potential carbon nanomaterials precursors could be of interest. topics included food waste, waste cooking oil, waste orange peels, and dairy waste. however, an article on the environmental threat of acid whey in the production of greek yogurt (erickson, 2017) piqued the students’ interest most as they were introduced to “fermentation process and metabolism” in a previous lab activity of energy. making greek yogurt is another way to connect the concept of the fermentation process to real-life applications, as well as recapture a large amount of dairy waste created in the process. approximately 67% of the milk used in greek yogurt production becomes acid whey (wherry et al., 2019). acid whey, with a ph between 3.57 and 5.10, is not allowed to be discharged to sewage because it contains large amounts of lactose, which increases biochemical oxygen demand, perils aquatic and microbial lives (alsaed et al., 2013). after discussing their project, students leveraged the two community days to extend their experiential learning outside of the classroom to collect their research material. students called and visited yogurt manufacturers around new york city collecting acid whey, while some brought it from homemade yogurt (figure 1). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) | 109 figure 1. acid whey collected during strain in session two, each group shared their experiential learning experience on community days and then synthesized carbon nanomaterials from their acid whey. the carbonization of acid whey is straightforward as it contains lactose, a good source of carbons: 1.5 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was mixed with 20 ml of acid whey, and the mixture was heated for forty-five minutes. the aliquot was taken about every fifteen to thirty minutes to observe its fluorescence under uv. the series of aliquots are shown in figure 2 in daylight (top) and under a uv lamp (bottom). the as-prepared carbon nanomaterials were irradiated by a uv lamp at 365 nm wavelength, further separated by filtration and centrifuge. this part could be done in a three-hour lab period. in session three, the students measured their products by uv-vis spectrophotometer and collected transmission electron microscopy (tem) images (figure 3). as the college lacks advanced instrumentation, the students took a field trip to the advanced science research center (asrc) nearby and observed how their data is being collected by fluorescence spectrophotometer and tem. the activity fostered a collaborative learning community, enhanced engagement by comparing data across all other groups, and provided opportunities to brainstorm ideas for writing a comprehensive lab report. in addition, the students were required to upload their work to eportfolio for evaluation. incorporation of academic technology: eportfolio is a way for our students to create a digital narrative of their academic journey by collecting and showcasing the work they complete throughout their time at the college. eportfolios have become an important teaching tool, emerging as a way for students to present an evidence-based, professional account of their knowledge and skills (parkes et al., 2013). these portfolios can be shared with professors, other students, the college as a whole, and publicly as well. a template of the project was created and shared with all students, which allowed them to view instructional prompts, easily re-create sections or content areas, and find other information required to complete the assignment. a tutoring session was offered to provide technical support in creating the eportfolio and adding artifacts to the sections included in the template. sections included an abstract, prelab question, field trip report, experimental methods and observations, data, graphs, conclusions, post-lab questions, and references (figure 4). not only does this framework offer a convenient space for students to upload their work, but they can also easily submit the project for review. findings and discussion the project provided benefits by incorporating undergraduate research opportunities to students who otherwise don’t have the time commitment for traditional early research experience. as our students prepared bright blue fluorescent carbon nanoparticles by heating acid whey in the presence of a catalytic amount of concentrated sulfuric acid and monitored its fluorescence intensity by 365 nm uv as shown in international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) 110 | figure 2, they investigated that fluorescence intensity was maximum after forty-five to sixty minutes of heating. after forty-five minutes of heating, the aliquot was chosen as their sample and further characterized. figure 2. sample aliquots in daylight (top), under 365 nm uv irradiation (bottom). figure 2 is shown that fluorescence was most intense after about forty-five to sixty minutes of heating. each group analyzed their aliquot solution by uv-vis spectrophotometer. measuring and interpreting spectra provides students with the development of analytical skills and techniques. however, some of the characterizations were challenging as the college lacks advanced instrumentation. but in collaboration with the asrc, students were able to measure the size of their product. prior to measuring the size of their carbon nanomaterials, the class reviewed the scale of the nano world, learned about the functions of transmission electron microscopy (tem), and prepared samples by dropping five microliters of their sample on a 300 mesh tem grid with carbon support film. at the asrc, the students observed how their samples were measured on a 200 kv themis, learned of the morphology as well as the size of their particles and recognized the agglomeration of carbon nanomaterials on the grid. the size distribution of each sample showed around 10-20 nm, providing a teaching and learning moment in which students discussed why their sample needs to be called carbon nanoparticles, not carbon quantum dots, as the latter is defined by size less than 10 nm (li et al., 2012). using their critical thinking skills, students speculated that particles less than 10 nm could be observed if there were no agglomeration on the grid, suggesting that the sample be centrifuged at a much higher speed or change reaction conditions. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) | 111 figure 3. tem image the project represents ten percent of the final grade in the course. the extent to which students accomplished the learning goals was measured through course performance based on group presentations, notebook keeping, individual progress lab reports, comprehensive group lab report, individual and group quizzes related to the project to reinforce a team effort, as well as a voluntary and anonymous written student survey. overall, the students genuinely enjoyed synthesizing carbon nanomaterials from dairy waste and visiting the cutting-edge core science facilities to observe the characterization of their products. determining the degree to which the project increases student success needs a larger sample data. however, we found that 83.3% of students earned grades of c or better in the short cure embedded course, as compared to 67% in the traditional general chemistry course. the performance rate herein excludes students who withdrew prior to commencing the project. the outcome indicates that the integration of this experience increases students' motivation, retention, and completion. moreover, course evaluations and feedback on the project were very positive, saying the activity provided opportunities to discuss current scientific issues and the applications of waste, collect and interpret data, and gain knowledge of stem-related career paths. in addition, some of the students went on to present their work at the 67th annual undergraduate research symposium (urs) new york american chemical society (acs). we also asked our students to anonymously write about their experiences. some comments included: chemistry is part of our life, and i learn better and never forgot what i learned about nanomaterials from waste. things i found valuable about doing this project is being able to make nanomaterials from dairy waste, never thought i could do this. the project was really fun and interesting. i want to explore new ways to make carbon dots and do more informative experiments. a visit to the research center made me reconsider my current major path. having this project submitted through eportfolio is also helpful to our assessment processes. the same platform allows us to collect and house submitted assignments for review during the college’s assessment days. we can look at student work and evaluate it according to program and course learning outcomes. most students were well versed in the use of eportfolio and did not require supplementary help with the program. few students experienced issues with incomplete assignments due to not publishing the finished pages of their eportfolio or incorrectly submitting the assignment. with continuous use of academic technologies, the hope is that students will have an enhanced learning experience and develop transferable skills to take with them when they transition to a four-year institution. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) 112 | figure 4. eportfolio template figure 5. eportfolio student submission conclusion the integration of a short cure into the course has reinvigorated how learning, teaching, and research can increase students' retention and engagement. the project, without a doubt, has provided students with chemistry-related research experience in the context of cultural and societal issues and cutting-edge scientific research on nanoscience to increase understanding of nanomaterials applications. it also helps improve students' critical thinking skills and raise awareness of the relevance between students' learning in chemistry and real-life experience. the instrumentation needed for the project, however, required well-planned collaboration with other institutions for the integration of a field trip to the core science facilities. the visit provided the students with an enhanced learning experience, interaction with other research scientists, and learning about their research projects and careers in stem areas. acknowledgments this work is approved by the institutional review board (#28214206) and supported by the research foundation of city university new york for research in the classroom (rf cuny ric) idea grant (#403). we thank drs daniel collins and ilana shanks for the review of the manuscript. references alsaed, a. k., ahmad, r., aldoomy, h., el-qaeder, s. a., saleh, d., sakejha, h., & mustafa, l. (2013). characterization, concentration, and utilization of sweet and acid whey. pakistan journal of nutrition, 12, 172-177. auchincloss, l. c., laursen, s. l., branchaw, j. l., eagan, k., graham, m., hanauer, d. i., & dolan, e. l. (2014). assessment of course-based undergraduate research experiences: a meeting report. cbe-life sciences education, 13, 29-40. bangera, g., & brownell, s. e. (2014). course-based undergraduate research experiences can make scientific research more inclusive. cbe-life sciences education, 13, 602-606. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 107-113 research in the classroom: introducing nanomaterials at a two-year college jihyun kim, christopher roth, sheng zhang issn 2721-2904 (online) | 113 chen, x. (2013). stem attrition: college students’ paths in and out of stem fields (nces 2014-001). national center for education statistics. cohen, r., & kelly, a. m. (2019). community college chemistry course-taking and stem academic persistence. journal of chemical education, 96, 3-11. dahlberg, c. l., wiggins, b. l., lee, s. r., leaf, d. s., lily, l. s., jordt, h., & johnson, t. (2019). a short, course-based research module provides metacognitive benefits in the form of more sophisticated problem solving. journal of college science teaching, 48, 22-30. erickson, b. (2017). acid whey: is the waste product an untapped goldmine? chemical &engineering news, 95 (6), 26-30. furlan, p.y. (2009). engaging students in early exploration of nanoscience topics using hands-on activities and scanning tunneling microscopy. journal of chemical education, 86 (6), 705-711. hagedorn, l. s., & purnamasari, a. v. (2012). a realistic look at stem and the role of community colleges. community college review, 40 (2), 145-164. howard, d. r., & miskowski, j. a. (2005). using a module-based laboratory to incorporate inquiry into a large cell biology course. cell biology education, 4, 249-260. hurthdo, s., cabrera, n. l., lin, m. h., arellano, l., & espinososa, l. l. (2008). diversifying science: underrepresented student experiences in structured research programs. research in higher education, 50, 189-214. kuh, g. d. (2008). high-impact educational practices: what they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. washington, dc: american association of colleges and universities. li, h., kang, z., liu, y., & lee, s.-t. (2012). carbon nanodots: synthesis, properties and applications. journal of materials chemistry, 22 (46), 24230-24253. mcdonald, k. k., martin, a. r., watters, c., & landerholm, t. e. (2019). a faculty development model for transforming a department’s laboratory curriculum with course based undergraduate research experiences. journal of college science teaching, 48, 14-23. park, e. (2019). nanotechnology course designed for non-science majors to promote critical thinking and integrative learning skills. j. chem. educ, 96, 1278-1282. parkes, k. a., dredger, k. s., & hicks, d. (2013). eportfolio as a measure of reflective practice. international journal of eportfolio, 3 (2), 99-115. ray s. c., saha, a., jana, n. r., sarkar, r. (2009). fluorescent carbon nanoparticle: synthesis, characterization and bio-imaging application. journal of physical chemistry, 113 (43), 1854618551. sharma, r. k., gulati, s., & mehta, s. (2012). preparation of gold nanoparticles using tea: a green chemistry experiment. j. chem. educ, 89, 1316-1318. stein, s. j., isaacs, g., & andrews, t. (2004). incorporating authentic learning experience within a university course. studies in higher education, 29, 239-258. tomasik, j. h., cottone, k. e., heethuis, m. t., & muller, a. (2013). development and preliminary impacts of the implementation of an authentic research based experiment in general chemistry. j. chem. educ, 93, 1155-1161. undergraduate professional education in chemistry (2015). acs guidelines and evaluation procedures for bachelor’s degree programs. american chemical society. wei, c. a., & woodin, t. (2011). undergraduate research experiences in biology: alternatives to the apprenticeship model. cbe-life sciences education, 10, 123-131. wherry, b., barbano, d. m., & drake, m. a. (2019). use of acid whey protein concentrate as an ingredient in nonfat cup set style yogurt. j. diary sci., 102 (10) 8768-8784. widanski, b. b., & mccarthy, w. c. (2009). assessment of chemistry anxiety in a two-year college. journal of chemical education, 86 (12), 1447. 217_ijrse-1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 1-12 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.217 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (october 31st, 2020); accepted (may 5th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school 1 bekasi kurniawan prambudi utomo1, fahmi kamal2 universitas bina sarana informatika 1 kurniawan.kpu@bsi.ac.id *; 2 fahmi.fmk@bsi.ac.id abstract this research was conducted to form one part of national education and improve the culture of literacy among vocational students who are effective and efficient as well as to train intelligence and the ability to manage emotionally elegant so that it is expected to prepare future leaders. the purpose of this research is to examine the variables of political culture material with the method while the methodology of this research is classroom action research (car) or classroom action research. this class action research is a form of self-reflection carried out by researchers that are seen in the situation under study aimed at improving the quality of learning, as well as to improve the performance of the education system using a qualitative approach, the time of the implementation of this study was carried out for three months, namely in june september 2017 and the results of the study concluded that in the early stages of the cycle the increase in student understanding reached 62.5% and considered sufficient to understand while the research in the final cycle, after the given direction, and ability, students showed the role of some students quite significant, reaching 22.5% of students so that the understanding of political culture debate reached 100%. keywords: students, political culture, debate method this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction education is a core effort in the process of developing human resources. with human education consciously will be directed to develop its potential in the form of abilities, skills, attitudes, and personalities by the objectives of national education. education is a necessity for every developing nation like indonesia. with education it is hoped that the creation of a strong and strong indonesian human being in dealing with various social and individual problems. the subject of civic education focuses on the formation of citizens who understand and can carry out their rights and obligations to become smart, skillful, and characterized indonesian citizens as mandated by pancasila and the 1945 constitution. normatively, according to syarbaini (2003), citizenship education says that citizenship education obtains the basis of the punishment stipulated in article 3 of law no.20 of 2003 concerning the national education system which reads: "national education functions to develop capabilities and shape the character and civilization of a dignified nation to educate the life of the nation". while the ministry of kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 2 | education and culture defines the above provisions must be understood as education that will develop capabilities and shape the character of the nation based on values that grow, live and develop in the life of the nation and state. through civics, students are expected to have and develop their potential both as members of the community, nation, and state and as members of the community both for themselves and for the continuity of daily life in the community to become good citizens. based on observations and experiences in class so far, students have less interest in learning civics. this can be seen from several indications shown by student behavior when the teaching and learning process takes place. for example students are less active and enthusiastic when the learning process takes place. students tend to be less interested in civics learning because all this time there are assumptions that civics learning is boring and only focuses on memorizing, less emphasis on reasoning aspects, causing low understanding of students. the atmosphere of teaching and learning is expected to make students as subjects who try to explore themselves, solve their problems of a concept being studied, while the teacher acts more as a motivator and facilitator. the expected learning situation here is students who have more (creative) roles. along with the development of the era, the conditions of learning and teaching also have many learning methods that support to increase the activeness of students in the learning process, and one of the innovations that are a breakthrough in the world of education today is an active learning method (active learning), namely the debate method ``, this is according to the method derived from the greek "methodos" which means the way or path taken. meanwhile, according to sanjaya, the method covers the problem of how to work to be able to understand the object that is the target of the relevant science. hamalik (2007) said that the function of the method means as a means to an end. the understanding cited by hidayat (2010) of the active debate method is a debate that can be a valuable method for developing thought and reflection, especially if students are expected to take positions that are contrary to their opinions. this is a strategy for an active debate involving every student in the class, not just the people involved, according to hidayat (2010), saying that the active debate method is a method of discussion in the form of debate carried out by giving an issue that as far as possible controversial so that there will be opinions that differ from students. in expressing students' opinions, they are required to use strong arguments that originate from class materials, while kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 3 the debating method can take the form of rhetoric which is divided into two parts, namely monologic and dialogics. monolog is the art of speaking monologically or speaking in one direction, that is, there is only one person who speaks while the others are only listeners. there are various monologies including: speeches, lectures, recitations, and so on. teachers must be able to direct this debate at the core of the subject matter to be understood. the debate method is one of the most important learning methods not only to improve students' academic abilities but also to train students to be able to think critically, analytically, and constructively, and to be sporty. in the debate method students are not only required to be able to understand the material that is analyzing in a short time and good, the ability to control emotions is also very necessary in this case learning in the classroom becomes more alive because it involves students directly. theoretical perspectives research method the method used in this study is classroom action research (car) or classroom action research which has recently become a trend of education teachers who lately pay a lot of attention to class action research. this classroom action research is a form of self-reflection conducted by researchers who are seen in the situation under study aimed at improving the quality of learning, as well as improving the performance of the education system. the approach used in this study is qualitative. the choice of this approach is because the type of research is classroom action research (car). the data sources of this research are students of class xi ak in smk negeri 1 bekasi (informants) and teachers in class xii civics studies at smk 1 bekasi city (key informants) and where the research was conducted at smk negeri 1 the city of bekasi which addressed and the time of the research was carried out for three months, juneseptember 2017. findings and discussion 1. action research and preliminary cycle research findings cycle 1 was held on monday 10 september 2017 at the 3rd and 4th class hours, at 08.30 -10.00 with an allocation of 2 x 45 minutes cycle 1 is the first step that determines the next cycle because in this cycle there are efforts to reform the civic education learning interaction process in smk negeri 1 bekasi, while the steps which are the stages of the reform process include: a. planning the plans prepared include: preparing lesson plans, setting competency standards kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 4 | and basic competencies, selecting appropriate lesson material, determining learning scenarios with contextual approaches, and problem-based learning (pbl) preparing the source of materials and tools needed, compiling student worksheets, developing a learning observation format. b. action implementation after making preparations, namely the implementation of the concepts that have been prepared in the learning process, there are several stages in the implementation of classroom actions 1). initial activity after explaining the theory and pre-test, the teacher and researcher explain the learning system using the debate method then the researcher and the collaborator teacher divide students into two groups, each group consisting of 5 students and the other students become the audience. the atmosphere in the class spontaneously occurs noise because some students want to choose their classmates but researchers can overcome student noise and convince students that the grouping of students in the first cycle is based on students who have high criteria of speech/debate skills then the researcher guides the students to arrange seating the pros and cons group sat in front of the class, while the teacher and researcher were observers and moderators. table 1. list of student names in the pro and counter groups source: student date, 2017 no pro group no counter groups student names (initial) student names (initial) 1 a 1 i 2 b 2 ii 3 c 3 iii 4 d 4 iv 5 f 5 v 6 g 6 vi 7 h 7 vii 8 i 8 viii 9 j 9 ix 10 k 10 x 11 l 11 xi 12 m 12 xii 13 n 13 xiii 14 o 14 xiv 15 p 15 xv kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 5 table 2. the following is the arrangement of student seats during the debates: information: pros: pro group with spokesman “a” cons: city group with spokesman “i” m: moderator (teacher) p: observer (researcher) audience: other students numbering 30 people these pros and cons groups are chosen based on the ability of the level of understanding of the material and the ability to speak good/high students. the division of these groups are shown in table 1. the purpose of the seating arrangement is for the pros and cons groups to issue their opinions, ideas and ideas to the audience. these pros and cons groups are considered to have a high level of speaking ability in front of this class, later it is hoped that it will be able to lure other students to dare to express their opinions. while the task of the moderator here is to control the debate situation to accommodate the ideas of the audience and also as a stimulus to groups of pros and cons to be even more courageous in issuing their opinions. while the presence of the observer here is to monitor the nets of the debate to be conducive. after the seating arrangement is finished the teacher asks each group leader to take an envelope which contains the debate material and the group's position as a pro or contra group. the pro group is chaired by “a” with a spokesman for “i” and a counter group headed by “b” with spokesman “ii”. furthermore, the contentious material is "participatory political culture in indonesia has been going good" the pro group positioned its group as a group that agreed to the statement that the participant's political culture in indonesia had gone well while the counter group positioned its group as a group that opposed the statement that in indonesia political culture participants have not been going well. the teacher gives time for each group to prepare material / material on the theme that has been prepared. after + 10 minutes the pros and cons groups prepare the material / debate then the debate begins with the arguments / opinions of the pro groups represented by the spokesman “ii” "according to our group the participant's pro m contra audience kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 6 | political culture has been going well in indonesia, this is evidenced by the participation of the indonesian people in good elections become active voters and some even become members of the people's representatives "opening arguments have been submitted by pro groups, then the moderator begins to provoke the contra group's intimacy:" does the whole level of indonesian society already understand what is the political culture of the participants, given the diversity of diversity in our country? "the contra group represented by spokesperson “b” began issuing his opinion" i disagree with the opinion of the pro groups, that the reality in the field, that the political culture of the participants has not yet fully touched all levels of society is evidenced by the still lack of people in the countryside to freely express their opinions especially during the election, they are still many who are confused when voting / voting " the statement from the contra group spontaneously made the pro group represented by “b” start speaking again "that's just an example of a small part, now there are many ngos, which stand in rural areas so automatically rural communities begin to learn or know about government policies and even there is a show the taste of farmers who oppose the price of dried unhulled rice which is considered detrimental to farmers shows that in rural communities began to dare to express their opinions ". information from the pro group made the audience nodded, frowned, and some even smiled on their own. here the moderator starts to open the opportunity for the audience to issue their opinions, but because of confusion or lack of understanding, the audience is silent. while the pro and counter groups began to be seen actively expressing their opinions, each moderator began writing ideas, arguments and the core of each discussion on the board and until a number of ideas expected by the moderator were fulfilled. 2) final activities the final activity begins with commenting by the researcher about the best arguments made by the two groups, then giving feedback to students about the political culture of participants who developed in indonesia. next the researcher ordered the students to reflect on the learning on that day by giving written tests and distributing questionnaires. after all students complete the written test sheets and questionnaire, the teacher presents the debate themes that will be held at the meeting next (cycle 2) then the researcher closes the lesson by saying greetings and guiding students to tidy up their seats. kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 7 a. observation after observing in the field when the debate took place most students looked still passive (silent) as if they were still confused and uncomfortable to express their opinions. students who are divided into two groups, namely the pros and cons groups have not been able to apply an active debate in dealing with the theme at hand. in dealing with themes in groups. most students still rely on friends who are considered able to express their opinions and have not been able to express their opinions on existing themes based on their own understanding. b. reflection based on the observations above in the first cycle learning there are some things that have been done but there are still many shortcomings, things that have been done in the first cycle are as follows: 1) students have started to adapt to the learning process with the debate method 2) some students have the courage to express opinions (argue) 3) the teacher has been able to create a pleasant learning atmosphere weaknesses that are still found in cycle 1 learning are as follows: 1. students have not been able to formulate the subject matter that is the subject of public debate (controversy) 2. students have not been able to appreciate the opinions of opponents debate 3. students have not been able to look active in debates 4. the teacher is too fast when implementing the material 5. the teacher is less assertive towards students when moderating 6. the volume of the teacher's voice is not heard by all students 7. the teacher has not been able to use the time allocation properly based on the results of the first cycle test 1 (one) it is known that as many as 15 students are of less value, 6 students of medium value and 9 students of good value in this cycle the increase in understanding of students reached 62.5% of students lacking understanding and while for an average class of 72.25 or 72 classified into the medium category and have not yet reached kkm 75 which has set. based on observations and tests researchers consider students' ability to debate and understanding students are still lacking so it is necessary to hold further learning in cycle 2. kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 8 | 2. conduct action research and final cycle research findings cycle ii was carried out on monday, september 17, 2017 during class 3 and 4 hours, at 08:30 to 10:00 with an allocation of time of 2 x 45 minutes. the stages of learning in cycle ii are not much different from the initial cycle. as for the stages of learning in the second cycle are as follows: a. planning, as in the initial cycle, in the final cycle begins with preparing an improvement plan that will later be implemented in implementation. by combining the results of reflection cycle i and the final cycle plan, it is hoped that there will be an increase in the quality of students' interest in understanding civic education subjects, political culture material. furthermore, they prepare observation and evaluation sheets as a form of analysis in knowing the development of student understanding. b. action implementation 1. initial activity after stimulating students knowledge about the socialization of the development of political culture, the researcher held a question and answer to students about the socialization material development of political culture. then the researchers redivided students into 3 groups. in the initial cycle of pros and cons groups. researchers joined to become moderators, and the audience in the first cycle, researchers broke into 2 groups of pros and cons, instructed researchers to choose their respective spokespersons. the classroom atmosphere starts to become noisy, because students want to choose their own friends in the same group. however, the situation can be overcome by telling researchers that each group has been determined by researchers and teachers. next, the researcher guides the students to arrange the seating arrangement, forming a square facing each other. the purpose of the seating arrangement is to create a conducive atmosphere for debate activities. the seating arrangement took place in an orderly manner. entering learning activities using the debate method, the teacher asks each of the two groups to come forward and take the envelope containing the themes and positions in the debate as a pro or contra group. before the breakdown begins each group discusses the theme to be debated, namely the role of the mass media in developing one's political culture. the following is the division of moderator groups, pro groups and contra groups in the final cycle debate. the researcher explained the rules of debate which were divided into two sessions, each session was held for 30 kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 9 table 3. list of student names in the pro and counter groups source: date student, 2017 h e c o n t i n u e d t h e source: student date, 2017 minutes and the debate would be guided by students as moderators who would provoke the pro and contra groups. researchers and teachers as observers and guide the implementation of the debate so that students' arguments do not get out of the topic being debated. the teacher gives an introduction about the role of the mass media in developing one's political culture. next, the teacher instructs each group the pros and cons to prepare the pros as the material first. here the pro groups as supporters of the role of mass media in developing one's political culture will have a positive impact. while the counter group as opponents of the role of mass media in developing one's political culture because it will bring negative impacts. the debate began with the opinions of the pro groups represented by jamaudin, "we think that the mass media has a positive impact on the development of one's political culture because, with the mass media, we can know the political situation of other countries, this will encourage us to know the political conditions in our country with other countries, so we can find out what are the strengths and weaknesses of our country. " then the moderator began to speak out, represented by “i”, "does the mass media forever have a positive impact on the development of one's political culture socialization, given that our country's no pro group no counter groups student names (initial) student names (initial) 1 a 1 i 2 b 2 ii 3 c 3 iii 4 d 4 iv 5 f 5 v 6 g 6 vi 7 h 7 vii 8 i 8 viii 9 j 9 ix 10 k 10 x 11 l 11 xi 12 m 12 xii 13 n 13 xiii 14 o 14 xiv 15 p 15 xv kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 10 | culture is different from other countries?" then the contra group began to argue represented by “a”, "we agree with the moderator, that the mass media harms the development of one's political culture because the mass media likes to present the political situation of other countries, which is ideologically different from our country, indonesian youths may act later anarchist towards the government's decision, which will later threaten the life of the nation and state. 'the atmosphere of the debate began to warm, alternately the pros and cons groups arguing with each other. while students present their ideas, the teacher writes the core/ideas of each discussion on the board, until several ideas that the teacher hopes are met do not forget the teacher adds concepts/ideas that have not been revealed. 2. final activities the final activity begins with commenting by the researcher about the best arguments made by the two groups, then giving feedback to students about the development of political culture socialization from the data on the board, the teacher invites students to make conclusions/summaries that refer to the topic they want to achieve. next the teacher gives a written test to find out the students' abilities of the material that has been learned and distribute questionnaires. after all, students have completed the test and questionnaire, the researcher guides the students to tidy up their seats, and remembers students to prepare the debate material for the next meeting. then the researcher closes the lesson by saying greetings. a. observation the observations show, students already have an interest in learning civic education subjects which are marked by their activity asking questions and submitting opinions. even though they do not have many ideas but at least the laziness and boredom of students has begun to disappear and change their enthusiasm for the lesson civics learning strategies with this debate technique also have an increasingly positive impact, this is because students are trained to be more active in communicating between students and are more willing to submit opinions and criticize their friends' opinions. b. reflection based on the observations above, in the second cycle of learning, several things have been done. but there are also deficiencies. things that have already been done. but there are also deficiencies, things kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 11 that have been done in the second cycle are as follows: 1. students can formulate the subject matter that is the subject of public debate (controversy) 2. students have started to be active 3. students feel happy with civics learning with debate techniques 4. some students dare to express opinions (argument) 5. students begin to be able to appreciate the opinions of the other person in the debate. based on the results of observations and tests at the end of the cycle, the researcher considers the ability of students in debating to have progressed, although it still needs to be improved, while students' understanding begins to increase, but still needs to be improved again, based on the results of observations and tests at the end of the cycle, the researchers considered the students' ability to debate had progressed, although it still needed to be improved, at the end of the cycle, after being given directions, and the ability, students showed the role of some students quite significant, reaching 22.5% of students so that the understanding of political culture debate reaches 100% and while for an average class of 72.25 or 72 classified into the medium category and have not yet reached minimal completeness criteria 75 which has set. conclusion in the initial cycle it has not been seen that student activity has not increased, but students have been able to conduct discussions through debate methods, that mean it means that from this class action research it is known that the pre-debate method has not shown the desired results that the participants have not maximally issued the ability to both defend and attack the opponent's debate with their respective instruments, so it is necessary to emphasize again from the method by repeating in different ways and understand the material presented by the teacher in the field of civics studies in discussing the themes presented so that students are expected to be more active again, in this cycle increasing the understanding, result of the study concluded that in the early stages of the cycle the increase in student understanding reached 62.5% and considered sufficient to understand while the research in the final cycle, after given direction, and ability, students showed the role of some students quite significant, reaching 22.5% of students so that the understanding of political culture debate reached 100%. kurniawan prambudi utomo, fahmi kamal a strategy to improve the learning of political culture with debate method in vocational high school... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 12 | references hamalik, oemar, (2007). management of curriculum development, bandung: pt. teens rosda karya. syahrial, syarbaini et al. (2003). building character and personality through citizenship education. jakarta. graha sciences, p. 3. ministry of the national education republic of indonesia. law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system. p. 3. sanjaya, wina, (2006). process oriented learning strategies for education process standards. jakarta. kencana prima, p. 174. kamarudin, hidayat. (2010). debate method strategy. jakarta. kencana prima. p. 70. 187_ijrse-1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 13-25 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.187 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (april 15th, 2020); accepted (may 5th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding in islamic higher education nafan tarihoran uin sultan maulana hasanuddin banten, indonesia nafan.tarihoran@uinbanten.ac.id abstract this study aimed to investigate how social media, in this case, a facebook group as blended learning incorporated in teaching at islamic higher education in indonesia. sixty-five efl students participated in this study. the content of cross-cultural and responses in this closed group was analyzed to identify the patterns of interaction, and their responses to e-journaling through a facebook group. the findings revealed that the students responded positively to this activity and promote the student's sense of the uniqueness of his own culture as a positive value and enables the students to accept the uniqueness of the other cultures. the power of sharing and learning from other students encourages understanding and appreciation of other cultures. keywords: blended learning, cross-cultural understanding, english foreign language, facebook group, social media site (somes) this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction technology is becoming increasingly important in both our personal and professional lives, and students are using technology more and more. dawn wilson stated that today’s students use instant messaging, texting, instagram, snapchat, youtube, vine, and many other digital tools to consume, create, and share digital media products with family, friends, acquaintances, and sometimes even strangers (wilson et al., 2016). this phenomenon is one of the 21st-century trends in education. kilbane, c. r., & milman, n. b., (2013) conveyed that the digital technologies, access to information, globalization, equity, and accountability are five great trends are influencing education in the 21st-century. these trends influence indirectly on students, teachers, and their environment. technology in language teaching is not new. as today's students must function in the world of tomorrow, committed 21st-century teachers should acknowledge the influence of these trends toward instruction. a teacher also needs to recognize that engaging with these shifts in the instruction context requires approaching their profession as an educator (kilbane & milman, 2013), and it is pointed by smaldino (smaldino et al., 2008), the drift for today’s instructors may be a move from nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 14 | conventional instructing methodologies and tools to computerized approaches that superior meet desires of 21st-century students the internet technology that facilitates digital technologies has changed the paradigm of learning environment, from physical to virtual learning environment. the most influential of internet technology is the social media site (somes). murray and waller (2007) have recognized somes as virtual communities that permit individuals to put through and connected on a specific subject or to fair hang out together online. somes, for the most part, give clients a profile and empower them to transfer and share photographs, music, and different sorts of messages they would like to share with other individuals (wellman & gulia, 1999). also, these sites give social and enthusiastic back, data assets, and ties to other individuals (eyadat & ababneh, 2010). social media users have increased in numbers each year. according to datareportal, global digital overview in 2019, there are 3.48 billion social media users in 2019, with the worldwide total growing by 288 million reached 9 percent (kemp, 2019). it is stated that facebook dominates the social media sphere. as quoted by septania, indonesia has the fourth-highest number of facebook users in the world (septania, 2018). there were 130 million accounts on social media or 6 percent of the total global users. indonesia is the most facebook users in the southeast asian country. social media is a persuasive force for 21st-century learners. the social media users in indonesia has increased from 2015 to 2021. in 2023, it is assessed that there will be around 103 million interpersonal organization clients (users) in indonesia, up from 74.2 million in 2016 (statista research department, 2019). in delivering materials of crosscultural, lecturers are allowed to improvise to be more easily understood by students. however, students often have low motivation, have negative feelings in dealing with other cultures. the concept of teaching presence is that of concentration in what the learners learn rather then what is to be instructed. as the classrooms get more learner-centered, it can be expected that the state of mind and the activities from the learners’ side will be more noticeable. since an individual is molded by one’s culture and neighborhood setting, it can be accepted that the significance of crosscultural setting in dialect instructing will develop as learning gets to be more learnercentered(n tarihoran, 2017). it indicates that social network users will take a great place for multi-purposes in human lives. one of them is for educational nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 15 purposes. social media enable an affordance for online interactions into a vital part of human experience. from a medium of learning, conley, et al., (2015) pointed out that facebook is open source also facilitates the creation of reusable digital instructional material that can be very easily updated and revised (conley & sabo, 2015). however, in the educational field cross-cultural understanding in islamic universities still needs to explore and deepen. literature review social media is a platform to manufacture interpersonal organizations or social relations among individuals who, share interests, exercises, foundations, or real-life connections(chen, 2014). this platform empowers clients can make profiles and socialize employing a extend of social media devices counting blogs, recordings, pictures, labels, records of companions, gatherings, and messages(keyes, 2016), an addition to smaldino stated that a social networking service facilitates online connections and interactions of users based on shared backgrounds, interests, and experiences (smaldino et al., 2008). students can share ideas, messages, information, and multimedia with people in their network. from an educational perspective, rosen enriches the above notion that social media may support students such as rich multimedia information sources, microcontent, collaboration and community building, synchronous and asynchronous communication modes, personalized learning through repetition, social interaction, disinhibition and identity development (rosen, 2010). dawn wilson (2010) points to the notion that digital tools may effectively support students’ learning endeavors. google+, facebook, twitter, and tumblr are examples of social networks. they offer ways for users to join others interested in similar topics or issues through community groups. the most popular social media is facebook, in the academic context, chickering & gamson, 1987; kuh, 2009) in junco, reynol (2014) the affordances of facebook, such as its emphasis on sharing, connecting, participation, and active engagement, align with the effective educational practices of active and collaborative learning— essential factors for student engagement. students are bombarded with digital media content from a variety of sources for outside of the classroom, they include television, the internet, smartphones, and gaming consoles through which they access all types of programs, apps, and games. some digital interfaces now allow students nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 16 | to interact with digital media content in virtual realities, while others ask students to interact in a real-world context. either way, students are continuously exchanging media content with countless numbers of people within their social networks (wilson et al., 2016). recently, universities are changing. no longer are they limited to the existing structure or resources of the building. it is conceivable to reach beyond the traditional teaching setting to design learning opportunities with global reach to engage today’s learners. cyberlearning is the use of networked computing and communication technologies to support learning. by dynamically integrating the internet and social media into instruction, cyberlearning is transforming learning opportunities while requiring new perspectives on teaching (simonson et al., 2019). today's students could be constantly "plugged in," spending every spare moment tapping away on their smartphones, compulsively gaming, or posting updates and photos to social media. perhaps they seem to be permanently connected because, for growing numbers of adolescents, onscreen activities occupy far more time than face-to-face interactions. recent screentime statistics for today's students are staggering. children aged eight to eighteen spend an estimated seven hours per day, on average, glaring into screens (american academy of pediatrics). teenagers compose an average of 3,417 text messages per month (bindley, 2011). and, the bedrooms of an estimated 97% of adolescents contain at least one electronic device (wilson et al., 2016) in learning, settings can include formal, organized learning experiences for which lecturers are responsible. on the other hand, informal learning gives students opportunities to learn from experiences outside of the classroom setting. for instance, students can explore websites on the internet and find information that may be important for their activities inclassroom study. for instance, when students study a region of the country in social studies they can access the internet to find a website describing the region or email someone living in that area. even students lacking an internet connection at home may have access to internetconnected computers in school media centers and libraries. and the majority of students have access to mobile technology resources through their cell phones (johnson et al., 2013). as the cell phone becomes more ubiquitous, even students from families with limited incomes generally have a cell phone available to them. students learn how to informally seek information and will challenge themselves nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 17 to learn about topics that might not be part of their in-class study because they find value in that type of experience(simonson et al., 2019). digital technologies can simplify teachers’ and students’ interaction effectively virtually. ormrod, jeanne ellis (2016:342) propounded that successful understudy intelligent don’t fundamentally get to be confronted to face. through such instruments as email, talk programming, class sites and sites, electronic notice sheets, and skype, computer innovation empowers students to communicate with their companions (either locally or around the globe), trade points of view, conceptualize and expand on each other's thoughts, and periodically maneuver specialists into the discussion. students must understand, however, that the rules for in-class discussions apply to electronic discussions as well (smaldino et al., 2008). according to reynol junco (2014), facebook and student engagement. it makes sense to look at the relationship between facebook utilization and student engagement for two common reasons: (1) numerous of today’s college students utilize facebook at tall rates. (2) facebook was developed and intended to be an engaging platform and measures its success in terms of user engagement. subsequently, it is conceivable that understudies might be utilizing facebook in manners that impact or are affected by genuine commitment(junco, 2014). as a web-based learning device, facebook includes students effectively in learning as they are invigorated, energized, and tricked into exploring to different data destinations, posting remarks, and getting occupied with online conversations(patrut & patrut, 2013). in the english language teaching process, the connection between language and culture is profoundly established, and language can be utilized as an apparatus to keep up and pass on culture and social ties. language and culture are connected. language is installed in culture; language expressions can't be made outside the setting of a specific culture nor be completely deciphered as isolated from this culture. (widodo et al., 2018). social contrasts among indonesia and english exist in customs and propensities as well as in convictions, esteem frameworks, method of reasoning and numerous different viewpoints which have invaded into the social part of language use in crosscultural communication. culture is regularly viewed as the central idea in intercultural communication. intercultural communication concentrates regularly center around how social gatherings contrast from each other: muslims vary from christians; japanese contrast from nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 18 | u.s. americans; and, men contrast from ladies (gudykunst, 2002). the utilization of culture in encouraging english will rely upon the idea of the nearby setting. a similar framework may not apply to all communities. in other words, culture has an impact on each part of the language, for example, lexical investigation, linguistic and syntactic examination, writing and perusing, organization, and composing(fageeh, 2011). it may be an axiom that culture can lead to distinctive elucidations and responses to dialect. hence, it stands to reason that students’ capacity to comprehend and communicate in english ought to appositely be unequivocally subordinate on the social foundation information, and the lack of this information is most likely to render their english destitute communicatively speaking. most human practices are language embedded and, in this manner, language is an inescapable piece of the way of life. services, customs, tunes, stories, spells, curses, petitions, laws (also discussions, solicitations, and directions) are all discourse demonstrations or discourse occasions that comprise the very twist and woof of ethnic life (fishman et al., 2013). there is significant social media usage each year by the lecturer. this technology is considered an appropriate tool to be a learning medium. the use of blended learning (bl) is a combination of face-toface teaching techniques and online interactive collaboration, which allows students to pace their learning (graham, 2006). many institutions of higher learning have introduced bl in the classrooms, and very few have researched about its implementation in islamic higher education. the focus of teaching culture is what the students learn and need to learn instead of what is to be taught (nafan tarihoran et al., 2020). as many classrooms are more students-centered, the opinion and initiatives of students will bring a significant contribution to the learning process. facebook was significantly related to a medium of learning that can improve academic grades (alhazmi & rahman, 2013). however, integrating facebook with blended learning in islamic higher education seems to be a feasible means for lecturers to enhance students’ learning cross-cultural understanding. methodology this research did not intend to prove hypotheses, it investigated phenomena to generate theory from data dealing with the cross-cultural understanding(ccu) learning process. therefore, a qualitative approach was pursued in this study. the nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 19 study was conducted in sultan maulana hasanuddin the state islamic university of banten, indonesia. the subject of research were 65 undergraduate students ranging from tadris pendidikan bahasa inggris (english education department), faculty of tarbiyah, and teacher training. all students who agreed to participate were joined over an academic year (feb to july 2019). informed consent was obtained, and participants were assured of confidentiality and anonymity. in conducting the research, there were three phases. phase 1 lecturer created and used facebook as blended learning. a facebook group named was ccu collaborative learning. it was open only to students enrolled in this ccu course and invited to join the group. the facebook group was no public because it aimed to use the group as a medium of communication and instruction outside the class, where all students and the lecturer could come into contact and make a connection through the use of english without intimidation. students could share and exchange their ideas and the lecturer would post weekly announcements and selected readable topics and sub-topics so that all facebook members could see and learn from another. phase 2 lecturer used a snowballing technique to invite those prospective students to join the group. the students categorized based on the topic and asked students to respond to the assignment. lecturer taught face-to-face in the classroom according to weekly lesson plans and online interacted with the students in the facebook group. lecturer posted announcements and comments relevant to the class and their assignments. phase 3 the students were interviewed and distributed questionnaires (using google form) to evaluate the impact of utilizing facebook group. more details, the steps of the blended learning via facebook followed kilbane’s model include (1) making students’ group (three or four members in a group), 2) each group creates the facebook group, 3) introducing the task in the facebook group; 4) naming, teaching, and practicing targeted social skills; 5) implementing the lesson and monitoring student interactions in the facebook group; 6 ) summarizing learning in the form digital; 6 ) measuring group and individual accountability; and 7) conducting assessment (kilbane & milman, 2013). result and discussion 1. data description the demographic profile of participants denoting age, gender, and the total number of using facebook as presented in table 1. most of the students are female (89%). nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 20 | table 1. demographic profile of participants. age (year) gender average posting male female (n=16) 19 2 9 13 (81%) 20 1 18 15 (94%) 21 2 23 12 (75%) 22 2 8 11 (69%) 2. instructional context cross-cultural understanding (ccu) course syllabus has stated the objectives of the experiential course include the following: at the end of the course students should be able to understand the concept of cross-cultural. by understanding the concepts of cross-cultural in the use of english the students will be able to use english according to the sociocultural reflected in english. the classes run for two hours per week during the fifth semester of the academic year. this course has two credits consisting of five units: (1) foundation of cross, (2) concerns with the intercultural conflict and intercultural competence, (3) discuss gender issues, (4) life values, and (5) discusses gender issues in muslim society (nafan; tarihoran & jamridafrijal, 2019). more details of ccu teaching material is seen in table 2. table 2 contents of ccu course. unit topics sub-topics 1 foundation of cross-cultural communication culture, language & communication intercultural communication culture and foreign language teaching 2 intercultural conflict, and intercultural competence intercultural conflict acculturation culture shock intercultural competence 3 gender issues in british and united stated of america contexts gender issues in western countries gender issues in education 4 life values personal values family values work values 5 gender issues in muslim society gender issues in islam gender issues in muslim society practice 3. using facebook group as a blended learning some students pointed out that they liked it when the lecturer corrected their posting. they thought that they learned to improve their writing as well as their understanding of culture from the errors they made. students liked it when the nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 21 lecturer posted weekly announcements and offered their views in detail that the announcements helped them to review what they learned in the classroom. table 3 the summary of the assignments interactions tasks time individual self-introduction 2nd meeting (1) brief biography 3rd meeting (1) giving opinion writing assignment weekly assigned (10) group powerpoint (presentation) (2) video presentation (2) writing journal weekly assigned (5) 4. challenges of using facebook to get more explicit opinions from the students, students were asked to write down their views on fbg to the following statements: (1) students view about the use of the facebook group (2) students express of feelings on the use of the facebook group, and their understanding about crosscultural (3) students comments, for example: why do they only write ‘don’t know’, or why don't they participate in making comments and clicking ‘like’? the result of a student's opinion of using facebook in the teaching-learning process can be seen in table 4, and improving students' understanding of cross-cultural in table 5 for the individual. table 4. the evaluation result from the students. total (n=65) (%) no the statement yes no don’t know 1 students become more interested in cross-cultural issues. 60 (92.3) 1 (1.5) 4 (6.1) 2 students have become more aware of their own culture. 59 (90.8) 2 (3.0) 4 (6.1) 3 students have become more aware of other cultures. 56 (86.2) 1 (1.5) 8 (12.3) 4 students have become more aware of cross-cultural sensitivity. 54 (83.0) 2(3.)) 9 (13.8) students have developed their positive attitudes towards cultural knowledge and improve their cultural competence. facebook was a practical and beneficial teaching and learning tool for them. they possessed a positive view perhaps because nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 22 | they have become more aware of their culture as well as other culture with facebook as a social networking site used among them. table 5. the evaluation result from the students. total (n=65). no statements age (year) 19 20 21 22 1 cross-cultural understanding has improved through facebook learning. 10 12 18 25 2 students have developed cross-cultural knowledge 9 16 19 21 3 cross-cultural communicative competence will be helpful and important in your future life. 10 15 18 22 5. appropriate social interaction with a friend most students regularly used facebook and they obtained positive values on the facebook group usage in that it helped motivate them to learn virtually. even students who encountered facebook group apprehension felt unconfident at the beginning of course, but they had positive views on the facebook group usage for learning (30%). the average time spending on facebook was 142 minutes. table 6. characteristics of the student’s interaction. characteristic categories total (n=65) % purpose of using facebook searching 14 (21.5) learning 20 (30.8) chatting 21 (32.3) others 10 (15.4) time of using facebook and internet per day (hours) male (140’) 10.7% female (144’) 89.20% conclusion most students regularly used facebook and they obtained a positive view on facebook group usage in that it helped them in learning and improved their understanding of cross-cultural because it was a practical, trendy, and beneficial teaching and learning tool for them. students have developed their positive attitudes towards cultural knowledge and improve their cultural competence. facebook was a practical and beneficial teaching and learning tool for them. they possessed a positive view perhaps because they have become more aware of their culture as well as other culture with nafan tarihoran using facebook group as a blended learning medium in teaching cross-cultural understanding... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 23 facebook as a social networking site used among them. in this manner, rules for utilizing facebook must be set. it very well may be valuable whenever utilized in the correct atmosphere, since most students are as of now occupied with utilizing it. further research should be directed. this can incorporate directing class tasks and composing journal reviews. moreover, the understudies can rehearse different abilities, for example, perusing and composing with different students on facebook. although the study had a limitation due to its subjective nature of the research method, it offers an insightful implication that power relations in the learning-teaching process between lecturers and students exist in the present context. further research can deal with doing a quantitative study, constructing a questionnaire based on key findings. in conclusion, the wise lecturer should be creative educators to make students always keep engaging in their learning. it has been shown that facebook application is very critical and practical for students as it can be used as a communication and education tool. acknowledgement the author thanks the head and deputy english education department for their valuable and smart comment. he is also grateful for input from students of the cross-cultural understanding curse. references alhazmi, a. k., & rahman, a. a. 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(2016). digital media in today’s classrooms: the potential for meaningful teaching, learning, and assessment. rowman & littlefield. 420.edited.format available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 123-133 corresponding author leontyna.slegrova@uhk.cz doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.420 research synergy foundation global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička university of hradec králové, czech republic although global warming is an irrefutable scientific fact, many people, including those who often call themselves skeptics and critical thinkers, are doubtful about this unambiguous fact. an extensive longitudinal survey amongst the students showed that even future teachers are not resistant to these misconceptions, even if they are presented with the conclusions of the scientific studies. in this paper, we show simple hands-on classroom activities in which publicly available climate data are studied with methods previously known to students, and simple atmospheric models are presented. these simple exercises can help future teachers to establish their own opinion on global warming based on the analysis of data and physical models and not on information from obscure websites and social networks. keywords: global warming, hands-on activities, cognitive bias this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the topic of global warming has recently resonated not only on the internet (global climate scam, 2017), which is the breeding ground for various conspiracy theories but also in the media (the word is getting warmer, 2019). perceptions of global warming and climate change risks is an interesting psychological phenomenon, which is currently under study (psychology and global climate change, 2009). people often base their views, not on a rational assessment of objective data and arguments – many other things play a role in their decision making, for example, the opinions that are common in their social group. these ways of decision-making are called “group dynamics” or “tribal instincts.” (boyd and richerson, 2001) many people do not believe in global warming at all, or they have an opinion that the temperatures are not rising because of human actions but are only fluctuating as part of a larger natural cycle. more than one-quarter of americans are climate change skeptics (gallup, 2015), even though cook et al. (cook, 2013) found that over 97 % of scientific papers he surveyed endorsed the view that the earth is warming up. human emissions of greenhouse gases are the primary cause. this says a lot about how the public perceives science. the opinions of experts, scientists, and teachers are nowadays not more reliable than information found on obscure websites. according to festinger (festinger and carlsmith, 1959), the individual responds to tensions caused by two mutually inconsistent attitudes by trying to add, remove, or change his or her cognitive structures. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 123-133 global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička issn 2721-2904 (online) 124 │ cognitive dissonance is a state of mind that arises from a contradiction between two cognitions, for example, between attitudes (knowledge, faith, behavior) and the real state of matter. this is why many people are trying to reject the idea of global warming with a variety of dubious explanations. people also tend to think that they are smarter than the media. however, the media are bound by codes that require them to publish verified information from several sources and to be in line with science and technology. in contrast, people on social networks are exchanging meaningless, made-up information, sometimes even maliciously. then they think that this is the same thing as listening, reading, or looking at solid media with proven data. in this article, we present some simple hands-on activities that can be used in teacher training. survey results an extensive longitudinal study was designed, and the on-line questionnaire was distributed to undergraduate students at a faculty of education (preparing teachers of humanities and for primary schools) and at a faculty of science (preparing teachers of science for primary and secondary schools). from the total number of people who filled the questionnaire (n = 264), 97.3 % regard themselves as critical thinkers, and 63.5 % would call themselves skeptics. in the next part of the questionnaire, the students were asked for their opinion on different topics, including astrology, evolution theory, flat earth theory, homeopathy, and global warming. it should be noted that 78.9 % of respondents believe in global warming, which we consider a decent result. meanwhile, 6.3 % do not know, or they do not have any opinion. further analysis of the remaining 14.8 % showed two groups of answers: there are two equally large groups of students, one in humanities teacher training (mostly history, social sciences, and pe) and one studying sciences (mathematics, biology, and ict). because the survey was anonymous, we can only make a qualified estimate that the opinion of the humanities teachers’ group is formed mainly by media and hoax websites. still, in the case of the science teacher's group, there is also the dunning-kruger effect in play. this is a well-known example of cognitive bias examined by social psychology, wherein people of low ability in a particular field suffer from illusory superiority, mistakenly assessing their cognitive ability as more significant than it is. figure 1. measured yearly temperature differences and linear regression. issn 2721-2904 (online) 125 │ 125 hands-on data analysis activities we have learned that the best activities to prove a point and fight confirmation bias are hands-on ones. this is the reason why we designed a set of such activities where students have to analyze real data and see for themselves that the recent changes in temperatures are not random and that the most likely cause is anthropogenic. even if students would consider global warming as a worldwide conspiracy of the ruling elites (jeffrey, n.d.), it is unlikely that the local meteorological site will also take part in this plot. for this reason, a time series of average local annual temperatures were selected for the initial analysis (see fig. 1). the most straightforward approach: temperature correlation simple analysis can be performed by calculating pearson’s correlation coefficient, which measures the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. for example, it can help us quantify how strong the link between results is in two different tests. in this case, 𝑅 = 0.6438. for the hypothesis that the temperature differences are not linearly correlated with time (time series consisting of the years), it is 𝑅 √1 − 𝑅. √𝑁 − 2 = 6.1727 the critical value is 2.0048, so we refute the hypothesis that these two data sets are not correlated and because 𝑅 > 0, we can say that the temperature is indeed rising. if the students did not undergo statistics training, the same conclusion could be drawn from linear regression, although there are significant differences from year to year. atmospheric sensitivity to 𝐂𝐎𝟐 after this straightforward exercise, we can proceed to more advanced ones. data are taken from the website (roston and migliozzi, 2015), which is a good graphical representation that draws a comparison between the global land and ocean temperature record, as measured by nasa’s goddard institute for space studies (giss) (giss surface temperatura analysis, n.d.) and modeled estimates that each climate factor contributes to the overall temperature. the computer model that generated the results for this graphic is modele2 (miller, 2012). raw data can be downloaded from the website (roston and migliozzi, 2015), and several scatter plots can be created by students. from fig. 2, one can clearly see that the temperature rise is not correlated with changes in the earths’ orbit, the sun’s power output, volcanic activity, or these three things combined. from fig. 2(d), the strong correlation of temperature variations and the influence of greenhouse gases on model output is apparent. the pearson correlation coefficient can be calculated, yielding in this case result of 𝑅 = 0.9046. taking into account 126 paired samples, this effect is significant at 𝑝 < 0.01. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 123-133 global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička issn 2721-2904 (online) 126 │ figure 2. atmospheric sensitivity to various influences climate change as a random variation climate change is influenced by so many complicating factors that skeptics could say that the rise in temperature can be explained by some random variation. in this part, we would like to introduce a simple model based on the random walk that will be compared with real temperature data from the czech republic. we will make several iterations of this model and will try to find whether the temperature rise in the czech republic can be easily explained using random variations. the average year temperature varies from year to year, but it should not be absolutely independent. the soil, water, and air act as a heat accumulator, so it is natural to see that temperature change is dependent on the temperatures in the previous years. the model we will use is based on two ideas. first, we can assume that the temperature varies from year to year with some random error; that is, temperature 𝑇: in the year can be calculated as 𝑇: = 𝑇; + 𝐸: where 𝑇; is mean temperature and 𝐸: is normally distributed with 𝑁(0,𝜎.). this model is known as a random walk, and it is used, for example, to model the movement of molecules in the air. this part will give us insight into random changes. however, this model does not incorporate the dependencies on previous years, and it does not produce runs of warm or cold years, which can be observed in real data. we extend this model to be regressive, and the temperature 𝑇: is calculated as follows: 𝑇(:bc) = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑇: + 𝐸:, where 𝑇c is taken as a starting temperature in the year 1961. parameter 𝛽 < 1 is a factor that tells us how strong the dependency is on the previous years’ temperature, and α acts as an offset of changes in issn 2721-2904 (online) 127 │ 127 year-to-year temperatures. to find the values of parameters α and β, let us look at the plot of 𝑇(:bc) over 𝑇: . to do so, we create two vectors, one with temperatures from the years 1962–2016 and one with temperatures from the years 1961–2015. if we plot these temperatures against each other, we obtain figure 3. we can now use linear regression to estimate the values of parameters α and β. for data from the czech republic, we obtained 𝛼 = 4.437 and 𝛽 = 0.428 5. the last parameter that we need to calculate in our model is the variance 𝜎.. this can be done easily if we realize that it is just the variance of the random variable 𝐸: = 𝑇(:bc) − 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑇: . we obtain a value of 𝜎. = 0.565. this model is sufficient to produce similar data to that found in the real temperature in the world (see fig. 4). we have performed 1,000,000 calculations of our model. the point is to look at the potential changes in temperature due to the random process. we calculate differences in temperature from the average temperature for each year. the real data show that the correlation coefficient of temperature differences is 𝑅 = 0.644. we calculated this correlation coefficient for each output of our model and the mean correlation coefficient 𝑅; = −0.046 9 with the square root of variance 𝜎g = 0.200 3 . the correlation coefficient 𝑅 lies more than 3𝜎g from the mean value, which proves that it is highly improbable for the measured temperature to be just a random process without any external influences. figure 3. temperatures from years 1962–2016 over temperatures from years 1961–2015 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 123-133 global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička issn 2721-2904 (online) 128 │ figure 4. one output from the random walk model figure 5. correlation coefficient vs year lag. issn 2721-2904 (online) 129 │ 129 relatedness of temperature on previous years it is possible to calculate the amount of relatedness of changes in temperatures to previous years. this model is intended for more advanced courses because we calculate the cross-correlation function of changes in temperatures between the years 1961–2015 and 1962–2016. this cross-correlation function tells us how many years back, we should look at more rigorous models of temperature change. the result is given in figure 5. the 𝑥-axis shows the number of years lag, and the 𝑦-axis shows the correlation coefficient between the actual year and lag years. the first point gives us a correlation coefficient because it is the correlation between the year itself. the correlation then slowly tails off. the most interesting part is the oscillation with periodicity at around nine years. this means that the changes in temperature show some regularity. the exact period can be calculated using an autocorrelation function of this crosscorrelation. this interesting finding is in correspondence with (kożuchowski, trepińaska, wibig, 1994), where a similar periodicity was found in temperature data from a station near kraków, poland, which lies on similar global coordinates as the czech republic (kraków lies less than 100 km from the czech republic), which means that it has a very similar climate. this was explained as a result of the central european climate oscillations, and our finding proves this hypothesis. local 𝐂𝐎𝟐 data the last objection can be pointed to co. measurement. mauna loa is a remote location, and students have to justify the fact that co. values are measured in such remote areas. if there is a weather station at the college, then data analysis can be performed as follows: fig. 5 shows local co. levels in july with a dashed line. there is a very large diurnal cycle–at sunset when photosynthesis shuts down and the co. concentration increases because plants keep respiring during day and night, releasing co.. during the day, photosynthesis is stronger than respiration, which causes the removal of co. from the atmosphere. during the night, the ground cools, and the atmosphere becomes stable. the respired co. is then trapped in the stable boundary layer near the ground, which may have a thickness of tens of meters. the build-up of respiratory co. near the ground is more strongly dependent on the atmospheric stability, driven by the weather, than on the rate of respiration. the figure 6. 𝐂𝐎𝟐 levels measured during summer and winter. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 123-133 global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička issn 2721-2904 (online) 130 │ weather dependency is very easy to see from a comparison of winter and summer data (fig. 6 shows data from january with a thick line). this is the reason why background sites like mauna loa are used, which average over vast areas. simple models of energy distribution these simple models can be beneficial for students who are not taking a major in meteorology, climatology, or geophysics, especially for future science teachers. taking into account solar luminosity 𝐿⊙ = 3.828 ∙ 10.o w, in the distance of one astronomical unit 𝑑 ≅ 149.6 ∙ 10s m, we have flux density. 𝐼vw = 𝐿⊙ 4𝜋𝑑. ≅ 1 361 w ∙ my.. while the solar rays can be considered to be parallel, we have to take into account the dependence of the amount of incident sunlight on the geographical latitude. it can be shown that for the half-sphere z𝑆 = c . 4𝜋𝑅\.] irradiated by the solar rays effective area is 𝑆´ = 𝜋𝑅\.. for an ideal black-body, the incoming radiation absorbed by the earth has to be balanced by the total flux radiated to space: 𝜋𝑅\ .𝐼vw = 4𝜋𝑅\ .𝑇_. for the earth system, 3 % of insolation is scattered into space, 19 % is reflected into space by clouds, and 9 % is reflected into space by the ground surface. the surface albedo (as a measure of how much radiation is reflected back to space) for earth is 𝛼 ≅ 0.3. taking this into account, we have 𝜋𝑅\ .(1 − 𝛼)𝐼vw = 4𝜋𝑅\ .𝑇_ ⟹ 𝑇 = a (1 − 𝛼)𝐼vw 4𝜎 . b note that the radius of the earth, 𝑅\, has canceled out: 𝑇c depends only on albedo and the distance of the earth from the sun. putting in numbers, we find that the earth has an effective temperature of 255 k or −18 °c . the globally averaged observed surface temperature is 𝑇e = 288 k ≅ 15 °c , so other phenomena have to play a role in climate forming. because the planet is in radiative equilibrium, there has to be an upward surface flux of infra-red radiation (about 𝜎𝑇e_ ≅ 390 w ∙ my.), while the outward flux at the top of the atmosphere is roughly equivalent to the net solar radiation coming in zc _ (1 − 𝛼)𝐼vw ≅ 240 w∙ my.] thus, a large amount of infra-red radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere (around 150 w ∙ my.), this number would be zero in the absence of any greenhouse substances. a very simple greenhouse model is depicted in fig. 7. the energy flux balances are ground: (cyg)hij _ = 𝜀𝐼l, atmosphere: 𝜀𝐼m = 2𝜀𝐼l, planet: (cyg)hij _ = 𝜀𝐼l + (1 − 𝛼)𝐼m, where 𝜀 is the emissivity of the atmosphere. for a reasonable temperature, we can find 𝜀 = 0.78. solving for 𝐼m, we get 𝐼m = 𝜎𝑇e_ = (1 − 𝛼)𝐼vw 4𝜎(1 − n . ) ⟹ 𝑇 = a (1 − 𝛼)𝐼vw 4𝜎(1 − n . ) . b for 𝐼vw = 1 361 w ∙ my., 𝛼 ≅ 0.3, and 𝜀 = 0.78, we get 𝑇e = 288 k ≅ 15 °c, which is a good agreement with the observed temperature. issn 2721-2904 (online) 131 │ 131 global temperature changes when either 𝐼vw or 𝜀 changes. these changes are usually both denoted as radiative forcing–whether from the sun or from greenhouse gases, it has the same effect regardless of where it comes from. a more rigorous explanation can be found in (radiative forcing, 2015). the radiative forcing for a doubling of co. is about 3.7 ± 0.4 w∙ my., which is the same order of magnitude as an increase of solar forcing by 2 % (hansen, 2005). in that case, we can easily calculate that surface temperature will increase by δ𝑇e ≅ 1.5 °c. while this is a straightforward model, it illustrates some relevant points that are just as qualitatively true for global climate models and the real world. however, it should be noted that other radiative forcings, albedo changes, and feedbacks, especially from increasing water vapor, also occur. the effects of both positive and negative feedback factors have to be accounted for in determining the climate’s sensitivity associated with an increase in atmospheric co. . this is the reason why climate models predict temperature increases in a range from 0.2 to 5 °c per w ∙ my. of radiative forcing. more details, still within reach of undergraduate science students, can be found in (climate sensitivity, 2013). many other simple models are available; for example, in (specht, redemann, lorenz, 2016), the atmosphere is modeled as a parallel combination of heat resistivities, and it is treated as a resistor net. these models neglect zonal flows. mcguffie and henderson-sellers present an interactive and relatively simple one-dimensional earth zonal balance model (welcome to energy balance modeling!, 1998). conclusions after the students had completed these exercises during five study sessions, a quick survey was conducted on whether this activity would change their view of global warming. the vast majority of them responded positively, and, in their opinion, this exercise could convince other climatic skeptics. we believe that these straightforward exercises can contribute to the development of the students’ critical thinking. what needs to be accentuated in schools is that the students should learn how to work with information. they should be shown to authenticate their sources, not to believe false information, and, of course, to be able to admit if they are wrong. there is a lot of news coming from the internet and social media, and it is easy to find “information” that is in accordance with our biases. right before our eyes, a generation has grown up flooded by information, and nobody is teaching them how to orient themselves in this vast ocean of data. nowadays, more than ever, it is essential to encourage students to learn critical and skeptical thinking and to adopt methods to help distinguish between ideas that are considered valid science and those that can be regarded as pseudoscience. alongside almost classic publications (sagan, 1995), figure 7. a simple linear model of energy distribution. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 123-133 global warming: facing confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance with hands-on activities leontýna šlégrová, jan šlégr, filip studnička issn 2721-2904 (online) 132 │ (mackay, 1841), (williams, 2000), activities such as the rigorous deconstruction of specific arguments of presented pseudoscientific theory can be beneficial for students. we also encourage other tutors to try out similar exercises in their lessons and publish their results or publish other ideas for expansion. acknowledgments this work was supported by the sv přf uhk nr. 2103/2018. references boyd, robert, richerson, peter j. the evolution of subjective commitment to groups: a tribal instincts hypothesis. in: evolution and the capacity for commitment 3 (2001): 186-220. climate sensitivity. 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(2015, june 24). what’s really warming the world? retrieved march 18, 2020, from https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-whats-warming-theworld/. sagan, carl (1995). the demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. random house. isbn 0-394-53512-x. specht, e., redemann, t., lorenz, n. (2016). simplified mathematical model for calculating global warming through anthropogenic co.. in international journal of thermal sciences, 102, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2015.10.039 issn 2721-2904 (online) 133 │ 133 the world is getting warmer. (2019). retrieved march 18, 2020, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/climate-change/ welcome to energy balance modeling! the shodor education foundation, inc, 1998. retrieved march 18, 2020, from http://www.shodor.org/master/environmental/general/energy/application.html williams, william f., ed. (2000). encyclopedia of pseudoscience. fitzroy dearborn. isbn 9781579582074. microsoft word 1051 cincy merly gecolea available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 75-86 corresponding author cincy merly b. gecolea, cincymerly.gecolea@deped.gov.ph faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka and doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1051 research synergy foundation the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea1, ma. fe lorelei e. amon2 1 calamba bayside integrated school, philippines 2 sdo calamba city, philippines abstract the study of chemistry is considered to be the most important discipline of study because of its significant impact on both the individuals who study it and society as a whole. because of this, many academicians now believe it to be an important area of study. this study mainly focused on the use of contextualized activities in the acquisition of chemistry concepts in science7. quasi-experimental, particularly the non-equivalent dependent variable, was utilized as the research design. the scores during preand post-tests served as the primary source of data from the 41 grade 7 students. total enumeration was implemented. the study revealed that there is a significant difference in the results of the pre-test and post-test of the grade 7 students since the calculated t-value (52.84) exceeded the critical value (2.02). the scope and focus of the study were limited only to the use of contextualized activities intended to determine its effects on the acquisition of chemistry concepts in science 7. it was also restricted only to 41 students of the calamba bayside national high school who are enrolled in the school year 2017-2018. the results of the study could help the division in encouraging teachers to be more creative and innovative and craft more contextualized learning materials in science. keywords: contextualized activities; acquisition; chemistry concepts; science this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction teaching is satisfying. when student performance is good or better, this is the situation. if not, it is bothersome. despite the teachers' best efforts to instruct children effectively, many of them continue to do poorly. on the basis of quizzes and tests, it has been determined that pupils' poor performance may be attributable to a lack of a solid foundation; it is very evident based on the result of the national achievement test, the school year 2015-2016, wherein calamba city obtained only 39.94% mps in science far behind the 75% target of the division; therefore, teachers should do more interventions to improve the performance of the students (world education forum, 2015). it has been established that the lecture-style science training employed in the past has been ineffective. students are not permitted to think and participate in the learning process. since teachers today are dealing with 21st-century learners, it is expected that they are innovative enough to get the full attention of learners during the teaching process. according to oteyza (2012), students nowadays are no longer confined to reading the concepts written in books, but they are more visual and body kinesthetically. students tend to learn more if they are the ones who experience what really needs to be discovered. however, although students today are explorative international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon 76 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) still, many of them lack essential knowledge and the ability to be independent and inquiry learners. it is difficult for them to get the real concepts of what is to be taught if teachers will not tell them what it is really all about. in the framework of the k–12 program, the science curriculum must be learner-centered, inquiry-based, and emphasize the application of scientific research in explanation construction. it encourages instructors to employ diverse educational approaches, such as multi/interdisciplinary, science technology society, contextual, problem/issue-based, and inquiry-based (national research council, 2012). the strategies are founded on strong educational methodologies, such as constructivism, the social cognition learning model, the idea of learning styles, and brain-based learning. in addition, science teachers must eliminate the abstract quality of science by utilizing true, fundamental, and grounded instructional resources derived from the natural environment (zhou & brown, 2017). learners typically have the impression that chemistry is a challenging subject, as stated by cainto (2009), which was referenced by sagcal and maquiling (2017). this is because chemistry is one of the scientific disciplines. in order for students to attain their full potential in terms of scientific learning and to improve their practical and laboratory abilities, the study of chemistry requires them to immerse themselves actively in laboratory activities. the education of chemistry, on the other hand, is plagued by problems stemming from inadequate laboratory materials and facilities, as well as inefficient teaching. likewise, according to the findings of a study carried out by bugaje (2013), edomwonyi-otu and avaa (2011), and sanchez (2017), a sizeable proportion of students enrolled in secondary schools have the misconception that chemistry is a difficult field of study due to the abstract nature of the subject, as well as the mathematical nature, the terminological nature, the symbolic nature, as well as the modeling and syllable complexity. it required chemistry instructors to instruct their students in chemistry ideas based not only on what the instructors knew but also on how they knew it and what the instructors thought about how they knew it. context-based science education, according to giamellaro (2017), is the teaching of science based on the local environment and students' experiences. because knowledge with these tools makes science appealing and meaningful to students' lives and the nation as a whole, extending students' comprehension using locally accessible resources is incredibly straightforward. educators, teachers, and politicians have embraced contextualization as a constructivist method and inquiry-based teaching technique that bridges the gap between abstract concepts and realworld experiences. this study was anchored on motivation theory, social learning theory, and constructivism learning theory (fernando & marikar, 2017). according to bright and anastasia (2019), process theories of motivation are an attempt to explain why certain behaviors are initiated. these theories center their attention on the process by which we select a target and the amount of effort that is required to successfully "strike" the target. on the other hand, it was also founded on social learning theory. it is a key component of sustainable natural resource management and behavior modification. this hypothesis says we learn from social interactions. people develop similar tendencies through observing others. people copy others' conduct after witnessing it, especially if their observations are pleasant or include rewards. bandura (1977) says imitation involves copying observable motor actions. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon │ 77 issn 2721-2904 (online) moreover, bada (2015) emphasized constructivism in his paper. constructivism is an observation-and-science-based theory regarding how people learn. people achieve worldly consciousness and wisdom via experience and introspection. when we discover anything new, we must reconcile it with our prior views and experiences, either altering our beliefs or discarding them as irrelevant. we generate our own knowledge anyway. we must explore and evaluate our expertise. constructivism can lead to a variety of instructional practices in the classroom. it involves encouraging students to generate new information through active methods (experiments, realworld problem solving) and then having them reflect on and discuss their actions and how their understanding is evolving. the educator ensures that pupils comprehend their prior knowledge and then build upon it. because of the problems that have been mentioned, the department of education, particularly in the division of calamba city, is trying to implement significant innovations in the teaching and learning process as part of its unwavering dedication to fostering a high-quality education that lasts a lifetime. the process of learning is made more fun and meaningful through the application of a variety of different methods of evaluation and tactics. in order to motivate science instructors to persevere in the face of these challenges, measures have already been taken, such as holding seminar workshops to develop contextualized and localized instructional and intervention strategies. the next step is for the teachers to respond to these needs in order to get more information from the learners about the skills they haven't mastered yet. similarly, several studies have already been conducted in science, particularly in biology, on contextualization and the development of contextualized material; however, only a few have discussed the effectiveness of contextualization in the acquisition of concepts in chemistry. the present study addressed the necessity for its utilization in order to improve the performance of students in science, particularly in chemistry. research questions this study aimed to determine the effects of contextualized activities on the acquisition of chemistry concepts in science. specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions: 1. what is the result of the pre-test of the experimental group? 2. what is the result of the post-test of the experimental group? 3. is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group? literature review according to picardal and sanchez (2022), contextualized instruction has improved science learning. it also improved scientific performance, but its effects on future science learning may be minimal. contextualization can improve student learning and performance across all context groups. incorporating contextualization, localisation, and indigenization into the nation's k-12 basic education system is vital for exposing pupils to relevant experiences that promote science learning. similarly, contextualization in the irw classroom, according to the study done by reynolds and sarker (2017), promotes students to blend literacies from various aspects of their lives. the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon 78 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) significant study required to obtain the dca also fosters student participation in the academic community. in contrast, sanchez et al. (2018) proposed a contextualization procedure based on seven contextualization principles, with the aim of providing opportunities for indigenous mexican youths to learn science in a manner that supports their rights to an education aligned with their own culture and values. the contextualization principles precisely derived the social perception, socialization, and social narratives of nahua students, thereby assisting indigenous students in exploring the contrasts between their way of life and the school's way of life and dialect while learning complex scientific concepts, such as characteristic choice. the proposed contextualization technique was empirically defined, taking society and socialization into account by utilizing product sources; it is based on the principles of culturally relevant pedagogy and indigenous education. these guidelines were used to improve the social relevance of a middle school science curriculum on natural selection for nahua students. the use of contextualized education in problem-solving is the third most popular strategy identified by the research. obiedo and jugar (2017) illustrated an integrated maritime setting for physics education. moreover, laboratory activities demonstrate contextualization. sagcal et al. (2017) provided criteria for developing context-based lab activities; these criteria are aligned with k–12 objectives, are relevant to students' everyday life, utilize low-cost or readily available resources, and permit improvisation with particular supplies. the laboratory exercises devised by sanchez (2017) replicate the difficulties that students face in their daily lives. according to fortus and krajcik (2020), however, contextualized learning environments must be constructed efficiently to prevent incorrect contextualization. inappropriate contextualization may result in confusion and activate irrelevant knowledge. contextualization is a collection of various instructional methodologies aimed to more fluidly integrate the learning of important skills with academic or professional information by focusing teaching and learning on student-relevant, real-world applications. a teaching and learning approach that enables teachers to connect subject matter knowledge to real-world applications and the teaching of fundamental skills within the framework of disciplinary subject matter (meledy, 2015). she underlined in her study that contextualized learning focuses on problem-solving and is rooted in adjusting training to the many life circumstances of pupils. teachers must give encouragement and motivation for students to learn from one another cooperatively. similarly, giamellaro (2017) emphasized the necessity and significance of contextualizing science education. according to the results of his study, there was a significant difference between the student's pre-test and post-test scores on the structure knowledge test. this suggests that learning science in a realistic environment can enhance conceptual understanding. in addition, the extent to which students contextualized their learning had a direct influence on how much they learned. this was affected by identifiable methods of interacting with the learning environment. primary contextualization did much more than let students realize how a concept could be applied in the real world; it also assisted students in understanding the concepts and constructing knowledge structures that were more akin to how professionals organized their information. also, bonganciso's (2016) study reveals that contextualized teaching and learning have a significant impact on enhancing students' reading comprehension. moreover, he asserted that contextualization's application in the classroom had once again proven the concept of adult international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon │ 79 issn 2721-2904 (online) learning. this notion suggests that students will be more motivated to learn, will be able to use their schema to comprehend the text, will be able to establish connections between the text and its context, and will have better confidence if reading instructions are consistent with their framework. in addition, ballesteros (2015) discovered that a localization and contextualization approach to science activities had a positive effect on the engagement, motivation, and attitude of ninth-grade students. students' performance in earth science improved after being exposed to localization and contextualization of science activities at the "proficient" level, according to the study. finally, it was revealed that contextualization is used in conjunction with other strategies. for instance, borre (2019) utilized contextualization of biology instruction and flipped classroom delivery, skills development, and the use of visual material, whereas sanchez (2017) integrated contextualized activities in macroscopic, symbolic, and microscopic modes for teaching chemistry. the prevalence of contextualization as an educational intervention necessitates additional research into the extent to which it assists students in achieving learning outcomes, as do the various contextualization instructional methodologies. the aforementioned works described the characteristics of contextualized instruction that are likely to result in student achievement. this study was undertaken to determine if it is useful in boosting pupils' academic performance. here, the research paradigm of the study is explained to help better understand how it works. independent variable dependent variable figure 1. research paradigm the research paradigm for this study is depicted in the figure that can be found above. as can be observed, the usage of contextualized activities in chemistry serves as the study's independent variable, while the performance of the students on the pre-test and post-test serves as the study's dependent variable. the researcher developed context-specific exercises for the subject of chemistry. it was used for the purpose of determining whether or not it had an effect on the academic performance of the students in the seventh grade in the subject of science, particularly in acquiring concepts in the subject of chemistry. both a pre-test and a post-test were used to evaluate the students after they had gone over the information mentioned above. research method a quasi-experimental study was used. this method of study uses pre-and post-tests to discover if a program or intervention has the desired effect on study participants (white & sabarwal, 2014). this applies to the current study, which aimed to investigate the effects of contextualized learning activities on the academic performance of grade seven students in science. the participants of the study were seventh-grade students now enrolled at calamba bayside national high schoolspecial program in the arts for the 2017-2018 school year. there were 41 students in one class. since there is just one class of seventh graders at spa, a total count was utilization of contextualized activities in chemistry performance of the students in pre-test and post-test international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon 80 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) conducted. it is the sole section dealt with by the grade 7 researcher. the research employed a quasi-experimental design, focusing on the non-equivalent dependent variable. this sort of evaluation uses pre-and post-tests to establish whether a program or intervention has the desired effect on study participants. this is pertinent to the current investigation, as its purpose was to investigate the impact of contextualized activities on the acquisition of chemistry concepts in science. to evaluate the performance of the respondents, a testing instrument was developed. the pre-test was administered to the students prior to the teaching-learning process, with the outcome of the pre-test serving as a baseline for establishing if the science curriculum had an influence on the student's acquisition of chemistry topics. five specialists confirmed the contextualized actions. they were master teachers and head teachers from the selected schools in calamba city. the validators were master’s degree and doctorate degree holders. similarly, the headteacher and the science coordinator of the division approved the pre-test and post-test questions. the specialists held a master's degree and specialized in chemistry. in order to validate the contextualized activities, the deped evaluation rating sheet for print supplemental materials was adopted. after administering the validated contextualized activities, a post-test with the same material as the pre-test was administered. in every class, non-graded formative assessments were administered to determine the number of students who did not master the material. the postexamination was based on the planned first-quarter exam. the topic instructor, who was also one of the researchers, administered the examination. as prescribed by the department of education (2015), the performance of students during the pre-test and post-test in both groups was interpreted according to the following scale based on deped order no. 73, s. 2012 and deped order no. 31, s. 2012 mean score descriptive rating descriptive interpretation 41.00 – 50.00 advanced this means the learner's knowledge and understanding transcend fundamental standards and may be transferred automatically and flexibly. learner scored 90.4% ahead. 31.00 – 40.00 proficient this signifies the student has basic information and core understandings. learner averages 80-90%. 21.00 – 30.00 approaching proficiency this signifies the learner has developed basic knowledge and core understandings with little teacher direction and/or peer help. learners averaged 60.04-79.95%. 11.00 – 20.00 developing this signifies the learner has the minimum knowledge, abilities, and fundamental understandings but requires help performing. learner averages 50-60%. 0.00 – 10.00 beginning this signifies that students at this level have difficulties with comprehending; prerequisite and core knowledge are lacking. less is learned. learner averages below 49.96%. the collected data were processed and analyzed in preparation for a tabular presentation. the statistical tools utilized for data interpretation include the mean and paired t-test. mean was international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon │ 81 issn 2721-2904 (online) used to establish the academic performance level of the students, while the paired t-test was performed to evaluate if there was a significant difference between the academic performance level on the pre-test and post-test. the significance level was established at a 0.05 level of confidence. all of the outputs listed above, as well as a summary of results and conclusions, were given to the department head and sent to the school principal and division office. ethical issues since the researchers obtained the pre-test and post-test results of the students as the primary instrument, proper treatment and handling of the said data were considered. the researchers assured the correctness and authenticity of the data of the respondents. findings and discussion this part discusses the results and findings of the study. table 1. results of pre-test of the experimental group experimental group mean sd pretest result 14.19 6.58 table 1 shows the pre-test result of the students. results revealed that the performance level of the students in the pre-test is at the developing level (d=14.19, sd=6.58). the experimental group's pre-test results indicate that the pupils' performance is at a developing level. this indicates that the student at this level possesses the bare minimum of information, abilities, and fundamental understandings but requires assistance throughout the performance. the learner has achieved an average between 50 and 60 percent. according to calmorin (1994), as stated by cabardo (2015), the primary goal of a pre-test is to determine the current direction of the students in relation to the topic to be addressed or learned. this will assist the instructor in determining the amount of effort to exert during instructional contact time. as a result, their claims will be supported if the same level of proficiency is observed on the pre-test. also, kelly (2019) stated that the purpose of pre-testing is to give students a preview of what to expect from a new unit. these tests are often the first time that a student is exposed to new terms, concepts, and ideas. pre-tests grades, therefore, will not negatively affect students' performances, but they should be encouraged to do their best. table 2. results of posttest of the experimental group experimental group mean sd posttest result 30.47 7.39 as disclosed in the table, the experimental group gained a mean score of 30.47 and a standard deviation of 7.39, which can be interpreted as a proficient level of performance. it means that after using contextualized activities in science, the performance level of the students reached the proficient level, as indicated by the post-test results. this indicates that the learner's achievement at this level demonstrates the development of foundational knowledge and core understandings. the learner has achieved an average between 80 and 90 percent. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon 82 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) the study by bonganciso (2016) demonstrates that contextualized teaching and learning have a substantial impact on increasing the reading comprehension ability of students. in addition, he claimed that contextualization's usage in the classroom had once again validated the notion of adult learning. this idea posits that students will be motivated to learn, will be able to use their schema to comprehend the text, will be able to make connections between the text and its context, and will have greater confidence because reading instructions are within their framework. furthermore, bedaure (2012) found that employing modular instruction in biology results in higher student performance than using the lecture-discussion technique because students can learn at their own pace and according to their own talents. despite the fact that students in the modular approach surpassed those in the lecture-discussion method, there are still aspects to consider about student performance, such as their prior grasp of the subject's fundamentals. table 3. test of difference between the pretest and posttest performance of grade 7 students using the contextualized activities in science 7 parameters experimental group pre-test post-test mean (m) 14.19 30.47 mean percentage score (mps) 29.76% 62.05% standard deviation (sd) 6.58 7.39 number of students (n) 41 41 p-value 0.001 t-value -52.84 critical value 2.02 conclusion significantly different at 5% level of significance. table 3 displays the statistical analysis of the 7th graders' pre-and post-test results. the outcomes of tests where the mps increased from 29.76% to 62.05&percnt; demonstrate a substantial difference. in addition, the estimated t-absolute value's value (52.84) surpassed the crucial value (2.02). this demonstrates that the performance of students before and after the application of contextualized activities on the acquisition of chemistry concepts in science 7 differs significantly. there is a substantial difference between the students' pre-and post-test scores, which is significant at the 0.05 level. it was determined that the mean score on the post-test is higher than the mean score on the pre-test. the investigation undertaken by ballesteros (2015) confirms the aforementioned conclusions. his research demonstrated that a localization and contextualization approach to science activities was helpful in boosting the performance of students and had a favorable impact on their involvement, motivation, and attitude toward the lessons. the study concluded that learners' performance in earth science improved after being exposed to localization and contextualization of science activities as stated for a "proficient" level. moreover, the conclusions of this investigation are comparable to those of picardal and sanchez (2022). according to them, contextualized instruction has aided in the enhancement of science learning. it also enhanced science performance, but it may not significantly influence future international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon │ 83 issn 2721-2904 (online) science learning. contextualization is applicable to all context groups and can enhance student learning and performance. incorporating contextualization, localization, and indigenization into the country's k-12 basic education system is essential for exposing children to relevant experiences that result in enhanced science learning. moreover, when preand post-tests are compared, teachers are able to track their students' growth not only from one class to the next but also from topic to topic and even from day to day. the vast majority of evaluation methods simply identify whether or not a student satisfies expectations once the student has been taught; however, most methods fail to take into consideration prior knowledge or gradual development. in addition, even if a student does not perform to the level of proficiency expected on a post-test, their performance on earlier examinations can reveal how much they have improved. no amount of development should be disregarded, and evaluation of a student's performance should not be restricted to a simple "yes" or "no" regarding whether or not they satisfy expectations. (kelly, 2017) furthermore, in a similar study, sagcal et al. (2017) used materials that are widely used and easily accessible to the local population to carry out laboratory procedures that were applicable to everyday life. in addition to this, he developed a set of criteria for the construction of context-based laboratory activities. these criteria are similar to the goals for kindergarten through twelfth grade. they are also relevant to the student's everyday lives, use cheap or easy-to-find materials, and make do with some materials. conclusion learning in the scientific disciplines has been helped along by contextualization. the prior statements regarding the efficacy of contextualization were shown to have some basis in reality, thanks to the findings of this investigation. it was concluded that the majority of students have a "developing" level of proficiency in science based on the results of the pre-test. therefore, there is a dire need for pupils to be exposed to methods other than the standard manner of instruction. also, the performance of the students in science improves after being exposed to contextualized science activities as stated for the "proficient" level. therefore, teachers can utilize contextualized activities to assist students in acquiring chemistry ideas and building conceptual comprehension. moreover, it was determined that there is a considerable difference between the pre-test and post-test performance of the students. consequently, teachers are urged to construct contextualized learning materials in science for the other grade levels in order to attain the intended outcome. however, when producing contextualized activities, it is also important to ensure that they adhere to the deped science curriculum guide. moreover, because it was such a significant assistance in the process of teaching and learning, the use of contextualized activities was, without a doubt, relevant and helpful for both the instructor and the students who participated in the class. this proved to be an effective and appropriate intervention item for use in assisting with the mastery of the learning competencies. however, the material that has been generated should be revised and modified on a regular basis in order to meet the learning requirements and capacities of the students and to close any learning gaps that may exist across all learning modalities. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon 84 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) recommendations the subsequent recommendations are provided: 1. the school may continue to provide training on the design and production of contextualized learning materials to teachers in order to encourage them to be more creative in how they provide instruction. 2. teachers might pledge to employ contextualization and localization in the classroom. 3. before being used in other parts, contextualized learning materials may undergo evaluation. 4. the institution may adopt the action plan. 5. in the future, researchers may undertake additional research on the utilization of contextualized learning activities at other grade levels. limitation & further research the scope of this study was restricted solely to the application of the contextualized learning materials that were generated as well as the evaluation of the student's academic performance in chemistry after they had used the contextualized learning materials. only students from calamba bayside integrated school participated in the research that was done. it does not concentrate on determining whether or not the material is reliable. in light of this, individuals who are interested in doing research on contextualized materials can find it important to verify the material's credibility prior to employing it in their studies. they might also look into the possibility of specializing in a subfield of science, such as earth science, biology, or physics. acknowledgement the researchers would like to express their sincerest and deepest gratitude to all the people who helped, supported, and encouraged them to finish their research. this would not have been completed without their unselfish cooperation and assistance: dr. diosdado m. san antonio, regional director of deped calabarzon, for conducting different research conferences that serve as a venue for educators to showcase their research and for intensifying the culture of excellence through research in the department of education; dr. francis ceasar b. bringas, assistant regional director of deped calabarzon, for uplifting the quality of research and providing inspiration to the researchers to have financial support through the basic education research fund; dr. rosemarie d. torres, schools division superintendent of calamba city, for the permission she had given to them, which made it possible for them to conduct the study; dr. lourdes t. bermudez, assistant schools division superintendent of calamba city, for the encouragement given to the researchers to conduct different research studies that will enhance the delivery of basic education services; dr. isabelita r. hizon, the education program supervisor of calamba city, for the support, encouragement, and for sharing her knowledge in research; the students, teachers, and administrators of calamba bayside national high school who served as the participants for giving time to be part of this endeavor; and above all, to the almighty god, for his blessings and grace in allowing the researchers to finish this humble research paper. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 75-86 the use of contextualized activities on acquisition of chemistry concepts in science cincy merly b. gecolea, ma. fe lorelei e. amon │ 85 issn 2721-2904 (online) references bada, steve o. 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(2017). educational learning theories. retrieved from [https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=education textbooks] 200_ijrse-1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 59-75 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.200 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (april 27th, 2020); accepted (may 20th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada universal basic education junior secondary schools in fct, nigeria ogunode niyi jacob federal university, wukari, nigeria ogunodejacob@gmail.com abstract this study aimed to investigate the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwgwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. the study employed a descriptive survey design. the instruments used for data collection were questionnaires titled:' challenges facing administration of stem education questionnaire” (cfaseq).the sample for the study comprised of 200 teachers. a simple random sampling method was used to select the sample. one hypothesis and three research instruments were used for the study. test and retest were employed to determine the reliability of the instrument. simple percentages were employed to analyze the data collected and a chi-square test was used to test the hypothesis. the study revealed that challenges are facing the administrations of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools and these challenges include; inadequate infrastructural facilities, shortage of science teachers, lack of instructional materials, lack of motivation, inadequate fund, poor supervision, high population, poor capacity development program for science teachers and negative attitude of students towards stem education. the result also revealed that100% of the respondents agreed that the implications of the challenge facing the administration of stem education are responsible for poor implementation of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. from the finding, it was recommended that the government increase the funding of education and give more priority to stem education. keywords: challenges, administration, stem education this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction nigeria, the giant of africa from an estimated 42.5 million people at the time of independence in 1960 now is africa's most populous country with a population of 188,462,640 people, making it the seventh most populous country in the world. it is located in west africa. nigeria has a federal system of government with 36 states and abuja as the federal capital territory and 744 local government councils. nigeria is multilingual and is home to about 250 different ethnic groups. the official language is the english language and she has three major languages of the largest groups, the hausa, the ibo, and yoruba. the official currency is the naira. the educational system in nigeria is divided into three major forms: basic school ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 60 | education, secondary school education, and higher education. the duration for the basic education is nine years, -senior secondary school education is three years and four to six years for higher education depending on the discipline. basic education is compulsory and free for all nigerian children. the starting age is six and its duration is six years for the primary school's section and three years duration for the junior secondary school. the following subjects are taken in the basic school; mathematics program, english program, religious knowledge program, basic science program, and technology program, and students will choose one out of the three major nigerian languages (hausa, igbo, and yoruba). the objectives of basic education in nigeria include functional literacy and numeracy, develop the ability to communicate effectively, and enhance positive attitudes towards cooperation, work, community, national development, and continuous learning. in nigeria, children are expected to have a continuous, uninterrupted stretch of education for nine years from primary school to the third year of the junior secondary school. the junior secondary school in nigeria consists of three years. it is post-basic school education. the junior secondary school curriculum is both academic and pre-vocational. it is meant to prepare the pupils to acquire further knowledge and develop skills. the subjects offered here include english language, french, mathematics, integrated science social studies and citizenship education, and introduction to technology. students are expected to choose one nigerian language. the electives for pre-vocational include, home economics, agriculture, business studies, computer education, and local crafts. the non-prevocational electives subjects are creative arts (music and fine art), arabic, physical and health education, and religious and moral education. students at the junior secondary schools are expected to take a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 13 subjects, including all the core subjects. to be promoted to the senior secondary school section, students must be assessed through tests and sit for junior secondary school examinations. administration and management of education in nigeria have shared responsibilities between the federal government, state government, and the local government. in nigeria's constitution, the educational sector is on the concurrent list. the federal government of nigeria can regulate all the educational sectors through the making of educational policy and control of quality. the three-tier of government is allowed by the constitution ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 61 to handle its educational sector. higher education is handle by the federal government. secondary education is in the hand of the state government and primary education is handled by the local governments. despite this arrangement, the federal government is expected to support the state and local governments in counterpart funding to enhance the quality of education in the country. the federal government of nigeria is constitutional bind to support the development of education at the state level and local government level by providing counterpart funding for education in the country. in nigeria, the administration of the education system is shared among different education ministries in the country at both the federal government level and the state government. the federal government established some agencies and commission under the federal ministry of education and they are charged with different responsibilities. the function of the federal ministry of education is for the coherence of the national policy and procedures and for ensuring that the states' policies operate within the parameters of the national policy as adapted for local needs. in nigeria, the national council of education is the highest policymaking body chaired by the federal minister of education and includes all the state commissioners of education from each state. they coordinate planning, policy formulation at the political level. the national council of education is advised by the joint consultative committee on education, which made up of all the federal directors of education and state directors of education, chief executives of education statutory bodies, and directors of university institutes of education. the state universal basic education board (subeb) was established to assists the state government in the administration of primary schools. according to the nigerian constitution the local government is saddled with the responsibility of basic school administration through the local government education authorities (lgea). the functions of local government education authorities (lgea) are as follows: a. government policy interpretation for easier and effective administration and management of schools; b. storing and keeping of primary school teachers’ confidential reports and record of service; c. primary school teachers’ salaries and allowances payment; d. approval of local contribution for educational development; and e. request for financial aid from the state government. ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 62 | the nigeria government also established an agency called universal basic education commission (ubec) which is a national federal government agency that handles the administration of primary education. the commission helps in the counterpart funding and management of basic education in the country. basic education administration and management at the school level involved the school administrator/headmaster. he/ she is appointed by the government to head the schools. he/ she is assisted by an assistant headmaster/headmistress. the headmaster is saddled with the responsibility of the planning, organizing, directing, and coordinating all the activities of the schools including the teachers and pupils. the head is assisted by an assistant headteacher in his/her daily administration of the school. teachers are at the instructional delivery level in the classroom. stem education is part and parcel of the nigerian educational system for long. stem which implies science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem). the importance of stem education as a means for economic, social, political development, and technological advancement of a nation cannot be underestimated. the stem education has contributed a lot to the economic, social, industrial life of nigeria and in the world in general. every individual on the planet earth has felt the positive impact of stem. stem education is part of the universal basic education program in nigeria. stem subjects are offered from the basic schools and junior secondary schools. the objective of stem education is to make the teaching and learning of technology, engineering, and mathematics. these teaching commonly include all education-related activities across all grade levels starting from pre-school up to post-doctoral levels. these could also be either informal, formal setting, or both. as a basis for the different emerging technologies, the role of stem is crucial to the development of any economy. stem education is the bedrock of innovative and highly productive future workforces, integral to the economic development of the continent. in line with this, the african union agenda 2063, identifies one of its goals as raising welleducated citizens and skills revolution underpinned by science, technology, and innovation. nigeria's government has initiated many arrangements and has done many collaborative programs with the objectives of drawing from the technological experience of many developed countries to build its stem education program for its teeming youths across the country especially those in the educational institutions. these partnerships ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 63 have been made with both individual countries and international development organizations. it is observed by (ikeobi, 2010) that the us-based global partnership of education has given nigeria more than usd100 million in grants to raise the quality of education, with an emphasis on the underdeveloped northern regions of the country. in 2017, the us announced the creation of an education academy that functions as a robotics-training suite for more than 450 nigerian students as well as a general stem education center for teachers and researchers. the teaching and learning of stem education in nigeria, in abuja and gwagwalada junior secondary schools are plagued with many challenges. few studies have examined the challenges facing the teaching and learning of stem education at the primary school level and junior secondary schools level too in nigeria. moreover, there is no available evidence of studies on the challenges facing the administration of stem education at the junior secondary schools level in gwagwalada area council of fct, nigeria. this study aims to close this research gap by investigating the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. literature review 1. concept of educational administration educational administration means different things to different people. educational administration is a process that involves planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling both human and materials resources to achieve educational objectives. in the school system, the administrator is the head. the administrator is responsible for managing the students, teachers and educational inputs to ensure the defined goals are realized within the set time. educational administration can also be defined as the systematic arrangement of the human resources and material resources and an effective and efficient user of limited educational resources to attain the educational institution objectives within a set time. the roles of the administrator are planning, organizing, controlling, directing, and supervising various activities to ensure that the institutions achieve their goals at the end. education administration also involves the application of human and material resources within the school's institutions to achieve the broad goals of the educational institutions. it involves designing programs, policies, and implementing them rightly and timely. ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 64 | 2. meaning of stem education stem was once referred to as science, technology, and society (sts) in the distant past. its emergence in the classroom is to train individuals with up to date knowledge in the affiliated disciplines to meet the current demand of the society and to shift the limit of human thinking and problem-solving ability which may result in meaningful development and improved living. historically, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, predates its classroom teaching. its application also existed before formalizing the approach in learning. each of these fields and disciplines affiliated is now being studied from the most elementary stage of classroom teaching to the highest level of formal education in the developed world. although stem education remains a challenge to some developing countries in africa (olalekan, 2018). stem is the combination of sciences subjects like science programme, technology programme, engineering programme, and mathematics programme as knowledge in one single unit. these various disciplines are resources for learning and invention and are seen as relevant, significant, and inert-related. education in stem as a transdisciplinary field is old, but the knowledge integration may serve as a resource to enrich learners and make sense of the world rather than observing through narrow inter-disciplinary lenses. stem education could still be said to have challenges that are not only students related, rather, peculiar hindrances encountered by teachers of stem in developing countries (veral, 2018). there are many objectives of stem education. (aguele & agwagah, 2007) states that stem education is expected to serve as a basic supply of manpower to industrial communities towards the achievement of virile economic and national development. specifically, in my designs and the possibility of self-reliance, stem hopes to engender socio-economic development through the opportunity for employment, income benefit, and welfare improvement. it is meant to foster scientific skills and capability and habit to solve problems coupled with imaginative creative thinking and general mental prowess. however, it is obvious that, as of today, these lofty goals (of stem) cannot be said to have been satisfactorily achieved in most developing countries, especially nigeria, consider the level of development and massive unemployment of graduates, the supposedly 'stemmed’ technocrats. (emmanuel, et.al, 2019) observed that stem has since been enjoying good and massive support from both governments ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 65 and other stakeholders in terms of funding, scholarships, and availability of facilities. stem education approach is to spur a revolution in the academic curriculum through the teaching of subjects such as mathematics and science with bias in technology and engineering. it is meant to drive a student's capability to solve problems, discover, and explore. it is a key to transform the traditional typical teachercentered classroom into a problem-solving meeting of the students and the teachers. according to (gonzalez & kuenzi (2012), the stem approach allows students to think critically, apply the skills learned, and explore in-depth the problem covered towards providing solutions to the problem. the importance of stem education to technological development cannot be overemphasized that why (bisi, 2012) submitted that science education promotes the total development of the country. it has a link to the economic, political, and social development of a nation. science education action can inform choices about how technology is used to enhance the current living conditions for humans and other living things. science education encourages learners to reason critically to make decisions that are well informed. there are no shortcomings in science education, good knowledge of scientific principles, and facts are vital for a comprehensive education (harri, 2011). although there has been a tremendous increase in the net enrolment of learners, the question is whether this increase has translated to qualitative education (emechebe, 2012). there have been many challenges in teaching stem education in nigerian junior secondary schools. (bisi, 2012) i also observed that the teaching and learning of basic science have shown several challenges. 1. shortage of science instructional materials. 2. inadequate professional teachers for basic science subjects. 3. poor supervision of science programme 4. inadequate infrastructural facilities. several researchers have researched stem education and science education in nigeria. (emmanuel, et.al, 2019) did study on demographic trends and growth as the main engine for technological progress. the study portrays demographic trends as a crucial engine for technological progress and also works as the drivers of human capital towards the achievement of economic prosperity. the result revealed a wider gender gap that ranges from 41.4% to 51.5% in both pre-and-poststem policy, though it finally established at 41.5% in 2009. the study positioned demographers as the conduit for delivery of optimum population or population explosion via ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 66 | assisted fertility technology e.g. in-vitro fertilization (ivf), pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, human reproductive cloning, fetal dna in maternal plasma, and genetic diagnosis). therefore, while the pursuit of science programme, technology programme, engineering programme, and mathematics programme is crucial for growth, the neglect of the sources of supply of human drivers or the demographic-based pull-and-push factors could engender wobbling and crawling structure of technological advancement. the authors recommend adequate knowledge of these interplays for plausible. research on problems and prospects in the learning of basic science in the upper basic under the umbrella of the universal basic education program was carried by (christine & hayatu, 2014). the purpose of the study was to assess the ube program in nigeria. (christine & hayatu, 2014) developed six research instruments used for the research. a descriptive survey design method was employed. the target population was 20,000 students and 150 teachers. a random selection gave a sample of 200 students and 15 teachers. two sets of questionnaires were employed. the simple percentage was adopted for data analysis. the results revealed that the teaching and learning of basic science in the upper basic in kajuru local government area of kaduna state has some problems such as lack of qualified and competent teachers, high enrolment of students with lack of adequate facilities. (emechebe, 2012) from the above literature reviewed, it is obvious that there has not been researching on the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. this study aims to investigate the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. research question the researcher developed the below research questions for the research: 1. are there challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct? 2. what are the challenges facing administration on stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct? 3. what are the implications of the challenges on stem education implementation in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct? ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 67 a. research objectives the purpose of this research is to investigate the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalade universal basic education junior secondary schools. the sub-objective of the research includes: 1. to establish if challenges are facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. 2. to find out the challenges facing administration stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. 3. to find out the implication of the challenges on stem education implementation in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. b. research hypothesis following the research question for this research, the researcher developed the following hypothesis to guide this research. ho: there is no significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. h1: there is a significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. research method the purpose of this research is to investigate the challenges facing the administration of stem education. the study adopted a descriptive survey design. all the teachers of universal basic education junior secondary school in abuja were population for the study. the target population comprised twenty school administrators and one hundred and eighty teachers selected from five universal basic education junior secondary schools across the gwagwalada area council of fct, abuja, nigeria totaling two hundred respondents. a simple random sampling technique was used to select the sample of the research. the instrument used for data collection was questionnaire and it was titled "challenges facing administration of stem education questionnaire" (cfaseq). the questions designed for the study were cross-checked by researchers from the university of, abuja. their input and observation were taken into effect. the questionnaire was made up of two sections. section one which was titled a dealt with the collection of bio-data information of the respondents while section two which was also titled section b collected data on the topic of the research. the researcher developed one hypothesis and three research questions for ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 68 | the research work and one hypothesis. the researcher used a 4-point likert scale questionnaire option with the following features: strongly agree [4], agree [3], disagree [2], and strongly disagree [1]. the test re-test method was used to confirm the reliability of the research instrument. ten [10] teachers in universal basic education junior secondary school in the kwali area council were given 10 copies of the research questions and it was retrieved within 10 working days. the same questions were re-administered by the researchers to the same ten teachers from the kwali area council of fct. the respondents were administered the questionnaire to their institutions and the questionnaires were returned to the researcher. data collected were analyzed using simple percentages and chi-square tests. result analysis and discussion question one: are there challenges facing the administration of stem education? table 1. responses on if challenges are facing the administration of stem education. s/n items strongly agree agree % disagree strongly disagree % total 1 are there challenges facing the administration of stem education? 176 24 100 200 results collected on table one item one reveals that 176 (88%) of the respondents agreed that their challenges facing the administration of stem education while 24 (12%) of the respondents disagreed. this implies that the majority of the sampled respondent agreed that stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools is facing a lot of challenges in fct. research question two: what are the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools? result obtained from table two-item one shows that 83(41.5%) ticked strongly agree, 64(32%) ticked agree that inadequate infrastructural facilities are one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education while 31(15.5%) of the respondents strongly disagreed and 22(11%) disagreed. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that inadequate infrastructural facilities are ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 69 among the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result is in agreement with the submission (christine & hayatu, 2014) who revealed in their study that the availability of facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, and instructional table 2. responses on if challenges challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools s/n the following are challenges facing the administration of stem education in universal basic education junior secondary schools strongly agree agree % disagree strongly disagree % total 1 inadequate infrastructural facilities 83 64 73.5 31 22 26.5 200 2 inadequate science teachers 63 70 66.5 42 25 33.5 200 3 lack of instructional materials 72 84 78 30 14 22 200 4 poor supervision and inspection 59 66 62.5 45 30 37.5 200 5 lack of motivation 53 67 60 44 36 40 6 inadequate fund 105 95 100 200 7 high population 83 92 87.5 15 10 12.5 200 8 the poor capacity development program for science teacher 106 81 93.5 9 4 6.5 200 9 the negative attitude of the student toward stem programme 103 77 90 13 7 10 200 aides in the upper basic. 73.3% of the teachers strongly agree that there are no adequate classrooms nor laboratories or workshops. 26.7 % of teachers agree that instructional aids are inadequate. the teacher relied basically on the blackboard, chalk, and archaic textbooks. result obtained from table two-item two shows that 63(31.5%) of the respondents ticked strongly agree 70(35%) of the respondents ticked agree that ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 70 | inadequate science teachers are one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education while 42(21%) ticked strongly disagree and 25 (12.5%) ticked disagree. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that inadequate science teachers are among the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result agrees with the result of (christine & hayatu, 2014) who revealed 93.3% of the ube teachers strongly disagree that the number of trained teachers teaching on the ube program is adequate. 6.7% of the teachers disagree that they are adequate and qualified staff on the ube program. result obtained from table two item three shows that 72(36%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 84(42%) of the respondents agreed that lack of instructional materials is one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education while 30(15%) of the respondents strongly disagreed and 14 (7%) disagreed. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that a lack of instructional materials is among the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result confirms the finding of (future of education summit, 2020) who disclosed that almost all secondary schools in nigeria lack science materials, and those that claim to have are managing the old ones. he went further to submit that students only cram theoretical steps rather than carrying out the practical. also, many schools and colleges have buildings that they call libraries, but most of these so-called libraries are not equipped with needed books, journals, and magazines. result obtained from table two-item four discloses that 59(29.5%) ticked strongly agree, 66(33%) ticked agree while 30(15%) ticked disagree and 45(22.5%) ticked strongly disagree that poor supervision and inspection is one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that poor supervision and inspection are among the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result is in line with the result of (musa, 2016) who submitted that the supervision of basic schools in nigeria is not effective. result obtained from table two-item five reveals that 53(26.5%) ticked strongly agree, 67(33.5%) ticked agree, 44(22%) ticked disagree and 36 (18%) ticked strongly disagree that lack of motivation of science teachers is among of the challenges facing the administration of stem ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 71 education. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that the lack of motivation of science teachers is among the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result supports the findings of (adelabu. 2005) found in nigeria that teacher's motivation is very poor and teachers are also dissatisfied with their working environment and salary conditions. the reason behind the poor motivation of teachers is that they having low salaries as compared to other professionals, poor work environment, no decision making authority, and also not allowing them to develop their career. results obtained from table two-item six shows that (105%) went for strongly agree, and (95%) agreed that inadequate funding is among the major challenges facing the administration of stem education. this means that 100% of the people sampled agreed that inadequate funding is one of the challenges facing the stem program administration in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result is in agreement with (bisi, 2012) who opines that funding is a major problem facing stem education programs in nigeria. result obtained from table two-item seven shows that 83(41.5%) ticked strongly agree and 92(46%) ticked agree while 10(5%) of the people sampled ticked disagree and 15(7.5%) went for strongly disagree that high population is one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education. this means that almost all the sampled people agree that a high population is among the challenges facing the stem administration in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. according to the unesco teacher-student ratio of 1:35 is recommended for secondary schools but in nigeria’s secondary schools is not so. [14] submitted that the population of nigeria has grown to about 140 million. the growth of the nigerian population has influenced student population and class size. most secondary schools within abuja federal capital territory (fct) and zaria metropolis in kaduna state have a teacherstudent ratio between 1:100 and 1:130 per class. (ugo & akpoghol, 2016) the result obtained from table twoitem eight shows that 106(53%) of the respondents strongly agreed and 81(40.5%) of the respondents agreed while 9(4.5%) disagreed and 4(2%) strongly disagreed that poor capacity development programme for science teacher is one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education. this means that the majorities of the respondents agreed that poor capacity development programme for science teacher is a major challenge facing the ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 72 | administration of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. this result is in line with (abubakar, 2015) who submitted that teachers in nigeria lack capacity development programme for effective teaching in the school. table two-item nine shows that 103(51.5%) ticked strongly agree and 77 (38.5%) ticked agree while 13(6.5%) ticked disagree and 7(3.5%) ticked strongly disagree that negative attitude of students towards stem programme is one of the challenges facing the administration of stem education. this means that the majority of the respondents agreed that the negative attitude of students towards stem programme is a major challenge facing the administration of stem education in ube junior secondary schools in gwagwalada area council of fct. this result is in agreement with the findings of (abubakar, 2015) who discovered that majorities of students have a negative attitude towards science programs in secondary schools. table 3 responses to the implication of challenges on the implementation of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. s/n the following are the implications of the challenges on stem education implementation strongly agree agree % disagree strongly disagree % total 1 poor implementation of stem education 141 59 100 200 data obtained from table three-item one shows that 200(100%) of the respondents agreed that the implications of challenges facing the planning and administration of stem education are resulting in poor implementation of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. 1. hypothesis testing ho: there is no significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. h1: there is a significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. the result collected from the table showed that the table value of 0.195 is less than the r calculated value of 0.926. thus, meaning that there is a significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools. the hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between administrative challenges and stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 73 table 4. hypotest result variable n df t-calculated t-critical result x 200 y 200 198 0.926 0.195 significant schools is rejected. conclusion and recommendation the purpose of the research was to investigate the challenges facing the administration of stem education in gwagwalade junior secondary schools of universal basic education. the result of the study indicates that challenges are facing the administrations of stem education programme in gwagwalada junior secondary schools and these challenges include; inadequate infrastructural facilities, shortage of science teachers, lack of instructional materials, lack of motivation, inadequate fund, poor supervision, high population, poor capacity development programme for science teachers and negative attitude of students towards stem education programme. this result also revealed that the majority of the respondents agreed that the implications of the challenge facing the administration of stem education is resulting in poor implementation of stem education in gwagwalada junior secondary schools of fct, nigeria. from the result collected, the researcher hereby recommends the following: 1. the government should increase the funding of education and give more priority to stem education. 2. the government should employ more science teachers and deploy them to all the junior secondary schools across fct. 3. the government should provide more infrastructural facilities in all the junior secondary school. this will help to reduce the large class size and teachers will have access to adequate offices. 4. the government should provide instructional material on stem to all the junior secondary schools in fct. 5. the government should fight all forms of corruption in the ministry of education by employing an effective monitoring ogunode niyi jacob an investigation into the challenges facing administration of stem education in gwagwalada... international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 74 | mechanism. this will help to reduce the case of diversion of education funds. 6. the government should ensure capacity development programme are constantly organized for the stem teachers to improve their teaching skills and methodologies 7. the government to ensure effective supervision of stem education programme to improve the quality references ikeobi, i.o (2010). beyond the stereotype: thoughts and reflections on education. yaba: the cibn press limited. olalekan b.,(2018). evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap. https://www.researchgate.net/publicat ion/1gv9jm2u7rmsce65wkzptw5jt s38n2tvegind_stregv9jm2u7rms ce65wkzptw5jts38n2tvegition_of _the_knowledge_gap veral, t.s. 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(2005). teacher motivation and incentives in nigeria. nigeria. unesco (2009).unesco institute of statistics. paris: unesco press. ugo e,a & akpoghol, t,v. (2016) improving science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem} programmes in secondary schools in benue state nigeria: challenges and prospects. asia pacific journal of education, arts and sciences, vol. 3 no. 3, abubakar, s. (2015). challenges facing universal basic education in nigeria. abuja. microsoft word 505-article text-2221-1-10-20210529.docx doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i1.505 research synergy foundation available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj1, pratchayapong yasri2, 1 shrewsbury international school, thailand 2 institute for innovative learning, mahidol university, thailand abstract education during the covid-19 pandemic has been greatly disrupted. while live courses where students meet face-to-face in classrooms are physically limited, online courses become more popular where students learn from pre-recorded videos at their own pace. in contrast, live online classes are learning modes where students and teachers meet via webinar tools such as zoom, skype, google meet, webex, teams, to name a few. this study compared students' perceived levels of self efficacy in these three different settings. self-efficacy is defined as a belief in one's ability to accomplish a task, which can be influenced by mastery experiences, verbal persuasion, vicarious experiences, and physiological states. an online questionnaire with 12 closed-ended statements based on a 5-likert scale was developed, representing the four factors in the three learning modes. a total of 105 voluntary responses were received. a paired sample t-test determined statistical differences in the mean scores. the results at the significance level of 95% showed that the mean score of mastery experiences was the greatest in live courses (4.5), followed by live online (4.4) and online courses (3.3). the same was observed in vicarious experiences where live courses gained the most significant mean (4.5), followed by live online (4.3) and online courses (1.7). the means of verbal persuasion between life (4.5) and live online courses (4.3) did not differ significantly, but the lowest was in online courses (1.6). interestingly, the reverse trend was found in psychological states in which the greatest was seen online (4.7), followed by live online (4.5) and live courses (3.6). the analysis above was based upon students who had no technical difficulties accessing live online courses. however, this may not apply to contexts where internet connection is problematic. for educational implications, the findings revealed that live online courses are the most appropriate learning mode during the pandemic. in contrast, online courses are associated with lower levels of mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion perceived by learners, whereas live courses lowered psychological states. keywords: self-efficacy, live courses, online courses, live online courses introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. technological advancement helps ease and improve education in various aspects. recently, digital transformation in learning has become more practically evident, driven by the pandemic of covid-19. as a result, schools in multiple countries have been closed, making learning activities become entirely online. this study compared students’ perceptions towards their self-efficacy in three modes of learning: live, online, and live online courses. a live course is referred to as a setting where students meet teachers face-to-face and have full access to hands-on activities in the classroom as well as interaction with peers. an online course is referred to as ubiquitous learning, which can occur at anytime and anywhere through a computer or mobile device. this mode relies exclusively on self-regulated learning. students have to set their schedule when to review online corresponding author tarosh.prin@gmail.com; pratchayapong.yas@mahidol.edu international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri 48 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) learning materials. unless they take an active role in interacting with their teachers by themselves, constructive feedback and queries are impossible. finally, a live online course adopts the nature of ubiquity, where learning can take place anywhere. however, time to study is regularly scheduled, like live classes. also, the spirit of a live course where students meet with their teachers and peers remains intact, but through an online system. complaints have been recently made by many students when their classes have to go online. this also raises concerns among parents and teachers. however, instead of focusing on students' rather superficial preferences, this study aimed to explore how these three learning modes affect students’ self-efficacy. the hypothesis used in this study is that students are more likely to develop their self-efficacy more effectively in live courses where they can fully interact with others. on the other hand, online courses may potentially lower this. interestingly, no empirical results have shown how live online courses affect students' self-efficacy. thus, its position compared to the other two has been unexplored. however, it is assumed that live online courses can perhaps remain the strengths of online classes while minimizing the limitations of online lessons. therefore, this study is to close this gap using statistical analysis. literature review fundamentally, self-efficacy refers to the belief in one's own ability to accomplish a particular task successfully and the influence in one's own behavior in order to avoid adverse outcomes or unsatisfactory performances (bandura, 1977). bandura and schunk (1981) explain that people who have a low level of self-efficacy tend to avoid challenging tasks. in contrast, others who attain a high level of self-efficacy are more likely to accept challenges that they have to encounter and work persistently toward their goals, which results in achieving more desirable outcomes. lazarus and launier (1978) also suggest that people who perceive that they are inefficacious and undermined by obstacles, especially in stressful circumstances, tend to surrender to challenges and withdraw their action from participation. according to the social learning perspective, bandura (1982a) posits four primary sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. the interrelationship between these four aspects builds up one's self-efficacy, which individuals' performances can constantly evaluate. schunk (1989) suggests that if a task is successful, efficacy will be heightened until it reaches the point where failure does not impact them. first and foremost, personal accomplishments are influenced by the principle of mastery experiences. this source of progress in self-efficacy is the most effective method to develop a strong sense of efficacy. individuals' efficacy will surge if they can accomplish the task by using their own skills and abilities to handle new challenges. however, occasional failure at the early course of events will lower efficacy, unless they are diligent and determined enough to overcome these mistakes as skills are being developed (bandura,1982b). at a particular stage where the skills are fully intensified, these can be applied to other completely different situations that require similar competency levels (bandura, jeffery, & gajdos, 1975). in addition, mastery experience also refers to how individuals interpret their own performance in a particular task which may influence self efficacy. an example of this would be how different students perceive their test results as the way to improve and vice versa (bandura,1977). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri │ 49 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) secondly, although mastery experience is the most effective means to cultivate self-efficacy, another source of confidence in one's ability should also be considered, and that is vicarious experience. people tend to develop their self-efficacy from the experiences and knowledge of others (rosenthal and zimmerman, 1978). when people observe a model accomplishing a particular task without any negative impact to them, the notion will be induced that if they dedicate more time and effort to the same task that the model achieved, they are also likely to improve or even achieve the same task as well (bandura & barab, 1973). on the other hand, if the model that has the similar competency fails the task, the observer’s judgement will be reduced in spite of their high effort (brown & inouye, 1978). however, vicarious experience must be presented in the environment that is excluded from social comparison of one's own capabilities. otherwise, the expectation generated by the model alone will be less influential (kazdin,1973). in addition, the more apparent the task performed by the model, the higher chance of developing self-efficacy juxtaposed to that of the model with ambiguous actions in terms of consequences (kazdin, 1974c). furthermore, verbal persuasion is the constructive impact that someone’s words are positively affecting self-efficacy. even though this resource has limitations in its effectiveness, it relies on whether the praise or verbal encouragement is practical or not (bandura,1982a). this type of resource is appropriate for people who have high self-esteem and know that they are capable of participating in a certain challenge (chambliss & murray, 1979a, 1979b) and also those who do not rely on their innate ability (martocchio, 1994). verbal persuasion can be more efficient if they are linked with action. that is to say, when people are being encouraged verbally but there are no challenges being faced, self-efficacy is less likely to be developed (meyer,1992). lastly, our physiological state and emotional arousal in different circumstances are also aspects to be considered. people tend to envision success when there is no arousal. in contrast, in a situation where there are high levels of stress or adverse situations, self-efficacy will be lowered (bandura,1982b). however, these factors can be reduced if individuals can develop skills to cope with these threatening circumstances. in order to achieve these skills, one must confront their fear and anxiety so that they gain personal experiences from these situations (averill, 1973; szpiler & epstein, 1976). research method a self-administered online questionnaire was distributed to high school students residing in bangkok, thailand. a total of 105 responses was received which included 17.1%, 56.2%, and 15.2% of students in grades 10, 11, and 12, respectively. the remaining number included school leavers. the sampling method used in this study was a convenience sampling method taking information from those easy to reach and willing to take part in the online survey during the covid-19 pandemic. the respondents were informed about the purpose of this study before proceeding with their online response so that their assumed consent could be implied. this survey included 12 questionnaire statements which were designed to be close-ended 5-point likert-type scales ranging from strongly disagree (scale 1) to strongly agree (scale 5). the statements were divided into four categories, comprising mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri 50 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) it is important to note that the participants were informed about the research purpose. they voluntarily decided to take part in this process of data collection. in addition, the participants were aware of their right to withdraw their participation at any time that they felt they would like to. all the information of the participants was kept confidential. only the researchers could gain access to the data. no personal identification can be found in this study because only numerical data is presented. findings and discussion with reference to table 1, the comparison of levels of mastery experience in the three learning modes varied statistically. the level of mastery experience in live courses was shown to be the highest (x = 4.5), at the significance level of 95% (see table 2 for the paired t-test results), followed by the mean gained in live online courses (x = 4.4). the level of mastery experience was found to be the lowest in online courses (x = 3.3). the results here are not surprising. this is due to the fact that in live courses, students can interact with peers as well as teachers. hands-on activities can be made available for students to gain first hand experiences (piyawattanaviroj et al., 2019; threekunprapa & yasir, 2020a, 2020b; changtong et al., 2020). unlike online courses, students are kept passive in their mode of learning. they only interact with pre-recorded videos, making the development of mastery experience insufficient (maneejak & yasri, 2019). interestingly, although statistically lower than the mean in live courses, live online courses appeared to attract a great level of agreement when mastery experience is considered. therefore, it is argued here that the development of mastery experience in live and online courses are more-or-less the same. when live online courses are managed properly, students can be exposed to meaningful learning experience, which can then maintain their self-efficacy in a positive level (seangdeang & yasri, 2019). table 1. the mean of self-efficacy factors in three modes of learning comprise live courses, online courses, and live online courses. (n=105) mastery experience vicarious experience verbal persuasion psychological state live courses 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.6 online courses 3.3 1.7 1.6 4.5 live online courses 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.7 moving on to the level of vicarious experience, the same trend was found as mentioned above. the level of vicarious experience in live courses was shown to be the highest (x = 4.5), at the significance level of 95% (see table 3), followed by the mean gained in live online courses (x = 4.3). in contrast, the level of vicarious experience was the lowest in online courses (x = 1.7). two key findings emerged in this section. first, although the level of self-efficacy based on vicarious experience in live online courses was statistically lower than that of the level found in live courses, both are considered a high level. students can visualize useful examples both from teachers and peers when they can actually see each other regardless of the platform where they meet (maneejak, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri │ 51 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) & yasri, 2020). this could be done effectively either online or on-site. the matter is that if teachers can use the live online platform to allow students to visually interact with each other, they come up with more or less the same result. second, a great concern is now raised in this study. the level of self-efficacy in respect of vicarious experience has gone down to as low as 1.7 which is considered critical. despite the fact that students can visually perceive the recorded screen and perhaps animation, without meaningful interaction, students are unlikely to develop their various experience (praputpittaya & yasri, 2020). we argue here that it is not what they see that matters, but how they interact with what they can see. live online courses are successful in this respect. verbal persuasion was found to be the most surprising. this is because the mean score gained in live courses (x = 4.5) was not statistically different from that gained in live online courses (x = 4.3) at the significance level of 95% (see table 4). however, the level of self-efficacy in the area of verbal persuasion in online courses was statistically the lowest (x = 1.6). once again, this result shows that live courses and live online courses are equally effective in encouraging students through verbal persuasion. on the other hand, the aspect of self-efficacy fails to develop in online courses. the lack of interaction is believed to be the major cause for this undesirable outcome. students are unable to have meaningful conversation with their peers as well as teachers. in contrast, in live online courses, this can be done through turning on a microphone to speak up, or through the means of chat messages. in our own experience, students tend to use the former less, but the latter more. important, this is the mode of discussion that students in this present time prefer the most. finally, another interesting result was found in this study. students reported to be the most psychologically and physiologically comfortable in live online courses, as the mean score was found to be statistically the highest (x = 4.7) at the significance level of 95% (see table 5). the mean score gained in online courses was the second (x = 4.5). interestingly, statistically the lowest was the mean score gained in live courses (x = 3.6). a possible explanation for this is that students are behind the screen, which allows them to be as they are. the atmosphere is supportive as they can stay at home. in contrast, in live courses, students may be pressured by other students where social anxiety might be intense. on top of that, students in this present time are considered digital natives who are comfortable with using technology (maleesut et al., 2019). therefore, this online platform becomes their intrinsic mode of learning and suits their learning habits naturally. furthermore, the mean score of 105 respondents, as shown in table 2 was used to perform paired-sample t-tests with 95% significance level in order to investigate the mean score of self efficacy factors whether each of the learning methods was statistically different or not. according to table 3, the data analysis from paired sample t-tests (n = 105) shows that the average of mastery experience in live courses, live online courses and online courses were all statistically different from each other at 95% significance level with the t-test score of t = 0.00. table 2. t-test shows comparison of mean in mastery experience in each mode of learning (n=105). mastery experience live courses online courses live online courses live courses 0.00 0.00 online courses 0.00 0.00 live online courses 0.00 0.00 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri 52 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) by comparing the mean score of vicarious experience in live courses, online courses, and live online courses using paired t-test, it was evident that the mean score of the three methods of learning clearly differed with 95% significance level (t = 0.00) as shown in table 3. table 3. t-test of the mean in vicarious experience in each mode of learning (n=105). vicarious experience live courses online courses live online courses live courses 0.00 0.00 online courses 0.00 0.00 live online courses 0.00 0.00 taken together, interestingly, when comparing the mean score of verbal persuasion from 105 respondents using t-test, the result revealed that live course and live online course were statistically similar to each other as t = 0.06 (see table 4). however, the comparison of verbal persuasion between online courses and live courses was significantly different. likewise, online courses and live online courses demonstrated the same pattern in terms of verbal persuasion, as shown in table 4. table 4. t-test of the mean in verbal persuasion in each mode of learning (n=105). verbal persuasion live courses online courses live online courses live courses 0.00 0.06 online courses 0.00 0.00 live online courses 0.06 0.00 focusing on physiological states, the t-test proved that mean scores of physiological states in live courses, online courses and live online courses were all statistically different from each other. despite the fact that online courses and live online courses show t = 0.01, it is still regarded as statistically different (see table 5) at the significance level of 95%. table 5. t-test of the mean in physiological state in each mode of learning (n=105). physiological state live courses online courses live online courses live courses 0.00 0.00 online courses 0.00 0.01 live online courses 0.00 0.01 conclusion the purpose of this study is to compare high school students' perceived levels of self-efficacy (a belief in one's ability to accomplish a certain task) in three different settings: live courses (conventional face-to-face classrooms), online courses (asynchronous online classes) and live online courses (synchronous online classes). this study provides statistical evidence in the comparison of self-efficacy in different modes of learning based on 105 high school students. the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 47-54 the comparison of students’ perceived levels of self-efficacy in live, online and live online courses tarosh wangwongwiroj, pratchayapong yasri │ 53 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) results of mean score are evident that live courses can help students to maintain the level of mastery experience, vicarious experience, and verbal persuasion the most. in contrast, online courses potentially lower the level of self-efficacy in many aspects, including mastery experience, vicarious experience, and verbal persuasion. however, live online courses can retain the level of self-efficacy in verbal persuasion and physiological state. furthermore, when the mean comparison is made in terms of verbal persuasion, individuals will experience the same level of encouragement in both live courses and live online courses. these results could be implemented to support students and improve the educational system. as proven, live online courses are the most effective mode of learning due to the consistency of the self-efficacy level in every aspect. secondly, the traditional learning method in live courses heightens the level of mastery experience, vicarious experience, and verbal persuasion. however, this method might cause discomfort that negatively affects individuals' learning progress. this study suggests that this factor could be overcome by encountering these undesirable circumstances. last but not least, despite the fact that online courses lower many aspects of self-efficacy, students are most comfortable and confident in this mode of learning. there are also limitations in this study that should be considered. this analysis method was based upon students who had no internet difficulties accessing online courses. in other words, these findings might not be applicable to contexts where internet connection is problematic. references averill, j. r. 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(2020). unplugged coding using flowblocks for promoting computational thinking and programming among secondary school students. international journal of instruction. 13(3), 207-222. 197.edited.format available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 91-98 corresponding author muraina_kamilu@yahoo.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.197 research synergy foundation the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina1, saleh musa g2, zahrau muhammad kabir2 1 al-hikmah university ilorin, nigeria 2 yobe state university, nigeria abstract the use of technological know-how in all spheres of life has delivered about full-size modifications worldwide. the use of the web has, in some situations, changing face-to-face counseling in the western world. the future is being formed with the aid of cutting-edge and rising applied sciences that are substantially altering the methods in which humans interact. such adjustments are the end result of improvement in the fields of science and technology. consequently, our online world counseling is at the forefront of the paradigm modifications that are shaping the future of face-to-face counseling. this paper displays the manageable advantages of our online world counseling in the twenty-first century, its implications, challenges, and possibilities for counselors and the counsellees in nigeria. building upon this, the paper additionally concludes that applied sciences can trade the typical face-to-face counseling to our online world counseling thereby lowering the stress on each counselor and consumer in the realm of counseling. keywords: cyberspace, counselling, face-to-face and technology this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the use of the web in the counselling provider has been a welcome improvement in nigeria. cyberspace counselling is the provision of expert intellectual fitness counselling providers thru the use of internet. it is additionally regarded as web counselling, e-counselling, online counselling, internet remedy or far flung therapy; this provider is generally presented by way of e-mail, real-time chat, and video conferencing (lannap, 2012). cook and doyle (2002) describe net use, specifically records communication technology in counselling practice, as new technological know-how that provides rapid and low-priced options to extraordinary problems. some counsellees are the use of videoconferencing, stay chat, and e-mail with expert psychologists in the location of or in addition to face-to-face meetings. in addition, there is a developing fashion of on line recuperation coaches who can now behavior face-to-face consultations with purchasers online. but the query right here is, how then do we domesticate innovative minds that can stand up to the challenges of the online world counselling in the 21st century in creating nations like nigeria? reacting to this, augar, raitman, and zhou (2004) remarked that innovative minds are the merchandise of innovative studying, which entails an active, structured strategy that depends on the utility of obtained knowledge, getting to know of methods, and the enterprise of ideas. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) 92 │ oliver and goerke (2007) word that creativity mixed with media recognition and technical competencies are necessary for the success and employment of future generations. thus, this paper seeks to talk comprehensively and appreciably the future of counselling carriers in the twenty-first century in nigeria: altering standard face-to-face counseling carrier thru our online world counselling. an overview of counselling service counselling is an issue of guidance, which many human beings have distinctive views about (lannap, 2012). according to oladele (2007), counselling has been used to denote extensive vary of strategies, which include recommendation giving, assistance in instances of hassle or need, encouragement, data giving, and check interpretation. counselling is a manner by means of capacity of which the helper expresses care and subject toward the man or woman with a problem; it helps that person's non-public increase and brings adjustments thru self-knowledge (salawu &amp; abdulkadir, 2011). counselling is a relationship between an involved individual and a man or woman with need. this relationship is commonly man or woman to person, though every so often it might also contain greater than two people. it is designed to assist human beings to apprehend and make clear their views and examine how to reach their self-determined dreams via meaningful, well-informed options and via the decision of emotional or interpersonal problems. in counselling, customer emotions/feelings are of serious concern. in this regard, brown (2008) located that twenty-first-century college students get hold of their ideas, stories, facts, and leisure now not solely from books and different printed varieties of media, however additionally from television, films, digital video disks (dvds) and an increasing number of from the web and cell devices. these consequent name for the use of our online world counseling in a cutting-edge society like ours. potentials benefits of cyberspace counselling services in the twenty first century given the viable advantages of applied sciences in the twenty-first century, there is a clear opportunity that the vogue of science and science will proceed to enhance the mode of preparation transport over the subsequent decades, and will embody non-public and cellular devices. conversely, in growing countries, oliver and goerke’s (2007) observations published that younger humans are excessive customers of mounted technologies, such as computers, the internet, email, and cellular phones. this is in line with the statement made via thomas and knezek (2008: 81) that the present-day college students are described as "digital natives" who have "spent their whole lives surrounded by way of and the usage of computers, videogames, digital song players, video cams, cellphone phones, and all the toys and equipment of the digital age". although there is some preliminary help for the opportunity that our online world counseling might also assist consumers who in any other case underutilize usual face-to-face or in-office counselling, the query of the effectiveness and appropriateness of our online world counselling has no longer been resolved yet. online counselling is additionally filling the unmet want for customers placed in areas traditionally under-served via standard counsellors. rural residents and expatriates alongside with under-served minorities, frequently have a less difficult time discovering an appropriate therapist online than in their neighborhood communities. online counselling has additionally been proven to be fine for customers who may also have situation achieving appointments throughout ordinary working hours. additionally, lookup suggests that online counselling might also be beneficial for disabled and rural human beings who historically underinternational journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 93 utilize face-to-face counselling services. in summary, our online world counselling can be of gain in the following ways: effectiveness research by means of stofle (2001) suggests that online counselling would gain humans functioning at a reasonably excessive stage of training and technological savviness. suler (2000) suggests that human beings functioning at a especially excessive degree of societal advancement, and who are well-educated and are artistically inclined, can also gain the most from the usage of text-based net counselling as a complement to ongoing psychotherapy. difficult situations, such as suicidal ideation or a psychotic episode, would possibly be higher served with the aid of standard face-to-face methods, even though a similar lookup might also show otherwise. cohen and kerr (1998) carried out a find out about the effectiveness of online versus face-to-face remedy for the therapy of nervousness problems in college students and determined that there was once no distinction in the stage of alternate for the two modes as measured via the state-trait anxiety inventory. as the principal intention of counselling is to alleviate the distress, anxiousness, or issues skilled with the aid of a customer when he or she enters therapy, online counselling seems to have robust efficacy below that definition. however, it is vital to observe that customer pleasure surveys have a tendency to show the excessive stage of customer pleasure with on line counselling, whereas the companies every now and then reveal decrease delight with distance methods. cyberspace counselling is speedy, turning into a famous mannequin for a guide for younger people, with key country wide offerings such as lifeline, kids helpline, suicide call back service, and headspace including our online world counselling to their provider provision. convenience online remedy is convenient. both the counsellor and the consumer have the comfort of corresponding with every different at varied of variant times. this fashion of remedy can take away the problem of scheduling and placing appointments greater frequently in normal settings. this additionally creates a probability for the therapist to prolong their offerings to extra consumers as appointments can be doubtlessly scheduled over 24 hours and attain a large geographical region. for these men and women who are ambivalent about remedies or who may additionally be uncomfortable with standard fashions of therapy, our online world counselling can also be greater suitable. indeed, it has been observed that online remedy is desired by way of these who are uncomfortable with face-to-face with any person about their issues or who are struggling from social phobias, agoraphobia or anxiousness problems (adewuyi and muraina, 2019; suleiman, muraina &amp; suleiman, 2019). affordability cyberspace counselling has been proven to be extra, not pricey for each the counsellor and the client, mainly for these counsellors who are unwilling or can't come up with the money for to lease industrial house thereby reducing overhead fees of capital, property, commuting and administration methods when in contrast to standard counselling services. social stigma cyberspace counselling may also additionally be nice in disposing of social stigma related to receiving therapy. for those who are uncomfortable with receiving therapy, our online world counselling lets in get admission to to such offerings in personal except having to go to the counselling centre. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) 94 │ counselling can take on a whole specific photograph when acquired via the consumer in their very own domestic via the computer. it may additionally enable the purchaser to sense much less stigmatized barring having to be considered in the ready room, both by means of the administrative group of workers or any different individual who simply takes place to be strolling previous at the time the customer walks via the door. because of this, our online world counselling certainly does provide the consumer a diploma of anonymity that may additionally decrease such social stigma and consequently instantaneous them to are looking for help when they may in any other case have hesitated. anonymity the absence of face-to-face contact can additionally instantaneous customers to speak greater overtly, barring issues for bias of race, gender, age, dimension or bodily appearance. this may additionally lead to an accelerated stage of honesty and consequently, greater validity in the case of selfdisclosure. the net, in reality, affords a degree of anonymity that is perceived by many customers as nonthreatening via permitting an 'invisibility' that can be disinhibiting. variant approaches to communicate most verbal exchange thru the net is in written form. cyberspace counselling, in which the mode of conversation is frequently thru writing by way of emails or a chat room, lets in both the customer and the counsellor to pay shut interest to their verbal exchange and mirror on their ideas and emotions prior to it being expressed. this may additionally be a mainly appropriate way of conversation for these customers who journey concern in expressing themselves in words. clients may additionally be in a position to talk higher in these surroundings as they are no longer affected via the counsellor’s nonverbal cues. research suggests that writing at some stage in instances of misery is especially beneficial for customers as it is viewed to grant an integral avenue for emotional recovery (adewuyi and muraina, 2019). given that our online world counselling is an interactive structure of therapeutic writing, interventions delivered in these surroundings may additionally be pretty tremendous in encouraging purchasers to be categorical themselves in greater thoughtful, self-reflective, and insightful ways. having a written report additionally lets the customer have a reference factor in future discussion, evaluation, and in the evaluation of trade and progress. the implication of cyberspace counselling service tools for the twenty-first century while on the one hand, the advantages of our online world counselling have been considered, our online world counselling has additionally been criticized in phrases of its lack of verbal and nonverbal cues, difficulties in keeping confidentiality and security, standard effectiveness, technological difficulties and in its limits of being capable to assurance the counsellors’ credibility. some of the implications include: absence of verbal and nonverbal cues while some benefits of our online world counselling have been introduced above, there are additional hazards in no longer having verbal and nonverbal cues when counselling. verbal and nonverbal interactions are viewed as quintessential for gauging what the purchaser is feeling and for figuring out the discrepancies or incongruences between verbal and nonverbal behaviours. cyberspace counselling has been criticized for missing such vital factors of the micro capabilities of counselling. traditional counselling depends closely on the traits of each verbal and nonverbal cues as a shape of verbal exchange and as a way of gaining perception into the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors round the purchasers supplying concerns. e-therapy does no international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 95 longer provide an indication of characteristics such as voice tone, facial expression, physique language, and eye contact. this can doubtlessly have an impact negatively on the counselling consequences as the counsellor has little chance to take a look at and interpret such cues on the stay video. confidentiality and security mental fitness practitioners have a moral duty to defend and hold the confidentiality of their clients. with online remedy, the protection of the client's information and data may want to be jeopardized, and confidentiality is at larger danger of being inappropriately breached given the written nature of the medium. although most web sites try to have protection structures to defend confidentiality, it is as suitable as the ultra-modern model of the safety software program used. practitioners will have to continually improve their science to forestall safety breaches. effectiveness professionals and laypeople alike have constantly puzzled about the effectiveness of online therapeutic interventions. there is presently some lookup aiding the lack of effectiveness of counselling that is furnished fully thru such a medium. the lack of face-to-face interplay should amplify the danger of misdiagnosis with the aid of the therapist. because of this, e-therapy is presently deemed inappropriate for the prognosis of medical problems such as continual despair and psychotic disorders. technological difficulties it is now not uncommon for computer systems to fail and web connections to falter. for example, folks who are in far-flung areas might also have much less than ideal transmission that drops out often or there is usually the opportunity of servers crashing and community connections faltering. the potential to advantage from e-therapy is additionally partly decided through the client's laptop abilities and knowledge, mainly if the conversation putting entails putting in and studying new software programs and/or hardware. this might also disrupt the session and can doubtlessly be distressing for the client. therapist credibility the purchaser receiving online remedy has little or no assurance about the skills and credentials of their therapist. this exposes the patron to the exploitation of inexperienced persons pretending to be counsellors. ethical issues as our online world counselling offerings develop and proceed to obtain momentum in popularity, interest will have to be given to the building of prison and moral codes. particularly due to the fact the net transcends nation and worldwide borders, there are many criminal and regulatory concerns. for example, is it a felony for a practitioner to furnish chat room offerings to purchasers in a jurisdiction that is backyard their licensed or permitted exercise boundary? if no one is aware of who is treating whom, how is a first-class carrier ensured? if a practitioner does no longer understand the place, a purchaser is, how can they name for assist in the case of an emergency, such as suicidal threats? these are some of the questions that therapists will have to think about earlier than they embark on imparting such services. challenges of cyberspace counselling in developing countries despite the truth that the use of the web is very precise for counsellors, the variety and range of net websites and troubles concerned in the incorporation of the net into counselling quantity to some challenges (mallen &amp; day, 2005; suleiman et al., 2019). despite the possibilities for the use of technological know-how in a variety of areas of lives, there are manageable challenges worried that may international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) 96 │ deter its profitable implementation and well-timed adoption with the aid of many growing international locations like nigeria. topical problems encompass availability of power, net connectivity and bandwidth, best of counsellors’ training, and the sustainability of implementations. wright (2014) highlighted that electrical strength is crucial to run technological units, and till electricity is extensively available, reliable, and cheap for many in africa and elsewhere, our online world counselling uptake will be slow. in addition, lack of accessible, dependable, and low-cost net through all and sundry is a top-notch undertaking for e-counseling in twenty-first century in african countries. similarly, counsellors’ aptitudes in the use of science is delivered up in a world with restricted technological know-how as some can discover it hard to use it to have interaction and guide ecounselling except fantastic training. sussman (2002) lamented that glitzy technological know-how is at first very attractive and accompanied via exaggerated claims of being a “dragon slayer” or an answer to all that ails the instructional system; however, with terrible technical support, preservation and sustained effort through all stakeholders, it will become a state-of-the-art paperweight. however, overcoming these challenges can pave the away for the future prospect of our online world counselling in the twenty-first century. prospect of cyberspace counselling in the twenty-first century many consumers will select to use our online world counselling due to motive such as: how cyberspace counselling works nowadays, it is very easy to talk online with one's counsellor. one can use a computer, tablet, iphone, or smartphone anywhere one is, and one's counsellor will talk to one by an easy-touse, impervious service, like skype or whatsapp call. sessions can be organized in enhance at a time to go well with the consumer and the counsellor. the events can additionally figure out whether or not they can use video name or simply speak instead. counselling online and far-flung remedy is simply as effective numerous research and nhs lookup have discovered our online world counselling and far off remedy to be simply as fantastic as traveling a counsellor or therapist face-to-face (suleiman et al., 2019). some consumers who have the time for face-to-face remedy even decide on our online world counselling due to the fact they locate it terrific as it offers them extra flexibility and comfort. experience counselling from the remedy of your home there are all sorts of motives why humans pick our online world counselling, however many locate the ride is extra discreet and confidential. they sense that being capable of journey counselling from the relief of their personal domestic or workplace is much less embarrassing and lets them talk about private troubles extra overtly except emotions of guilt or shame. this is due to the reality that they can use a cell phone, laptop computer, or computing device pc and speak in a room the place they are aware of they will no longer be distracted. conclusion cyberspace counselling is developing rapidly. the net is no longer simply for chatting with pals and family anymore. although the internet has made verbal exchange simpler with emails, chat rooms, and immediate messaging services, many humans have additionally determined the world wide web to be useful in acquiring facts about intellectual health, inclusive international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 97 of particular disorders, medication, and treatment. it was once solely dependent on time earlier than the availability of effortless conversation and intellectual fitness assets collectively to shape what is now regarded as our online world counselling. cyberspace counselling actually does pose some special troubles and add some special probabilities for each the consumers and the therapists. as such, each counsellor and the purchaser who desires to have interaction in such offerings ought to be knowledgeable of each the advantages and boundaries of this fashion of therapeutic approach. cyberspace counselling offers the customers possibility to communicate with a counsellor online, except having to meet them face-to-face. recommendations based on the above discussion, the following pointers are proffered thus: 1. the authorities must try to supply enabling surroundings (i.e. energy stability), and personal agency such as the net vendors and cellular telephone operators on their phase have to make bigger web accessibility and bandwidth that will assist the needs of the twenty first century. 2. implementing new applied sciences in counselling requires that counsellors are efficiently skilled to advance new capabilities in the usage of the science and regularly in innovation. counsellors will consequently want each time and education to increase these competencies, and directors have to permit for this when planning the timing and size of the implementation. references adewuyi, h. o. and muraina, k. o. (2019). crime behavioural tendency of school-going adolescents in ibadan: home background, self-regulation and parenting processes as predictors. dev sanskriti interdisciplinary international journal (diij), (13), 119-128. augar, n., raitman, r., & zhou, w. (2004). teaching and learning online with wikis. in r. atkinson., c. mcbeath., d. jonas-dwyer., & r. phillips (eds.), beyond the comfort zone: proceedings of the 21st ascilite conference (pp. 95-104). perth, australia. brown, t. (2008). m-learning in africa: doing the unthinkable and reaching the unreachable. in j. voogt & g. knezek (eds.), international handbook of information technology inprimary and secondary education. new york: springer. cohen, g.e., and kerr, b.a. (1998). "computer-mediated counselling: an empirical study of a new mental health treatment". computers in human services, 15 (4), 13-26. cook, j. & doyle, c. (2002). working alliance in online therapy as compared to face to face therapy: preliminary result. cyberspace psychology and behaviour, 5, 95-105. mallen, m., vogel, d., rochlen, a., & day, s. (2005). online counselling: reviewing the literature from a counselling psychology framework. the counselling psychology, 33, 819-871. oladele, j. o. (2007). guidance and counselling: a functional approch. (4th edition). lagos: johnslad publisher ltd. oliver, b., & goerke, v. (2007). australian undergraduates’ use and ownership of emerging technologies: implications and opportunities for creating engaging learning experiences for the net generation. australasian journal of educational technology, 23(2), 171-186. salawu, a., a. & abdulkadir, o., r. (2011). introduction to the theory and practice of guidance and counselling. kwara: integrity publication. stofle, g.s. (2001). choosing an online therapist.white hat communications. suleiman, y., muraina, k. o & suleiman, j. m. (2019). improving guidance and counselling services for effective service delivery in nigerian secondary schools: implications for stakeholders in education. jomsign: journal of multicultural studies in guidance and counselling, vol. 3 (1), 75-89. suler, j. (2000). "psychotherapy in cyberspace: a 5 dimensional model of online and computer mediated psychotherapy".cyberpsychology& behavior, 3(2), 151–160. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 91-98 the future of guidance and counselling in the 21st century in nigeria: changing face-to-face counselling through cyberspace counselling kamilu olanrewaju muraina, saleh musa g, zahrau muhammad kabir issn 2721-2904 (online) 98 │ sussman, r. j. (2002). counselling over the internet: benefit and challenges. retrived from http://www.cybercounsel.uneg.edu 23/03/19 thomas. l. g., & knezek, d. (2008). information, communications, and educational technology standards for students, teachers, and school leaders in j. voogt & g. knezek (eds.), international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education. new york: springer. wright, c. r. (2014). 5 key barriers to educational technology adoption in the developing world (blog post).educational technology debate. retrieved from http://efareport.wordpress.com. 23/03/19 kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 1-13; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.56 article history: received march 1st, 2019 ; accepted november 11th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi department of educational foundation, faculty of education, national open university of nigeria e-mail: job.gabriel@yahoo.com abstract this research investigated the effects of video-taped instructional strategy on the academic achievement and retention of senior secondary 2(ss2) chemistry students in lagos state. the continuous decimal academic achievement of students in this core science subject has been of major concern to stake holders in the education industry in lagos state in particular. the study adopted an experimental design of pretest – posttest factorial design. the population for this study was made up of the 4500 chemistry students in ikorodu and kosofe lgas, while the sample comprised 93 ss2 chemistry students gotten through multi staged method. the instrument used was chemistry achievement test (cat). the instrument was validated by experts in educational technology and measurement and evaluation while the reliability was derived through a test – retest method. pearson product moment correlation coefficient ® was used to arrive at 0.78. mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, which indicated that students achieved better when taught with video-taped than conventional methods. on the other hand, t-test was used to analyze the hypothesis, which indicated significant difference between students taught with video-taped and conventional method, amongst others. and it was recommended that videotaped instructional strategies by used regularly in senior secondary schools in lagos state amongst others. keywords: video-taped; instructional strategy; conventional method. introduction the optimum goal of instruction in any learning environment is to equip the individual with necessary skills to tackle new situations of various degrees of relatedness and similarities more effective. one of the challenges in teaching is to create experiences that involve the students and also support their own thinking, explanation, mode of learning, communications and application of the scientific models that are necessary to make meaning of these experiences. it may be therefore very valuable for the educational system to undergo a radical reorientation, adjustment and adoption of the new pervasive technologies in the classrooms. instructional strategies have remained the bane of teachers over the years across the globe as most research findings have reported that this may be contributing to the decimal academic achievement of students. this phenomenon has resulted to the recent emphasis from teaching by the teacher to learning by the learner. therefore, instruction ought to be learner-centered rather than teacher-centered. the teachers also need to deduce what their students desire to know, how it is important to their life work and how best they can learn. students generally have different learning styles, hence the teacher is to identify these learning styles and find the most appropriate instructional strategies that will suit the preferred styles in order to promote effective teaching and learning process in the classroom. learning itself is an activity that usually starts at birth and is expected to continue through to the classroom. formally, learning takes place where facilities and personnel are employed with the aim of preparing all the learners to work as well as participate in the society in which they live. in the same vein, the place of science in national development has been emphasized as opined by (shedrack and robert, gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 2 │ 2016). orukotan (2007) averred that science education has introduced a lot of changes in our world today and will continue to do so in the future. achievement in science education will go a long way in reducing illiteracy and poverty, which are impediments to national development (nwachukwu, 2008). science amongst other things contributes to the quality of life in such areas as health, nutrition, agriculture, transportation, material and energy production, and industrial development. the infusion of information communication technologies into teaching and learning has engendered positive changes in the educational system and its institutions. it has served as a substitute and/or supplement to diverse methods of teaching, learning, acquisition and use of instruction, training and development, instructional aids as well as sharing of resources (akinboboye, 2016). it has also offered more opportunities for newer teaching methods such as student-centred teaching and provided greater opportunity for teacher-to-teacher, student-to-student and teacher-to-student relationship. it has also ensured provision of and broadening access to new resources, services for teachers and students; thereby strengthening the quality and quantity of education delivery as well as improving the efficiency of education administration and management (fisseha, 2011). as a scientific discipline, chemistry is concerned with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, which include their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds. in the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology (reinhardt, 2001). it is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. chemistry as a branch of science has attained a unique position in the curriculum of schools as an essential part of general education for life. chemistry enables learners to understand what happens around them and the most interesting aspect of chemistry is that it applies to our daily lives. in order words chemistry is a real life science subject fahmy (2000). in nigeria, the inclusion of chemistry in the curricula of secondary schools and technical colleges of education has been justified for attracting youths to careers with chemistry options and commended as innovative creating wealth of experiences for the educated citizenry (igwe, 2002). chemistry curriculum is designed in such a way as to show inter-relationships between the subject (chemistry) and other science subjects (biology and physics) and to satisfy requirements for senior secondary school programme in the national policy on education. students are required to learn chemistry by understanding, which demands a mastery of reasoning capabilities of students at the formal operational stage. the curriculum content is organized around major concepts of energy, periodicity and structure, which subsumed many other chemical concepts. the objectives of secondary school chemistry curriculum therefore, as specified in the senior secondary school syllable are as follows (igwe, 2002): to facilitate transition in the use of scientific concepts and techniques acquired integrated science (now basic science) with chemistry. to provide basic knowledge in chemistry concepts and principles through efficient selection of contents and sequencing. a) to show inter-relationships between chemistry and other science subjects b) to show chemistry and its link with the industry, everyday life, hazards and benefits, and c) to provide students not proceeding for higher education with adequate foundation for other future careers. the teaching of chemistry helps to imbibe scientific knowledge and stimulate science oriented attitude in learners. this attitude when directed to the world of work results in the development of the individual, the society and general standard of living of the citizenry. therefore, the place of chemistry gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 3 knowledge and skills in economic and industrial development in the nigerian society cannot be underestimated, (odutuyi, 2012). chemistry goes beyond processes in chemical industries to other industries such as fertilizers, petroleum, paper and pulp, iron and steel, cement, coal, glass, electronics and so on. it plays major roles in the vital sectors of the economy, execution of other professions and improvement of quality life. the acquisition of professional qualification in chemistry equips an individual with skills to be self-employed because chemistry involves the use of process skills which are the paths for ways and strategies followed by the chemist in order to arrive at the products of science, (falilat & are, 2017). in spite of the central position of chemistry among science subjects and its importance in sustaining sustainable economic growth and development, the academic achievement of nigerian candidates in school certificate chemistry over the years is not encouraging (baanu, oyelekan & olorundare, 2016). the realization of the goals of chemistry to some extent has been impeded because the achievement of students in the subject remains low in nigeria (adesoji and olatunbosun 2008). the low academic achievement in sciences especially chemistry in senior secondary certificate examination (ssce) attests to the fact that chemistry teaching and learning and the conditions under which they take place need to be re-examined. in recent times such a re-examination focused on assessing teacher-students’ interaction patterns and how this can serve as a source for enhancing students’ performance in the subject (odutuyi, 2012). teaching and learning processes are very crucial at all levels of educational development. if well planned and directed, they are the keys to success and progress of an individual. therefore, best methods have to be used in order to enhance effective teaching and learning. it is therefore pertinent to employ the use of audiovisual resources to enhance effective teaching and learning (ode, 2010). audio-visual instructional method refers to the integration of sound and pictures, which are presented in form of slides and video clips and recorded speech and music, which are visually presented to the students by the teacher. at other times, the students access this material as a stand-alone teaching method. in the same vein, audio-visual aids are those instructional aids which are used in the classroom to encourage teaching learning process. singh (2005) defined audiovisual aids as any device which by sight and sound increase the individual’s experience, beyond that acquired through reading. audio-visual aids are those instructional devices which are used in the classroom to encourage learning and make it easier and interesting. this study leaned on the constructivist theory as the theoretical framework. constructivist theory implies that learning is a process whereby learners are actively involved in the process of constructing relevant knowledge, and that an increase in their involvement will yield more potential for learning at a more complex level (simons & bolhuis, 2004; valcke, 2010). in contemporary terms, bransford, brown, & cocking (2000) submitted that learning involves constructing new knowledge and understandings based on what is already known and believed. however, schunk (2001) quoted in valcke, (2010, p. 238) explained that constructivism does not propound that learning principles exist and are to be discovered and tested, but rather that learners create their own learning. this perspective that learners ‘create’ supports the idea that each student brings with them their own created experience to the learning process but they need adequate support in this process (simons & bolhuis, 2004). in order for us to understand the process, it is necessary to be aware of the different ways each student learns by establishing what the learner already knows and believes. within this context, education can be seen as a form of dialogue at different levels between educator and student (fransen, 2006; laurillard, 2002) which can lead to a coconstructivist approach between the student and teacher (carnell, 2007). gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 4 │ it is therefore important to understand the role for building constructions of understanding. when deploying video and considering its educational effect, it can be helpful to keep the constructivist perspective clearly in focus to ensure that the student is assisted in taking an active role in constructing the relevant knowledge (hattie, 2009). because by its nature, video viewing is often passive, there remains a continual challenge in how to activate the learning process of students in order to stimulate them to construct relevant knowledge from what is presented on screen (de boer, 2013). several principles are presented that give guidelines in how to arrange and present e-learning materials effectively. words should be placed next to the graphics and spoken words should be synchronized with the relevant graphic (contiguity principle). words should be presented as audio rather than on the screen as text (modality principle). visuals should be explained with words or text, but not both and graphics should support rather than distract from the content (redundancy principle). unnecessary audio should be avoided since it can distract from learning (coherence principle). lesson content should be carefully planned and segmented into more manageable sections. this segmentation, also known as ‘chunking’ can lead to better understanding and retention (guo et al., 2014). video content should take into consideration the aspects of human cognition in learning. how much information, in what format and via which channels (audio/visual) can a student acquire and for what specific learning goals? to learn effectively, a student should be made aware of this process and how they learn. educational technologists are of the view that video-taped instruction has high potential in teaching and learning situation (abimbade, 2001; abubakr, 2001 and kozima, 2005). video-taped instruction like some other audio-visual aids can multiply and widen the channels of communication between the teacher and the students (kozima, 2005). it has the qualities of providing a semi-permanent, complete and audiovisual record of events (agommuoh & nzewi, 2003). it is a method that has the potentials of increasing the probability that students will learn more, retain better and thus improve performance. video-taped instruction reduced abstractions as well as boredom among students in the classroom and laboratory (adams, 2011). in the same vein, the benefits of colour, sound and motion attached to videotaped package will be of interest to students who are the target of the study (bada, 2006). students could receive individual instruction with video-tapes at their own pace, and as when they needed it (mitchell & surprise, 2007). it is relevant for both homogenous (group) and heterogeneous (individualized) set of learners (ajayi & dudan, 2000). it is the commonest, cheapest, and easiest to operate among ict gadgets and can be afforded by schools of the purpose of teaching and learning process (fowoyo, 2006). in spite of the enumerated advantages, video has been criticized as having some shortcomings. it is considered dominant in instructional setting, as learners in most cases remain passive during the period of receiving instruction that is with little or no involvement (winchie, o., lendha, t. & stone, t.d. 2002). several studies indicated that multimedia such as video and computer can improve learning and retention of material presented during a class session or individual study period, as compared to “traditional” lectures or study materials that do not use multimedia (anyanwu, gambari & ezenwa, 2013; gambari & olumorin, 2013; gambari, ezenwa & anyanwu, 2013; gambari, yaki, gana & ughovwa, 2014; mayer, 2001). siskos, antoniou, papaioannou and laparidis (2005) reported that the greek primary pupils taught physical education using multimedia computer-assisted instruction (mcai) performed better than those that used the traditional approach. in this study, effects of four video instructional types were examined, that is, text + animation (ta), text + narration (tn), text + animation + narration (tan) and text only (to). the studies on narration with text (nt) mode, mayrath (2009) found that students who received the voice-only (narration) tutorial performed significantly better on the transfer test than students who gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 5 received the text-only tutorial. in another study, gambari, ezenwa and anyanwu (2013) found that students taught geometry with animation with text (at) performed better than those taught with traditional method. similarly, on animation with text (at) mode, yen, lee and chen (2012) reported that the group using image-based (animation) concept mapping showed higher level than the textbased group in the dimension of understanding and creating. similarly, mahmood (2002) revealed that cai involving animation with text (at) and animation with narration (an) improved students' achievement in mathematics. however, koroghlanian (2000) found that participants in the text treatments achieved the same as participants in the audio (narration) treatments on both the practice and post-test. in another study, jolly (2003) reported no significant differences in the performance level of the students in animation-with text as compared to graphics-with-text when exposed to life cycle of a monarch butterfly in biology. empirical evidences on animation and narration (an) mode of multimedia are inconclusive. for instance, on narration with text (an) mode, mayrath (2009) found that students who received the voiceonly (narration) tutorial performed significantly better on the transfer test than students who received the text-only tutorial. gambari, ezenwa and anyanwu (2013) reported no significant difference between students taught geometry using animation with narration and those taught using animation with text (at). however, those taught using animation with narration performed better than those taught with traditional method. ayogu (2000) stated that when videotape is used to compliment instruction it can: a) reduce abstractions in class lesson; b) reduce boredom among students and teacher; c) conserve the teacher’s energy; d) allow moral learning autonomy among students; e) restructure the learning environment; f) make learning interesting and motivating to students; g) minimize the problems of large class size; h) promotes students’ participation in classroom; i) reduce problem of insufficiency learning resources, and materials; j) encourage individualized learning. it is important to understand different learning preferences within the student population and it can be helpful to allow them to learn at their own pace (schwartz, 2013). this can enable content to be provided in a variety of formats other than the traditional classroom setting (e.g., video) with the potential to make learning more accessible to students with different learning preferences. a number of different ways in which students actually view video teaching have been identified. some students watch the entire video in one go without stopping, some watch it again having already viewed it, some select a part of the video and view it multiple times, and some ‘zap’ through it skipping from one section to another (de boer, 2013). this feature is referred to by laurillard (2002) as self-pacing which provides greater learning control. it is important for teachers using video in their teaching to understand the individual learning patterns of students and how these can impact the effectiveness of learning. statement of the problem in recent years, the level of understanding and commitment of chemistry students as reflected in their academic performance in external examinations has not been impressive over the years, particularly in lagos state. this has triggered perpetual worries to science educators and especially chemistry teachers gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 6 │ because the bulk of the blames of this downward trend in achievement of chemistry students in public examinations has been shouldered on either directly or indirectly on the teachers’ poor knowledge of the subject, method of delivery of subject, non-commitment and poor dedication to duty. this situation worsens especially at this era of information technology where the use of gsm by secondary school students has eroded deep into the academic interest of the students. this poor achievement in academics has been confirmed by the analyses of results of the performance of candidates in may/june west african senior secondary certificate examination in chemistry from 1999-2016. asiem, bassey, & essien (2015); waec (2016); research and statistic unit, waec, lagos; and waec (2016), in accordance, reported on the performance of students in wassce chemistry from 2014-2016. in these reports, the mean performance score in chemistry essay was 35 in 2014; 36 in 2015; 37 in 2016. in practical, the mean score in 2014 was 29; 22 in 2015 while in 2010 it was 24. these poor achievements in chemistry are reflected in several other years of the students’ performance in external examinations such as waec as shown below. the effect of this poor achievement has resulted in backwardness in development of science related courses in higher institutions, high rate of students drop-out, food insecurity, economic meltdown and others. performance of chemistry students in waec in lagos state year total pass (a1-c6) mean score 2002 47 42 2003 36 30 2005 39 32 2007 46 37 2013 44 39 2014 40 35 2015 42 36 2016 47 37 source: research and statistic unit, waec, lagos these repeated poor performances of secondary school students in chemistry have been attributed to various variables, and research works have also been mounted on most of these variables. but lately, the calls for urgent use of other instructional strategies in teaching chemistry have been persistent. hence this work is poised to find out if there exist any effect on the use of videotaped instructional strategy on the academic achievement of chemistry students in ikorodu and kosofe local government areas of lagos state. research questions the following research question was used for this study: what is the mean difference in the academic achievement of chemistry students taught with videotaped instruction and those taught with conventional method? gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 7 what is the mean difference in the retention ability of chemistry students taught with videotaped instruction and those taught with conventional method research hypotheses the following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance a) there is no significant mean difference in academic achievement score of students taught chemistry with videotaped instruction and those taught using conventional method b) there is no significant mean difference in retention of students taught chemistry using videotaped instruction and those taught with conventional method purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to find out the effect of video-taped instructional strategy on students’ academic achievement in ss ii chemistry. specifically, it sought to determine the mean achievement score and retention rates of videotaped instructional strategy when compared with conventional method. significance of the study this study will invariably be of tremendous importance to students, teachers and researchers in chemistry accordingly. the work will enable students to read and understand various audio-visual aids that facilitate teaching learning process, particularly video show. the study will serve as reference to teachers who wish to find out the impact of video-taped instruction on students’ academic achievement particularly in secondary schools. it will also highlight the appropriate materials for teaching chemistry which will bring about student’s interest and active participation in the subject. the study will serve as a reference to other researchers who would wish to embark on further research on utilization of audio-visual aids and its academic achievement. delimitation of the study the study was delimited to video-taped instructional strategy and the academic achievement of ss ii chemistry students in lagos state. it was also delimited to two secondary schools each from two local governments in lagos state. research design the research design is an experimental design of pretest, posttest factorial design i.e. two levels of instructional strategies – video-taped and conventional. the experimental and control groups were given the pretest before the treatment. experimental group 1 was exposed to video-taped instructional design while experimental group 2 was taught using conventional method. population gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 8 │ the population for this study was made up of the 4,500 chemistry students in ikorodu and kosofe local government areas of lagos state. the target population was ss ii students. sample and sampling procedures the sample for this study consisted of a total of 91 chemistry students. the researcher adopted multi-staged sampling technique to select the sample from the population. first, a purposive random sampling was adopted to select two senior secondary schools (a private and a public school) each from ikorodu and kosofe local government areas of lagos state. these four schools were purposively sampled based on infrastructure (laboratories, manpower), gender composition (male and female), school type (private and public), and student’s enrollment (enrolling students for wassce). secondly, intact class method was used to capture the entire students in ss ii chemistry classes from the selected schools. two of the schools were designated experimental and control groups respectively. thirdly, simple random sampling was used to randomly assign individual learners to the treatment groups. instrumentation the test instrument used in this study was a self-designed achievement test known as chemistry achievement test (cat). the cat consisted of a 15 multiple choice objective items adopted from the past senior secondary school certificate examinations of west african examinations council (waec) and the national examinations council (neco) questions (from 2005 2017). the chemistry achievement test (cat) was based on ss2 curriculum. the cat was administered as pre-test and posttest to the experimental and control groups. reliability of instrument the instrument was face and content-validated by experts in the field of chemistry education, educational technology and measurement and evaluation. to test the reliability of the cat, a random sample of 20 (ssii) students who were part of the research population but not part of the sample for the study were selected. the test was administered on the pilot sample. the data collected was tested using the test-retest method. the reliability coefficient of the instrument was 0.78 using pearson product moment correlation. data collection procedures the researcher visited the four senior secondary schools selected for the study in ikorodu and kosofe local government areas of lagos state, where he briefed and sought permission and cooperation of the school’s management to conduct the experiment. there -after, intensive teaching commenced in the four (4) selected schools. the schools were used as both the treatment and control groups. the control groups were taught by the subject teacher using the conventional method (chalk and talk teaching process). an adapted video-taped lesson was used to teach the students the periodic table of elements. the classes used were ss ii chemistry students. the teaching lasted for one week and the chemistry achievement test (cat) was administered to the two treatment groups (experimental group 1 and experimental group 2). the tests were marked and the scores were recorded appropriately. the students were given a retention test 14 days after administering the posttest. gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 9 statistical analysis procedure the data obtained from the schools were subjected to descriptive statistics using mean and standard deviation. the null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using t-test. research question 1: what is the mean difference in the academic achievement of chemistry students taught with videotaped instruction and conventional method? table 1 posttest mean achievement scores of students using video-taped and conventional method instructional design n post-test mean std. d difference of means video-taped method 43 18.40 1.58 8.20 conventional method 50 10.20 2.49 the result in table 1 shows the difference between the mean achievement scores of students who were taught chemistry with videotaped instruction and those taught using conventional method. the result shows that the students taught with videotaped instructional strategy had a mean achievement score of 18.40 while those taught with conventional strategy had a mean achievement score of 10.20. the difference between the mean achievement scores (x = 8.20), which infers that students performed better when taught chemistry with video-taped instructional design than in conventional instructional design. research question 2: what is the mean difference in the retention of chemistry students’ academic achievement taught with videotaped instruction and conventional method? table 2 retention test mean achievement scores of students instructional design n mean std. d mean difference video-taped method 43 17.72 1.58 9.12 conventional method 50 8.60 2.19 gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 10 │ the result in table 2 shows difference in retention of students taught in chemistry with videotaped instruction compared to those taught using conventional method. the result shows that the students taught with videotaped instructional strategy had a mean retention score of 17.72 while those taught with conventional strategy had a mean achievement score of 8.60. the difference between the mean retention scores (x = 9.12) infers that students retained knowledge better when taught chemistry with video-taped instructional design than in conventional instructional design. hypothesis discussion h1: there is no significant mean difference in academic achievement score of students taught chemistry with videotaped instruction and those taught using conventional method table 3 t-test table showing mean achievement scores of students in both instructional design instructional design n mean std. d df t t crit p remark video-taped method 43 18.40 1.58 91 18.35 1.987 0.05 significant conventional method 50 10.20 2.49 tw0-tailed: p<0.05 table 3 shows the difference in achievement scores of students taught using videotaped and conventional instructional design. the table shows that there is significant difference in achievement scores of students taught using videotaped and conventional instructional design. (df = 91; t = 18.35; p<0.05). based on this result, the null hypothesis is not accepted. h2 there is no significant mean difference in retention of chemistry students’ academic achievement taught with videotaped instruction and those with conventional method table 4 t-test table showing mean retention scores of students in both instructional strategies n mean std. d df t t crit p remark gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 11 instructional strategies video-taped method 43 17.72 1.58 91 22.73 1.987 0.05 significant conventional method 50 8.60 2.19 tw0-tailed: p<0.05 table 4 shows difference in retention of students taught in chemistry with videotaped instruction compared to those taught using conventional method. the table shows that there is significant difference in mean retention scores of students taught using videotaped and conventional instructional design. (df = 91; t = 22.73; p<0.05). based on this result, the null hypothesis is not accepted. discussion of findings the mean achievement post-test score of students in the experimental group was higher than that of the control group. thus, there was significant difference in their mean achievement score. students taught with videotaped instruction performed better than those taught with the conventional method. there was also significant difference in mean retention scores between the experimental and control group. the experimental group taught with videotaped design could produce learning contents better than those with conventional instructional design. this result has established that teaching methods were significant factors on students’ achievement in chemistry. the results of the study was consistent with akinpelu (2003), ajelabi (2008), salawu (2009), abubakar (2001), agommuoh and nzewi (2003) and osokoya (2007) who indicated that students taught using video-taped instruction performed significantly better in achievement than those taught using the conventional method. conclusion information communication technology (ict) has resurfaced the quality and quantity of science delivery in educational institutions. in recent times, the performance of students in chemistry which is a science of nature and utilization of natural substances and creation of artificial ones have not been impressive due to the method of delivery of the subject in conventional strategy. this research presents the video-taped instructional strategy as a panacea on the on-going performance problems. students taught with the video-taped instructional strategy achieved better than students taught with the conventional/traditional method. achievement was greatly improved by the use of video-taped instructional approach in teaching chemistry. from the above results, it is obvious that video-taped instructional design is more effective than the conventional strategy. it is more effective for the cognitive and attitude development of the students than the conventional method as there is a significant difference in the achievement score of both groups. video-taped instructional strategy helps to develop higher order cognitive skills and appeal the student psyche towards learning. it can thus be concluded that the use of animations, sound, and video and audio clips makes the lessons attractive and affective. gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 12 │ recommendations the following recommendations are advanced from this study: a) for students’ better academic achievement and positive attitude development, video-taped instructional strategy should be used in teaching of chemistry b) multimedia infrastructure should be provided to schools for teaching of chemistry in secondary schools c) chemistry teachers should practice the use of viewing programmes on video-tapes as part of their teaching methods d) chemistry curricula should be tailored toward video-taped instructional strategy which moves us toward the constructivist approach of learning in which learner plays an active role in the teaching and learning process e) authors of chemistry textbooks and publishers should lay emphasis on the use of video-tape instruction in their textbooks f) ministries of education, school management boards as well as professional educational bodies should arrange seminars, workshops and conferences on the training of chemistry teachers on simpulan regerences abimbade a. (2001). principles and practice of educational technology. ibadan, ibadan international publishers ltd. abubakar, m.n. (2001). the impact of information technology on the biological sciences. journal of science education. 6(1):5-11. adams d. (2011). connecting video segments to collaborative learning activities. nigeria, educational media international; adesoji o.a, olantubosun o.e (2008). technological advancement in science education. nigeria, jos university press ltd. agommuoh pc, nzewi um (2003). effects of video-taped instruction on secondary school students’ achievement in physics. journal of science teachers association, 8(3):65-71. anyanwu, a; gambari, o & ezenwa, t. (2013). an integrated model of multimedia learning and motivation. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia 10(2): pp3-21. ayogu zu.(2000). enriching science technology and mathematics education. the role of new media. journal of stan 2(8): pp18-19. baanu fo, oyelekan e, olorundare s.(2016). academic performance of students in chemistry. onitsha, nigeria; african fep publisher. bada ao. (2006). achievement level in understanding science concepts in secondary schools. journal of research in curriculum, 6(2): pp241-525. boer dj. (2013). mass media and education. china; klamer publishing ltd; 2013. bransford y, brown o, cocking a.e.(2000). contemporary view of learning. british journal of education and learning, uk; 8(1):23-43. gabriel c. job, akinboboye opeyemi effects of video-taped instructional strategy and retention of senior secondary 2 chemistry students in lagos state international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 13 carnell s. (2007). learning skills and behavioural patterns. international journal of teaching and learning, england, 3(6):10-19. fahmy w. (2000). chemistry and the science world. kenya, nairobi; nelson africa. falilat o, are e. (2017). an approach to the nature of chemistry. lagos, nigeria; new zones publisher. fisseha ao. (2011). an introduction to education administration and management. lagos, nigeria; johaslad publishing limited. igwe, c.a. (2002). elementary chemistry. owerri, nigeria; spring field publisher ltd. jolly, j.h. (2003). the promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different media. lagos, macmillan publishers plc. kelly, c.h. (2005). practicing what we teach in reading education. journal of readings. 2(1): 246-269. kirschner k, clark, f., sweller, a.o. (2006). an approach to instructional design. new york, america, nasco publishing company. laurillard, o. (2002). principles and practice of teaching. london, jonas publishers ltd. mayer, m., moreno, a. (2003). relative effect of video instruction. journal of research in educational technology. 1(7):35-62. mayer, r.e. (2001). multimedia learning. new york; cambridge university press. ode, o.f. (2010). the availability of mass media in secondary schools. lagos, nigeria; johns-lad publishing limited. odutuyi, o.e. (2012). branches of science and its application. ibadan, nigeria; exford university press. okeke, m.n, chinelo, o.e.(2005). the effect of the use of videotaped instruction on students’ achievement in mathematics. awka; department of mathematics, nnamdi azikwe university. shedrack, b., robert, t.(2016). importance of science. new york, america; nasco publishing company. microsoft word 502-article text-2223-1-10-20210529.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 27-35 the comparison of chunking method to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya1, pratchayapong yasri2 1 bangkok christian college, thailand 2 mahidol university, thailand abstract our short-term memory has a limited capacity of taking in information and retaining it the memory storage. however, this can be enhanced by various memory techniques especially dividing the information into smaller chunks. to investigate this memory enhancement strategy, this study compared the effectiveness of three chunking methods, namely one-chunk, two-chunk, and three chunk, to enhance the capacity to retain information in the forms of letters and numbers in the shortterm storage. participants in this study were 50 high school students who took part in an online shortterm memory assessment experimental design. the results revealed that the ability to remember ten distinct alphabets and ten distinct digits statistically varied, depending on how the information was chunked. to be more precise, the student participants could memorize the information when divided into 2 or 3 chunks more effectively than one full set of the data (1 chunk) as the mean scores gained in the two chunking methods were statistically greater than that of the one-chunk delivered information. however, the findings only relied on single types of information so that further research could be done to explore this with more complicated information. educational implications can be drawn from this present study. to assist students in memorizing and retaining learning materials more effectively, it is essential to help classify them into 2-3 groups of information. this could be done through the use of tree thinking, binary thinking, and computational thinking. keywords: cognitive information processing, short-term memory, chunking, textual information introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. whether there is an effective way to assist people’s memorization is an issue of interest. interestingly, various people's daily life activities, including memorizing 10-digit phone numbers, adopting three-point sermon in preaching, and selecting two to three words to define themselves, are found to utilize a cognitive strategy called "chunking." moreover, it is also evident that numerous famous brands merely choose two simple but unique words as their slogans to hook people's attention to their product. regarding these facts, an assumption could be made that chunking information could increase its effectiveness of being processed into short-term memory and eventually long-term memory. therefore, this study focuses on determining the effectiveness of each chunking method in retaining textual information. it is believed that the study would provide a clearer understanding of how different forms of information should be chunked to maximize people’s memorization and could be implicated in educational fields. literature review cognitive information processing (cip) theory is a well-renowned theory in cognitive psychology that has been constantly being applied to illustrate the human memory system (see figure 1). by adopting the multi-store model from shiffrin & atkinson (1969), in which a computer metaphor is corresponding author’s poonsuppawittaya@gmail.com; pratchayapong.yas@mahidol.edu doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse. v3i1.502 research synergy foundation international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri 28 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) used with its inputs and outputs to locate sensory memory, short-term memory (stm), and long term memory (ltm) to convey how information is processed from sensory inputs to cognitive storage. sensory memory holds information associated with senses such as visual and auditory for a short period of time (in seconds) before the information is processed further. short-term memory functions or working memory further processes the carried information, and with regular rehearsal, it is ready for long-term storage or for a response. the information in humans' long-term memory is permanent and capable of retaining information in numerous ways (schunk, 1996). figure 1 multi-store model according to cip theory a later study points out that short-term memory and long-term memory differ in various aspects, especially duration and capacity to retain information. it is believed that an item told in the same time interval with others is more difficult to recall because it shares its temporal cues to retrieval (cowan, 2008). thus, when the list of subjects is told, short-term memory would most likely to remember the most distinct one more temporally. also, vogel & luck (2006) reports in the same way that the limit of the focus of attention for the number of items in each chunk was between three and four items. in order to improve our short-term memory capacity, a strategy called chunking which is a process of grouping the presented information to effectively compress the context (schneider et al., 2001), is considered one of the best-known methods (lane et al., 2001). chunking could occur in two different ways: either through strategic reorganization based on familiarity or prior knowledge (often used in letters and numbers) or through grouping based on perceptual characteristics (often used in visuals) (gobet, 2005). miller (1956) points out that information could be categorized in meaningful units, namely chunks, which could increase the amount of recalled information and immediate memory span. attempts have been put by researchers to enhance the validity of chunking. tulving & patkau (1962) suggest that this chunking method could be even more effective when it is applied to relatable or familiar information. however, unfamiliar data, as well as complicated information, may be less effective to be retained even though the information is properly chunked. in addition, each chunk must be limited to an appropriate number of items in order to maintain its effectiveness. otherwise, it would be similar to simply not undergoing chunking as most people are likely to remember the information at the beginning and at the end (lorenz & tizón-couto, 2019). vogel & luck (2006) also reports that the limit of the focus of attention for the number of items in each chunk was between three and four items. it is further suggested that behavioral and neuropsychological, and modeling methods must be integrated to further improve methods of chunking in order to maximize human's memorizing potential (gilchrist. 2015). therefore, it is evident that although extensive research studies have attempted to portray the full picture of the human memory system, the experiments and explanations about chunking international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri │ 29 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) patterns and the comparison between the effectiveness of the human’s memory to memorize letters, numbers and a combination of these two aforementioned types are still limited. hence, this research is set to compare the effectiveness of working memory when retrieving textual information in different chunking methods. methodology the data collection was divided into two main parts depending on the types of textual information used: 10 randomly selected distinct alphabets ranging from a to z, and 10 randomly selected distinct numbers ranging from 0 to 9. the participants in this study were 50 high school students in bangkok. each was asked to work on five trails which all undergo different chunking methods: one-chunk where each set of textual information was told continually without any spacing, two-chunk where the textual information was split into the first 5 alphabets or digits and the other half, and three-chunk where the textual information was divided in 3 different ways, consisting of 4-3-3, 3-4-3, and 3-3-4 (see appendix). however, in this present study, the differences among these three chunking patterns are not emphasized. instead, they were all combined together as a result of the three-chunk method. after the results of 50 participants were collected, they were brought to perform t-tests using ibm spss statistics 24 to find whether each value was significantly different from one another or not. it is important to note that the participants were informed about the research purpose. they voluntarily decided to take part in this process of data collection. due to the pandemic of covid-19, this was conducted only. however, the audio was delivered with clarity which did not interfere with the ability to listen to the given information. in addition, the participants were aware of their right to withdraw their participation at any time that they felt they would like to. all the information of the participants was kept confidential. only the researchers could gain access to the data. no personal identification can be found in this study because only numerical data is presented. result and discussion according to table 1, the results showed that students could retain the information in the form of letters most effectively when it was delivered to them in 3 chunks. however, different patterns of chunks yielded different results. although it is not the focus of this study to scrutinize the pattern of chunking here, it is interesting to point out that chunking the information into the patterns of 4 3 3 and 3 3 4 such as 0916 789 879 or 091 678 9879 were found to be more effective than the other forms of chunking (one chunk, two chunks, and even three chunks in the pattern of 3 4 3). more evidently, when the textual information in the form of alphabets was chunked into 3 groups, the results revealed that students were more precise in memorizing the given information, compared to the information being divided into one or two chunks. the following sections do not focus on the patterns of three chunks, but the mean scores of the three patterns were calculated to make sense of the statistical findings. table 1 mean of correct answers in the letters part, number’s part, and combined part (n = 50) mean sd letter_onechunk 5.02 2.24 letter_twochunks 5.82 2.45 letter_4_3_3 6.08 1.99 letter_3_4_3 5.80 2.09 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri 30 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) letter_3_3_4 6.52 2.19 number_onechunk 5.66 2.50 number_twochunks 5.64 2.41 number_4_3_3 6.74 2.31 number_3_4_3 6.14 2.42 number_3_3_4 6.72 2.28 the paired t-test revealed that the mean scores of correct answers based on student memorization of the textual information in the form of alphabets (10 randomly selected distinct alphabets) of the two-chunk (x̄ = 5.82) and three-chunk (x̄ = 6.13) chunking methods were significantly greater than that of the one-chunk (x̄ = 5.02) chunking method as shown in table 2. table 2 t-test of the average number of correct answers in the part of the alphabet mean sd t df sig. 2-tailed onechunk twochunks -0.80 2.89 -1.96 49 .05 onechunk threechunks -1.11 2.51 -3.14 49 .00 twochunks threechunks -0.31 2.06 -1.08 49 .28 the paired t-test revealed that the mean scores of correct answers based on student memorization of the textual information in the form of numbers (10 randomly selected distinct digits) of three chunk method (x̄ = 6.53) was statistically greater than that of the two-chunk method (x̄ = 5.64) and that of the one-chunk method (x̄ = 5.66). however, no statistical difference was found between the mean scores gained from the two-chunk and one-chunk method as shown in table 3. table 3. t-test of the average number of correct answers in the numbers part mean sd t df sig. 2 tailed onechunk twochunks 0.02 2.76 0.05 49 .95 onechunk threechunks -0.87 2.57 -2.40 49 .02 twochunks threechunks -0.90 2.30 -2.75 49 .00 this study empirically portrays evidence to support that dividing textual information into different chunks can help improve the short-term memory capacity of learners. apart from this theoretical contribution, the findings from this study can also be implicated in education to make instructors perceive the effectiveness of chunking information to facilitate students' memorization and maximize their learning potentials. when instructors were designing their teaching materials, such as preparing lecture slides or making video lessons, they should keep in mind that despite the length and depth of the lesson, they ought to categorize the large chunk of information into two or three smaller chunks. nevertheless, they should also not put an excessive amount of information in a category as it might decrease the supposed effectiveness of chunking. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri │ 31 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) additionally, the results would indicate that more learning techniques should be implemented to build these cognitive skills for learners. various instructional approaches are believed to help students develop chunking skills by themselves, such as conceptual classification, tree-thinking, computational thinking, and binary thinking. it is likely that conceptual classification through thematic analysis and phenomenographic analysis can help students systematically organize ideas into categorical relationship where 2-3 chunks are divided, in which contain additional 2-3 sub-chunks (yasri et al., 2013; yasri & mancy, 2014; yasri & mancy, 2016; praputpittaya & yasri 2020; praputpittaya et al., 2020). despite the fact that tree thinking is a crucial ability for scientists that could enhance in biology and another general public, it is still not being used enough in education (novick & catley, 2018) recent researchers argue that by adopting the tree thinking method to help learners learn biology more effectively, their memorization outcomes substantially increase. (mutiara, et al., 2020; julaeha, et al., 2020). moreover, the significance of computational thinking education in the twenty-first century must not be overlooked, as digital computing technologies had emerged into practically all human activities (threekunprapam & yasir, 2020a). in fact, the method has gradually been adopted to improve students' understanding of certain topics (yadav, et al., 2017). to be more precise, many regions of the world put great attempts to implement this method into students’ courses, including in the united states, europe, and asia (threekunprapam & yasir, 2020b). in addition, while binary thinking is mainly used in computer mechanisms (gatenby, 2017), this tradition of binary thinking is also considered a foundation for the numerous forms of structuralism including education (chalmeau, et al., 2019). thus, regarding the result of this study, teachers are advised to use the strategy to facilitate students’ understanding, hence, improving their ability to memorize new knowledge. of course, the intention of this suggestion is not for promoting memorization as an effective mode of learning. it is fully acknowledged that this is rather a lower-order thinking skill. however, it is undeniable that our daily life activities involve a certain degree of memorization, and this is the area that we would like to encourage instructors to adopt. once students can be more effective in memorizing information, this would ease their learning skills in other advanced aspects such as understanding and application of content knowledge. in addition, our mere intention is to explain the phenomena in which we face on a daily basis when encountering textual information that is presented into 3 chunks such as advertisements, slogans, and 3-point sermons. moreover, it is essential somehow for people to memorize things such as phone numbers of important people and/or places. also, many students are required to learn to memorize something related to their learning materials, thus this could be an alternative strategy for them to adopt in time of need. furthermore, researchers interested in this strand of research in cognitive psychology may wish to extend the current study to explore the effect of other chunking methods such as 4 chunks or more. this can help advance our current understanding towards the maximum number of chunks that learners can retain within a short period of time. in addition, this study only focuses on a single type of textual information, either alphabets or numbers. it is also interesting to see in what ways learners’ cognitive capacity would differ if the information is more complicated such as the combination of alphabets and numbers. this latter suggestion would be more practical in daily life as we do not always encounter single types of information. in addition, as indicated above, this present study only focuses on the effectiveness of short-term memory as a result of receiving textual information in the three different chunking methods. however, the descriptive statistics showed that the student participants could memorize the information both in the forms of distinct alphabets and distinct letters when they were delivered into 3 chunks. it is interesting to further investigate why the different patterns of the three-chucks yield different cognitive capacity. also, it would be also interesting to see how participants with different age groups would perform in this international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri 32 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) process of experimentation. the cognitive capacity of younger students as well as older ones can be studied to compare against the results presented in this study. last but not least, it would be interesting to see how this chunking concept can be applied to actual instructional approaches, such as how to divide lesson plans into flows (chunks). for example, instead of delivering the whole content all at once, teachers could divide their lessons into three parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. if they have topics to cover in the body part, they could also chuck them into 2-3 groups to help ease students to take in the information. trails could be done with various learning settings such as game-based learning (piyawattanaviroj et al., 2019; meekaew & yasri, 2020), blended learning (seangdeang and yasri, 2019; maleesut et al., 2019; ingkavara & yasri, 2019), and hands-on learning activities (changtong et al., 2020). this would provide greater insight into how to apply the chunking method to learning and teaching. also, this could extend our current understanding of how chunking could yield some benefits to long-term memory. conclusion our short-term memory has a limited capacity of taking in information and retaining in the memory storage. however, this can be enhanced by various memory techniques, especially dividing the information into smaller chunks (not exceeding four chunks for a maximized ability). in addition, it was evident that for the information to reach the short-term memory, it must be unique and straightforward (single types of information rather than combined). however, to allow the information to be retrieved and retained more effectively, it is supposed to be delivered into different chunks. this study experiments that chunking textual information in the forms of 10 distinct alphabets and 10 distinct digits that are randomly selected into two and three chunks can help improve the cognitive capacity of the student participants (n = 50) to memorize the given information more effectively than the information that is delivered all at once. based on the findings mentioned above, it could also be implicated in education to depict how chunking methods maximize students’ learning potentials and short-term memory capacity. this study also suggests possible options for future research that can help advance our current understanding of the cognitive processing information, in particular the enhancement of our ability to retain information in our short-term memory. acknowledgement we would like to thank our student participants who took part in this study. also, thanks be given to the school to where the students belong. finally, suggestions given by reviewers of psychology and education were helpful to provide a more concrete direction on how to proceed with this current work. references chalmeau, r., julien, m. p., calvet, a., léna, j. y., & mainar, c. v. 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(2020). patterns of computational thinking development while solving unplugged coding activities coupled with the 3s approach for self-directed learning. european journal of educational research, 9(3), 1025-1045. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri 34 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) tulving, e., & patkau, j. e. (1962). concurrent effects of contextual constraint and word frequency on immediate recall and learning of verbal material. canadian journal of psychology, 16(2), 83. vogel, e. k., woodman, g. f., & luck, s. j. (2006). the time course of consolidation in visual working memory. journal of experimental psychology: human perception and performance, 32(6), 1436. yadav, a., gretter, s., good, j., & mclean, t. (2017). computational thinking in teacher education. in emerging research, practice, and policy on computational thinking (pp. 205-220). springer, cham. yasri, p., arthur, s., smith, m. u. & mancy, r. (2013). relating science and religion: an ontology of taxonomies and development of a research tool for identifying individual views. science & education, 22: 2679–2707. yasri, p. & mancy, r. (2014). understanding student approaches to learning evolution in the context of their perceptions of the relationship between science and religion. international journal of science education, 36(1): 24-45. yasri, p. & mancy, r. (2016). student positions on the relationship between evolution and creation: what kinds of changes occur and for what reasons? journal of research in science teaching, 53(3): 384–399 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 27-35 the comparison of chunking methods to enhance the cognitive capacity of short-term memory to retain textual information among high school students piwat suppawittaya, pratchayapong yasri │ 35 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) letters three chunk numbers three chunk appendix: evaluation form key experiments digits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 one-chunk (10) 3 7 9 6 8 2 5 4 1 0 two-chunk (5-5) 8 5 7 3 1 4 6 2 0 9 4-3-3 i m g y j v c l s a 3-4-3 p l g o d h v u b i 3-3-4 b y i v w c h d k m 4-3-3 2 6 9 5 8 0 4 7 1 3 3-4-3 9 6 2 1 4 7 5 3 0 8 3-3-4 5 1 8 4 7 9 0 2 6 3 one-chunk (10) g h s a c l b o q d two-chunk (5-5) h m a l c q j w f x 382.edited.format available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 134-142 corresponding author shahanyango@yahoo.com; oloohs@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.382 research synergy foundation computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang rongo university, kenya abstract this study examined the effects of computer assisted learning (cal) on the mastery of science concepts by learners in universities. teaching and learning of science concepts present learners with numerous challenges. of critical concern is the negative perception by learners that science based subjects are difficult, thus contributing to widespread poor performance by the learners in the national examinations and subsequently poor choice of the subject in the universities. solomon four group experimental design was employed for the study. the target population comprised all first-year students taking science subjects in 8 universities in western kenya. a sample size of 335 students was determined using krejcie & morgan table (1970). the universities were divided into two forming experimental and control groups. the study was carried out in 4 months spanning 16 weeks where pretest was administered after the first 8 weeks of conventional teaching and post-test administered after the next 8 weeks of treatment. pretest and post-test science achievements test (sat) on two topics, digestive system and light and optics, were designed and administered by the respective lecturers, and scores recorded. piloting was carried before the use of the instruments, and a reliability coefficient of 0.85 on sat was recorded. data were analyzed using t-test one-way anova. the study found that 171 students taught using cal achieved significantly higher scores in sat compared to164 students taught through conventional methods with a mean gain of 2.851. the study demonstrated that cal enhanced active manipulation of content and promoted interaction with content, and gave reality to abstraction. the study may be significant to educationists, lecturers, researchers, and policy makers as it provides insight on the benefits of applying computer assisted learning in science education. keywords: computer-assisted learning, learners, achievement test, science concepts, universities. this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction performance of learners in science the performance of learners in science-based subjects in national examinations has largely remained poor compared to other subjects (buindi 2013). reports by organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) indicated that 21% of learners across its member countries do not reach the baseline proficiency level of 2, which is the level at which learners should have acquired knowledge of basic science content and procedures (oecd 2016). in uganda, a study conducted by black, atwaru-okello, kiwanuka, serwadda, birabi, malinga, biumigishu, & rodd (1998) showed that science was a burden to the country’s education system because of lack of practical experiences and teaching facilities. similar studies in tanzania have also indicated poor performance in sciences (hamilton, mahera, mateng’e & machumu, 2010). in kenya, data from the kenya national examination council (knec), not only shows a similar trend to the other east african countries but further reveals a steady drop in achievement in sciences over the years (business daily, 2019). this has affected learners choice of science subjects in secondary international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 135 schools (omondi, 2013; maltese & tai, 2011) and led to poor performances recorded in kenya secondary school education (kcse) examinations with chemistry generating a mean of between 22.71 to 27.93, biology 26.21 to 30.32 and physics 31.31 to 37.86 between 2013-2017 (knec, 2017). the failure in the national examination has further resulted in the poor choice of science subjects for advanced studies in universities. this is because basic and secondary school science provides the requisite background for the advanced studies of science in universities (oduol, 2018). poor performance in the sciences is largely attributed to negative attitudes towards the subject (omondi, 2013; olatunde, 2009; abudu & gbadamosi, 2014), lack of teaching and learning materials (cemastea 2017), poor teaching methods (majo, 2016), and the difficulties in comprehension and understanding of science concepts by learners. the long term effect posed by these challenges is a reduced number of learners pursuing science related careers, despite the fact that science is considered as an enabler and foundation for wealth creation and economic development across the world (unesco, 2005; muzah, 2011; kibet, mbugua, muthaa & nkonke, 2012) computer assisted learning due to the rapid rise in development and advancement in information and communication technology (ict), the adoption and use of computers in the advancement of education cannot be ignored. accordingly, there has been increased uptake and integration of educational technologies such as animation, audio-visual, simulation, and use of powerpoint presentations in classrooms to help overcome teaching challenges and improve learning processes (jesuraja, 2015). these technologies potentially enhance learner’s academic outcomes by creating a richer environment for open and positive interaction and intuitive content delivery for better engagement and content retention by learners. technologically, an innovative lesson is a proven gamechanger that could revitalize the education sector by promoting active learning (bond & bedenlier, 2019; ainley & engers, 2007). in addition, the use of technology has been argued, creates interest, and increases the learners’ motivation, hence playing an important role in the teaching and learning process (u.s. department of education, 2017) due to the dynamism and advancement in learner environments, there is a need for universities to continuously adopt new pedagogical approaches for sustained engagement in order to influence learner behaviours, create a sense of ownership in the learning process, stimulate their intelligence, motivate and encourage them along the academic journey (mynbayeva, sadvakassova & akshalova, 2017). because of the increasingly poor performance in science, several studies have been carried out to encourage the use of cal approach to enhance learners' grasp of science concepts from formative to later school years. for instance, a study by galang & galang (2017) in computer-aided tool in science for kindergarten pupils found that cal was effective in enhancing learning in science and allowed the kindergarten pupils to develop the foundation necessary for future academic success. in a different study by bayrak & bayram (2010), computer-assisted learning had a positive effect on the academic achievement of learners in science and technology subjects. tareef (2014), in his study on the effects of cal on achievement and problem-solving skills of educational statistics, learners revealed that cal was more effective on the learners’ achievements than the traditional instruction methods. a study by sharma, (2017) concluded that cal has the potential to transform the education process and improve the efficiency of learning by encouraging and motivating learners. taken together, these studies validate findings that prove that using cal is an effective teaching method that can stimulate learner engagement and that engaged learners are good learners (bryson & hand, 2007; jang, 2008; troisi, 2014). appropriate use of cal in teaching and learning science can be beneficial to the acquisition of scientific knowledge and its practical application (unesco, 2012). the use of cal has the potential to international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) 136 │ meet the requirements of a constructivist framework that can help learners to build and acquire knowledge and make sense of it (ben-ari, 2001). the computer, as a learning tool, engages learners in interactions that build a more complete and richer recognition, recall, reconstructive, constructive, and intuitive understanding of concepts (sharma, 2017). by so doing, cal enables learners to internalize their thinking, perception, problem-solving, innovativeness, and manipulation of models provided by the computing system. cal can also contribute to the acquisition of varied knowledge as well as to promote learner independence, peer learning, and the urge for schoolwork (fafchamps & mo, 2018). further, cal can enhance the lecturer’s ability to hold each learner's attention and interest in the lessons, especially in large classes (galang & galang 2017). besides, many learners are today exposed to at least a digital device at an early age thus have acquired to some degree skills to take up cal with ease. because of the many benefits of cal in science teaching, researchers have championed its application to enrich learners' understanding of complicated concepts of science (keengwe & onchwari, 2008). for instance, in cal approach, simulation and gamification can be used to provide an environment or aspect of reality that is otherwise not possible to explore within the confines of the classroom (dina & ciornei, 2012; sahin, 2006); teach concepts that are either difficult or dangerous (hennessy, wishart, whitelock, deaney, brawn, velle, mcfarlane, ruthven & winterbottom, 2007). use of interactive computer animation to model complex realities in the understanding of cells in science (cakiroglu & yilmaz, 2017). the rationale for the study despite the above benefits, limited empirical data exist on the efficacy of the use of cal in science in kenyan universities. it is on this basis that this study sought to explore the effect of cal on mastery of science concepts in universities with a specific focus on experimenting, observation, and drawing of inferences. the study is geared towards informing policy formulations for enhancing uptake and improving learner performance in science with the hope that this may encourage more learners to take up science and consider a career in science-related fields. improved performance in science and related subjects will act as a strong pillar towards the realization and achievement of kenya vision 2030, the big 4 agenda, and the united nations sustainable development goals. theoretical framework this study was based on cognitive load theory (sweller, 1988), which focuses on the use of instructional methods that stimulate learners ability to efficiently apply mastered knowledge and skills to solve problems while taking into account the limited cognitive processing capacity of the human brain (sweller, 2012; sweller, ayres & kalyuga, 2011). cal could, therefore, be an appropriate instructional method because it is multi-sensory approach that involves the use of all senses that stimulate learners' ability to solve problems and reinforce abstract concepts. it is equally learner-centered and focuses on achieving mastery of science through experimenting, observation, and inferencing. these are proven methods of facilitating learning of science, considering that the subject requires a lot of practicals and self-learning to internalize as opposed to memorization associated with the traditional learning methods. the objective of the study the objective of the study was to investigate the effects of computer assisted learning on the learners’ mastery of science concepts in selected universities in western kenya. research hypothesis international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 137 h01: there is no significant difference in learners’ mastery of concepts in science between students taught using cal and those taught using traditional methods. methodology research design the study adopted the solomon four group design (solomon, 1949) whereby the eight universities selected for the study were divided into two forming experimental and control groups. the target population comprised of 8 universities in western kenya with a population of 2460 first-year students enrolled in science-based programs. the sample size of 335 first-year students was determined by use of krejcie & morgan table (1970), who were then randomly selected based on the subject combination of biology and physics. first-year students were selected for the study because of the change of teaching approach and broadness of the subject content in universities as compared to secondary education. the research design involved (i) pre-testing one experimental and one control group; (ii) administration of treatment to two experimental groups; and (iii) administration of post-test to all groups. the study was carried out in 4 months spanning 16 weeks where pretest was administered after the first eight weeks of conventional teaching and post-test administered after the next eight weeks of treatment. pre-test and post-test science achievements test (sat) on two topics, digestive system and light and optics were designed and administered by the respective lecturers, and scores were recorded. trained computer laboratory technicians were used to assist lecturers in teaching using cal. the pre-test was done to enable the researcher to check the entry behaviour and to determine whether the groups were similar in character before being taught using computer assisted learning. data analysis the data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and percentages) were used to summarize the data. inferential statistics involved the use of anova to analyze differences in the means of the post-test scores to find out whether there was any significant difference -. t-test was conducted to determine whether a significant difference was present between the pre-tests and the post-tests of the group. results the pre-test scores for the learners are as shown in table 1 below. table 1: learners pre-test scores scale control group 1 (c1) experimental group 1 (e1) pre-test n mean 89 13.51 84 12.67 standard deviation 4.33 4.35 the results in table 1 above show that at the point of entry c1 and e1 had mean scores of c1=13.5 and ei=12.67 and standard deviation of 4.33 and 4.35, respectively, which is an indication of homogeneity of entry behaviour. to determine the relative effect of cal on learners’ achievement in mastery of science concepts analysis of the learners’ pre-test and post-test sat scores were carried out, as shown in table 2 below. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) 138 │ table 2: learners pre-test, post test scores and means scores and mean gain on sat. scale control group 1 (c1) experimental group 1 (e1) pre-test mean 13.51 12.67 standard deviation 4.33 4.35 post-test mean 14.11 16.78 standard deviation 2.77 3.68 mean gain 0.59 4.15 after the study, experimental group e1 had a higher (m=16.78, sd=3.68) mean score than that of (m=14.11, sd=2.57) the control group. the mean gain of e1 was also greater (m=4.15) than that (m=0.59) of c1. it was, therefore, necessary to perform a t-test analysis as shown in table 3 below since the mean results could not show whether the difference in mean gain between c1 and e1 were significant at the 0.05 level. table 3: comparison of mean gain of groups on sat df t-value p-value 75 2.851 0.006 the results in table 3 revealed that the difference in mean gain was significant at 0.05 level in favour of e1. this meant that the result of the mean gain analysis suggests that sat enhances learners' achievement in the mastery of science concepts. the mean of the experimental groups e1 and e2 were generally higher than those of the control groups c1 and c2, as shown in table 4. this showed that cal had an effect on improving achievement as compared with conventional methods. table 4: sat post test mean and standard deviation group n mean standard deviation c1 89 14.11 2.57 c2 87 14.95 2.42 e1 84 16.68 2.68 e2 75 17.42 2.41 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 139 in order to find out whether the differences were significant at 0.05 level, an anova was performed, and results presented in table 5. table 5: one way anova of sat post test means score by learning method scale sum of squares df mean square f-value p-value between groups 237.506 3 79.169 9.695 0.0000x within groups 1257.538 154 8.166 total 1495.044 157 the results in table 5 revealed that the difference in sat mean scores among c1, c2, e1, and e2 was significant at the 0.05 level. the results, however, did not reveal where the differences were. accordingly, a multiple comparison test (post hoc) was performed to reveal where the differences were, as shown in table 6. table 6: multiple comparisons of sat post-test mean scores groups mean difference p-value c1 v/s c2 -0.55 0.863 c1 v/s e1 -2.28 0.007 c1 v/s e2 -3.30 0.000 c2 v/s e1 -1.73 0.067 c2 v/s e2 -2.47 0.003 e1 v/s e2 -0.75 0.723 c1 v/s e1 is significant in favour of e1 c1 v/s e2 is significant in favour of e2 c2 v/s e2 is significant in favour of e2 the result of the post hoc comparison analysis showed significant differences in favour of the experimental groups in that the subjects in the experimental groups outperformed the subjects that were in the control groups. it can, therefore, be concluded that the use of cal seems to have led to relatively higher achievement than the use of traditional methods to teach the two areas of biology. discussion the study had sought to find out the effect of cal on mastery of concepts in science’s topics of digestive system and light and optics. the results show that students taught using cal achieved significantly higher scores in sat compared to those taught through the conventional method. this could be attributed to the fact that cal provided students with a multisensory approach to learning since the computer simulations and animations gave reality to abstract concepts through 3d presentations, which were easy to manipulate and observe compared to the traditional approach. the students could international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 134-142 computer assisted learning for enhancing mastery of concepts in science sharon anyango onditi, stephen oloo ajwang issn 2721-2904 (online) 140 │ also learn at their own pace and review the concepts repeatedly without the computer becoming impatient or judgemental whenever a learner makes mistakes. in the traditional method, the lecturer tends to dominate the class whereas in cal neither the lecturer nor the learner dominates the process. cal enhanced active manipulation of content and promoted interaction with content, and gave reality to abstraction. during cal the lecturer’s role remained as a guide, and this allowed learning to be learner centered by enabling learners to explore and sharpen their problem-solving skills, which could be key in the mastery of concepts in science. cal also facilitated learners to be able to observe and make repeated inferences to concepts, thus mastering them. these findings were in agreement with similar studies carried by bayrak & bayram (2010); tareef (2014); sharma, (2017); bryson & hand, (2007); jang, (2008); troisi, (2014). the mean gain in performance could be attributed to the fact that cal made the learners be practically oriented, which agrees with a study by millar (2004) and abrahams & reiss, (2012), which concluded that practical skills enhance learners grasp of science concepts and knowledge about science. the experimental groups outperformed the control groups since they were able to master the selected process skills like experimenting, observation, and inferences better than the control groups. this finding is consistent with other studies that suggested that the application of technology improves thinking skills and the use of meta-cognitive abilities as well as the acquisition of content knowledge in science education (carmichael & farrell, 2012; hopson, simms & knezek, 2001). conclusions poor performance in science subjects has been attributed to the lose of critical manpower required to spur the economic growth and development of kenya. however, as per the findings of this study, the introduction of cal led to significant learning gains obtained by the learners exposed to treatment as compared to those not exposed to the treatment. therefore, the use of cal enhanced the acquisition of science content, mastery of science process skills that enable learners to understand the content deeper and equips them with knowledge for the future. recommendations based on the results, the study recommends the following: (i) a larger study to be carried out for generalization of results; (ii)universities should incorporate the use of cal in teaching and learning science more so in topics involving experiments, making observation and inferences; (iii) universities curriculum developers should integrate cal in the curriculum; and (iv) provide computers and computer 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(2005). towards knowledge societies. unesco. 192_ijrse-1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 26-41 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.192 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (april 17th, 2020); accepted (may 18th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria timothy moses a,1, sani yakubu b,2 a department of computer science, federal university lafia, nasarawa state, nigeria b department of educational management, nasarawa state university, keffi, nasarawa state, nigeria 1 visittim@yahoo.com*; 2 syk@yahoo.com abstract information and communication technology has changed instructional conveyance. advancement recorded in information assembling, teaching, and learning collection has given teachers new devices to work with, subsequently the upheaval in the field of training. this study examined computer literacy among science, technology, and mathematics (stm) instructors in colleges of education. discoveries show that the degree of computer proficiency among stm instructors is low. the explanation behind this incorporates few available skillful instructors, insufficient ict tools in schools, computer phobia, access to personal computers (pcs)/pc labs, and absence of ict devices for stm training. proposals were anyway made that will help improve the degree of proficiency among stm instructors. keywords: computer literacy, stm, vocational and technical colleges, ict tools. this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction one of the most significant deciding attributes of today’s information technology era is that data is expanding at a pace too quickly to even think about catching up (necdet, 2010). in an environment like this, it is important to make, create, and update the abilities of individuals in informationbased professions (tomte et al., 2019). otherwise, their expert abilities and status might be sketchy. essential aptitudes of 'teachership', as one of these callings, should be "educators' showing capacity", "world knowledge" and "subject knowledge". abilities in each of these regions change continually and can never again be pre-administration training. the usage of the word literacy has a profound history in the united states as it identifies with improving individuals' capacities to listen, read, and compose utilizing the english language (mary, 2007). literacy movement has utilized formal and informal instructional procedures with the express expectation to assist people to assemble core knowledge and aptitudes of communication that will assist individuals accomplish the full rights and advantages of citizenship. after some time, the word literacy was used by various timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 27 communities to depict a more extensive scope of human characteristics identified with sociocultural phenomena (e.g., social proficiency), innovations in technology (e.g., media, pc, and digital literacy), and competency domain (e.g., microsoftliterate). to be computer literate, therefore, is to have the capacity to utilize pcs and relevant innovation productively, with a scope of aptitudes covering levels from basic use to cutting edge critical thinking (haigh, 1985). looking at computer literacy from another perspective, the understanding of programming language and how pcs work (tomte et al., 2019). this paper plans to take a look at computer literacy among educators of science, technology, and mathematics (stm) in colleges of education. the paper is divided into seven sections. section two reviews works of literature on computer literacy among stm educators while section three studies of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria. section four is the methodology and section five gives a summary of findings and possible reasons for low pc proficiency among stm teachers. sections six and seven are the conclusion and recommendations respectively. literature review the computer is of extraordinary assistance, providing a platform to create and transfer any sort of data. right now, getting the fundamental data completely and on schedule; utilizing the retrieved information in personal and professional turn of events, and accordingly turning into a successful instructor is on the whole straightforwardly identified with the competency to utilize the pc adequately (necdet, 2010). even though no shortcoming of their own, most instructors are not prepared to teach using a pc because, they got their training (bc) before computers were invoked. presently, they're finding that, they need pc proficiency as a feature of their occupations (necdet, 2010). it is hence simple to infer that computer literate people will receive more prominent rewards than their partners who do not have that skill (satharasinghe, 2006). in obtaining data, making learning and showing process increasingly powerful, the alleged aptitudes of instructors, identified with pcs, are depicted as "computer literacy". this term implies more than ‘readers’ and ‘writers’ in the world of computers. these days, the expression, ‘electracy’ is preferred to be used instead of ‘computer literacy’ (ulmer, 2003). as indicated by ulmer (2003), electracy is to computerized media what education is to timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 28 | print, and is altogether not quite the same as the articulation ‘computer literacy’. electracy depicts the sort of education or ability important to utilize the full informative capability of new electronic media such as multimedia, hypermedia, social programming, and the virtual world while pc proficiency requires some comprehension of pc programming and how pcs work. the reason for this paper is to decide the degrees of stm instructors' pc proficiency, which is significant in obtaining data and making learning increasingly compelling. to comprehend the degree of pc proficiency among stm educators in this manner, it is imperative to recognize what ict instruments are utilized in stm instruction. this will empower us to have a smart thought fair and square of ict proficiency among instructors. the following sub-segment thusly looks to analyze ict devices and stm education. ict tools and stm education technology is a significant segment of every instructing and learning form associated with education. this is particularly valid if we desire an "allencompassing change of teaching in today’s digital technology" (balanskat et al., 2006). classroom rehearsals impact students learning (barak, 2014) therefore, it is critical to contemplate and see how ict instruments will enhance stm education. the advantages of information technology for students can be boundless, especially on the off chance that they become dynamic makers, ready to participate in the learning. ict instruments can have a significant effect on the numerous aspects of stm training, for example, adding to instructor capabilities, expanding the learning assets, expanding student and educator inspiration. in this section, we investigate three kinds of ict instruments that can help in stm education. these instruments are collaborative tools, online learning, digital and adaptive content. for every one of these classifications, we share a couple of instances of tools, clarify their utilization in stm training, their consequences for students and instructors, and also give a few proposals or instances of good practices. 1. collaborative tools "collaborative learning" is a collective term for several instructive methodologies including joint scholarly exertion by students and educators (berenfeld and yazijian, 2010). educators' convictions and perspectives affect the learning techniques and procedures they use (correll, 2015). ict-upgraded learning is seen as the outcome of ict support in teaching while involving students in dynamic, intuitive, and collaborative learning that brings about timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 29 students' increasingly significant and profound learning. from the perspective of learning and premium, the utilization of ict includes inspirational learning highlights for students who take part in collaborative work (davis, 2003). these devices permit students’ increasingly broad choices of assets, support arrangement, and surveying ones' activities, just as offer determination of assignments. innovation can be used to participate in cooperative learning; coarranging and various activities that help students feel near their companions. collective instruments additionally empower coordinated effort with specialists a good ways off. example of tools enormous scope instruments with the likelihood to share reports or make records include microsoft office, google docs, and microsoft one drive. distributed computing innovation can help instructors and students cooperative work and encourage overall connections. skype video meetings over the internet for example, might be utilized for presentations, exhibitions, and to empower intelligent collaborative learning. skype in the classroom site encourages instructors to set up virtual field trips, plan online master conversations, and e-learning. various telecommunity-oriented undertakings similar to the global learning and observations to benefit the environment (globe), join students and educators of various levels of learning in leading earth science research. 2. online learning the extent of internet learning in instruction is very wide going from student quiz-taking in especially hard topics (adesoji et al., 2019) to students following formal or informal courses online on a specific stm subject. a similar decent variety applies to educators. as indicated by unesco, "proficient learning" corresponds to the extra abilities and information which instructors obtain in their work, beyond what they figured out how to become qualified educators (dawson, 2012). computerized aptitudes for educators and students that can be created utilizing electronic learning include digital citizenship, which involves having the ict equipment and abilities to take part in an advanced society. for instance, to get to government data on the web, to utilize social networking sites, and to utilize a cell phone; computerized education – essential pc abilities, for example, having the option to do word-preparing or go on the web. furthermore, computerized ability prerequisites are going past advanced timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 30 | citizenship and literacy to include computational reasoning and more elevated software engineering aptitudes. example of tools computerized proficient improvement assets, for example, teachscape and knowledge delivery system (kds) are customizing advancement by giving applicable advanced courses for educators. innovation encourages coordinated effort and training among instructors. edconnective and edthena, for instance, permit instructors to transfer video-recorded talks for conversation. improved technology like innova in the closed-loop system is a mixed learning approach, where singular pc based learning is subsumed with educator-led collaborative learning sessions. institutional computerized massive open online courses (mooc) systems like the european school net academy are utilized to sort out stm courses to give educators, school advisors and vocation counsels with assets and thoughts to build students' enthusiasm for stm subjects and professions. students can likewise be straightforwardly drawn in through mooc or other online stages, offering seminars on stm themes. the microsoft imagine academy unites the web and face-to-face training to enable learning on principal innovation aptitudes, yet also specialized courses for students, workforce, and staff who are keen on seeking after a vocation in it after graduation. 3. digital and adaptive content advanced instructional materials are effectively versatile. a trifling case of a versatile computerized asset for instance, is an exercise provided by the teacher using ms word (adesoji et al., 2019). in any case, off-the-shelf instructional software as indicated by unesco (instructive projects, which are fit to be utilized by students without the educator doing anything to them) are normally closed and not adaptive (devlin, 2011). instructing and learning strategies, and not just substance, is versatile gratitude to instructional innovation (tomte et al., 2019). ict can supplement existing and rising academic methodologies, for example, a venture based, experiential, request based and versatile learning strategies (dziabenko et al., 2013). likewise, some instructive items are designed with customized and versatile substance and educational programs. this instructive item conveys separated learning with one-on-one pc-based learning, which is tailored to individual student needs, frequently utilized adequately with mixed learning approaches blending face to face and online instruction (irwin, 2014). as per karampiperis and sampson (2005), current timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 31 digital courses can be versatile in a manner that attracts students and researchers toward the path of learning, show progress with structures dependent on the utilization of a choice model that gauges the appropriateness of learning assets for a focus on student. example of tools computerized libraries are in their youthfulness and in a period of reevaluating into an increasingly versatile and intelligent asset of the community they serve. they ought to be collaborative, permitting students and teachers to contribute information to the library either effectively through explanations, audits, or latently through their examples of asset usage. the adaptive learning platform called knewton puts achievement within reach for students and researchers using adaptive technologies. dream-box learning math and geogebra offer math education with pc or tablet, while fluidmath helps students all the more to effectively envision and work with equations and functions. khan academy is a spearheading advanced learning association in k-12 instruction, with an enormous scope of stm versatile substance. online conditions have gotten increasingly intricate throughout the years because of higher transfer speed, accessibility, and innovation, including the development of monstrous multiplayer web-based imaging games. good examples of these web-based imaging games are minecraft and world of warcraft. numerous virtual and remote research facilities such as drosophila virtual lab and go-lab which are used for experiments with digital fruit flies and remote access tests and virtual scenarios using real data respectively are accessible for schools and advanced education students. interactive simulations and game-based programs like st-math builds up students' natural comprehension of numerical ideas. the glass-lab has adapted the famous simcity pc game for teaching. finally, ‘computer games are an ideal method to teach mathematics’ says stanford mathematician, k. devlin (the originator of inner-tube games) (langworthy, 2014). computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria stm education in colleges of education is training that gets ready students at different levels, from a trade to a lifelong craft. the stm instruction program has been a necessary piece of national improvement strategy globally and has prompted the acquisition of scientific knowledge and skills. teaching and timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 32 | learning of specialized subjects require the commitment of students in a practical classroom exercise, particularly with the use of ict instruments. stm instruction is designed to make ready students' ability to perform practicals that can be an entryway to profitable work after graduation. the purpose of stm instruction is to improve individual capability and human asset advancement. as indicated by the constructivist theory, learning is said to have occurred when students can effectively associate learning procedure to world problems. the educator is required to help the students to develop information through the instructing procedure by utilizing critical thinking and inquisitive technique as opposed to emptying information into passive learners. nigeria as a growing nation is putting forth an attempt to line up with the developed nations in the introduction of ict in schools to improve traditional techniques. the national policy on education (2004) of the federal government of nigeria stressed that no country can transcend the nature of its educator. therefore, the instructors who are the vehicle through which this accomplishment can be acknowledged should be all-around educated in the use of ict tools. the learning task which instructors open to students, help scaffold and bit by bit develop their comprehension of new ideas. research conducted by oso (2015) demonstrated pc education among educators of kogi state technical and vocational colleges. an engaging review configuration is embraced for the examination. the populace comprised of every single specialized school instructor in kogi state. the sample size is comprised of 50 specialized professional and instructive educators encouraging stm subjects. 25 items were used as an instrument for the survey. the survey was separated into three segments. the first segment comprises demographic information of the respondents, while segment b deals with the availability of ict equipment. segment c analyzed ict proficiency and use. the dependability instrument was discovered through a test-retest strategy utilizing the pearson product moment correlation. a coefficient of 0.68 was acquired. the survey was carried out under the authority of the school management. enlightening insights of the rate and recurrence checks were utilized to address the examination questions. the result obtained from that study showed a description of the type of facilities available in the area under study. computers, computer laboratories, and internet facilities give high frequencies in the number of facilities not available in timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 33 most institutions under study. this implies that computers and computer laboratories which are the core ict tools needed for stm teachers are not inadequate supply. another result from the study showed the level of utilization of ict tools in this area. the result shows that only the projector (80%) is frequently used, while computers and educational software are not always used in teaching students. going by these results, it is obvious that an inadequate number of computers have a direct effect on usage. another possibility is pc proficiency among stm teachers. pc proficiency of stm teachers as indicated in the study showed that teachers in the area under study are more comfortable using traditional methods of teaching stm subjects. only 28% of these teachers can operate computer systems. deebom and goma (2018) also carried out a study on the use of ict facilities among technical educators in rivers state. the sample size used for this study was 79. results from the study also showed the level of ict utilization. the study concluded that, though technical educators in the state are proficient in the use of computers, there is poor utilization of this knowledge in the teaching of stm subjects in the state. this implies that, there are no adequate measures put in place to ensure that technical educators in the state compulsorily use ict tools in teaching science, technology, and mathematics. another study conducted by onu and ezhim (2019) on the utilization of ict facilities in north-central nigeria showed that ict facilities are inadequate in this zone. the unavailability of these facilities is likely connected to the inappropriate utilization of funds allocated to the governments of these states for the project (onu and ezhim, 2019). the study further showed a mean score between 2.55 and 4.00 and standard deviation ranging between 0.31 and 1.07 on the utilization of ict tools by teachers. the mean score from the result obtained was above the benchmark set for the study, which was 2.50 (onu and ezhim, 2019). this agreed with their hypothesis that says there are great challenges in the utilization of ict facilities (onu and ezhim, 2019). lack of use of these facilities implies that there is low pc proficiency among teachers in the various states of north-central nigeria. the next section of this study will give a descriptive analysis of the survey we carried out in some of the colleges of education in the north-central part of nigeria. methodology to have an in-depth understanding of the level of computer literacy among stm timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 34 | teachers in colleges of education in nigeria, this work surveyed five different colleges of education in north-central nigeria. the main focus of the survey was to find out the availability of ict tools. the study differs from other studies carried out as more focus is given to software tools required for the learning and teaching of stm subjects. major software tools deliberated in section 2.1 of this work form part of the questions that make up the survey. 1. study design this work examined the level of pc proficiency among stm teachers in the study area. the study intended to ascertain that ict tools needed for teaching and learning stm courses are available, in use and to know whether stm teachers are proficient in the use of these tools. 2. population and sample size a total of 134 teachers from five (5) colleges of education in north-central nigeria were used to provide data for this study thus; they form the populace for this research. these institutions are federal college of education, kotagora, niger state; federal college of education, okene, kogi state; federal college of education, pankshin, plateau state; college of education, akwanga, nasarawa state and college of education, zuba, fct – abuja. 3. study instrument data for this study were gathered through a poll structure using google form. the study is a simple descriptive analysis from data obtained from respondents. the questionnaire has two sections. section 'a' concerned distribution of responses based on their various institutions. section 'b' has to do with three major issues of ict tools availability, usage, and teachers' proficiency. 4. results the results for this work are presented in tables 1 – 4. table 1: institutions of respondents s/n institution number of respondents % of respondents 1. federal college of education, kontagora, niger state 43 32.09 2. federal college of education, okene, kogi state 19 14.18 3. federal college of education, pankshin, plateau state 33 24.62 4. college of education, akwanga, nasarawa state 22 16.42 5. college of education, zuba, fct – abuja 17 12.69 134 100 timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 35 the result from table 1 shows that majority of population size was from the college of education, kontagora, niger state with 32.09%. though the majority of respondents were from niger state, the research still covers a good population size from other states in the north-central zone of the country. table 2: number of ict facilities available in the surveyed area. s/ n ict tools facilities are adequate facilities not sufficient no facilities freq % freq % freq % hardware tools 1. computer systems with convenient tables & chair 23 17.2 102 76.1 9 6.7 2. internet facilities and stable network 15 11.2 22 16.5 97 72.3 3. interactive whiteboard (electronic board) 08 6.0 83 61.9 43 32.1 software tools 4. collaborative tools a. padlet for teachers 0 0 0 0 134 100 b. skype for interactive/ collaborative learning 05 3.8 14 10.4 115 85.8 5. online learning tools a. teachscape and knowledge delivery system (kds) 04 3.0 0 0 130 97.0 b. massive open online courses (mooc) systems 09 6.7 19 14.2 106 79.1 6. digital and adaptive contents a. adaptive software and simulation systems like dream box learning maths, st-maths and geo gebra 17 12.8 0 0 114 85.2 b. virtual and remote research facilities like drosophila virtual lab and go-lab 17 12.8 0 0 114 85.2 table 2 gives a detailed description of the facilities available in the area under study. while hardware tools are considerably available, the result from this table shows that most of the institutions have no software tools necessary for teaching and learning stm subjects installed in their computer systems. results from table 3 shows that collaborative tools and adaptive contents are not utilized by teachers in teaching and learning stm subjects. the reason is attributed to the non-awareness of these tools as an effective and efficient method for teaching stm courses. the stable timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 36 | network also constitutes a major setback to the usage of most of these tools. table 3:usage of ict tools by teachers in the area under study. s/n whether teachers use ict facilities to teach students yes no freq % freq % 1. computer systems 36 26.9 98 73.1 2. internet facilities and stable network 27 20.1 107 79.9 3. interactive whiteboard (electronic board) 73 54.5 61 45.5 4. collaborative tools 0 0 134 100 5. online learning tools 17 12.7 117 87.3 6. digital and adaptive contents 0 0 134 100 table 4:level of pc proficiency among teachers in the teaching and learning of stm subjects. s/n proficiency level in the use of ict facilities skillful not skillful freq % freq % 1. i can teach students using a computer system 102 76.1 32 23.9 2. i know how to use an interactive whiteboard to engage students in learning 75 56.0 59 44.0 3. i can use padlet to interact with students on a particular topic, allow for live question bank, and gather students' work. 0 0 134 100 4. i have an idea of at least one online learning tool and i can use it effectively in teaching science, technology, or mathematics. 41 30.6 93 69.4 5. i have used and can effectively work with one of these digital and adaptive contents – dream box learning math, geo gebra, drosophila virtual lab, go-lab, st-math 5 3.7 129 96.3 6. apart from the hardware and software tools mentioned above, i have used and effectively can work with at least a tool to engage students in teaching and learning of science, technology, and mathematics 37 27.6 97 72.4 it is obvious from table 4 that though many teachers can teach using computer systems, lack of exposure to basic software tools needed for effective teaching and learning is a major challenge. none of the teachers in the area under study can use padlet to engage students. 96.3% of the respondents cannot use any digital and adaptive content for teaching stm subjects. the result from this table implies that the provision of hardware tools alone cannot solve the issue of pc proficiency among teachers in colleges of education in nigeria. the government will need to train and re-train timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 37 teachers to be able to keep pace with new tools needed for teaching and learning stm subjects. summary of findings from the discoveries in section 4.0, we can reason that there is a low degree of pc proficiency among stm instructors in colleges of education. the purposes behind this incorporate the following: 1. unskillful educators: the examination uncovered that instructors didn't utilize pcs, simulation, digital and adaptive contents in instructional conveyance. likewise the educators are not skillful in the utilization of ict facilities in teaching stm subjects. consequently, they can best be described as computer illiterates. this implies that a conventional technique for educating is still utilized in instructional conveyance in most of these vocational and technical colleges. little marvels that ict is still in its rising stage in the teaching of stm subjects. 2. inadequate ict facilities to improve pc proficiency:the examination uncovered that ict facilities like pcs, pc labs, networks, and electronic boards are not satisfactorily accessible in the schools. regardless of whether the educators were happy to utilize these tools in teaching stm subjects, the inaccessibility of the tools has a way of upsetting them. the investigation supports the discoveries of okwudishu (2005), who focused on the inaccessibility of some ict facilities in schools, which hamper instructors' use of the devices and capacity to stay informed concerning new ict apparatuses. okwudishu (2005) sees that, 90% of nigerian vocational and technical colleges have no pc and a considerable lot of the study halls are without ict facilities. many of these colleges do not have practical web facilities. 3. phobia for computers: computer fear has all the earmarks of being a mental marker for pc use and utilization in educating and learning stm subjects. it influences educators of colleges of education in the usage of pcs for showing logical ideas. this finding concurs with alabi (2015) submission that, the degree of pc proficiency has a noteworthy relationship on the level of computer phobia among educators of colleges of education in nigeria. 4. access to pcs and the web:the study as presented in table 3 additionally uncovered that instructors don't have access to computers and in most times, no stable network that can effectively aid in teaching. the much an educator can timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 38 | know and instruct relies upon how frequently he/she has access to ict equipment. this factor has brought about the degree of pc proficiency among stm instructors of colleges of education in nigeria. 5. ict tools for stm education:ict devices for stm education talked about in section 2.1 are inadequate and in most cases unavailable in many colleges of education in nigeria. these instruments are intended to help in the teaching and learning of science, technology, and mathematics. the absence of these instruments in colleges of education in nigeria is that as it may, affects the degree of pc education among stm instructors. conclusion the discoveries of this investigation have demonstrated that colleges of education in nigeria have a low degree of pc education in instructing and learning of stm subjects. the assets were found not to be sufficiently accessible and the educators have no instructive aptitude in the utilization of ict apparatuses for stm training henceforth, there is a skill gap. the high pc proficiency level must be conceivable through instructors' viable and proficient utilization of ict tools in their instructional conveyance. this will attract students to be involved in interactive and collaborative learning that will help them acquire the needed skills to be self-reliant. moreover, the perception has demonstrated that the nigerian government has not given stm education the consideration it truly merits. this is because of the adjustments in the world’s economy accentuation, which has moved from preparing for a lifelong profession to preparing for pcs and data innovation. nigerian graduates were scored low in specialized abilities by the world bank report of guardian news paper (2001). it revealed that nigerian graduates are lack capacity and don't have essential abilities subsequently fit for the world’s labor market. the mix of visual learning and innovations can adequately help to improve students' understanding and grow their mind-set. this will give rich learning encounters to students to participate in. the problem-solving exercises have shown that students are not only engaged in learning, but it stimulates them to want to learn more through collaborative tools. therefore, teachers need to keep pace with the software tools needed to engage these students. this will enhance classroom communicative interactions involving an apprenticeship kind of learning; planning students for occupations at different levels, from art/trade to a professional position in different fields. the style can likewise build timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 39 students' intellectual level, which perpetually reflects in the knowledge acquired in stm subjects. recommendation from this study, it is obvious that pc proficiency among stm educators in colleges of education in nigeria is low. this demonstrated that teaching and learning of science, technology, and mathematics in colleges of education can only be linked to traditional strategy for information conveyance with no effect on the job of pc proficiency. to be side by side with current patterns in teaching and learning of stm subjects for intuitive, dependable, assorted application and to enable a child to learn in a manner and a pace which suits his/her capacities, the accompanying proposals ought to be thought of. 1. the government ought to give enough funds to furnish the schools with important ict assets/instruments for stm subjects. 2. teachers ought to likewise be prepared on the utilization of ict assets to empower them to stay informed concerning the new advancement in the field of specialized training. this will assist them in building up the imperative ict abilities which will give them the fundamental handy and practical information on ict asset usage fully expecting to incorporate them in their teaching and learning collection. 3. there is a need for a supportive policy environment invigorated with an unmistakably enunciated reason for access to, and utilization of pcs and the web in colleges of education in nigeria. 4. colleges of education ought to build up their initiatives for setting up and utilizing pc labs such that every student will have access to a pc during classroom teaching. this can be achieved with effective time management for the use of computer laboratories. references adesoji, f. a., omilani, n. a., and francis, o. a. 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(2015). ict literacy among vocational and technical education timothy moses, sani yakubu a study of computer literacy among stm teachers in colleges of education in nigeria international journal on research in stem education, volume 2 no. 1, may 2020 | 41 teachers in kogi state technical and vocational colleges: skill gaps. european centre for research training and development, 3(5), 2130. satharasinghe, a., (2006). census on computer literacy of teachers. retrieved from http://www.statistics.gov.lk/education /it%20literacy%20survey/index.htm on 4th april, 2020. the world bank report in the nigerian guardian news paper feb 19 (2001). tomte, c. e., fossland, t., aamodt, p. o. and degn, l. (2019). digitalization in higher education: mapping institutional approaches for teaching and learning. quality in higher education, taylor & francis, 25(1), 98-114. ulmer, g. l. (2003). internet invention: from literacy to electracy. new york: longman. microsoft word ijrse3_rtp_gender gap in stem education (2).edited-2.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 55-63 corresponding author anthony.kenneth@ed.christuniversity.in doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.369 research synergy foundation gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth1 1department of school of education, christ university, bangalore, india. abstract although the gender gap in education has been narrowed over the past decade, women are frequently under-represented in stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields in higher education and universities. the women in science report from unesco shows a significant gender gap in women representing stem worldwide. this article aims to explore the reasons for such a decline in women representing stem through an argumentive literature review. findings from numerous studies denote that factors like variations in interests, enterprising and artistic, to work with people and materials, lesser awareness of stem, spatial ability, and biases affect the enrollment of women in stem. this review study can be used as an insight for stakeholders, policymakers, and educators to promote more research towards making stem attractive for both genders and providing early education that makes stem attractive for both genders. keywords: stem education, gender, gender differences, gender equality paradox this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the term “stem education” refers to teaching and learning in the field of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics” (gonzalez & kuenzi, 2012). it can be in all levels of education from k-12, doctoral, and post-doctoral. it is an approach based on an integrated, interdisciplinary approach; it is not a discipline-specific content but is treated as a single unit (merrill, 2009). stem started to gain much interest when students enrolled in stem education were perceived to have an advantage in college while choosing to pursue stem in postsecondary education (butz et al., 2004). it serves as a gateway for those interested in pursuing this field in their higher levels of education. it gives them a specialized knowledge of their subject and often brings about professional development; students interested in this field also get experience in this field at an early age and can make the best use of it. however, the underrepresentation of women in the field of stem is observed worldwide (burke & mattis, 2007; ceci & williams, 2011; ceci, williams, & barnett, 2009; cheryan et al., 2017). even though there has been immense progress and subsequent empowerment of women in the education sector, participation in stem education does not reflect so. however, women are well represented in the social and life sciences field (ceci et al., 2014; su & rounds, 2016). but underrepresented in computer science, engineering, technology, and mathematics. despite efforts to bring about a change, this trend has been stable for decades, even in developed countries like the united states (national science foundation, 2013). women are a minority in this field, and this under-representation of women in stem is an obstacle to achieving international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 55-63 gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth 56 complete utility of the human capital. overcoming such obstacles would certainly increase economic growth and boost a country’s economy. this review article tries to address the following research questions: research question 1: to what extent are women underrepresented in the field of stem worldwide? research question 2: is the gender gap in stem observed in countries with a higher gender equality index? research question 2: what are the reasons for the under-representation of women in stem? literature review stem disciplines were defined as occupations that required education in streams like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (jang, 2016). proper stem education helps students to use and understand technology effectively in their day-to-day life (bybee, 2010). studies related to the gender gap in stem are not new, considering the immense advancement of women in varied education streams. with the rise in women's empowerment, there is a growing concern about the minimal amount of participation of women in stem. parental support and perception also influence students to pursue stem education (kelly, 2016; wang & degol, 2013). factors like gender stereotypes still affect students, and teachers, hampering and discouraging the prospects of women's workforce in stem. according to the report from unesco institute for statistics (uis) data, the representation of the world’s women researchers is less than 30% (women in science 2019) refer figure 1. figure 1: the representation of women in research as of 2017 (women in science, 2019). the gender gap can be observed in leadership positions and among female research leaders (garcía-holgado et al.). based on observations in the variation of participation in each subdiscipline of stem, women have made more progress in the field of biomedical sciences and social sciences, constituting about 50% of participation. whereas, in the field of engineering, it's only about 20% (national science foundation, 2013). the gender gap in stem can also be observed in countries ranked highest on the global gender gap index, termed the "genderinternational journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 55-63 gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth 57 │ equality paradox.” this issue deals with countries that exhibit gender equity showing a large gender gap in stem education (secondary and tertiary). one good example of this is finland, ranked 3rd in the global gender gap index (global gender gap report 2020). the girls in finland outperform boys in sciences during school, but finland has one of the most massive stem gaps in college degrees. this was also observed in countries like norway and sweden, which are again ranked 2nd and 4th in global gender gap index and emphasize gender equality. in these countries, statistically, there were differences in boys' and girls' intraindividual academic strengths (stoet & geary, 2015). in the pisa test conducted worldwide (2015), it was observed that boys scored more in mathematics in most countries than in reading, and girls scored more in reading than mathematics. when it was calculated for personal academic strengths on an average, it was seen that 24% of girls had the sciences as their strength, 25% of girls had mathematics, and 51% of the girls had reading as their strength. boys had 38% for science as their strength, 42% for mathematics, and 20% for reading. boys had more aptitude for mathematics and sciences than in reading, but some girls did better than boys in science in egalitarian countries like finland and norway but had less female enrollment for stem education in universities. even though girls performed better than boys in mathematics and sciences, girls performed much better in reading compared to math and sciences (stoet & geary, 2018), and students showing higher aptitude in language-related competencies prefer to major in humanities than opting for stem (park, lubinski, & benbow, 2007). hence, most of them were seen opting for fields other than stem. figure 2: representation of the share of female researchers country-wise as of 2013 (women in science, 2013) figure 3: representation of the share of female researchers european union as of 2013(women in science, 2013) methodology in the present analysis, secondary data obtained from available literature on stem education and the reasons for the existing gender gap was considered. the same was furnished from premier journals; additionally, the census data representing the worldwide gender gap was obtained from the report by unesco pertaining to women in science. after collective analysis, the data was compiled to provide a comprehensive understanding of the reasons for the underrepresentation of women in stem, which is the core objective of this review article. stem education stem education is often misunderstood, and many reasons for this are the fact that it is not a mainstream form of education. many were not aware of stem and had a proper understanding international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 55-63 gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth 58 or can even explain it, and there can be a common misconception that it refers to the study of stem cells. stem education originally began with the acronym “smet,” which on occasions sounded like “smut”, due to which the acronym was eventually changed to “stem” (sanders, 2008). even though the name sounded very intriguing and was expected to take the education system by storm, it is quite the contrary. the reason for this is the lack of several teacher educators available in stem, and the teachers tend to employ conventional methods which demotivate the students, and quite often, many lose interest in the early ages of stem and drop out. also, environmental factors, the pedagogical, and the infrastructure that is involved in stem are expensive to implement. besides that, the employers hiring stem graduates reported they struggled while working with teams (prados et al., 2005). other skills include; communication skills, collaborative skills, management, problem-solving and critical thinking are often reported to be lacking among stem graduates (tang et al. 2000; radermacher and walia 2013). however, one of the significant issues in stem has been its gender gap; addressing this gap is essential as, research in science is more accurate with the inclusion of women; from designing a vehicle or a medication for the heart, women, and men process it differently. women also bring about a unique perspective in research. new ideas and research questions from different perspectives are possible in a gender-diverse environment (bert, 3 reasons gender diversity is crucial to science 2018). a gender-diverse individual in stem can also result in equally talented individuals in the stem workforce. though some women pursue stem in their bachelors and masters, it is drastically reduced in ph.d.'s, a phenomenon known as the "pipeline problem” (van den hurk et al., 2019) reason for the gender gap according to a study conducted by swafford and anderson, the domination of stem careers by males, less awareness of the career and study opportunities, lesser female mentors, the duration to become an expert in stem, lesser encouragement from the opposite sex have an impact on the number of females in stem (swafford & anderson, 2020). based on the report from census bureau’s american community survey (acs), women comprise 48 percent of the us workforce but just 24 percent of stem workers. although the women’s share in college education has been enormous, their share in stem work has been the same for decades. this stagnancy is seen in jobs related to computers and mathematics; a drop in the number of women is also seen in the field of engineering, and such stagnancy can create a gender gap in business and start-ups related to innovation resulting in fewer women entrepreneurs with stem backgrounds (kuschel et al., 2020). women are a minority in this field of stem, and this under-representation of women in stem keeps us from fully utilizing the human capital. utilizing this would increase financial growth and boost a country’s economy significantly. only one out of every seven engineers is female, and men were more likely than women to have a stem job regardless of their qualifications (beede et al., 2011). career choices are also seen to differ among college-educated men and women; it was observed that men are more likely to stay in a career path with respect to stem after graduation. it was also observed that women are more likely to drop from this field than men (miller & wai, 2015). studies have also shown that “investigative interest” is also the most significant indicator of pursuing a stem education or career (su & rounds, 2015). gender differences are observed to be more prominent during middle school (tracey & ward, 1998). it was seen during their adolescent stage, and boys scored more compared to girls on “investigative interest” (collier et al., 1998; hardin & longhurst, 2016; jacobs, 2005; su et al., 2009; tracey & ward, 1998). when their international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 55-63 gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth 59 │ “enterprising and artistic interests” are higher than investigative interests, young women are more unlikely to pursue stem fields (cardador et al., 2020). being interested in other fields during college also is another reason for women diverting out of stem majors (seymour & hewitt, 1997). women are more likely to be seen as having more significant math and verbal skill (mccabe et al., 2019). this combination is associated with lower enrolment into stem compared to just having only higher mathematical skills (wang et al., 2013) women are likely to deviate from stem, and about 40% of men with stem degrees work in a stem field. in comparison, only 26% of women with stem degrees work in that field. females with stem majors are likely to work in education or healthcare, which is nearly one in five of every stem-educated woman. whereas the ratio of men working in education or healthcare is about one in every ten. 14% of women end up in the education occupations, but only 6% of men end up in the education occupation (beede et al., 2011). men and women deviate in their career choices after stem, with women showing less preference for pursuing a stem career after graduation compared to men. studies regarding this varied change and male dominance have suggested that this could be due to preferences among males to work “with things” and women “with the people” (lubinski & benbow, 1992; ceci et al., 2009; su et al., 2009). women are interested in fields oriented towards “people” and men towards “things”. it is very natural for an individual to perform better in an environment that is more suitable for them and has a scope for their progress. if one favors the work environment, they are likely to stay there for longer durations. this likability to a particular environment also influences career choice and performance. people choose to stay or leave based on these above factors, and it has numerous studies have shown that more than men, women have a stronger preference to work in environments that cater to people (thorndike, 1911; woodcock et al., 2013), social interests (su et al., 2009; robertson et al., 2010), subjective task values ( meece et al., 1982; eccles, 2007), and communal goals ( diekman et al., 2010; mccarty et al., 2014). women have consistently performed better than men in occupations that are peopleorientated, and men performed in occupations that are oriented toward things (woodcock et al., 2013). people-oriented career is contrary to engineering and research. one has to spend hours together in labs, and it is likely to suit better for people who are oriented toward working with things. a study conducted with 47 interest inventories and 503,188 participants and was observed that males, on average, again scored more on a realistic scale that was based on things and gadgets. females, on the contrary, scored more on the scale which measured helping people. (su et al., 2009). also, a study conducted by (mccarty et al., 2014) showed that the participants giving more preferences to communal goals showed deviance from the work environment that offered less scope for communal goals. it was observed that this communal goal adversely affected the person opting to pursue stem careers. since women scores have more interests in communal goals, there were unlikely to work in environments that offered less scope for the community, including the stem field (diekman et al., 2010, 2011). this interest and preference towards the environment favoring communal goals affect the majority of women in stem. apart from interests, the difference in early childhood spatial ability can also contribute to the emergence of gender differences in mathematics and science later (ceci et al., 2009; wai et al., 2009). sex hormones released further increase the spatial ability difference (voyer et al., 1995). the evolutionary reason that men had to cover the distance to hunt in the early day required spatial skills (buss 1995, 2015). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 55-63 gender gap in stem education: why is there a decline in women's participation? anthony kenneth 60 findings and discussion the advancements in technology and progress made in education equity have still not seen a reduction in the gender gap in the fields of stem over the past decades. the unesco reports from 2013 to 2017 have still shown a noticeable gender gap. women are still underrepresented in the fields of research and publications. the gender gap has been witnessed even in developed countries and in countries ranked highest in the world for gender equality. this is paradoxical because countries like sweden, finland, switzerland, and the netherlands are designing policies and reservations to create equal opportunities for both men and women. however, they also have noticeable gender gaps in stem and research. welldeveloped countries like the usa are also seen as having such prominent gender gaps. therefore, the problem must lie with the education policy rather than socio-economic status and gender inequality. another question that can arise is, are women and men biologically attracted to individual career choices? if such is the case, then gender equality in some fields cannot be achieved and would instead be asking to deviate from their natural interest. however, stakeholders and policymakers must ensure that children are educated in a genderneutral environment. the curriculum should not be gender-biased. the children should not experience any gender socialization towards a particular stream of study because of their gender. the reasons derived from this article could also be used to provide solutions to create a non-biased curriculum. students should be provided the necessary support at an early age from guidance on stem, for example, familiarizing the use of technology amidst all gender, stimulating the spatial memory, removing stereotypes within classrooms, and providing guidance to parents. reducing the gender gap would create a larger workforce for women in stem and increase the economy of a country and especially in the post-pandemic situation, since a greater demand for individuals in the field of stem might arise soon. conclusion there is a constant gender gap in the number of female students opting for stem and choosing to work in this career. even the countries ranked highest in the global equality index have shown some large gaps in stem fields. countries like finland have girls performing better than boys in science and mathematics; however, they saw a large gender gap in stem enrollment in universities. identifying these gaps is essential as working on these factors could provide us with the solution to make it attractive for the fall-out gender. education systems should neutralize the gender gap; this can be implemented in early childhood education and schools; boys can be encouraged to read more. girls can be encouraged to operate gadgets and technology, activities to improve spatial intelligence, and remove gender stereotypes. students should be given equal opportunities to exercise their investigative interests and critical thinking skills. workplaces also can be made more “people-oriented” with frequent peer interactions to make stem careers attractive for a more significant number of females. studies should be done to identify more reasons for the gender gap; these reasons can provide a solution for bridging the gender gaps in the field of stem. conflict of interest the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. reference beede, d. n., julian, t. a., langdon, d., mckittrick, g., khan, b., & doms, m. e. 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(2019, june). retrieved october 2020, from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs55-women-in-science-2019en.pdf 201_ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) vol. 2, no. 1, issue, pp. 42-58 doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i1.201 issn 2721-3242 (print), issn 2721-2904 (online) article history: received (april 28th, 2020); accepted (may 5th, 2020); published (may 29th, 2020). understanding brain plasticity in learning process yuliana yuliana anatomy department, medical faculty, udayana university, indonesia lee.yuliana@gmail.com abstract brain plasticity takes an essential part in the learning process and memory retaining. brain plasticity is connected with myelin sheath development and oligodendrocyte plasticity. dynamic myelination is attained through certain learning activities. oligodendrocyte plasticity means changes of oligodendrocyte precursor cell number either increasing or decreasing. this review aims to reveal what learning style is better in optimizing learning capacity by understanding dynamic myelination, brain plasticity, oligodendrocyte plasticity, and learning process. the review paper was based on journal reading. keywords for literature searching are "learning, myelin, brain, plasticity, oligodendrocyte" with filters in the last 5 years in the pubmed website. pubmed was considered as one of the qualified journals. it doesn't rule out the possibility of using another journal that is not listed in pubmed. result showed 36 articles. other citations were added based on the previously selected journals. the learning process is closely related to encoding. making schema while learning new objects are very useful in increasing oligodendrocytes cells number. the paper limitation is it didn't describe how the learning process might improve school performance and success in later life. there isn't any comparison about how each learning activity has an unequal effect on dynamic myelination, brain plasticity, and daily life skills improvement. this review paper's significance is myelin was not static, but it is dynamically changed through learning activities, new experiences, musical, or even practical training. exposure to a new environment in the learning process will improve myelination and optimize learning. learning new things is good for our brain because it will prevent dementia. keywords: learning; myelin; brain; plasticity this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction learning is an important part of our daily life. we learn how to drink, eat, crawl, walk, run, and even memorize many things. playing musical instruments, riding a bike, playing football also need learning as important activities. learning involves many parts of our body. they are limbs, brain, sensory, and reflex. the brain is the coordinator of other parts of our body. learning can't be separated from the brain. the brain has plasticity property. learning has an important contribution to brain plasticity. to learn is to myelinate. myelination is equal to brain plasticity. learning might change white matter microstructure and myelin sheaths number (arancibia-carcamo et al., 2017). brain cell, namely neuron, is covered by a myelin sheath. oligodendrocytes and schwann cells form the myelin sheath. myelination is dynamically changing from time to time (mount & monje, 2017). understanding how dynamics of yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 43 myelination and brain plasticity will optimize learning capacity. this review aims to reveal what learning style is better in optimizing learning capacity by understanding dynamic myelination and brain plasticity (long and corfas, 2017). this review aims to reveal what learning style is better in optimizing learning capacity by understanding dynamic myelination, brain plasticity, oligodendrocyte plasticity, and learning process. the learning process is closely related to encoding. making schema while learning new objects are very useful in increasing oligodendrocytes cells number. this review paper's significance is myelin is dynamically changed through learning activities, new experiences, musical, or even practical training. a new environment or new habit in the learning process will improve myelination and optimize learning. theoretical perspectives information processing takes place in the gray matter of the brain. synapses connect different neurons. they reside in the gray matter. synapses are the major components of information processing and plasticity. myelinated axons lie beneath the gray matter and form functional neuronal circuits. myelin formed by oligodendrocytes shows plastic changes depending on neuronal activity (wake & kato 2015). oligodendrocytes are categorized as multipolar giant cells (fields, 2015). brain processes information depend on the action potential. these action potential are affected by tripartite synapse consists of astrocytes or oligodendrocyte. oligodendrocyte takes an important part in axonal myelination (yamazaki et al., 2018). impuls delivery will be enhanced along the axons (cabezas et al., 2017). myelination is very important in rapid saltatory conduction. myelinated axons will deliver information faster than unmyelinated ones (williamson and lyons, 2018). action potential velocity will be dramatically increased (yamazaki, 2019). cognitive development will be increased. we can think and move faster due to myelin sheath involvement (arancibia-carcamo et al., 2017). axonal conduction (included plastic changes) are occurred due to oligodendrocyte depolarization. oligodendrocytes and astrocytes are also called perineuronal glial cells (yamazaki et al., 2018). it was revealed in a study that there was a synapse between myelin and axon. axon might dynamically signal glia. axomyelinic synapse might support the learning process. myelin whilst disorder in the synapse will cause abnormalities of the central nervous system such as yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 44 | schizophrenia and multiple sclerosis (micu et al., 2016). perineuronal oligodendrocytes can depolarize or hyperpolarize based on input stimulation, thus these cells are important in neuronal activity modulation. neuron afterhyperpolarization might be increased by aging, fear, or eye blink learning. meanwhile, decreasing of afterhyperpolarization could happen during learning (yamazaki et al., 2018). myelin was previously considered as a static electric insulator, however recent studies reveal that myelin can be dynamically regulated by neuronal activity (fields, 2015). myelin takes an important part in brain plasticity. enriched environments and experiences might increase myelination (kaller et al., 2017; swire & constant, 2018). in a study, there was a delayed loss of white matter when the enriched environment was given. myelin volume and length also increased in the experimental group which consisted of middle age and old age rats (fields, 2015). myelin is formed in a special place between segments of the ranvier node. ranvier node (node of ranvier) is a special segment that is unmyelinated. myelin is important in increasing the conduction velocity of impulse propagation along axons. impulses will be delivered faster by going through myelinated axons (freeman et al., 2016). myelin is very complex in structure and formation compared with synapse. myelin is the most complex intercellular junction. it is the largest among the other cellular junctions. myelin formation needs harmonay of biological cell processes to recognize cell and membrane in a specific way, to wrap axons in smooth order, and maintain appropriate ion channel throughout the life span. myelin and ranvier node can only be seen through electron microscopy. however, myelin has a large size compared to other cells in the brain. myelin plasticity involves behavioral, molecular, morphological, and electrophysiological changes (fields, 2015). activity-based on myelination is very critical in a larger brain due to complex neural activity. conduction delay and precise brainwave rhythm are two substantial items in a larger brain. myelin plasticity is crucial in the learning process. it will enhance cognitive performance. any abnormalities in this process will cause neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. understanding the process precisely might suggest new insight in seeking the best therapy for related disorders (fields, 2015). memory is dynamic. it is being stored and encoded in a continuous process. the brain is very capable of creating meaning. creating new meaning in the orderly pattern yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 45 of preexisting knowledge structures called schemas (hasan et al., 2019). hippocampus is involved in various emotional, cognitive, and sensory information (hasan et al., 2019). long-term memories consolidation including declarative and autobiographical memories are processed in the hippocampus. gene expression is important in changing new information into long-lasting memories. long-term structural change will be formed at the end of the process of consolidation (travaglia et al., 2016). methodology this review paper was based on journal reading. keywords for literature searching are “learning, myelin, brain, plasticity, and oligodendrocyte” with filter published in the last 5 years in the pubmed website. result showed 36 articles. those 36 journals were selected based on their relevancies to the paper topic. other articles in the references were added based on the previously selected journals. pubmed was considered one of the qualified journals. it doesn't rule out the possibility of using another journal that is not listed in pubmed. findings and discussion myelin sheath regulates central nervous system plasticity and repair. these special sheath changes contribute to the fine-tuning of neuronal networks. thus, it will affect the nervous system plasticity, cognitive processing, and learning (jeffries et al., 2016). in the end, myelin plasticity is crucial in the learning process. activitydependent changes in myelin result in many signals on the spatial and temporal aspects (gibson et al., 2017). myelin plasticity needs a cell to cell recognition. there is a special signal complex among axon, neuron cell, and glial cells. electrical activity in axons arranges all phases of myelination. the phase starts when oligodendrocyte signals an axon to make a special intercellular junction. the electrical stimulation of axons increases intracellular calcium (fields, 2015). learning style comparison actions are considered as low-demanding tasks. prolonged unchallenging activities might worsen cognition and brain function. therefore, learning should include new skill mastery or an environment to optimize its capacity (baddeley et al., 2017). learning new skills might include learning how to play the piano, running, doing juggling, or even reaching exercise (arancibia-carcamo et al., 2017; field, 2015). learning changes adult white matter. new myelin-forming oligodendrocytes and myelinated axons will be created (bujalka yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 46 | & emery, 2017). oligodendrocytes cells coil axon membranes in a circle way to form the myelin sheath (cabezas et al., 2017). myelin is formed of the fatty substance (arancibia-carcamo et al., 2017). axons function is a transmission line from one neuron to another by using specific action potential at the neuron proximal part. action potential velocity might change according to the activity type. sometime, axons might fail in their function. axon might express ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, which could induce neuromodulation (bucher, 2016). the brain responds to physical exercise, motor learning, social interaction, and the enriched environment through cellular and functional changes. white matter volume will be increased. sensorymotor stimulation increased more oligodendrocytes in the visual cortex. meanwhile, sensory deprivation and social isolation will decrease oligodendrocytes number (keiner et al., 2017; swire & constant, 2018). social isolation will affect prefrontal cortex changes. finally, impulse conduction will be decreased (etxerberria et al., 2016). acquiring new motor skills involve memory consolidation and skill learning. the more practice is done, the more automatic skills will be achieved (lakhani et al., 2016). musical instrument learning and training enlarged anterior corpus callosum compared to controls. various sports training will increase oligodendrocyte genesis (keiner et al., 2017). running increases synaptic plasticity and cellular activity in the hippocampus (zheng et al., 2019). synaptic plasticity means synapse formation (synaptogenesis), remodeling, and elimination (fields, 2015). learning new skills might mediate oligodendrocyte development in the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex. cortical neurons and corpus callosum will also be stimulated. cell number and thickness of oligodendrocytes might increase about 4 weeks after the stimulation. there will be new myelin sheath formed by oligodendrocytes on the active axons (xiao et al., 2016). once new myelin sheaths are formed, they are likely to remain there even though the stimulations are stopped (hughes et al., 2018). mental schema's roles are as cognitive structures. the medial prefrontal cortex is important in processing schema-related mnemonic function. hippocampus will interact with anterior cingulate cortex to guide decision making through experiences (hasan et al., 2019). yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 47 brain plasticity brain plasticity comprises of myelin plasticity, neuron plasticity, oligodendrocyte plasticity, synaptic plasticity, and white matter plasticity. plasticity is the ability of neural components to reform their shape and connectivity through experience, emotions, cognition, or learning new things through an adaptable manner. plasticity may positively enhance cognition. the circuit function will be changed through plasticity. stress might also contribute to plasticity. elevated plasticity markers might favor the memory and learning process. however, the uncontrolled elevated marker may cause neurologic diseases (cabezas et al., 2017). brain plasticity study focused on a synapse. synapse is very important in the learning process and memory. nevertheless, plasticity might happen outside synapses. plasticity might happen in myelin, the white matter of the brain, and other parts of the brain. those precious experiences will powerfully shape the brain and result in plasticity (cabezas et al., 2017). there are variations of synaptic plasticity among brain regions. the cerebral cortex has systemic variation. the limbic area is more variable in synaptic plasticity than cortical and eulaminate area. larger dendritic arbors are found much more in the limbic area than the eulaminate area. pyramidal neurons are also variable in their myelin content. synaptic plasticity variation depends on synaptic turnover and postsynaptic receptors (cabezas et al., 2017). these variabilities might be due to various stages of cell development, different stimulation such as learning type, emotions, or physical condition (arancibiacarcamo et al., 2017). variations of myelinated axons are very useful to adjust their conduction velocity. changes in membrane capacitance and axial resistance will affect current flow in axons. internode length in the peripheral nervous system is decreased near the synaptic terminal to make conduction time more effective (ford et al., 2015). astrocytes as glial cells have essential roles in a molecular and cellular process. these cells regulate neurotransmitters and synapse. thus, synaptic plasticity will be higher (singh and abraham, 2017). white matter is almost half of total brain content. it consists of axons. axons are available in two types, myelinated and nonmyelinated (unmyelinated). the composition of myelin is mostly lipid. the total length of all myelinated axons of an adult brain is approximately 160,00 kilometers. white matter also consists of oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocyte precursor cells. in a study of rats, one oligodendrocyte cell was able to yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 48 | myelinate more than 20 axons. one example of a disorder of white matter is multiple sclerosis (fields, 2015). the brain develops well until adulthood and starts to decline gradually around 50 years olds. experiences, exercises, sleep, reading, decision making, vocabulary memorizing, and new skill learning will cause white matter changes in whole life. long time practice such as piano playing also causes white matter changes, i.e. in corticospinal tract fibers. dancing or typing has the same effect on white matter changes too. the onset of training, training frequency, learning strategy, and stages are important factors to be considered in expecting white matter changes result. greater changes yield better performance. maturation of oligodendrocyte cells may increase in white matter as a response to complex training (xiao et al., 2016). white matter plasticity happened due to memory training or motor learning. the first phenomenon of cell changes due to aging is white matter degradation. it happens in an anterior-posterior gradient. it is related to a decrease in memory. myelin integrity will be lost during aging. learning routinely might inhibit the aging process of the brain and maintain better cognitive development. motor learning will induce the proliferation of oligodendrocytes in the elderly. in aged animal studies, there was remyelinating of demyelinated axons after environmental enrichment (fields, 2015). various activities such as sleep, selective attention, learning, memory gathering, emotion, and consciousness are related to different brain rhythms. complex neural activity will yield a complex neural network. these conditions depend closely on conduction delay and myelination. conduction delay is very sensitive to fine and subtle changes in conduction velocity. therefore, myelination and activities are highly bound to one another. any abnormalities of conduction velocity will cause white matter abnormalities (fields, 2015). exercise might enhance neurogenesis and angiogenesis in the hippocampus. it might be new blood vessels form in the affected part. hippocampal volume increasing was usually accompanied with myelination, not blood flow increase (thomas et al., 2016). physical fitness due to exercise was well correlated with cognitive performance such as spatial memory (oberlin et al., 2016). enough sleep might help in neural network homeostasis. learning, consolidation of memory, and motor activity depend on enough sleep. synaptic plasticity may increase. long term neuronal activity could be well maintained. the proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 49 cells is increasing during sleeping. differentiation of oligodendrocytes is dominant in awake time. therefore, insomnia and other sleeping disorders might disturb oligodendrocyte precursor cell proliferation. in the end, myelination might be disrupted (fields, 2015). one specific mechanism for plasticity is the hebbian plasticity mechanism. it is long term potentiation as a great substrate for the learning process. any positive experience such as learning new skills might shape the brain circuit connection. white matter has dynamic plasticity which depends on experience and learning process (sampaio-baptista and johansen-berg, 2017). synaptic plasticity could happen because there is a coincident activity between two neurons to strengthen their connection. hebbian synapse concept has laid the basis for the theory of learning and plasticity. however, there is a lack of evidence about this mechanism (fields, 2015). mechanisms of plasticity in previous studies, a synapse is the main topic for studying nervous system plasticity in the learning process. however, in recent studies, plasticity is considered a new mechanism. moreover, plasticity is correlated with myelination remodeling and conduction velocity in optimizing neural circuits. myelination process might be affected by action potentials firing in myelinated axons (fields, 2015). plasticity might take place because of activity, experience, learning, or special mechanism such as functional changes of axons to alter behavior (sampaio-baptista and johansen-berg, 2017). meanwhile, any changes in the diameter of myelinating axons or length of internode (nodes of ranvier) might alter physiological changes such as conduction speed. changes in conduction speed might change behavior (field, 2015). myelin thickness may differ due to the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells become new oligodendrocytes. thus, oligodendrocytes have control in regulating myelin thickness. newly formed oligodendrocytes and the old oligodendrocytes can remodel myelin. however, experiences, stimulation, or social isolation might change remodeling. lower brain activity is associated with lower myelination and myelin remodeling (sampaio-baptista and johansen-berg, 2017). myelin remodeling means formation, proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival of glial cells that produce myelin sheath. biological mechanisms in wrapping axons and the formation of ranvier nodes are also yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 50 | involved in the process of myelin remodeling (fields, 2015). approximately 5% of the total cells are in oligodendrocyte precursor cell forms. these oligodendrocyte precursor cells are only 10-15% of the total glial cells. even though the number is few, these oligodendrocyte precursor cells can form new myelinating oligodendrocytes. oligodendrocyte precursor cells can spike electric impulses to yield specific signals to guide myelination in axons (sampaiobaptista and johansen-berg, 2017). neuron-glia interactions neuron–glia interactions are crucial in maintaining optimal central nervous system function. glia cells might modulate potentiation or depression of synapses. neuronal activity may be maintained in optimal condition if the rhythmic network of glial cells is well regulated. thus, glial cell arrangement is very essential. oligodendrocytes are the most cells found in grey matter. astrocytes and microglia are only found in a small number. oligodendrocytes reside in grey matter substance are also called perineuronal or satellite oligodendrocytes (battefeld et al., 2016). perineuronal oligodendrocytes (satellite oligodendrocytes) are mostly nonmyelinating. it is very different from the main function oligodendrocytes as myelinating cells. satellite oligodendrocytes have special functions such as metabolic support, apoptosis protection, remyelinating axons especially in the perisomatic area after injuries, and regulate action potential firing. although satellite oligodendrocyte was considered as non-myelinating oligodendrocytes, like oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, some findings revealed that satellite oligodendrocytes were able to myelinate axons. interactions among neuron, astrocyte, and oligodendrocyte are very crucial in axonal myelination and neuronal excitability (battefeld et al., 2016). researchers found that there was an axonal projection increasing in using tools training of monkeys. branches of axons were growing faster in spatial learning in other studies. reorganization of axonal boutons rapidly occurred in response to neuronal activity and experiences (sampaio-baptista and johansen-berg, 2017). oligodendrocytes need ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors to proceed with their functions. neurotransmitters released along axons might signal neurotransmitter receptors at the myelinating glia in hypoxia or energy depletion condition (fields, 2015). myelination myelination happens from birth throughout life and gradually decreases yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 51 with increasing age (williamson and lyons, 2018). fard et al. (2017) found that after the third decade of life, new oligodendrocyte will be decreased in white matter. therefore, everyone needs to stimulate neuronal activity by learning new skills continuously. myelin wrapping changes might be involved in the learning process. changes in node length, myelin thickness, and myelin length will affect signal velocity transmission. myelination is very crucial in the proper function of the nervous system (fields, 2015). myelination is rapidly emerging in children. it continues widespread along the axons in a spatiotemporal way. therefore, children tend to gain cognitive development well in the first few years of their life. however, sometimes there are myelination abnormalities such as in multiple sclerosis disease. it is a demyelinating disease (williamson and lyons, 2018). variation in number, length, thickness, and distribution of myelin are contributing factors of myelin plasticity. there are many different patterns of myelination. changes in those contributing factors might affect the speed of impulse conduction. fine changes in myelination pattern in the form of addition or remodeling, might change impulse conduction time. therefore, dynamically modifying myelination might promise a cure in a certain case (williamson and lyons, 2018). increasing new myelinating oligodendrocyte production might be helpful in motor learning (xiao et al., 2016). dynamics of myelination could affect neural circuit function (williamson and lyons, 2018). myelination is critical in connecting the brain by enhancing the speedy transfer of information in the brain and related structures (spinal cord). it is crucial in maintaining the best cognitive performance functions. any myelin disturbance may cause dysregulations of many neural circuits. those conditions might produce disease symptoms. studying myelination comprehensively has an important role in diagnosing and choosing the treatment of these diseases (nickel and gu, 2018). myelin regulation as a new mode of brain plasticity myelination is continuously happening now and then. remodeling of myelin continues in adulthood. this process includes myelin remodeling, myelinating axons, and repairing the partially myelinated axons. therefore, the oligodendrocyte cell number is changing continuously. a new oligodendrocyte is made of oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation. sometimes, the aging process leads to apoptosis of oligodendrocyte cells. myelin sometime undergoes apoptosis also. turnover is yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 52 | inevitable process. approximately, 2.5% of new oligodendrocyte is added annually in the gray matter. however, only about 0.33% is added to the corpus callosum. by routine myelin remodeling, neural networks will be better. therefore, brain plasticity takes place (nickel and gu, 2018). oligodendrocyte precursor cells derived from the neural stem cells. these cells then proliferate and migrate, whilst proliferating and differentiating into oligodendrocyte cells and finally myelinating axons. locally secreted factors and neuronal activity might impact oligodendrocyte development. therefore, there are the various degree of myelin plasticity among central nervous system regions. myelin remodeling induced by learning is revealed in many studies involving animals. motor skill learning enhanced the production of oligodendrocyte cells. (nickel and gu, 2018). myelination is begun by oligodendrocyte maturation. oligodendrocyte progenitor cells will differentiate into oligodendrocyte (williamson and lyons, 2018). it is revealed that most of the new oligodendrocyte cells will die. finally, there is only 22% of them are survive. despite these facts, myelinating oligodendrocyte will remain stable until fifty days. it was found that about 81% of myelin sheaths are stable in early adulthood. hill et al. (2018) found that middle-age people tend to have stable oligodendrocytes until eighty days. it was also revealed in the research that almost 99% of sheath were stable in more than three weeks (hughes et al., 2018). however, oligodendrocyte number decreases significantly in increasing age. that's why myelin number will decrease also because myelin is made of oligodendrocytes cell. decreasing myelin number will arise new problems such as cognitive deterioration disorder such as dementia (ritchie et al., 2015). the microstructure of white matter will vanish with increasing age. demyelinating axons reduces the efficiency of information transfer. cortical disconnection will be the result (cox et al., 2016). in the ablation of the oligodendrocyte experiment, auer et al. (2018) studied about myelin sheath damage. they concluded that when one myelin sheath is damaged, the surrounding myelin sheath was able to grow rapidly to wrap the lost part. a certain part of myelination is maintained to hold the specific optimal conduction pattern of the axons. this condition may keep the conduction time consistent from time to time within the neural circuits as the axon lengths change. such a remodeling pattern might act as a compensatory mechanism of the loss of myelin sheath. myelin loss yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 53 related to aging may cause remodeling of existing myelin sheath to keep circuit function consistently flowing. therefore, most myelin sheath lengths are mostly stable and the circuit function is well regulated throughout life. myelin length, thickness, and internode length adjustment might be important in controlling the velocity of myelinated axons. these myelin changes might be achieved through new experiences (auer et al., 2018). recently, researchers found that stimulating sensory could enhance oligodendrocyte numbers. this might be due to newly formed differentiated cells. de novo myelination is stimulated through the neural circuit in cortex along with life. remodeling of myelin might change impulse conduction velocity because every fine change of myelin length could alter the node conduction speed (hughes et al., 2018). length of a node might be regulated by molecules caspr, contactin, and neurofascin 155 through modifying adhesion of paranodal cell. the regulator of node length is nodal amyloid precursor protein. changes in those molecules might result in dementia alzheimer's. node length modulation may adjust action potential time. this condition usually happens in major depression, chronic stress, or hypoxia. changes in node length could impact conduction speed (hughes et al., 2018). the precise time for the action potential is very crucial in processing the information load. however, the factors contributing to action potential timing haven't fully revealed. precise stimulation is thought of as a very helpful modal in maintaining the optimal time of action potential and regulating conduction velocity (ford et al., 2015). speed and time are key factors in signal transmission optimization. precision and synchrony are the main focus (fields, 2015). a great variation of myelinated axons features has an important role in information processing. however, an additional factor might take a role. the factor is variation in the density of ion channel. remodeling of the axons might happen in adults. some parameters adjustment such as length of internode, axon diameter, myelin thickness, and node diameter might tune information processing and affect conduction velocity. those parameters might change white matter structure in the learning process (ford et al., 2015). there will be fewer myelinated axons in a complex neural network. this area tends to undergo plasticity in myelination (sampaio-baptista and johansen-berg, 2017). yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 54 | myelin thickness changes in myelination are necessary for adaptive changes in conduction speed along the learning process. myelin thickness might be adjusted for optimal impulse conduction delivery speed in each axon. changes in the ranvier node structure might also alter conduction speed adaptively (fields, 2015). myelinating of unmyelinated axons is a crucial part in the learning process. this process will affect neural activity. conduction time will be increased. it will yield a profound effect on neural activity. finally, myelin plasticity takes place in a learning activity (fields, 2015). learning is better done in early life, whilst myelination is actively happening. myelination of the prefrontal cortex is growing actively. a recent study revealed that the amygdala and corpus callosum revealed increasing in oligodendrocyte progenitor (precursor) cells while the environment was enriched and exercise was given. motor skill learning needs long time practice. the longer the practice time, the better myelination will be. learning showed white matter changes in fornix only in two hours' time in studies using humans and animals. those changes related to behavioral development. rapid myelination was found (fields, 2015). myelination in a larger brain is very important. faster conduction velocity is very helpful in signal coordination. however, there is a tremendous variation of myelination in every brain region. fine and local myelination is very useful in tuning, coordinating, and ensuring precise timing of action potentials (ford et al., 2016; arancibia carcamo et al., 2017). conclusion optimizing learning capacity can be achieved by understanding dynamic myelination and brain plasticity. the brain should be trained with various challenging learning style and type. music, a new environment, sports activities such as juggling, dribbling, or swimming with new stroke might improve myelination. improving myelination means to increase plasticity. learning new and complex things should be seen as a great occasion to strengthen the myelin sheath network. last but not least, the limitation of the paper doesn't describe how the learning process might improve marks in the school and success in later life. there isn't any comparison about how each learning activity has an unequal effect on dynamic myelination, brain plasticity, and daily life skills improvement. references arancibia-cárcamo, i. l., ford, m. c., cossell, l., ishida, k., tohyama, k., yuliana yuliana understanding brain plasticity in learning process international journal on research in stem education, volume 2, no. 1, may 2020 | 55 and attwell, d. 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(2019). voluntary wheel running promotes myelination in the motor cortex through wnt signaling in mice. molecular brain. 12: 85-94. 227.edited.format available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 99-106 corresponding author badmus.ot@unilorin.edu.ng; oresewo2k@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.227 research synergy foundation evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo university of ilorin, nigeria abstract developing countries have limitations in almost every area of modernization. these limitations are not limited to only education and the classroom in which teachers and learners exercise their duties but also other aspects of human endeavors. scholarly approaches embraced by educators in the quest to evolve knowledge, especially those whose basis arises from science and mathematics, have generated considerable improvement over the years. these approaches beget a pattern aimed at preparing emerging learners with up to date knowledge on how best to solve challenges required of complex yet everyday human life. the goal of education and, by extension, science is to equip citizens with the requisite skills to embrace challenges and solve everyday human problems. this article exposes the trend in stem, steam, and stream approaches, as well as the rationale for each of the appendage components of the evolution. the global application of robots in areas with a shortage of manpower is a trend in the global economy and governance. africa’s classroom integration and limitation of technology in classroom learning can potentially be resolved with solutions from robotics. a measure of the grounds covered in the developing countries and the gap expected to be covered were extensively explored. the limitation in knowledge, expertise, and resources to cope with these emerging trends for purposeful and meaningful classroom integration in africa were investigated. keywords: evolution, stem, steam, stream, knowledge gap. this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the evolutionary nature of man presents modern challenges in various aspects of human existence. disciplines and fields in the sciences are inter-dependent and indispensable structures of a bigger puzzle aimed at solving daily human challenges. the architecture of each problem is embedded in disciplines whose sole purpose is to resolve this peculiar anomaly. the knowledge of science may be viewed as a way of investigating or process, and a pattern of inquiry with the ultimate purpose of making meaning of the natural world (abimbola & omosewo (2006). science as a field of study investigates nature based on facts learned through experiments and observation. science education can be seen as learning science by acquiring and developing conceptual and theoretical knowledge through scientific inquiry and problem solving (obeka, 2011). the product of scientific observations and experiments are presented theoretically as principles and laws. the utilization of these theoretical facts and their application can be found in the field of technology, robotics, engineering, and arts. all of which are mathematically embedded. technology is often viewed as the usage of science in industry, engineering, and beyond to invent useful machines and pieces of equipment capable of solving daily life problems. the aggregation and application of the knowledge of science and mathematics in the understanding of the sources of energy to resolve human limitations may be regarded as engineering. similarly, engineering may also be viewed as a work of design and creation of a large structure or new product or system by using methods aboriginal to science. mathematics also relates to sciences and includes algebra, geometry, calculus, and many more. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) 100 │ it concerns the study of number, quantity, shape, and space and their inter-relationships by using a specialized notation. science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) was formerly referred to as science, mathematics, engineering and technology (smet) originating from national science foundation (nsf) (sanders, 2009). historically, stem implementation was profound in the business world, ushering the industrial revolution, which saw thomas edison and several inventors alike evolve stem education outside the classroom. stem application then was significant in the field of engineering, leading to the manufacturing of light bulbs, tools, and other machines. stem approach aimed at providing students with critical thinking skill that promotes creative problem solving, as well as, qualitative workforce for selfreliance. the perception of researchers on stem education is that learners would benefit even when they don’t pursue post-secondary education or/and would benefit more if such students attend college, particularly in stem related field (butz, kelly, adamson, bloom, fossum, & gross, 2004). thomas edison and henry ford were informally educated before their inventions (beals, 2012), predating stem education in the classroom. these inventors applied the knowledge and principles of stem to bring about evolutionary trends in physics with their invention; nonetheless, stem education was not taught in the formal educational setting at the time. white (2014) posited that the introduction of stem education was necessitated as a result of several events that took place before 1862. the morrill act of 1862 propelled several pieces of training in the field of agriculture, science, and engineering. these events were revolutionary as it brought about the advent of several universities. these universities served as a platform for many inventions of today. also, the second world war, as well as the soviet union's launch sputnik defined what was later referred to as stem (butz et al., 2004). world war ii, and the launch of the soviet union’s sputnik, historically boosted stem education across the world. stem education stem was once referred to as science, technology, and society (sts) in the distant past. its emergence in the classroom is to train individuals with up-to-date knowledge in the affiliated disciplines to meet the current demand of the society and to shift the limit of human thinking and problem-solving ability, which may result in meaningful development and improved living. historically, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, predates its classroom teaching. its application also existed before formalizing the approach in classroom learning. each of these fields and disciplines by affiliation is now being studied from the most elementary stage of classroom teaching to the highest level of formal education in the developed world. although stem education still remains a challenge to some developing countries in africa. the comprising fields of stem and the afore-stated perspectives are popular and are established in descriptive terms in stem disciplines, although, while there are various fields than the stated positions. science and mathematics form the basis for which stem education is built. fields of stem have the widest tributaries in academia with the most profound impact. despite the direct application of the knowledge of science and technology the world over, there are reports that limited resources are garnered to ensure continuous development in the field of stem, especially in developing countries. this position is predominant in the primary and secondary tier of education (white 2014). for educators, stem may be viewed as the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics as a single unit of knowledge. these various disciplines are resources for learning and invention and are seen as relevant, significant, and inert-related. education in stem as a trans-disciplinary field is old, but the knowledge integration may serve as a resource to enrich learners and make sense of the world rather than observing through narrow inter-disciplinary lenses. stem education could still be international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 101 said to have challenges which are not only students related, rather, peculiar hindrances encountered by teachers of stem in developing countries (adeyemo, 2010). in the developed world like the united states of america, efforts have been put in place by government and relevant stakeholders to foster stem education. these efforts emphasize the importance of science and engineering, their knowledge and practices, as well as the promises for solving future human challenges (national research council, 2012). also, the united kingdom engaged a nationwide network for stem through stemnet. in singapore, science coursework emphasized reasoning inventively with the mindset of coming up with solutions to existing problems and/or future problems (singapore’s ministry of education, 2012 & 2014). the korean government has also reported similar effort aimed at driving the integration of school science with other disciplines through science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (steam) education (ministry of education science and technology, 2011). steam education arts is a field of study which embodies the practical representation of emotions, bringing to the reality of imaginations, making meaning of habits, developing the human mind to evoke evolution in the manner and approach which are non-existent or an improvement from existing knowledge. the application of knowledge in arts helps elicit emotional awareness. arts enable students to discover humanity and nature (eisner, 2008). scholars have alluded to the need for integration between the knowledge of science and arts to evoke spontaneous creativity, especially in the 21st century. the evolution of models and designs in engineering and science defines the importance of arts in bringing about satisfaction essential for nowadays citizens (feldman, 2015; piro, 2010). countries like the united states, korea, and china began the production of steam curricula for their respective nations immediately the need arose, although, over a decade ago (white, 2010). science educators recognize the limitations in the development of students’ higher-order abilities, which may hinder collaborations in the arts-learning areas to bring about interdisciplinary expression of steam curricula (sousa & pilecki, 2013). the transformation of stem to steam was a movement among researchers and educators. the resultant addition of arts to stem was rooted in years of development in various aspects of stem education, brought about as a positive way of improving on the existing knowledge to bring meet the needs of the 21st-century citizens. the introduction of arts was a paradigm shift as the conscious use of skill and creative imagination, especially in the production of aesthetic objects and improved phase of design, became the new order in human problem-solving evolution. the possibility exists that stem may have left a gap many employers of labor are eager to fill. the creativity to stimulate the interest of consumers in a competitive economy requires a paradigm shift from the already saturated market. the gap earlier enumerated requires the evolution of the existing framework of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. hence, the infusion of arts in the training and development of students/learners to thrive in the present and rapidly approaching future careers. steam framework aggregates the knowledge of science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics as a template to foster students’ mode of inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. practically, experiential, teamwork, creativity, and problemsolving abilities of learners are skills required of innovators of this age (taylor, 2016). stem expectedly delves into the four-constituting fields. the limitation of students in stem programs is more of practicality and competitiveness, which are non-existent/limited to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. the economic demands of nations in this age requires more than the existing framework of stem (boy, 2013). the application, creation, and ingenuity in stemrelated fields are also significant components aimed at solving life's daily challenges. steam introduced a different dimension to how stem education is being approached in the classroom. arts brought diversity international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) 102 │ into the package before the robotics era. invariably, steam avail students the opportunity to relate their experience in stem areas to arts components. steam could be said to have replaced its predecessor with vastness, critique, inquiry, and innovation (taylor, 2016). early researchers in steam education studies reported ground-breaking success in the implementation of the curricula in the united states. further reports on learning activities which involves the integration of science, technology, and the arts recorded positive difference in engaging low performing students, resulting in improved performance and competencies (clark, 2014; stoelinga, silk, reddy & rahman, 2015). steam education is not alien to stem education, but an expanded scope of stem education. the curriculum of steam emancipates science educators towards the domestication of the curriculum fit the immediate needs of the society (holm, 2011). steam education transforms students learning experience based on five interrelated and inter-disciplinary approaches to knowledge i.e., relational, experiential, cultural, critical and visionary, and ethical (taylor, 2015). stream education stream education may be viewed as a unique approach to instruction, which brings together the approaches of science, technology, robotics, engineering, arts, and mathematics into play for a classroom experience. the technology involved in the design, construction, and operation of robots in an automated form is robotics. it is evident that students view robots as interesting both in real-life situations and virtual encounters, as such, an effort to integrate them into steam education should not be totally alien (eguchi, 2014). the era of automation and robotics is already here. the use of artificial intelligence (ai), virtual reality (vr), and augmented reality (ar) are areas that have significantly improved medicine and surgery through simulation of surgical procedures and minimally invasive surgeries. also, self-driving cars in automobile industries, automated space crafts, and drones are also possible as a result of the advancement in robotics. these strides are not limited to the aforementioned field but all across human relations and interactions. although, sts, stem, and steam have already existing curricula, unlike stream. expectedly, this learning approach is non-existing as scholars have argued robotics to be a field under engineering. this view may be viewed as myopic. the components of robotics (machine learning, artificial intelligence, data mining etc.) have a limited foundation in the field of engineering. it should be noted that stream at the elementary, basic, and post-basic level of education in developing countries may represent the required catalytic push for future learners in the emerging field of robotics both in the developed and the developing worlds. stream students are expected to invent, create, design, and solve problems. students with the ability to discover themselves may be afforded the opportunity to improve with this approach. as educators, various scenarios should be provided to students to experience instances that allow for self-discovery. to self-discover, learners have the option of making mistakes, employ several means to solve such problems, brainstorm on the new idea on the best approach and how best to apply it to real life situations having an encompassing mindset from stream. the introduction of robotics into the classroom teaching at both basic and post-basic levels of education is gaining momentum in the developed world. robotic innovations are a strong indication of how much popular attention robotics technology has garnered over the years. the year 2013 ushered a new paradigm in the delivery of goods. amazon, the world's biggest delivery franchise, introduced robots in the sorting and delivery of their services. at about the same time, google also acquired eight robotics companies, which included schaft inc., boston dynamics, and others. darpa, trialed in december 2013 a robotics competition with its grand finale in december 2014. recently, softbank mobile and aldebaran robotics, a japanese and a french company, synergized in 2014 to unveil the world's first humanoid robot called pepper. the robot (pepper) functions as a human assistant by reading and responding to human emotions, a giant stride in robotics at the time (friedman, 2015). a international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 103 humanoid robot was used for educational purposes by aldebaran robot. this programmable robot proved useful in the development of an algorithm for children with autism. the emergence of the novel coronavirus (covid 19) in december of 2019 established the gap in human planning and reality. at the same time, the immediate economic impact of the pandemics was inestimable. the future impact on all human activities still lingers. in most developed and developing worlds, education was at a standstill like many other sectors. the death recorded globally is rising. health workers are losing their lives, along with many other citizens in various disciplines. the shortages have been recorded as a result of the pandemic may be remediated through the production of a robot capable of performing human functions to consolidate the effort of the humans available. however, robots are being deployed to assist in a number of countries in asia (china, singapore, india, taiwan, and japan) and a few countries in europe. countries with this capability have a different approach to educating their citizens in robotics and enjoy a different curriculum to nations. the gap between stem, steam, and stream education in africa technology is ubiquitous, and its integration can be felt in every aspect of human lives, both in africa and beyond. students of this age are digital natives and have preferences for smart and automated devices. at the moment, africa is a major consumer of technology, the implication is that a significant amount of her economy is drained to america, europe, and asia, owing to the purchases of useful but foreign technologies. a continent with the majority of her countries regarded as developing needs a change of approach and curriculum. in nigeria, for instance, 90% of technologies used in the country are imported (national office for technology acquisition and promotion, 2017). the consequences of nonchalance to stream education in africa is a great danger to the continent as monies spent on education in foreign lands by africans is enormous. this is a pointer to the depleted state of education on the continent, which requires urgent attention by all and sundry. several kinds of research in robotics have surfaced in recent years (benitti, 2012). it could be said that the progress made so far in robotics has been geometric in the recent past. the application of robotics technology has impacted a variety of fields and disciplines. these impacts can be felt in medicine, physiotherapy, gaming, home, and office appliances, search and rescue missions, automobile, space exploration. interestingly, none of the afore-listed impacts is against the belief of the african nation, but this strive and zeal for change seem absent at a time when the developed world is not waiting to be caught in the wheel of development. evident from table 1, the shortfall experienced by the education sector in the national budget of nigeria could be termed as alarming. the united nations directives on education are far from achievable in most african countries. the national budget for education in nigeria is less of the desired since independence, and this is a perennial situation in most african countries. the implication of this carelessness is alarming. this could be a consequence of why science education and it modern applications are not met or surpass in terms of expectations by many african countries. table 1: budgetary allocation to education from 2016 to 2020 year budgetary allocation to education % allocation to education nigeria budget/year 2016 n369.6billion 6.01 n6.1trillion 2017 n448.01billion 6.00 n7.3trillion 2018 n605.8billion 7.04 n8.3trillion international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) 104 │ 2019 n620.5billion 7.02 n8.83trillion 2020 n691.7billion 6.70 n10.27trillion budget office of frn. budgetoffice.gov.ng and nationalplanning.gov.ng retrieved 22nd may, 2020 for a society to be adjudged developed, its sophistry in the fields of science and technology come to bear in determining the level of awareness of citizens in such a society (adegun, 2003). if the required commitment from the government and other relevant stakeholders is given to modern classroom approaches like stream, such effort could catalyze improvement, which may bring about positive socioeconomic well-being of citizens. the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) has, among other prerogatives to design a curriculum for senior secondary school science. the objectives of nerdc, among others, is to afford citizens basic literacy in science and technology for functional living and to imbibe necessary scientific skills and attitudes (frn, 2013), to this end, all effort should not be spared to attain this modernity by concerned developing countries. several educational movements have advanced the course of robotics in the classroom in recent years, although, in the developed world. educational innovation, like coding education for primary and secondary students, is common place in the united states, japan, korea, singapore, canada, and several other european countries lately. eguchi (2014) reported the effort of the u.s. computer science educators in 2013 brought coding into the fore of classrooms around the world, this effort was tagged “hour of code”. consequently, millions of students from countries all over the world participated in an hour of coding between december 9th 15th, code.org reported. one out of five u.s. students took part in the exercise. more female learners participated in the united states schools than in all of the past years (code.org, 2013). the exercise, as reported, encouraged millions of participants and served as a panacea for the integration of coding in primary and secondary schools. these feet are also attainable in the developing world for onward integration and development. a new curriculum was birthed in the united kingdom in 2013. this curriculum aimed at integrating engineering and coding in the elementary stages of their education (department of education, 2013). the framework reads, "we aspire to an outcome where every primary school pupil has the opportunity to explore the creative side of computing through activities such as writing computer programs". at elementary, pre, and post-basic levels of education, an enabling environment was encouraged for learners to learn robotics and engage in web-based activities. learners were admonished to seize make use of the available opportunity to excel at their career choices, especially those willing to pursue stream-related carriers (royal society, 2012). the introduction of computers and its affiliated applications, especially at the primary and secondary level, may give learners the upper hand in machine learning, data mining, programming, digital marketing, and other futuristic opportunities of today's world. this is also a compliable initiative for developing counties in africa. conclusion the evolution of stem to steam positively impacted the related fields and disciplines immeasurably. the excitement students borne from the introduction of stream in the classroom presents yet another reason for their willful look into the future with hope and excitement of the possibility of new knowledge to acquire. notably, a greater percentage of the current workforce never had the opportunity to be prepared in the classroom of what is currently required to survive in the present work environment, most had to adapt to stay relevant and competitive. straem education affords present students a glimpse of what is required of their future carriers. although, the challenges of building the capacity of the present educators to cope with this knowledge area remain germane for the success of stream education, especially in africa. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 99-106 evolution of stem, steam and stream education in africa: the implication of the knowledge gap olalekan taofeek badmus, esther ore omosewo issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 105 during the designing, construction, coding, and documentation of automated robots, learners can experience the inner working of these technologies and apply the skills and content learned in a school outside the classroom environment. robotics is a large field of study which, if properly harnessed, can form rewire the approach, teachings, and learning of not only staem but other disciplines alike. the knowledge in robotics may afford learners the template to foster collaborative skills, team application of a technological tool for problem-solving, and boaster critical think skills. robotics in education can serve as a learning tool to accommodate experiential learning through hands-on and mind-on educational resources. similarly, an engaging learning environment as obtained in stream approach could improve students’ skill set to accomplish any task of their interest. recommendations among others, african leaders and relevant stakeholders must; 1. commit a significant amount of their budget to science education and its approaches in a bid to improve the state of technological development on the continent. 2. embrace and encourage local entrepreneurs whose products/instructional resources are in the field of stream education. 3. engage science educators in training and capacity building to update their knowledge of what is obtainable outside the continent knowledge and technology. 4. improve the state of classrooms, laboratories, and school facilities to attract interested students. 5. adequately take care of educators as a means to encourage carriers in the fields. 6. upgrade educational and community resources outside the school environment to the gap between formal and informal environments. 7. references abimbola, i. o. & omosewo, e. o. 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(2013). from stem to steam: using brain-compatible strategies to integrate the arts. thousand oaks, california: corwin/sage. stoelinga, s. r., silk, y., reddy, p. & rahman, n. (2015). final evaluation report: turnaround arts initiative. washington, dc: president’s committee on the arts and the humanities. http://pcah.gov taylor, p. c. (2016). transformative science education. in r. gunstone (ed.). encyclopedia of science education (pp. 1079–1082). dordrecht, the netherlands: springer. the royal society education section, (2012). shut down or restart? the way forward for computing in uk schools executive summary: london, uk. white d. w., (2014). what is stem education and why is it important? florida association of teacher educators journal 1, 14 2014 1-9. retrieved from http://www.fate1.org/journals/2014/white.pdf unesco (2018). unesco global repot 2017. retrieved 22nd april, 2020 from https://en.unesco.org/creativity . microsoft word 1194 settingsjennifer h. operio available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 120-134 corresponding author jennifer h. operio, joperio@hau.edu.ph faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka and doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1194 research synergy foundation evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio1 1 holy angel university, philippines abstract this paper is meant to evaluate the usefulness of digital literacy to learners who are classified as post-millennials. it strived to explore a possible retooling of education through innovative strategies to be able to increase value in classroom learning. utilizing information and technology in communication to search, create, analyze and relay messages which requires cognitive and technical skills, is known as digital literacy. post-millennials are those born from 1997 onwards. since their generations are into the maximum use of the internet and technology in communication, the author deemed it necessary to evaluate the digital literacy of the post-millennials in a private school in one of the provinces in the philippines. the respondents are the administrators, non-teaching staff, teaching staff, and students of this respondent school. the author utilized survey questionnaires to collect data from the participants. results showed that less than half of the educators who participated favored digital teaching to students. however, this is not the case for learners because they all voted for digital learning. they mentioned that using digital tools is flexible, and they were more favorable in its integration into their classroom learning. the author, based on the findings, concluded that this present generation is more inclined to digital learning and teaching approaches. the author recommends that further and additional research is needed to determine more productive strategies for the provision of internet connection in schools and physical classrooms of the country. keywords: digital literacy; post-millennials; synchronous; asynchronous; “genyo” this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction according to unesco (2022), education is a basic human right, and digital literacy and technology have become a social necessity in the midst of crises and conflicts. the study by sacramento, ibanez, and magayon (2021) states that to be able to accommodate the diverse needs of the learners, technological adaptation of both teachers and learners is necessary. filipinos, as reported by the philippine institute for development study (2021), have limited digital literacy skills. the national economic development authority, or neda of the philippines (2011), reported that the country, as compared to other countries in south east asia, particularly the country of singapore, has been faring way behind. unlike other national governments in the region, the philippine government tends to limit the budget designed for education and technology. only private schools that are not funded by the government can actually rise above this dilemma in the philippine education system. the worldwide challenges brought about by the covid-19 pandemic aggravated the situation and existing issues in the philippine education system (unesco, 2021). it is in this regard that the philippine government is addressing the needs and helping its citizens to understand various technology-related policies, initiatives, and services (umali, 2019). this international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 121 issn 2721-2904 (online) research looked into the current situation in a private school in pampanga province regarding its digital implementation in all its courses. the author aimed to prove that digital literacy is necessary to be integrated into the academic curriculum at the basic education level to be able to emphasize the value of education and technology. digital literacy means using information and technologies in communication to be able to search, create, analyze and relay information which requires cognitive and technical skills (loewus, 2016). sieva kozinsky (2017) mentioned that post-millennials believe there is a connection between academic and personal experiences using the same tools. he stated that they are not keen on being physically present in the classroom and taking notes while the lecture is going on and preparing for the long examination. as per their expectation, they want to be fully engaged and become enjoined in the learning process. they are completely comfortable learning with other students even outside of the physical classroom and utilizing social media platforms. for them, studying is not just limited to the four corners of the classroom; it is something that takes place at anytime and anywhere. over the past ten years, there has been increasing use of the digital approach in teaching and learning, which integrates technologies with traditional teaching methods. this approach requires the physical presence of both learner and tutor, but there is a component of authority over location, schedule, and track or pace by the student (smyth et al., 2012). this new instructional approach is not just about increasing the units of computers inside classrooms; in the majority of cases, it shows a basic transformation in how educators and learners expect the studying experience. in a consensus among the innovators of education by the name of biggs and tang (2011), the digital teaching method has three parts. (i) "actual classroom activities assisted by a qualified and well-trained teacher"; (ii) "educational materials are uploaded online by that same teacher; (iii) "self-faced study time guided by the online resources, while the expected skills developed in the classroom setup." this research is meant to evaluate the usefulness of digital literacy to learners. it attempted to look into possible retooling of education through innovative strategies to be able to increase value in classroom learning. specific answers were searched for: (1) is there evidence of digital literacy in the subject respondent's school? (2)what are the specific drawbacks of digital literacy? (3) what level of productivity is evident in the learners' engagement in digital literacy? (4) what is the level of general fulfillment of educators in digital literacy? (5) what is the most compelling feature of digital literacy? (6) what is the least compelling feature of digital literacy? literature review in 2011, biggs mentioned that by studying through guided and standard activities, digital learning was most likely other educational institutions and organizations coined as combined training. trainers, in training, can transition from delivering knowledge to its actual manifestation, helping industries to reduce costs in transporting them worldwide to oversee these training events and activities (biggs, 2011). digital literacy is a form of imparting knowledge where students complete their tasks independently, and resources are provided electronically through a given platform, say a learning management system. it works best for those individual learners allowing them flexibility and freedom in their day-to-day routines. according to marlatt (2018), this approach is now so popular that the number of participants has already increased to about 15%. the evolution of technology makes traditional learning more fun and exciting. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 122 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) biggs states that by giving emphasis on studying through guided and standard activities, the digitalized approach of learning proved as more inclined to what some institutions and organizations are coining as crossbred training. through this approach, trainers can transfer their focus from the knowledge delivery to its actual manifestation, and organizations incur less cost in transporting their trainers around just to look over the entire training activities and events (biggs, 2011). the crossbred approach can become an effective option if educational institutions are looking for other ways to provide their learners with a more "personalized" experience in their studies and not worry about stretching their budgets. it is a mixture of in-person instruction accompanied by online learning. the crossbred approach to teaching and learning yielded positive outcomes. duncan (2010) stated that the u.s. department of education statistically discovered that digitalized learning and teaching classes had made a better outcome than their in-person meetings, non-digitalized equivalents. this rapidly increasing model not only grows the flexibility and individualization of learners in their studying experiences but also allows instructors to expand the time of their availability as guides of learning. the digitalized approach is a form of learning in which learners work remotely, and resource is basically delivered via an online platform. one-onone meetings are optional. usually, learners can chat with teachers via the internet if they have questions. this type of approach is ideal for learners who need more flexibility and independence in their daily schedules. it is becoming popular, and the number of learners participating in digitalized learning and teaching has increased by about fifteen percent (tang and chaw, 2016). evolving technology augments traditional learning and the odd question is how to apply digitalized learning in the traditional classroom setup. it is an instruction pattern that mixes various techniques in learning. digitalized learning means the utilization of laboratory equipment to support the interactions in the classroom and improve the teaching process through the application of theories learned in class. the digitalized learning approach can be the complementary use of electronic learning in the standard education model because of the benefits it offers on a very wide scale, for example, self-paced learning, testing, quizzing, monitoring, and feedback. learning for post-millennials (beresford research, 2022) or also known as gen-zer (oxford, 2022), was designed as more engaging, active, incorporated, and on-demand online learning tools and more collaboration. teachers apply flipped classrooms, where videos of their lectures are recorded and assigned to students to watch as homework. while during classroom time, there are active learning activities such as class discussions and solving problems. they learn by doing; they are anything except passive learners. according to barnes & noble college (2015), they predominantly learn by doing and prefer active learning environments. they expect on-demand learning tools, and they love video so much. it was also mentioned in the report that their sense of connectivity and their desire to learn new things means they are extremely comfortable collaborating with others through technology. the annie casey foundation (2021) and barnes & noble college (2015) described the central attributes of the "gen z-ers" as follows: (1) racial diversity-which means they are not that affected in terms of multiracial, sexual, or religious differences as compared to their older counterparts; (2) very first digital natives-they was born into the world of peak technological innovation in which information is readily available and accessible; (3) pragmatic a financially-minded, because they value stability that comes with conservative spending, stable jobs, and smart investments; (4) mental health challenges-as the "loneliest generation", they are affected by the turbulent state of the world; (5) shrewd consumers-the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 123 issn 2721-2904 (online) purchasing decisions are an expression of their values and identity; and (6) politically progressivemore likely to attribute climate change to human activity rather than as a natural pattern. in general, they are socially minded, independent thinkers who recognize their responsibility to shape a more equitable future for all. the integration of digital tools into a customary approach in education provides a greater value to the learning of students as well as facilitates modern approaches in teaching. teachers were expected to provide lecture series in the traditional educational system. diversification requires a model of lectures pre-recorded and shared with students so that they may watch them at their own pacing. according to poon (2010) and co-authors, classroom setup is more of the programmed or structured activities applying the school's curriculum. classroom time is spent providing instructions which then leads the students to do the task independently using online mode. however, donnelly (2010) wrote that it is better to have in-person meetings before letting the class utilize discussion boards. puentedura (2014) emphasized that in the new lenses of teaching and learning mode, teachers are mere "facilitators". the following key areas are the focus: (1) establishing synchronous and asynchronous modules; (2) providing learners guides in communication with and among themselves; (3) assisting and editing materials to improve the learning experiences of learners; and (4) assessing using rubrics. the efficient use of digital tools is the key to successful technology integration, which is appropriate for the task. a good toolkit is essential for designing learning experiences that reach the level of modification and transformation from the samr model by puentedura (2014). with the aid of technology, everything educators need to use to develop their own toolkit of flexible resources technology is already provided. the redefinition level has no boundaries in terms of designing projects. truly, the samr model covers an entire spectrum of technology integration. as soon as teachers begin exploring technology, applying it in the actual act of teaching each lesson is as easy as abc. this process falls under the augmentation or substitution level. under the substitution level, teachers may use powerpoint presentations rather than using whiteboards. it becomes easy because notes and information will be projected on the board instead of writing notes on it. at the same time, the level of augmentation is when a teacher may include media and videos in the presentation to enhance the discussion. in thinking outside the box, teachers are encouraged to use the teaching tools in the past, like projectors or cameras, to engage students in the discussion. a smartboard (cox, 2019) is also advised to use so students can work with other students collaboratively. technology is necessary for synchronous, asynchronous, or in-person meetings for the active participation of students (hrastinski, 2008). this is the highest level, in which learning is not limited to the physical environment or space. educators can be creative in teaching and allowing learning among his/her students through group investigation wherein they work in collaborative groups in researching topics (brame & biel, 2015). learners may use several devices in class through in-person meetings and continue online through the shared link, i.e., google document. after that, they can start working together to create their own multimedia presentation. during the presentation, their classmates crowdsource notes through a class link or channel (tucker, 2013). after the presentation, students may review and discuss the link or channel notes. the interwoven online collaboration and in-person elements bring high-quality output. on a high note, some educators had progressed in applying all the stages in the model within just a few months. some needed international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 124 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) extended time in shifting their teaching aid thru technology to make students more engaged with technology apps. actually, it even involves a longer time to redefine what it means to teach and learn by using seamlessly blended learning mediums. technology integration is really a process; however, with the advent of the pandemic due to the corona virus 2019, technology integration took so fast in a way that it could take us years to accomplish (boonmoh, jumpakate, saengmanee & rungkaew, 2022). unlearning and relearning are the keys to be able for educators to cope with the challenges of technology in 21st-century teaching to a generation called the post-millennials (miano, 2019). the samr (substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition) model of ruben puentedura (2014) is a direct and plain diagram that can be adapted to all types of learning environments. there is a transition to applying technology in education that the author believes is applied by the majority of teachers when they start using technology to teach students. there is somewhat an important development in the form of complexity about "substitution" to "redefinition" as per this model. in light of puentedura's model, the researcher took it as a challenge to apply technology in her classroom teaching. she understood that she was fortunate to have different technologies at her disposal for teaching students in the four-walled classroom setup. it is based on this model that the researcher accepted the challenge to evaluate digital literacy in a classroom setup. the modification of old techniques in able to facilitate a hands-on experience for learners became possible because of technological aspects. premade lessons from vast online resources are possible. mobile phone applications are even advantageous and can be utilized and help as many as 50 or more students in a class to be engaged. the innovation and designs also offered so many ways to assess the formative and summative performance of students. they can also provide numerous ways to redefine the provision of knowledge content and make students become more engaged. a poll survey, for instance, can be used by teachers for feedback or a preassessment system before embarking on a new lesson topic. student collaboration can also be given to groups of learners using mobile applications or software to complete tasks. a peer review and additional summative assessment tools can be possible by asking the students to share their output through posts which will close the loop. the samr model is a powerful conceptual tool for thinking about technology integration, which was developed in the year 2010. “genyo” e-learning – one of the major products of diwa learning systems, inc. in partnership with singapore’s times publishing group, providing the e-learning program of about 65% of schools in singapore is now utilized by many of the basic education sectors in the country (quimbo, 2012). pampanga central college was one of the first private schools in the country that took advantage of utilizing this learning management system in their school strategy. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 125 issn 2721-2904 (online) figure1. digital literacy it illustrates the operational framework of the study using the digital technology theory and the samr model as bases for the approach. as shown in the framework, digitalized approach as utilized will be assessed on its effect on teaching students in the subject private school. research method the research design for this study was a combination of both descriptive-quantitative research designs. descriptive research is used to depict the features of a general population or peculiarity. in this research, the survey method was adopted, where questionnaires were circulated and distributed to respondents, which were then dissected and analyzed by the researcher (bryman and bell, 2011, 45). the descriptive research design was suitable for this study because it included gathering/collecting information to test questions concerning attitudes, feelings, and opinions about the respondents. it is utilized to test attitudes, feelings, and opinions about occasions, people, or procedures (gay & airasian, 2003). kothari (1995) notes that descriptive survey design is concerned with identifying, recording, investigating, analyzing, and reporting good circumstances that exist or exist. engelhart (1972) contends that descriptive methods are used to acquire information helpful in assessing present practices and giving the premise to decisionmaking. quantitative research design, as bhandari (2022) defined it: " is a process of collecting and analyzing numerical data". she also further discussed that "it can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, causal test relationships, and generalized results". the 47 respondents are the administrators, students, and non-teaching staff of a privatelyowned college along macarthur hiway, san agustin, san simon, pampanga, philippines. it is one of the oldest educational institutions in the municipality of san simon under the leadership of the successors of the late founders erasmo g. punsalan with his better half, leonida (pcc or pampanga central college student’s handbook, 2022). this school used to be a solely privately-owned school providing secondary education in the vicinity. the school has a separate building for computer international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 126 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) classes and a building for administrative staff and for the library, as well as a covered court in its one-hectare lot. the survey instrument was self-made and structured carefully so that what was being asked could be understood clearly. it includes the description of the participants like: "classification, department, office, and subject taught." for its reliability and validity tests, the author consulted experts regarding the questions to be asked to the respondents. the instrument was also pilottested on 20 individuals with the same qualifications as the respondents. the first section was all about the respondents' experience of applying digital literacy. the second section focused on their satisfaction in applying it, while the last section was about the suggestions on the innovative approach. the first question under the first section was answerable by either yes or no. whenever the answer is "yes", more question is asked, and you have to skip the next question. but when they answered "no" in question number 1, they needed to automatically answer the second item. the last question utilized a five-point likert scale. section 2 is about the general fulfillment in the application of digital literacy; a four-point likert scale was used; 4= strongly agree, 3=agree, 2=disagree, and 1=strongly disagree. the last section – section 3, was about respondents' comments and suggestions about digital literacy. the researcher asked the permission of the owners and administrators through the school principal and distributed the instruments. prior to the actual survey, the researcher opted to have an in-person meeting with the principal to verbally ask for approval. once the request was granted, the researcher determined the total number of survey forms be distributed to all teachers, nonteaching staff, administrators, and senior students in high school. as ethical consideration, the author had no direct involvement in the distribution and collection of the filled-out survey forms. all information collected was classified, tallied, and organized into tables and according to paradigm using qualitative and quantitative terms. the researcher utilized frequency, percentage, and means with standard deviation as her statistical tools to find answers to the questions. frequency and percent were used for data that are nominal. means together with standard deviation were computed for questionnaire items that are on 5-point and 4-point likert scales. the following tables were used to evaluate the ordinal data: table 1. ordinal data evaluation likert scale (1) likert description (2) value allocation (3) 1 least compelling 1.00-1.49 2 less compelling 1.50-2.49 3 compelling 2.50-3.49 4 more compelling 3.50-4.49 5 most compelling 4.50-5.00 likert scale (1) likert description (2) value allocation (3) 1 strongly disagree 1.00-1.49 2 disagree 1.50-2.49 3 agree 2.50-3.49 4 strongly agree 3.50-4.00 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 127 issn 2721-2904 (online) findings and discussion the research presented the evaluation of digital literacy in relation to its compelling effect on learners' full engagement and fulfillment. target respondents were: 12th graders, teachers, nonteaching personnel, and administrators of a private college in the province of pampanga. a grand total of 7 administrators and non-teaching staff, 11 teachers, and 29 12th graders participated in the study. obtained results from the carried-out survey about applying digital literacy and its effect on productivity learning went through statistical analysis. the results are presented below: table 2. classification of respondents a total of 47 respondents participated, with their categories are on table 2. students composed the highest number of respondents in this study. 7 administrators plus non-teaching personnel comprised 14.90%, 11 faculty members teaching 11 different subjects/courses, and 29 students in the senior high school level of grade 12 were the participants. the respondent's private school is just a small private school in the province of pampanga. the 29 students are 100 % accountancy, business, and management track students of grade 12. table 3. subjects taught subjects frequency percentage applied economics 1 9.09% contemporary philippine art 1 9.09% earth and life science 1 9.09% empowerment technologies 1 9.09% english 1 9.09% general mathematics 1 9.09% physical education 1 9.09% personal development 1 9.09% philosophy 1 9.09% practical research 2 1 9.09% tvl-cookery 12 1 9.09% total 11 100% all courses or subjects with a total of eleven are listed in the succeeding tabular form alphabetically. the subjects/courses are included to evaluate whether the level of digital literacy is dependent on the kind of course/subject taught. it is interesting to note that in this particular study, the physical education teacher was so grateful to technology because she could teach students better and that students were learning better with the integration of digital technology in teaching. however, the dissertation paper by kretschmann (2015) revealed that high school-level in-service physical education teachers tended not to use technology and general instructional media in the subject/course. respondents frequency percentage administrators and ntp 7 14.90% faculty members 11 23.40% grade 12 students 29 61.70% total 47 100% international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 128 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) table 4. utilization of digital learning in teaching answers administrators & ntp faculty grade 12 students frequency percentage yes 2 5 25 32 68.09% no 5 6 4 15 31.91% total 7 11 29 47 100% the learning management system known as genyo (“generation” and “youth” combined) elearning is shown in table 4. results showed that five out of eleven teachers are into digital literacy, one college administrator, and one non-teaching personnel favored the application of the innovative learning and teaching platform. as expected, most of the learners applied digital literacy by using the most innovative technology available to support their learning and were beyond grateful for the integration of the same in their studies. these five teachers are the younger generation educators compared to the other six. in comparison to casey foundation (2021), it stated that one of the core characteristics of the people classified under generation z or the postmillennials is more into technology and social media. this result confirms casey foundation's revelation on this matter. table 5. barriers to utilizing digital learning barriers frequency percentage 1. unstable internet connection 15 31.91% 2. weak signal 12 25.53% 3. availability of internet at home 8 17.02% 4. availability of internet at school 6 12.77% 5. others: not applicable to the subject 6 12.77% total 47 100% table 5 showed the top drawbacks, namely: internet connection which is unstable, a signal which was weak, and the availability of internet connection at home. the result is similar to the report given by the national economic development authority (or neda) on the challenges encountered in the major areas of the country in terms of internet connection and the technology improvement of the far-flung areas in the country. table 6. effectiveness of digital literacy likert scale (1) likert description (2) value allocation (3) frequency(4) sum[(1)*(4)]/n 1 least effective 1.00-1.49 3 3 2 less effective 1.50-2.49 3 6 3 effective 2.50-3.49 12 36 4 more effective 3.50-4.49 14 56 5 most effective 4.50-5.00 15 75 more effective 47 176/47=3.74 in table 6, it was evident that digital literacy was more effective than just the traditional method of teaching and learning, with an overall score of 3.74. the majority of the teachers and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 129 issn 2721-2904 (online) students observed that technology integration and digital literacy were so effective and contributed to the ease of teaching and learning for both educators and learners. tucker (2013) explained that it is easier to get information through technology and the internet, and most likely, those who are adept at using it will favor its integration into the curriculum. the results in this study are somewhat similar. table 7. have another digital learning approach to teaching likert scale (1) likert description (2) value allocation (3) frequency (4) sum[(1)*(4)]/n 1 strongly disagree 1.00-1.49 4 4 2 disagree 1.50-2.49 4 8 3 agree 2.50-3.49 26 78 4 strongly agree 3.50-4.00 13 52 agree 47 142/47=3.02 generally, as shown in table 7, the majority of the participants of the study would still agree to have another school year of digital literacy, with a final score of 3.02, which is interpreted as "agree." this confirms the result in the previous table. most of the participants are eager to have more technology and digital literacy integration in their curriculum. since the majority of the respondents are from the millennial group, it is expected to show that they are delighted to utilize technology in teaching and learning. table 8. level of fulfillment of digital literacy likert scale (1) likert description (2) value allocation (3) frequency (4) sum[(1)*(4)]/n 1 strongly disagree 1.00-1.49 2 2 2 disagree 1.50-2.49 10 20 3 agree 2.50-3.49 25 75 4 strongly agree 3.50-4.00 10 40 agree 47 137/47=2.92 the fulfillment rating of the 47 participants was 2.92, which conveyed that they are all fulfilled with digital literacy as an approach to teaching. the results in this table show and confirm the results of the data from the previous two tables presented. biggs and tang (2011) described that quality learning entails satisfaction in the adaptation of technology into university teaching. at the same time, the results of this study showed that fulfillment is dependent on the level of digital literacy of the students. table 9. advantages of using digital learning advantages frequency percentage 1. flexibility to complete assignments 28 59.57% 2. convenience 4 8.51% 3. it is a requirement for course 11 23.40% 4. the only available option 2 4.26% 5. job responsibilities 2 4.26% total 47 100% international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 130 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) the 8th table shows the top two comments on the benefits, which are "flexibility" in doing their assignments, with 28 respondents or 59.57% choosing it, and "it is a requirement of the course", respectively. barnes and noble college (2015), the middle and high schoolers expected that what they experienced would be the future scenario in their university life. since university life entails independence and individuality, as well as high school, is a preparation and a training ground, they expect that they will start in senior high school with the integration and application of digital literacy. the results of this study are somewhat aligned with that study. table 10. most compelling features of digital literacy most compelling frequency percentage 1. easily get information and idea 20 42.55% 2. helps to understand lessons 7 14.89% 3. learners could work independently 9 19.14% 4. more effective on students 3 6.38% 5. students can watch lessons repeatedly 2 4.26% 6. more efficient learning 2 4.26% 7. it helps students recall topics 2 4.26% 8. students can easily be motivated 2 4.26% total 47 100% the most compelling feature based on the participants' choice, as presented in table 10, was " easily gets information and idea". this means that through digital literacy, anyone can easily get information and idea from various sources on the internet. various arrays of information are just one click away. millennials, who are also digital natives and more adept in terms of technology application as compared to their older counterparts, can access available digital resources. table 11. least compelling features of digital literacy least compelling frequency percentage 1. less student-teacher interaction 18 38.29% 2. a lot of fake news and information 25 53.19% 3. abuse of technology 2 4.26% 4. more of a distraction 2 4.26% total 47 100% last but not least, table 11 showed the least compelling feature; however, educators were concerned that it had replaced the traditional way of interacting, and there is lesser interaction between students and teachers. modern learners are more dependent on technological access leading to less dependence on printed books and other references in the library. these findings support that of the study by pandya and lodha (2021), where they emphasized that isolation and prolonged screen time are a few of the negative effects of digital literacy. world health organization (2020) also highlighted that increased screen time replaces healthy behaviors and habits like physical activity and regular sleep routine which leads to harmful effects on the body. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio │ 131 issn 2721-2904 (online) conclusion from the outcome of the study, digital literacy is highly useful in teaching and learning the post-millennials or also known as generation z people. specific questions were also answered in the results, such as : (1) there was evidence of digital literacy in the respondent school because they are using "gen-yo" or “generation and youth” application software; (2) top three specific drawbacks of digital literacy, were: unstable internet connection, weak signals and the availability of internet in their respective residence; (3) in terms of the level of productivity of students, they were more likely to complete assignments under time constraints, and it was most convenient to them; (4) as for their general fulfillment, both educators and learners were all satisfied; (5) the most compelling feature of the application software that they are using was that they could easily get information and ideas; and (6) the least compelling feature was that there was less studentteacher interaction. based on the results of this study, the researcher concluded that in our current generation, technology and digital literacy are unavoidable. in fact, they are absolutely necessary and essential in taking on the new challenges of teaching and learning; without a doubt that the inclusion and application of innovative approaches like digital literacy are affecting education systems around the globe in delivering information and teaching the new breed of students – the post millennials. based on the results, there are some fascinating insights into the continuous use of traditional teaching learning in our current education system. it showed that dependent on the subject being taught, that technology may be applicable or not. oddly, a physical education teacher uses videos and audio to support his teaching style and help students remember certain topics. while theoretical subjects like philosophy and entrepreneurship, the results provided that digital literacy was not a practical approach. for most of the teachers, results showed that they prefer the inperson lecture and discussion to utilize technological mediums, such as social media and online communication. the engagement of modern-day learners depends on the application of digital literacy among high school students limitation & further research this study is focused only on a private college in one of the provinces of central luzon, philippines. there are many private educational institutions around region 3 or central luzon as well as nationwide. all results are exclusive to this particular college and may or may not be applicable to all private educational institutions nationwide or within the asean region. a onesize-fits-all model for the improvement of educational systems would not be feasible. the philippines is composed of diverse provincial contexts, which is why recommendations from this study leave space for the local and national government policymakers and the ministry of education headed by the current vice president, sarah duterte-carpio, and its staff to determine important lessons based on the country’s development needs. based on the findings of this study, the researcher recommends the following: further and additional research are needed to determine productive strategies for the provision of internet connection in schools and classrooms in the country. further research will address the structural and attitudinal hurdles and their resolution. additional research could explore the possibility of allowing international telecommunications companies to break the long period of oligarchy in the telecommunications industry. resolving monopolistic control of the industry gives way to equal international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 120-134 evaluation of digital literacy to educating post-millennials jennifer h. operio 132 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) chances for all students regardless of area and economic status. research to look into deeper issues such as lack of training in terms of technology and adapting an e-learning educational system for the school. the research should also assess training needs and readiness in utilizing technology both for teaching and non-teaching staff. technology and advancements have their own pros and cons. research could be made to have equal footing for all types of students on the utilization and application of technology to the current curriculum of the k-12 without letting the more emphatic way of addressing their needs. acknowledgement i would like to express gratitude to the following key personnel in the pampanga central college: director for operation-madam alma tan, office administratormadam gadelyn aguilar, faculty members of the senior high school, the non-teaching personnel and students in the 12th grade for their cooperation and support. references barnes & noble college. 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(2016). “digital literacy: a prerequisite for effective learning in a blended learning environment?” the electronic journal of e-learning. volume 14 issue 1, (pp.54-65). issn 1479-4403. the annie e. casey foundation. (2021). what are the core characteristics of generation z? retrieved from: https://www.aecf.org/blog/what-are-the-core-characteristics-of-generation-z tucker, r. catlin. (2013). crowdsourcing information in the classroom. retrieved from: https://catlintucker.com/2013/04/1760/ tucker, dr. catlin. (2013). beyond samr: the teacher's journey to technology integration. retrieved from: https://catlintucker.com/2013/10/beyond-samr-the-teacherrs-journey-totechnology-integration/ umali, t. (2019). exclusive: promoting digital literacy in the philippine education system. opengov. retrieved from https://opengovasia.com/promoting-digital-literacy-in-thephilippine-education-system/ unesco strategy on technological innovation in education (2022-2025). retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000378847 unesco. (2022). why does unesco consider digital innovation in education important? retrieved from https://www.unesco.org/en/education/digital/need-know world health organization (2020). regional office for the eastern mediterranean. excessive screen use and gaming considerations during covid19. available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333467 microsoft word 1171 abbas abubakar hiliya (58-74) available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 58-74 corresponding author yusuf sarkingobir, superoxidedismutase594@gmail.com faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1171 and research synergy foundation instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya1, dr umar tambari2, yusuf sarkingobir3 , abdulrahman hamza4 , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa5 1 department of educational technology, shehu shagari university of education sokoto, nigeria 2,3,4department of environmental education, shehu shagari university of education sokoto, nigeria 5 department of biology, shehu shagari college of education sokoto, nigeria abstract education delves into issues in developing nations, including sokoto; thus, poor supervision rendered public schools poor than private ones. the objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area of sokoto state, nigeria using a correlational survey design. therewith, 165 teachers and 9 principals were involved. analysis shows that 84(52.5%) of teachers agreed that their planned lessons contain learner-centered activities, and 41(25.6%) strongly agreed. teachers' responses on my principal ensures that i use teaching aids in teaching, 101(63.1%) agreed, 32(20%) strongly agreed, 12(7.5%), and 9(5.6%) disagreed and strongly disagreed, respectively. regarding teachers' use of modern methods of teaching, 7(77.8%) of the principals agreed, and 2(22.2%) strongly agreed. principals' responses on teachers in my school ensure that students gain mastery of the content of instruction reveals 6(66.7%) of them agreed, 2(22.2%) were undecided, and 1(11.1%) strongly agreed. on teachers keeping records of vital information of instruction, most principals are positive as 4(44.4%) and 4(44.4%) agreed and strongly agreed, respectively; 1(11.1%) undecided. principals submitted teachers keeping records of student’s assessment 5(55.6%) as agreed, 3(33.3%) strongly agreed, and 1(11.1%) undecided. pearson product moment correlation shows a very high positive correlation between instructional supervision and the appropriateness of teaching methods used in the study area; likewise, there is a moderate positive relationship between instructional supervision and teacher record keeping. effective supervision of secondary schools is needed for teacher effectiveness in schools in tambuwal local government area and sokoto state, nigeria keywords: education; effectiveness, instructional supervision, secondary schools, teacher effectiveness; this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction supervision is a backbone of educational improvement necessary to help educators and educational administrators in doing their jobs in a better fashion. supervision is needed in education to ensure uniformity and effectiveness in teaching and serves as a tool to promote teaching and learning in schools. it involves various fruitful themes of checking, inquiry, factfinding, keeping, guidance, direction, survey, correction, prevention, inspiration, diagnosis, improvement, and quasi (olorode and adeyemo, 2012). in the terrain of school, supervision can be viewed as that parcel of school administration that has a specific pertinence for the appropriateness international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 59 issn 2721-2904 (online) of instructional expectations of educational programmes. it is the management of personnel that conducts the works of administration (owoeye, 2002; olorode and adeyemo, 2012). similarly, there is an opinion that supervision augments the relationship whereby the supervisor guides and assists teachers in attaining objectives (olorode and adeyemo, 2012). supervision is viewed as a relationship between senior and junior members of a profession meant to be evaluative, extend over time, enhance the skills of members, and serve as a gatekeeper to the profession (ololube, 2014). bessong and ojong (2008) reported supervision defined as all efforts established by school officials in order to propel leadership to all the teachers and other educational works in the norm to the improvement of instruction that equally involved stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers; revision of educational objectives and materials of instruction, materials of instruction, teaching methods, and the evaluation of instruction. some groups regard supervision as a method of advising, guiding, refreshing, encouraging, stimulating, improving, and overseeing certain groups with an aim to seek cooperation so that the supervisors be successful in their tasks of supervision bessong and ojong (2008). in a similar vein, instructional supervision is important in the attainment of an effective education system. recently, ukpore (2004) dubbed instructional supervision as something that has to do with the coordination of various tasks by autonomous and delegated authority and ensuring that personal consideration is expunged out of official work to attain fairness to obtain the goals of schools (mohammed et al., 2015). in nigeria, one of the analysts sees instructional supervision as an internal process that is regarded as micro-inspection aimed at ensuring regular resource utilization and process in a school setting. moreover, it ensures the maintenance of lines that propel effective learning (omoregie, 2002; mohammed et al., 2015; iroegbu & etudor-eyo, 2016). in a nutshell, instructional supervision of schools should watch the teacher service, students learning efforts, curriculum benefits, and school facilities (ezedi, 2002; mohammed et al., 2015; iroegbu & etudor-eyo, 2016). teacher efficacy is influential and positively associated with student achievement (moosa, 2021). teacher effectiveness, on the other hand, involves the teachers' ability to use qualitative teaching methods, have good skills in record keeping, and have good classroom management for the attainment of educational goals and objectives. teacher effectiveness is related to the professional implementation of given tasks as enshrined in the curriculum and abiding by a set of rules and regulations that checks the teaching practices of the teacher pertaining to the standards of education. most supervisors can possibly assess the effectiveness of their teachers using behavioral indicators such as rate of absenteeism, content delivery, regularity in the school and class, punctuality, time taken to accomplish tasks, time management, and preparation and preparation of lesson notes (mcquarrie and wood, 1991; glickman, 1992; goldhammer et al., 1993; sergiovanni & starratt, 2002; peretomode, 2004; wiles, 2004; glickman et al., 2007; oviawe, 2016). sani (2011) pointed out certain indicators of teacher effectiveness that are influenced by instructional supervision thus; effective methods of teaching, good record-keeping, good classroom arrangement, sound academic performance by students, and good student conduct. cogan (2013) has an opinion that it is imperative to harbor conditions that will make the teacher comfortable in the course of the supervision process. parable, cordial relations among actors (the supervisor and the supervisee) spin high chances of the teacher feeling comfortable during the supervision process. it is also propelled that where teachers are aware of the roles of supervision for their professional international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 60 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) development, they are likely to regard the classroom observations positively; but where the teachers’ views on supervision are negative, it is most likely that teachers may term supervisions as the perfect platforms for the supervisor to attack them (reopen & barr, 2010; tshabalala, 2013). the teacher as a participant, controller, resource, assessor, tutor, and the like is enormous in teaching or school environment. the teacher, among other roles, a teacher encourages active learning, develops reciprocity and cooperation among students, yields prompt feedback, emphasizes the time of a task, communicates high expectations, and resorts to diverse talents and ways in order to deliver his mandate effectively. in the same vein, teacher effectiveness plays a prerequisite in learning achievements and objectives. therefore it is pertinent to explore teacher effectiveness and relationship with instructional supervision in sokoto, where there is concern about the educational achievement of students and pupils (kaur, 2019; umar et al., 2018). likewise, considering the falling standard and the coupled challenges faced by education in the state and the region in its entirety, there is a need to explore supervision as a clue to teacher effectiveness in the state, hence the need for this study. the purpose of this study is to find out how teachers' instructional supervision relates to their effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area sokoto, nigeria. therefore, two research questions are formulated as follows: research question 1: what is the relationship between instructional supervision and the appropriateness of teaching methods? research question 2: what is the relationship between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping? literature review supervision is very pivotal in schools to sew that the standards set by the ministry are followed and achieve the institutional and national goals. supervision of teachers is a tool for effectiveness. timely, effective, and corrective measures shall be in place to ensure the improvement of teacher effectiveness. supervision of teachers in nigerian schools entirely rests on the shoulders of supervisors all-inclusive, thus, head teachers, assisted by their deputies, heads of departments, and the directors of studies (owoeye, 2002; zepeda, 2003; abubakar, 2015). instructional supervision is directed towards achieving teacher professional advancement, personal growth, instructional competence, and learners' academic performance, among others. a hypothesis was stated as h1:1. there is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria because several studies have shown that there is a relationship between supervision and teachers' methods. parable, amina (2015) submitted that instructional supervision feedback provides a diagnosis of teaching methods and enables professional growth and development. darisah et al. (2017), in their study, said it was related that implementation and supervision in learning there are high attitudes and competency improvement. the other hypothesis formed on this study echoed that, h1:2. there is a statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping among teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. it is reported that among the objectives of instructional supervision is to ensure that the teachers' effectiveness in managing the classroom is measured, as in ekundayo et al. (2013). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 61 issn 2721-2904 (online) the school records are all documents, books, files, and all other relevant documents that are essential to the development and growth of schools and education entirely. with record keeping at school, there are many benefits, such as maintaining accountability, decision-making, employment, guidance, and planning. it is useful in feeding the parents with suitable information, feeding the students with the required information for achievement performance, and many more. poor school records management and lack of staff development in that respect are the brains behind many management and policy implementation hurdles nowadays (amanchuku & ololube, 2015). without records, accountability is naught; consequently, there is a tendency to have poor risk accomplishment and measurable results (amanchuku & ololube, 2015). the education system is rapidly taking different tunes and evolving around the world with many changes and issues in many education systems around the globe (paul & aremu, 2020). the situation in secondary schools in tambuwal local government reveals that some teachers no longer regard teaching as a desired career and never take it for granted. to make matters worse, those categories of teachers are reluctant to improve their level of effectiveness and report to school whenever they like and do school duties hesitantly. in a scenario like this, these categories of teachers do use inappropriate methods, regard keeping records as unnecessary, and care less about classroom management which is all part of their effectiveness. however, if the above situation tends to be in existence in schools, the effectiveness of teaching, as well as quality output, will no longer be realized. this is dangerous because the implication is that the products/output will be substandard. yet these are the future of human resources of the state. this, therefore, seriously needs to be addressed. no study has tried to observe whether a relationship exists between the teacher's instructional supervision and teachers' output in secondary schools’ teachers in tambuwal's local government area. this has therefore prompted the need to carry out this study with a view of finding out how teachers' instructional supervision relates to their effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal's local government area sokoto, nigeria. sources: formed by the researchers figure 1. the conceptual framework illustrating the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness independent variable dependent variable moderating variables instructional supervision  approving schemes of work and lesson plan.  observing teaching and learning process.  checking on learners’ activities. teacher effectiveness  appropriate method of teaching.  good record keeping.  availability of preparation materials and teaching plans.  availability of supervision tools  willingness to supervise.  attitude towards being supervised. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 62 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) figure 1 conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness. for example, the independent variable is instructional supervision involving supervising the schemes of work and lesson plans, approving schemes of work, classroom supervision, checking on learners' activity exercises, and record of assessments. this will influence the dependent variables, which is teacher effectiveness, which involves a good and appropriate method of teaching, good record management, and good classroom management. according to this framework, factors that moderate the above variables to take place to encompass: the availability of preparation materials for planning, supervision tools, readiness to supervise, and readiness to be supervised. to sum up, if all the above variables are integrated, there would be a conducive environment for the supervision process, which will inevitably yield teacher effectiveness. research method the populations of the study were 303, drawn from principals and teachers of governmentaided secondary schools in the tambuwal local government area of sokoto state. there are nine (9) government senior secondary schools in tambuwal lga. there are 18 school principals, 2 for each secondary school, and 285 teachers. the teachers include graduates, holders of diplomas, and national certificates in education. these were considered to be qualified teachers. all the 9 senior secondary schools’ principals and a total of 165 teachers were selected for the study. these comprised of 9 principals and 165 teachers. the local government has 18 principals; one for senior secondary school and the other one for junior secondary school, but for the sake of this research, only the principals of senior secondary schools were involved. according to krejcie and morgan (1970), cited by okello & lamaro (2015), a sample size of 174 respondents is representative of such population of 303. table 3.1 below gives a summary. table 1. population and sample size category of respondents population sample size sampling techniques principals 18 9 purposive sampling teachers 285 165 simple random sampling total 303 174 the instrument for data collection in the early quarter of the year 2021, a self-administered questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. two questionnaires were used, such as the teachers' questionnaire and the students' questionnaire. all 9 senior secondary schools’ principals and a total of 165 teachers were selected for the study. 174 questionnaires were recovered after distributing 174 questionnaires. data collection methods data collection methods are any techniques used by the researcher in order to generate information from the participants of the study. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 63 issn 2721-2904 (online) questionnaire. a self-administered 5-scale likert type of questionnaire was the major instrument that was used in data collection. the closed-ended questionnaire type was issued in order to generate quantitative information. the scores of the questionnaire include; 1. strongly disagree, 2. disagree, 3. undecided, 4. agree, and 5. strongly agree. questionnaires were administered to the 165 teachers and the 9 principals of the schools in tambuwal local government. this helps gather quantitative information regarding the instructional supervision and effectiveness of teachers in the tambuwal local government area. a separate questionnaire containing questions on teacher effectiveness was issued to principals of the sampled schools, and the quantitative information obtained was correlated with the teacher’s questionnaire. validity is regarded as the extent to which an instrument can measure what it was meant to be measured (sarkingobir et al., 2022). the questionnaire was validated through expert reviews in the faculty of education, shehu shagari university of education sokoto, sokoto state, nigeria, and a pilot study was conducted. data processing and analysis data obtained from the field concerning instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness was entered into a computer, and the statistical package for social scientists (spss) was used to compute the pearson product moment correlation coefficient technique and determine the magnitude of the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness. findings and discussion results obtained from the field were analyzed using simple frequency and percentage as indicated in the tables below, and later pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed based on the research objectives. analysis of research questions on instructional supervision supervision of teachers’ scheme of work and lessons plans table 2. teachers' responses to “my principal always check my lesson plan and scheme of work” frequency percent valid percent cumulative frequencies strongly disagree 4 2.5 2.5 2.5 disagree 31 19.4 19.4 undecided 5 3.1 3.1 agree 89 55.6 55.6 strongly agree 31 19.4 19.4 total 160 100.0 100.0 source: field data, (2021) results presented in table 2 above reveal that 89(55.6%) of the teachers who participated in the study agreed to the fact that their principals always check their lesson plans and scheme of work. the table further indicated that 31(19.4%) of the teachers strongly agreed on the fact that their principals check their lesson plans and scheme of work. similarly, table 2 shows that international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 64 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) 31(19.4%) of the teachers who participated in the study disagreed with the opinion that their principals always check their lesson plans and scheme of work. table 3. responses on “my principal ensures that planned activities meet learner's varying needs” frequency percent valid percent strongly disagree 4 2.5 2.5 disagree 6 3.8 3.8 undecided 23 14.4 14.4 agree 117 73.1 73.1 strongly agree 10 6.3 6.3 total 160 100.0 100.0 source: field data, (2021) based on the results presented in table 3, it was evident that the majority of the teachers agreed on the fact that their respective principals do ensure that their planned activities meet learners varying needs with 117 (73.1%) of the respondents. similarly, 23 (14.4%) of the teachers were undecided. furthermore, 10 (6.3%) of the respondents strongly agreed that their plan activities meet learners varying needs. table 4. teachers' responses on “my principal guide me on the scheme of work and lesson plans” frequency percent valid percent disagree 26 16.3 16.8 undecided 14 8.8 9.0 agree 86 53.8 55.5 strongly agree 29 18.1 18.7 total 155 96.9 100.0 160 100.0 source: field data, (2021) following the results presented in table 4: it was highlighted that 86 (53.8%) of the teachers were guided on how to make lesson plans and scheme of work while 29 (18.1%) of the teachers strongly agreed on the fact that they were guided. this is in tandem with peretomode (2001), who founds that effectiveness in classroom instructions through a high level of frequency and duration of supervision leads to building up the expected values when school principals always guide teachers check their scheme of work and lesson plans to determine the extent of relatedness, completeness of tasks and content of instruction or otherwise. in the same vein, table 4 further reveals that 26 (16.3%) of the teachers disagree. also, 14 (8.8%) of the teachers were undecided. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 65 issn 2721-2904 (online) analysis of research questions on supervision of teaching and learning process table 5. teachers' responses on “my principal ensures that lesson objectives or competencies spelt out are smart (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound)” frequency percent valid percent strongly disagree 4 2.5 2.6 disagree 28 17.5 18.1 undecided 17 10.6 11.0 agree 83 51.9 53.5 strongly agree 23 14.4 14.8 total 155 96.9 100.0 missing system 5 3.1 total 160 100.0 source: field data, (2021) based on the results presented in table 5, it is evident that most of the teachers were of agreement that lesson objectives or competencies spelt out are smart (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound). this is confirmed by 83 (51.9%) of the teachers who agreed and 23 (14.4%) of the teachers who strongly agreed with this claim. in view of this, therefore, it was evident that principals in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government do make sure that teachers in their respective schools do prepare their lesson objectives as smart. this finding was supported by the finding of waters (2003), who pointed out that the principal is accountable for what the people in the school do and carries out responsibility for all decisions taken. the school tends to reflect the weakness as well as the strength of the head. therefore, the principal should monitor the progress of activities of teaching in the institution so as to reflect the mission of such an institution. table 6. teachers' responses on “my planned lessons contain learner centre activities” frequency percent valid percent disagree 28 17.5 17.5 undecided 7 4.4 4.4 agree 84 52.5 52.5 strongly agree 41 25.6 25.6 total 160 100.0 100.0 source: primary data, (2021) table 6 revealed that 84 (52.5%) of the teachers agreed that their planned lessons contain learner centre activities. similarly, the table also revealed that 41 (25.6%) of the teachers strongly agreed with this claim. based on the results presented in table 6, it was evident that principals in senior secondary in tambuwal local government do supervise their teachers in their domain to the extent that all their lesson plans contain activities that are learner-centered. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 66 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) table 7. teachers' responses on “each teacher is supervised at least three times every term” frequency percent valid percent strongly disagree 1 .6 .6 disagree 37 23.1 23.1 undecided 18 11.3 11.3 agree 79 49.4 49.4 strongly agree 25 15.6 15.6 total 160 100.0 100.0 source: primary data, (2021) table 7 above shows responses on whether teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government were supervised at least three times every term. the table showed that the majority of the respondents in 79 (49.4%) said that there were supervised at least three times in every term. however, 37 (23.1%) of the respondents disagreed with the claim. in this regard, therefore, the majority of the respondents took the positive side of the claim, which concurred with the saying stated that to ensure quality control through continuous monitoring of instructional and educational services. the principal supervises the activities of both teaching and non-teaching staff in the school system in the context of various supervisory ploys so that they conform to the generally accepted principles of education. it was also seen that high standards are maintained in the school in accordance with laid-down rules and regulations (nakpodia and urien, 2011). table 8. teachers' responses on “my principal ensures that i use teaching aids in my teaching” frequency percent valid percent strongly disagree 9 5.6 5.6 disagree 12 7.5 7.5 undecided 6 3.8 3.8 agree 101 63.1 63.1 strongly agree 32 20.0 20.0 total 160 100.0 100.0 source: field data, (2021) based on the results presented in table 8, it was observed that 101 (63.1%) of the teachers agreed that their principals ensure that they use teaching aids in their teaching. the table further highlighted that 32 (20%) of teachers strongly agreed with the claim. however, it was noted that 12 (7.5%) and 9 (5.6%) disagreed and strongly disagreed with the claim, respectively. this indicated that instructional supervision makes teachers use teaching aids in their instruction which will inevitably create a mindset among learners and makes them retain what they were taught. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 67 issn 2721-2904 (online) analysis of research questions on teacher effectiveness table 9. principals' responses on “teachers in my school use modern methods of teaching” frequency percent valid percent undecided 2 1.3 22.2 agree 7 4.4 77.8 strongly agree 0 0 0 total 9 5.6 100.0 source: field data, (2021) according to table 9 above, results obtained show that 7 (77.8%) of the principals who responded to this research question agreed that teachers in their schools use modern methods of teaching. in comparison, 2 (22.2%) of the principals were undecided about this claim. in this regard, an effective teacher is one who uses modern techniques in content delivery. collie & martin (2016), and rubio (2010) report, according to gibbs (2002), teachers shall be able to withstand the demands, threats, and challenges within the circumstances of teaching. it was further echoed that an effective teacher needs the capacity to be persistent, flexible, and innovative on new teaching approaches and be prepared in the case of failure. table 10. principals' responses on “teachers in my school use a variety of teaching aids in teaching” frequency percent valid percent agree 7 4.4 77.8 strongly agree 2 1.3 22.2 total 9 5.6 100.0 source: field data, (2021) results presented in table 10 reveal that 7 (77.8%) of the principals agreed that teachers in their respective schools use a variety of teaching aids in teaching. while 2 (22.2%) of the principals strongly agreed with the claim. based on this result, therefore, an effective teacher is someone who can use a variety of teaching aids depending on the subject of instruction and the nature of the topic therein. this concurs with rubio (2010), who found that the responsibilities of an effective teacher are to have lesson clarity, instructional variety, teacher task orientation, engagement in the learning process, and student success rate. table 11. principals' responses on “teachers in my school ensure that students gain mastery of the content of instruction presented” frequency percent valid percent undecided 2 1.3 22.2 agree 6 3.8 66.7 strongly agree 1 .6 11.1 total 9 5.6 100.0 source: primary data, (2021) following the results presented in table 11, it is highlighted that 6 (66.7%) of the principals agreed that teachers in their respective schools ensure that students gain mastery of the content of international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 68 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) instruction. however, in the same table 11, it was revealed that 2 (22.2%) of the principals were undecided on the claim. and 1 (11.1%) strongly agreed. judging from the results, therefore, a teacher is said to be effective if he/she makes sure that his/her students understand what he/she taught them. in support of this finding kaur (2019) stated that an effective teacher is one who quite consistently achieves goals that either directly or indirectly focus on the learning of their students. in addition, dunkin (1997) considered that teacher effectiveness is a matter of the degree to which a teacher achieves the desired effects upon students. research hypotheses h0:1. there is no significant relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. h1:1. there is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. table 12. the relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of the teaching method instructional supervision appropriateness of teaching method instructional supervision pearson correlation 1 .930 sig. (2-tailed) .028 n 136 136 appropriateness of teaching method pearson correlation .930 1 sig. (2-tailed) .028 n 136 160 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) from table 12 above, pearson product moment correlation was conducted to ascertain the magnitude of the relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used in senior secondary schools in tambuwal's local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. the result of the correlation revealed a very high positive correlation (r=.930) between instructional supervision and the appropriateness of the teaching method used by teachers. considering the p-value (sig. =.028 < .05), it was, therefore, indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used by teachers (r (160) = .930, p <.05). this concludes that if there is adequate and thorough instructional supervision, it will inevitably yield teacher effectiveness, particularly in the teaching method applied by teachers that will fit the age and maturity of the learners. therefore, the null hypothesis, which stated that there is no statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and appropriateness of teaching methods used in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government, sokoto state, nigeria, was rejected. and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. the finding in table 12 indicated a very high positive correlation between instructional supervision and the appropriateness of teaching methods. this is supported by the finding of rubio international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 69 issn 2721-2904 (online) (2010), which stated that instructional supervision helps teachers use a qualitative method of instruction. he further stated that some supervisors lacked planning and dealt with abstract and theoretical problems. teachers need more straightforward help from supervisors. experienced teachers wanted help related to teaching methods. all teachers want supervisory practice which promises real assistance. table 13. principals’ responses on “teachers in my school keep vital records of instruction” frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent undecided 1 .6 11.1 11.1 agree 4 2.4 44.4 55.6 strongly agree 4 2.4 44.4 100.0 total 9 5.4 100.0 source: field data (2021) following the results presented in table 13 above, it is highlighted that most principals give positive responses to the claim as 4 (44.4%) and 4 (44.4%) responses as agreed and strongly agreed respectively. however, in the same table 1 (11.1%) hadn't decided on the question. and it was also revealed that zero principals have chosen disagree and strongly disagree. from the above table, it was indicated that instructional supervision by the principals to teachers would inevitably yield teachers' effectiveness in the area of keeping vital records of instruction. this concurred with odeniyi & adeyanju (2020), who relate that without records, there can be no accountability. additionally, quality performance, task accomplishment, and measurable outcomes are increasingly important responsibilities, all of which depend on the accessibility of usable records (abdullahi et al., 2020). table 14. principals' responses on “teachers in my school keep records of students' assessment” frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent undecided 1 .6 11.1 11.1 agree 5 3.0 55.6 66.7 strongly agree 3 1.8 33.3 100.0 total 9 5.4 100.0 source: primary data, (2021) the findings from table 14 showed that a total of 5 (55.6%) of the principals agreed that teachers in their schools keep records of students' assessments, and 3 (33.3%) of the respondents strongly agreed with the claim. however, 1 (11.1%) has no options for the claim. similarly, zero negative response was recorded toward the claim. following the findings in the above table, it was evident that teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government were effective in the area of record keeping of students' assessments. similarly, records keeping of students' assessments such as monthly tests, homework, and end-of-term examination are very vital if the school is to prosper and progress. in support of this finding, odeniyi & adeyanju (2020) reports that the versatility of good record-keeping is international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 70 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) manifest in both short and long-term benefits and influences the total achievements of educational objectives (abdullahi et al., 2020). h0:2. there is no statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping among teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal's local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. h1:2. there is a statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping among teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal's local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. table 15. the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher record keeping instructional supervision teachers record keeping instructional supervision pearson correlation 1 .670 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 136 136 teachers record keeping pearson correlation .670 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 136 160 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) from table 15 above, pearson correlation was conducted to determine the level of relationship between instructional supervision and teacher's record keeping in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria. the result of the correlation revealed a moderate positive correlation (r=.670) between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping. considering the p-value (sig. =.000 <.05), it was, therefore, indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping among teachers in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state nigeria. results revealed that the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, i.e., there is a statistically significant relationship between instructional supervision and teacher record keeping. however, judging from the above results in table 15 above, it is evident that instructional supervision helps teachers to be effective in the process of keeping vital instructional records. conclusion research question 1: what is the relationship between instructional supervision and the appropriateness of teaching methods? findings based on this research question reveal that there is ineffective supervision of the principals with regard to teachers' preparation of lesson plans and scheme of work. this resulted in a very weak relationship between principals' supervision of instructional plans and teachers' effectiveness despite reaching a significant relationship. the result of the correlation revealed a very high positive correlation (r = .930) between the supervision of instructional plans and teachers' effectiveness. considering the p-value (sig. = .0280 < p = .05), it was, therefore, indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa │ 71 issn 2721-2904 (online) the supervision of instructional plans and teachers' effectiveness in secondary schools of tambuwal's local government area. this concludes that despite the statistically significant relationship, teachers' effectiveness would necessarily be influenced by the supervision of principals towards teachers' instructional plans in secondary schools in the tambuwal local government area. research question 2: what is the relationship between instructional supervision and teachers’ record keeping findings based on this research questions highlighted that principals in senior secondary schools in tambuwal's local government area demand that instructional records be made available. similarly, it was found that principals insist that teachers keep vital records of instructions. however, it was also evident that principals enjoined teachers to keep records of students' assessments. the result of the correlation revealed a moderate positive correlation (r = .670) between instructional supervision and teachers' record keeping. considering the p-value (sig. = .000 < p = .05), it was, therefore, indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between supervision of instruction and teacher record keeping in senior secondary schools of the tambuwal local government area. this may therefore have resulted in the effectiveness of the teachers in carrying out their duties. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: i. school principals should ensure that teachers prepare a lesson plan for each lesson and a scheme of work for the term. this can be done by regular checking of the teachers' lesson plan books and schemes of work. ii. school principals in tambuwal's local government area should guide teachers, especially new ones, on how to prepare lesson plans and schemes of work. this can be done by the principal himself or an expert in the school whose role is to do that. iii. school principals should ensure that teachers frequently use instructional materials as documented in the syllabus. this can be done by checking each class to see how teachers deliver their content. iv. school principals should ensure that teachers use appropriate and effective teaching strategies during lesson delivery. v. school principals should always check teachers' self-evaluation reports. this is in order to help the teachers improve in the next lesson. vi. school principals should persuade teachers under their domain in the area of record keeping to consider its impact on the assessment and improvement of instruction. vii. more teachers should be assigned to help in the supervision of their colleagues to reduce the load on leaders. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 58-74 instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness in senior secondary schools in tambuwal local government area, sokoto state, nigeria abbas abubakar hiliya, dr umar tambari, yusuf sarkingobir , abdulrahman hamza , nafisa abdulrahman ashafa 72 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) limitation & further research this study is an observational study; experimental studies might reveal more powerful relationships in question. there is a need to carry out an experimental study to re-asses the findings of this study. references abdulllahi, z.a., mijinyawa, a., & danladi, g.a. 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(2003). the principal as an instructional leader: a handbook of supervision, eye on education, new york. microsoft word 495-article text-2224-1-10-20210529.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni1, rayandra ashar2, maison3, nizlel huda4 1mathematicsand science education doctoral program, postgraduate, universitas jambi, indonesia 2chemistry education study program, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia 3physics education study program, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. 4mathematics education study program, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia abstract in 2020, higher education must implement online learning because of the pandemic covid 19. however, learning with the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) approach is rarely done in online learning. therefore, the first step in implementing the stem approach on campus in online learning is to develop contextual learning media based on the stem approach. this study analyzes students' needs for contextual learning media based on the stem approach in basic physics courses in online learning. this research method is a descriptive study with research subjects are 141 (71.94 % of the population) with second and third-year students of the physics education program of universitas jambi and the state islamic university of sulthan thaha saefudin jambi. the subject has completed basic physics courses. data collection was carried out from preliminary observations, and the use of a student needs analysis questionnaire. the results showed that students found it difficult to understand several topics in basic physics subjects. it is caused by a lack of instructional media, a lack of descriptions, a less detailed description of formulas, inadequate use of the stem approach, and a lack of higher-order thinking skills for student practice. the questionnaire results also found that students needed learning media with a contextual-based stem approach to help them understand the topics of basic physics courses in online learning. keywords: student’s needs, contextual based stem approach, fundamental of physics introduction this is an open-access article under the cc–by-nc license the next education policy in indonesia after the covid-19 pandemic period is to blend offline learning in class with online learning. however, not all blended learning can be applied in indonesian universities. implementing this blended learning depended on the readiness of information and communication technology prepared in the campus to support its online learning: sufficient internet quota, enough computer laboratories, and other equipment. the existence of the covid 19 pandemic in 2020 has changed the direction of the blended learning education policy to digital-based learning. this policy direction creates new problems. the teachers or lecturers must teach from home, and students must learn from home. during the covid 19 pandemic, teachers, lecturers, and students were forced to follow the covid 19 protocol in learning and teaching from home. digital learning creates an important problem in the area of stem education since the subjects must have laboratory practicums. if this practicum learning is not carried out, it is feared that graduates' competence will decline. the solution to this problem, a learning device need using a learning approach that can make students learn independently at home. learning tools developed such as semester learning plans, learning media, textbooks, learning modules, practicum modules, and others must be done at home. learning tools corresponding author haerul_pathoni@unja.ac.id doi:https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse. v3i1.495 research synergy foundation international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda | 18 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) must be adapted to a learning approach or a developing model. the development of teaching materials based on a learning approach from year to year continues to develop depending on learning theory. tine, lockdown, confinement, any mitigation forms, and social distancing will make anxiety and fear worsened (de giorgio, 2020). social mitigation during the covid-19 pandemic will give a big threat to physical human connection, individual mental health, motivation, and brain profile in general (hagerty & williams, 2020). social isolation during the covid-19 pandemic had a tremendous impact on our daily life satisfaction. going through distress and crisis need social support and group communities. social isolation has a threat to survival. social distancing can cause loneliness. loneliness will make a psychological downward cycle, depress the immune systems, and cognitive function. in the severe form, it increases suicide rates. decreasing social interaction will reduce memory performance and brain connectivity functions. people who have some social groups are less likely to develop depression. social groups can be sports, religious, hobby, or charity groups. social interactions increase the natural killer cell and endorphin systems. meanwhile, there will be lower levels of blood pressure, body mass index, and c-reactive protein. on the other side, social isolation changes the prefrontal cortex function (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). loneliness will cause underexpression of antiinflammatory-genes and overexpression of pro-inflammatory immune responses. limited social stimulation is related to loneliness. in loneliness, there will be decreasing in the information processing (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). the ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, also striatal nucleus accumbens have a special role in social stimulation. the amygdala and hippocampus size are greater in people with larger social networks. they showed growth trajectories. the closer relation yields a more reactive amygdala. the amygdala lesion will diminish the sense of suitable private space with other people. the grey matter of the amygdala, the lower fiber tract integrity, the grey and white matter tissue has a smaller volume in social phobia. social isolation lowers gene expression in the amygdala. the amygdala triggers the emotional reaction and regulates private physical distance (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). social isolation and distancing have big impacts on the public. there will be changes in neurobiological architecture and functional brain. antisocial behavior will develop. when social isolation happens on a large scale, there will disturb community stability and social cohesion. loneliness for a long time may predispose to neurodegenerative diseases like alzheimer’s disease in the elderly. a longitudinal study of 332 adults showed there was improved empathy after being given regular training of cognitive skills. the improvement was in affective state and perspective taking. in this condition, the results revealed structural remodeling in the brain region, especially in the social brain network. the brain network involved is the frontoinsular network. when the training was given every day, there was thickening of the right anterior and middle of the insula. compassion ratings were increased significantly. joining the social club, singing (choirs), community, and hobby group was known to have an immediate effect on sense of the social engagement. video conference in digital communication is very important to increase the social bonding between family and friends. although they are in virtual space, the bonding is good. the visual component in video conference has an essential role in increasing social interaction (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). all people have their specific backgrounds. however, the experiences and feelings with the covid-19 pandemic are very unique. the affected feelings might last for a long time and become maladaptive after the covid-19 pandemic subsided. pain, loss, grief, anxiety, and stress are all the feelings during the covid-19 pandemic. a feeling has an emotional and neurobiological cascade. the cascade will let our body ready to respond and do an adaptation. stress and fear will reduce brain function, mood regulation, decision making, and cognitive performance (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). on the other side, positive emotion increases creativity (spitzer, 2020). in the end, long term of negative feeling will change autonomic, endocrine, and immune system function international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda 19 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) in systemic physiology. immune suppression, heart disease, and obesity will increase the risk for depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and addiction (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). literature review online learning online learning began with the growing development of information technology. as a result, online learning made learning more effective. in 2018, research conducted by (chen, b., bastedo, k., & howard, w. 2018) with online survey research examined the factors that influence online study in stem major universities in the southeastern united states. this study concludes that online learning is carried out to make learning effective. in addition, in 2019, research conducted by (kefalis, chrysovalantis, and drigas athanasios, 2019) reviewed web and online applications to teach stem. as a result, all web and online applications made learning more effective. the covid-19 pandemic at the beginning of 2020 forced learning done online. research conducted by (mpu, yolanda, 2020), and (i. chirikov, et al., 2020) developed virtual learning media to teach stem. it was done with online and blended learning. however, studies related to contextual-based online learning research or online education used materials obtained from the surrounding environment are still limited. constructivism theory constructivism theory was very close to the stem approach. constructivism in education emerged after the behaviorist movement to assume that student-centered learning was active in the teaching and learning process (jones, m gail, et al. 2002). constructivism learning theory was a relatively new cognitive learning theory developed in the field of educational psychology. constructivism learning theory states that students must find, develop knowledge, and update information about the development of existing knowledge. according to khadijah (2014), constructivism was the preparation of learning from real experiences through joint activities, reflection, and interpretation. this activity allows students to have a different understanding of their knowledge. all knowledge depends on the experience and the perspective used in interpreting it. sa'ud (2013) explains constructivism theory was one of the views that states acquire knowledge. an educational problem preceded it. this problem was solved with the initial knowledge possessed by students. at the end of the learning process, students will understand knowledge through their interactive experiences with their environment. meanwhile, as the foundation stone of constructivism, piaget said that this theory views knowledge as understood in students' minds through assimilation and accommodation. assimilation is the process of taking new information in mind, while accommodation is a restructuring of thoughts built through the assimilation process (yudawati and haryanto, 2011). the focus of education needs to be shifted by building student knowledge. according to v, dagar& a, vaday (2016), if the focus of learning can be shifted from teaching students to producing knowledge products, students do not need to concentrate on memorizing and cramming exams. the products of this knowledge can be essays, papers, project reports, research papers, videos, posters, slides, portfolios, or any product that students might create. one of the most important challenges for pedagogy is developing appropriate curricula and teaching methods. the constructivism learning approach requires a completely different approach to assessment, which must be qualitative. constructivism's emphasis on student learning makes many of the final products of learning. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda | 20 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) scientific approach in learning in indonesia, physical science was a branch of science that is studied at all levels of education, from elementary to higher education. different education levels or different learning topics in studying physics require other learning models, learning approaches, or learning strategies. the selection of suitable learning models, learning approaches, or learning strategies affects student learning outcomes and classroom processes. the developments of learning media must be based on technology. the learning media used must have a learning approach, such as the scientific approach, stem, hots, and others. the scientific approach defined learning based on facts to develop students' abilities in cognitive, attitude, or affective aspects, and skills or psychomotor aspects. according to sodik, fajar et al. (2017), in learning with a scientific approach, there were five learning steps such as observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and communicating. the indonesian government policy has changed the curriculum at the primary and secondary education level to the 2013 curriculum (regulation of the minister of education and cultural education number 70 of 2013). the challenge was the application of a scientific approach as a characteristic of the 2013 curriculum in primary and secondary education. according to said, isa muhammad., et al. (2016), at a vocation school in malang (region in indonesia), students feel bored with learning theory & practice directly in the classroom. they need new learning methods and teaching materials in their classrooms. hasibuan (2012) studied the implementation of inquiry-based learning by secondary chemistry teachers in indonesia. the results of his research explained that all teachers were able to carry out experiments, half were able to apply advanced features and inquiry skills. his study results suggest that these teachers had pedagogical skills for an inquiry like their counterparts in developed countries but lacked pedagogical content knowledge prior to the intervention. wimen, carl & gilbert, sarah (2015) studied a scientific approach connected with science education. this research looks at the impact of learning biology with a scientific approach in biology classrooms. it was inspired by cognitive psychology research that studies the limits of short-term working memory. price, allen (2016) studied the scientific approach in higher education with physics education research examples. the results of giving the recommended studies for college courses choose activities and how theyare usedin the classroom should be done withexperienced faculty guidance. there are many topic activities with materials needed to make a scientific approach in the classroom. the scientific approach was closely related to student's cognitive abilities, especially higher-order thinking skills. educator’s direct students to the lower-level cognitive domain or lower order thinking skill (lots) and the higher order thinking skills (hots) in scientific learning. therefore, one indicator of the success of scientific learning is the increase in students' higher order of thinking skills. the increase in hots abilities of these students is inaccordance with wahyuni (2018) research by implementing scientific learning in an optical material. the research results obtained decision-making skills by 56%, creative thinking skills by 66%, critical thinking skills by 66%, and problem-solving skills by 91%, with the conclusion that scientific learning can train and improve students' high-level thinking skills. previous research has also been carried out by puspitasari and cahyanti (2018), who developed teaching materials for basic physics courses based on a scientific approach showing that the implementation of teaching materials development can improve students' high-level thinking skills (hots). hots 'ability can be seen by enhancing students' logic, reasoning, analysis, evaluation, and creative skills. from the explanation above, it can be seen that the implementation of the scientific approach can increase the hots ability of students. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda 21 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) approach in learning 21st-century learning emphasizes cooperation, problem-solving, critical thinking skills, and communication skills to implement integrated learning. integrated learning that is following current education is stem integrated learning. all levels of noble education, from primary school to middle school, are trying to implement integrated learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (stem). in 21st century learning, learning must apply information and communication technology. knowledge is no longer traditional as it was in the past. education today must be based on science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (m, felder, et al., 2016). all levels and types of education are stem integrated. education in the fields of religion, culture, and society has also been integrated with stem. research conducted by sumarni, woro, et al. (2020) sees the urgency of religion and culture in stem education. this study uses a literature review method. research method this research was descriptive qualitative research with a survey method. descriptive study describes and interprets objects appropriate to the situation. descriptive study aims to describe the facts and characteristics of objects precisely (hermawan i, 2019). this research was conducted at universitas jambi and university islam state sulthan thaha jambi. the subjects of this study were 141 physics education students who had completed the fundamental of physics courses. the research data were obtained from the results of initial observation, and student needs questionnaires. the questionnaires were adapted from research by (kurniawan, et al. 2018). initial observations aim to determine the problems by giving students pre-test basic physics courses. the pre-test question was taken from the question national exam senior high school in indonesia. then, using ibm spss statistic 23, the normality test and homogeneity test of the questions used were carried out. the results showed that the questions were typically distributed because the sig value of the normality test was 0.06> 0.05. in addition, the questions used were homogeneous because the sig value of the homogeneity test was 0.737> 0.05. meanwhile, needs analysis aims to determine the right solution in solving students' problems related to the teaching materials needed by students. the data obtained from the distribution of initial observation and needs analysis questionnaires are qualitative and quantitative data. the validity of the instrument used was calculated by the equation: percent=(total score/maximum score)100% ............................................................................................................................. (1) from the calculation, results obtained a percentage of 73.51% with good criteria (bsnp, 2016). while the reliability value with the cronbach alpha value of 0.974 or rcount was greater than rtable 0.531 for the 5% significance level. findings and discussion identifying the abilities possessed by learners to achieve the expected goals. in addition to learners, the topics or material to be studied were also analyzed. this analysis maps the skills or concepts that learners have and shows the relationship between these concept skills in general. the analysis of students' ability to identify the innate abilities required for the learner to achieve the expected instructional goals. the learner's ability was carried out by giving high-order thinking skills (hots) oriented questions that learner’s ability was carried out by providing high-order thinking skills (hots) oriented questions taken from high school national exam questions. this question was valid for the hots-oriented question international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda | 22 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) from the minister of education and culture indonesia. these were the same quality as on fundamental of physics material. the results obtained from 11 questions were tested as in figure 1. figure 1. the results of the pre-test of cognitive abilities of physics education study program students on fundamental of physics based on the results of distributing the students' ability, we can see 100% of students that the material of national exam was difficult to understand. the highest score just 63.4, with one number of students get it or 4,35%. likewise, with a value of 54.5, only 1 person got it with 4.35%. meanwhile, the highest score obtained by students was 45.45 with 7 students or 30.43%. none of the 23 students scored 70 for grade b. analysis of students' needs of learning media that can support the course of the fundamental of physics was conducted using the student’s ability observation distributing and a students' needs questionnaire. the students' needs questionnaires were distributed to 141 physics education students who had completed the fundamental of physics course. the results of the students' needs analysis questionnaire were shown in table 1dan table 2. table 1 about students understanding to fundamental of physics course and table 2 about students need fundamental of physics course learning media. table 1. students understanding to fundamental of physics course 1. did you like the fundamental of physics course material?z • yes (93,6%) • no (6,4 %) 2. was the fundamental of the physics course a subject with material challenging to understand? • yes (66%) • no (34%) 3. do you have any learning media for fundamental physics courses? • yes (75.9%) • no (24.1%) 4. were the learning media you use enough for you to understand the system? • yes (19,9%) • no (80.1%) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda 23 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 5. do you need additional study material to support learning in this course in online learning? • yes (98,6%) • no (1,4%) 6. have you ever used learning media based on an approach to learning fundamental physics courses? • yes (31,2%) • no (68.8%) based on the distribution of students understanding to fundamental physics course questionnaires in table1, we can see that 93.6% of students liked the fundamental physics course and 66 % of students stated that the material in fundamental of physics courses was difficult to understand. 75.9% of students have learning material fundamental of physics course, but their current learning media were still unable to assist them in understanding the material of fundamental of physics. 19% of students not enough to understand the course with their learning material. thus, 98.6 % of students need additional teaching materials in the course of fundamentals of physics. the teaching materials can help them to understand the concept of fundamental of physics course. we can also see 92.9 students required, and 7.1 % of students were not required to develop contextual-based science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (stem) approach teaching material. it was expected to be able to assist them in understanding the material fundamental of physics. specific learning media students need can see in table 2. table 2. students need fundamental of physics course learning material 1. what additional content do you expect to be contained in the learning media contextual based on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) in online learning? • figure (4.3%) • detailed formula description (36.9%) • there were examples of engineering and technology in the material and questions (41.8%) • question based on hots approach (12.1%) • others (all choices, items 2,3, and 4 only, items 1 and 2 only (5.6%) 2. are you interested in using learning media contextual based on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) in fundamental of physics courses in online learning? • very disinterested (2.8%) • not interested (0.7%) • interested (34.8%) • enough interested (42.6%) • very interested (19,1%) 3. in your opinion, what are the criteria for learning media needed in contextual-based science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) in online learning? • material difficult to understand (66.7%) • material with many formulas (24.1%) • other (select two options 9.2 %) 4. in the basic physics course, what materials do you think are suitable for making teaching materials using contextual based on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) in online learning? • magnitude and measurement (2.8%) • vector (5.7%) • kinematics (5.7%) • dinamicof particel (6.4%) • worksand energy (6,4%) • wave and optic (11,3%) • temperature and heat (2,8%) • rigid body equilibrium (2,1%) • static and dynamic fluid (11,3%) • electricty and magnet (12,8%) • atom and nuclear physics (4,3%) • fundamental of modern physics (19,1% • impulse and momentum (2,1%) • all of material (15,7%) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda | 24 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 5. did the lecturers in the fundamental of physics course use models, methods, approaches, or learning strategies? • yes (88,6%) • no (11,4%) 6. according to you, do the learning models, methods, approaches, and strategies need to be used in the process of lecturing fundamental of physics courses in online learning? • yes (97,9%) • no (2,1%) 7. in your opinion, were learning media contextual based the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) approaches suitable for use in the lecture process of fundamental of physics courses in online learning? • yes (97,9%) • no (2,1%) from table 2, we can see that students need additional learning media in the course of fundamentals of physics with figure 4,3%, detailed formula description36,9%, there were examples of engineering and technology in the material and questions41,8%, and question based on hots approach 12,1%. they need to use simple language to deliver the concepts in fundamental physics course and provide simple examples and problems and interesting illustrations. all of the criteria can seen in stem approach. 34,8%students interested, 42,6%enough interested, and 19,1%very interested with learning media contextual-based stem. students need additionallearning media in the course of fundamentals of physics followed by 2,8% magnitude and measurement, 5.7% vector, 5.7% kinematics, 6.4%dynamic of particle, 6.4% works and energy, 11.3% wave and optic, 2.8% temperature and heat, 2.1% rigid body equilibrium, 11.3% static and dynamic fluid, 12.8% electricity and magnet, 4.3% fundamental of atom and nuclear physics, 19.1% fundamental of modern physics, 2.1% impulse and momentum, and 15.7% all of material. the highest need in fundamental of modern physics. from data in table 2, we can see 88.6% of lecturers used learning tools in their lectures. however, students still want to used learning tools-based approach. the result was 97.9% of students want contextual based stem learning tools, especially in online learning. this data was taken when students are conducting online lectures. this problem arises from several factors such as the equation were not derived in detail. it made it students difficult to understand the concept mathematically in fundamental of physics course. moreover, the lack of examples in contextual made students find difficulties to solve exercises and problems. therefore, most students agree on developing teaching materials contextual-based stem that can help them understand the concept of fundamental of physics. teaching materials that use provide examples and problems with derivates formula with contextual based stem, question based high order thinking skills, and interesting illustrations or figure with contextual based stem. the other research connects with research and development with many of effect. research conducted by hendripides and hikmah (2018) with using of simple language and interesting illustrations in teaching materials was effectively used in the learning process. moreover, the other research says that interesting teaching materials will be able to that interesting teaching materials will improve student concepts (ridhwan r,et.al, 2019). the other research conducted by ellizarthat using teaching material based scientific approach made learning effective and can help students understand and help students understand the concept of materials (ellizar e, et al. 2018). another research conducted by hasja that using scientific approach-based teaching material can increase students and teachers using scientific approach international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 17-26 analysis student needs for the development of contextual-based stem approach learning media in online learning: an evidence from universities in jambi, indonesia haerul pathoni, rayandra ashar, maizon, nizlel huda 25 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) based teaching material can increase students' and teachers' motivation in the learning process (hasja y, et.al. 2020). moreover, the other research saw that using teaching materials based on a scientific approach is feasible to practice students ' science process skills (simamora r, et al. 2020). conclusion based on the results of distributing of the ability of students in fundamental of physics course and students’ needs analysis, it can be concluded that it was necessary to develop learning media that can assist students in understanding the materials in fundamental of physics course at the physics education program of universitas jambi and university islam stated sulthan thaha saefudin jambi. students need contextual-based stem approach learning media. the learning media must provide examples and problems with derivated formula with contextual based stem, question based high order thinking skills, and interesting illustrations or figure with contextual based stem. from literature review, it showed that there were studies that have not been researched about contextual-based online learning or online learning used materials obtained from the surrounding environment. online learning used information technology without materials from the environment. limitation & further research this research was the initial stage of research on the development of learning media contextual based stem that will be used in fundamental of physics course in the physics education program of jambi university and university islam stated sulthanthaha saefudin jambi. further research is developing learning media contextual based stem in the fundamental of physics course. references abdurrahman, ariyani, et.al (2019). design and validation of inquiry-based stem learning strategy as a powerful alternative solution to facilitate gifted students facing 21st century challenging. journal for the education of gifted young scientists, 7(1), 33-56. chen, b., bastedo, k., & howard, w. 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(2013). inovasi pendidikan. bandung: alfabeta. said, isa muhammad. et.al (2016). the scientific approach-based cooperative learning tool for vocational students vocation program of autotronic (automotive electronic) engineering. journal of research & method in education, 6, 67-73. simamora r, sunaryo and susila a b 2020 development of electronic modules by scientific approach to train science process skills j. phys.: conf. ser.1567 032094 sumarni, woro.et.al(2020). the urgency of religious and cultural science in stem education: a metadata analysis. international journal of evaluation and research in education (ijere)vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 1045~1054. sodik, fajar, &wijaya,m.said. 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(2011). teori-teori dasar psikologi pendidikan. jakarta :prestasi pustaka. wahyuni d, arief, a (2015). implementasipembelajaran scientific approach dengansoalhigher order thinking skills pada materi alat-alat optik kelas x di sma nahdlatul ulama 1 gresik, jurnalinovasi pendidikan fisika (jipf) : vol. 04 no. 03, september 2015, 32-37. wimen, carl & gilbert, sarah (2015). taking a scientific approach to science education. microbe. 10( 4), 152-156. microsoft word 1123 monique e. malabayabas available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 87-102 corresponding author monique e. malabayabas, monique.malabayabas@lspu.edu.ph faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka and doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1123 research synergy foundation mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas1, philamarie c. torres2, sherwin b. sapin3, victoria e. tamban4 1, 3, 4 laguna state polytechnic university, los baños, laguna, philippines 2 integrated school of lawa, department of education, philippines abstract academic well-being is one of several elements that influence students' math learning and performance. this study looked at students' academic well-being in terms of math self-concept, schoolwork engagement, and burnout in relation to their educational aspirations in mathematics. it looked at the connections between the learners' mathematical performance and educational goals, as well as the connections between the learners' academic well-being and those variables. it used a descriptive-correlational study design. the population of grade 10 students from lawa integrated school served as the source of the statistics 161 students were gathered using the standard random sampling method (males: 86, females: 75). a survey questionnaire was used to assess the student's academic well-being in terms of math self-concept, schoolwork engagement, and school burnout, educational aspirations, and mathematics achievement to gather data. the mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentage, mean percentage scores, pearson product-moment, and spearman rank order correlations were used to examine the collected data. the results showed a robust and statistically significant association between the student's academic success and their arithmetic proficiency. the findings showed a small but statistically significant correlation between the learners' academic wellbeing and educational aspirations. on the other hand, there was a modest and statistically significant correlation between the learners' academic achievement in mathematics and their aspirations for further education. keywords: academic well-being, educational aspirations, math self-concept, mathematics performance, schoolwork engagement, school burnout this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction mathematical ability is crucial for the economic success of societies (lipnevich et al., 2011), for mathematics skills are essential in understanding other disciplines, including engineering, sciences, social sciences, and even the arts (patena & dinglasan, 2013). due to the importance that mathematics engulfs, the subject has been considered one of the essential cores within the school curriculum. lately, an attempt initiated by the science education institute of the dost (sei) and the philippine council of mathematics teachers educators (mathted) crafted the "framework for philippine mathematics teacher education," whose main goal is to improve the performance of mathematics teachers based on a set of standards to become effective mathematics teachers (framework for teacher education). despite the effort made, students' mathematics performance international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban 88 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) is deteriorating and has become worrisome. the 2018 national achievement test (nat) results showed that the grade 10 mean percentage score (mps) of 44.59 improved by 0.51 over the score in 2017 of 44.08, however this fall under the "low mastery" level in the nat (albano, 2019). international tests' results, for instance, in the trends in international math and sciences study (timss), showed the dismal performance of our students in basic education. of the 45 countries participating in the third international mathematics and science study, the philippines ranked 41 in mathematics and 42 in science (timms, 2002). these results motivated the researcher to examine the factors that may influence students' performance in mathematics. there have been studies that investigated the factors which cause the low performance of students in mathematics. one was by examining the academic well-being of the students. academic well-being in students is a multidimensional construct with several dimensions. previous research has shown that well-being is an important predictor of a variety of educational outcomes. this includes school burnout and engagement, as well as engagement, school value, and satisfaction with educational choice stated in the study by tuominen-soini et al. (2012) and supported by (fiorilli et al., 2017). as stated in the study of ayodele (2011), the relationship between academic performance and self-concept is an important construct in education. furthermore, previous research (nagy et al., 2006; korhonen et al., 2016) has shown that performance-related indicators (i.e., grades) and motivational beliefs predict educational aspirations. as a result, in the current study, math self-concept, schoolwork engagement, and school burnout were considered indicators of academic well-being in order to predict mathematics performance and educational aspiration was given the body of literature indicating a link between academic well-being (in terms of math self-concept, schoolwork, and school burnout) as well as student mathematics performance and educational aspirations. the relationship between academic well-being, mathematics performance, and educational aspirations of grade 10 students at lawa integrated school was investigated in this study. literature review academic well-being among students is described as a multidimensional construct with several sub-dimensions. previous research has shown that well-being is an important predictor of various educational outcomes. this includes school burnout and engagement, as well as engagement, school value, and satisfaction with educational choice (tuominen-soini et al., 2012). furthermore, due to its relationship to academic performance, self-concept is an important construct in education (ayodele, 2011). the researcher defined and assessed self-concept within a specific domain, in this case, mathematics. as a result, in the current study, mathematics selfconcept, schoolwork engagement, and school burnout were chosen as indicators of academic wellbeing. math self-concept can be classified as students' perceptions of their own mathematical abilities. previous research has investigated the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement in mathematics, and it is regarded as an important factor in mathematics education. the study of ayodeles (2011) discovered a moderate positive correlation between self-concept and mathematics performance among nigerian secondary students. timmerman et al. (2016) discovered a positive correlation between math self-concept and math achievement, which is consistent with previous research of parker et al. (2013) and luo et al. (2014). this means that international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban │ 89 issn 2721-2904 (online) students who have a greater belief in and better attitudes and perceptions about their own math skills and achievement perform better on substantive and automated math tasks. the concept of engagement is multidimensional. the most widely accepted definition of engagement is that it has three interconnected dimensions: behavioral, affective, and cognitive engagement. according to recent research, schoolwork engagement can be defined as a general concept that includes effort, dedication, and assimilation in schoolwork (salmela-aro & upadyaya, 2014). burnout was defined as having three dimensions: exhaustion, cynicism, and inadequacy. cynicism (defined as having a pessimistic, callous, and cynical attitude toward the recipients of one's care or services) is another term for exhaustion, which is the draining of one's emotional reserves as a result of demanding interpersonal interactions. inadequacy is the propensity to negatively assess one's work with recipients (maslach & jackson, 1981). the most important predictors of actual and career attainment are educational aspirations (mau & bikos, 2000) (garg et al., 2007). there is no clear definition of educational aspirations, nor is there a unified measurement to assess them. "students' goals and plans within an academic setting can be divided into realistic and idealistic educational aspirations," writes trebbels (2015). idealistic aspirations are defined as the students' desired level of achievement, while realistic aspirations are defined as the students' actual perceived likelihood of success and expectations of completing the desired level of education, according to widlund et al. (2018). previous studies by chow et al. (2012) and guo et al. (2015a) have considered both realistic and idealistic alternatives in the operation of educational aspirations, but no clear distinction has been made between them. in the current study, the researcher combined realistic and idealistic components to represent overall educational aspirations. additionally, academic self-concept has been found to be a significant predictor of educational and career choices as well as aspirations (nagengast & marsh, 2012) (parker et al., 2012), even when controlling for achievement (parker et al., 2013). the study of guo et al. (2015a) discovered that academic self-concept was a strong predictor of long-term occupational aspirations, educational attainment, and educational attainment, in addition to being a key predictor of educational aspirations. additionally, a study conducted by parker et al. (2013) revealed a favorable correlation between educational aspirations and mathematics self-concept. previous research has found that performance-related indicators (i.e., grades) and learning motivation predict educational aspirations (nagy et al., 2006) (korhonen et al., 2016). researchers have proven that there is a connection between students' educational goals and their math performance. for instance, shapka et al. (2006) examined the relationships among early mathematics performance, gender, and career aspirations in ninth-grade students and discovered that, even after adjusting for overall academic achievement, students with lower math grades had lower career aspirations than averageand high-performing students. additionally, even after controlling for important motivational and well-being variables like interest, academic selfconcept, and school burnout, the mathematical achievement was still associated with educational aspirations (parker et al., 2014) (guo et al., 2015a,b) (korhonen et al., 2016). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban 90 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) research method the research designs used in this study were descriptive, cross-sectional, and correlational. the factors influencing how well the learners perform mathematically were found and described using the descriptive method. the investigation and description of correlations between academic success, students' educational aspirations, and academic achievement in mathematics was another goal of this study. furthermore, it was cross-sectional because it involved observations of poor mathematics performance of grade 10 students at integrated school of lawa in west i district, division of calamba city, during the academic year 2019-2020. the study's respondents were the entire population of grade 10 students at the integrated school of lawa (isl), which was divided into four sections: unity, hope, diligence, and loyalty. using the simple random sampling technique, a total of 161 learners comprising 75 females (46.6 %) and 86 males (53.4 %) were the respondents of the study during one the school year 2019–2020 was obtained. data were primarily collected by means of a questionnaire, with items designed to measure the learners' academic well-being (math self-concept, schoolwork engagement, school burnout) and academic aspirations. the assessment tools that were used in this study are the selfdescription questionnaire ii (sdqii) scale of marsh (1992). the utrecht work engagement scale (uwes-s), originally created by shaufeli, salanova, et al. (2002) on the basis of the utrecht work engagement scale, was used to measure schoolwork engagement (salmela-aro & upadyaya, 2014). the school burnout inventory, a nine-item questionnaire, was used to assess school burnout. school burnout inventory has shown high structural, item, and scale reliabilities, as well as good concurrent validity, when estimated in the context of depressive symptoms, school engagement, and academic achievement. thus, it could be used in other countries as well as stated in the study of salmela-aro & upadyaya (2014). the student's final grade in mathematics 10, which is the average grade from the first quarter up to 4th quarter, was used to measure their mathematics performance. for the analyses of data, the researcher utilized the following statistical tools for data treatment using spss version 20. mean, and standard deviation was used in describing the learners' level of academic well-being in terms of mathematical self-concept, schoolwork engagement, and school burnout. mean percentage scores (mps) for the learners' academic performance in mathematics 10. to describe the learners' level of mathematics performance, the researcher utilized the grading scale descriptors from the department of education. to determine the relationships between students' academic well-being and academic performance in mathematics 10, the pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) was used. to ascertain the connections between the student's academic success and their educational goals, the spearman rank-order correlation coefficient (rs) was used. findings and discussion learners’ level of math self-concept as shown in table 1, the learners had a poor level of math self-concept in terms of understanding and learning math. students, on the other hand, agree that they will do well in the subject if they put a lot of effort when performing math-related tasks. the students had a moderate level of self-concept, with an overall weighted mean of 2.55 and an overall standard deviation of international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban │ 91 issn 2721-2904 (online) 0.88. according to balbalosa (2010), students who have positive attitudes toward math tend to perform well, whereas students who have negative attitudes toward math will eventually fail the subject. this means that whatever belief and mindset of the students will be the basis of their future as it dictates and predicts their actions. according to timmerman et al. (2017), there is a strong positive correlation between math self-concept and mathematics performance. this indicates that students who have greater belief, positive attitude, and perception of their own ability in math eventually received higher and more substantial achievement results in any math tests. table 1. learners’ level of math self-concept indicators mean sd descriptive interpretation interpretation (1) i learn mathematics quickly 2.35 0.67 low (2) in my mathematics class, i understand even the most difficult work. 2.34 0.56 low (3) i get good marks in mathematics. 2.70 0.74 moderate (4) i am just not good at mathematics. 2.99 0.92 moderate (5) i have always believed that mathematics is one of my best subjects. 1.92 0.93 low (6) i usually do well in mathematics. 2.07 1.14 low (7.) i can do almost all the work in math class if i do not give up. 2.88 0.80 moderate (8.) even if the work in mathematics is hard, i can learn it. 3.04 0.71 moderate (9) mathematics is harder for me than for many of my classmates. 2.68 1.16 moderate (10) i am sure i can learn the skills taught in mathematics class well. 2.50 1.11 low composite mean 2.55 0.88 moderate legend: 3.26 4.00 strongly agree (high); 2.51 3.25 agree (moderate); 1.76 2.50 disagree (low); 1.00 1.75 strongly disagree (very low) learners’ level of school engagement according to table 2, learners had a moderate level of engagement in terms of feelings and eagerness to study but a very high level of engagement in terms of "looking forward to their study every time they get up in the morning and enthusiastic about their studies." overall, the data show that the learners are engaged, as evidenced by the composite mean of 3.77 (sd=1.38). previous studies by wonglorsaichon & wongwanichb (2014) discovered that school engagement is important in promoting students' learning achievement and is a significant factor that has both major influences on students' learning and educational achievement in the classroom. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban 92 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) table 2. learners’ level of school engagement indicators mean sd descriptive interpretation interpretation 1. when studying, i feel bursting with energy. 3.14 1.74 moderate 2. i find studying full of meaning and purpose. 4.29 1.14 high 3. time flies when i am studying. 3.17 1.65 moderate 4. when studying, i feel strong and vigorous. 3.14 1.57 moderate 5. i am enthusiastic about my studies. 5.04 0.82 very high 6. when studying, i forget everything else around me. 3.17 1.63 moderate moderate 7. studying inspires me. 3.31 1.63 moderate 8. when i get up in the morning, i look forward to studying. 5.04 0.82 very high 9. i feel happy when i am studying intensively 3.66 1.39 moderate composite mean 3.77 1.38 moderate legend: 5.01-6.00 completely agree (very high); 4.01-5.00 agree (high); 3.01-4.00 partly agree (moderate); 2.01-3.00 disagree (low); 1.01-2.00 partly disagree (too low); & 0.01-1.00 completely disagree (extremely low) learners’ level of school burnout data from table 3 show that students had a high level of school burnout in terms of motivation and interest in their studies. findings also show that their lack of motivation and interest in their schoolwork has put them under stress and caused problems in their relationships with others. furthermore, they had a moderate level of school burnout in terms of worrying about schoolwork-related issues, which caused them to sleep poorly. the students had a moderate level of school burnout, with a mean average of 3.92 and a standard deviation of 1.67. this finding is corroborated by salmela-aro & upadyaya (2014), who found that adolescents' feelings of inadequacy and skepticism about the purpose of education increased in correlation with lower academic achievement and school engagement. tuominen-soini et al. (2012) asserted that exhaustion has also been observed in high achievers and motivated students. according to duru et al. (2014), there is a significant and detrimental relationship between emotional exhaustion and cynicism and student performance. the findings suggest that increasing a student's level of burnout reduces the student's learning and performance. table 3. learners’ level of school burnout indicators mean sd descriptive interpretation interpretation (1) i feel overwhelmed by my schoolwork. 4.07 1.59 high (2) i feel a lack of motivation in my schoolwork and often think of giving up. 4.05 1.68 high (3) i often have a feeling of inadequacy in my schoolwork. 4.18 1.80 high (4) i often sleep badly because of matters related to my schoolwork. 3.52 1.74 moderate international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban │ 93 issn 2721-2904 (online) indicators mean sd descriptive interpretation interpretation (5) i feel that i am losing interest in my schoolwork. 4.05 1.68 high (6) i’m continually wondering whether my schoolwork has any meaning. 4.12 1.73 high (7) i brood over matters related to my schoolwork a lot during my free time. 3.80 1.58 moderate (8) i used to have higher expectations of my schoolwork than i do now. 3.44 1.50 moderate (9) the pressure of my school work causes me problems in my close relationships with others. 4.04 1.77 high composite mean 3.92 1.67 moderate legend: 5.01-6.00 completely agree (very high); 4.01-5.00 agree (high); 3.01-4.00 partly agree (moderate); 2.01-3.00 disagree (low); 1.01-2.00 partly disagree (too low); & 0.01-1.00 completely disagree (extremely low) distribution of the learners’ educational aspirations reflected in table 4 are the idealistic aspirations of the learners, the majority of them (93.2%) wanted to finish college education, and 6.2% wanted to take up a vocational course. while in terms of realistic aspirations, 69.6% of the learners are planning to pursue their college education; 23.6 % of them plan to enroll in vocational/technical courses, and 6.8 % plan to just finish senior high school. this shows that the majority of learners aspire to pursue a college education. according to khattab (2015), students who have higher aspirations tend to have higher academic achievement compared to those who have lower aspirations and expectations. this simply means that this criterion is a vital predictor of future educational behavior or even success in life stated by khattab (2015). table 4. distribution of the learners’ educational aspirations indicators frequency (n = 104) percentage learners' academic degrees want to achieve (idealistic) vocational education 10 6.2% college education 151 93.8.% total 161 100.0% learners' academic degrees will probably achieve (realistic) senior high school 11 6.8% vocational education 38 23.6% college education 112 69.6% total 161 100.0% international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban 94 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) learners’ level of mathematics performance according to the results in table 5, 70 percent of the students, or 43.6 percent, performed fairly satisfactorily in mathematics, followed by 41 percent, or 25.45 percent, which performed satisfactorily in the subject. only 34, with 21.1 percent, performed very satisfactorily, and 16, with 9.9 percent, performed exceptionally well in the subject. this demonstrates that the majority of learners (i.e., 43.6 percent) were low performers, meaning they struggled to learn mathematics. according to the study by balbalosa (2010), students are fundamentally lacking in basic mathematical operational skills. the math performance in previous years has been disturbingly consistent, whether at the national, international, or even local levels of achievement. furthermore, during the 2018 national achievement test (nat), the result revealed that students' scores compared to the previous year indicated only a mean of 0.51, which can still be classified as a "low mastery” level in the said examination. an analysis was done to determine the relationship between the learners' academic well-being and mathematics performance tested at a 0.01 level of significance. the association of data was checked using the scatter plot, and it was found that a linear relationship exists. so, the researchers used the pearson moment correlation test to measure the association between the learners' academic well-being and mathematics performance. table 5. learners’ level of mathematics performance level mean percentage scores (%) frequency percentage outstanding 90-100 16 9.9% very satisfactory 85-89 34 21.1% satisfactory 80-84 41 25.4% fairly satisfactory 75-79 70 43.6% total 161 100.0% legend: 89-100 outstanding; 85-89 very satisfactory;80-84 satisfactory;75-79 fairly satisfactory;75 below failed relationships between learners’ academic well being and mathematics performance table 6 presents the relationship between academic well-being with its subscales and mathematics performance. as to the relationship between learners’ academic well-being in terms of math self-concept, schoolwork engagement, and school burnout and mathematics performance: there is a strong positive and statistically significant correlation (r = 0.923; p-value <0.01) between math self-concept and performance in mathematics, implying that learners who have a high level of math self-concept tend to have high mathematics performance or as the learners' level of math self-concept decreases so does the mathematics performance. thus, the higher the learners' level of math self-concept, the better their mathematics performance. there is also a strong positive and statistically significant correlation (r = 0.965; p-value <0.01) between the learners' schoolwork engagement and mathematics performance, suggesting that learners who have a high level of school engagement tend to have high performance in mathematics or learners who have a low level in school engagement tend to have low mathematics performance. on the other hand, for school burnout, there is a strong negative and statistically significant correlation (r = -0.823; p-value international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban │ 95 issn 2721-2904 (online) <0.01) between the learners' school burnout and mathematics performance. it implies that as the learners' level of school burnout increases, mathematics performance tends to decrease or learners who have low levels of school burnout tend to have high mathematics performance. ayodele (2011) discovered a moderate positive correlation between self-concept and mathematics performance among nigerian secondary students. timmerman et al. (2017) conducted another study and observed a link between math self-concept and math achievement. this means that students who have a stronger belief in and better perceptions and attitudes of their own mathematical abilities and achievement perform better on constructive and automated math tasks. the majority of these studies support the belief that self-concept is important in academic achievement. the aforementioned findings lend support to earlier research showing various relationships between well-being and academic performance, particularly in terms of how school burnout manifests itself in different ways. salmela-aro & upadyaya (2014) discovered that adolescents' feelings of inadequacy at school and cynicism toward the purpose of school increased with lower academic achievement and school engagement. however, exhaustion has been observed in highachieving and motivated students as well (tuominen-soini et al., 2012). engagement in schoolwork has been shown to have a direct, beneficial impact on academic achievement and can be viewed as a crucial resource for students as they deal with various school-related demands. additionally, the association between academic success and positive self-concept is widely established (topham & moller, 2011), particularly when it comes to achievement in particular academic domains (denissen et al., 2007) (guo et al., 2015b). the relationship between the learners' academic well-being (i.e., math self-concept, school engagement, and school burnout) and educational aspirations was investigated using a correlation test. to assess data association, a scatter plot was also used. there is no linear relationship, it was discovered. as a result, the spearman rank-order correlation test was used by the researchers. the relationship between academic well-being and its subscales, as well as educational aspirations, is shown in table 7. table 6. relationships between learners’ academic well being and mathematics performance academic well being pearson r relationship p-value mathematics self-concept 0.923** strong 0.000 schoolwork engagement 0.965** strong 0.000 school burnout -0.823** strong 0.000 **correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed). strength of relationship (moore, notz, and flinger,2013): r <0.3 = none or very weak; 0.3< r <0.5 weak; 0.5< r <0.7=moderate; r > = 0.7 strong relationship between learners’ academic well being and educational aspirations as to the relationships between academic well-being with its subscales and educational aspirations (see table 3), the results indicate a weak positive and significant relationship (rs = 0.405; p-value <0.01) between math self-concept and educational aspirations; a weak positive and significant correlation (rs = 0.391; p-value <0.01) between the learners’ schoolwork engagement and mathematics performance; and a weak negative and statistically weak negative relationship (rs = -0.438; p-value <0.01) between school burnout and educational aspirations. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban 96 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) according to a recent study, while school burnout negatively impacted educational goals indirectly through interest, it was also found that higher degrees of school burnout were directly linked to higher educational aspirations in girls. additionally, it was shown that there was a positive correlation between students' interest in their academic work and their educational goals, demonstrating that this link was reciprocal. students are more inclined to engage in academic activities if they understand the value of engagement and success for their future, claims denissen et al. (2007). according to studies by eccles and roeser (2009), engaged students not only desire to but also successfully finish higher education. academic self-concept has also been demonstrated to be a significant predictor of educational and job choices, even when achievement is taken into account. table 7. relationship between learners’ academic well being and educational aspirations academic well being rs p-value relationship mathematics self-concept 0.405** 0.000 weak schoolwork engagement 0.379** 0.000 weak school burn out -0.438** 0.000 weak **correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed). strength of relationship (moore, notz, and flinger,2013): r < 0.3 = none or very weak; 0.3 < r <=0.5 weak; 0.5 < r < 0.7=moderate; r > = strong relationship between learners’ mathematics performance and educational aspirations in terms of the relationship between learners' academic performance in mathematics and educational aspirations (refer to table 8), there is a weak positive and statistically significant relationship (rs = 0.412; p<0.01). even after accounting for overall academic achievement, shapka et al. (2006) found that students with low math grades appeared to have lower professional aspirations than averageand high-performing students. they also found an association between early math performance, gender, and career objectives in ninth-grade students. even after controlling for significant motivational and well-being variables, including curiosity, academic self-concept, and school fatigue, math achievement was still a strong predictor of educational aspirations (parker et al., 2014) (guo et al., 2015a, b) (korhonen et al., 2016). additionally, math performance predicted educational goals even after controlling the pertinent motivational and well-being components, including significance, academic self-concept, and school burnout. table 8. relationship between learners’ mathematics performance and educational aspirations variables rs p-value relationship academic performance vs. educational aspiration 0.412** 0.000 weak **correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed). strength of relationship (moore, notz, and flinger,2013): r < 0.3 = none or very weak; 0. 3< r <=0.5 weak; 0.5< r < 0.7=moderate; r > = strong international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 87-102 mathematics performance, academic well-being, and educational aspirations of junior high school students monique e. malabayabas, philamarie c. torres, sherwin b. sapin, victoria e. tamban │ 97 issn 2721-2904 (online) conclusion there was a strong positive and statistically significant correlation between math selfconcept and performance in mathematics. as to schoolwork engagement, there is a significant relationship between schoolwork engagement and school burnout in the mathematics performance of the learners. further, there is likewise a significant relationship between student's academic well-being to their educational aspirations. hence, in order to maximize their participation in the subject, subject teachers may conduct fun activities so that the learners' school burnout may be reduced and their school engagement may be increased. school administrators may conduct a need assessment inventory regarding the immediate needs of the learners, especially those who are suffering from school burnout and low school engagement. based on the results, proper workshops and calibration of teachers' styles can opt. engage concerned stakeholders, such as para teachers, on the different effective ways of handling school burnout or depression by focusing on the importance of building proper academic self-concept and perspective. finally, further may be conducted with a larger scope, including different grade levels of learners, adopting a longitudinal, mixed-method research design to know the effects between academic well-being to mathematics performance limitation & further research this research was carried out at the integrated school of lawa from august 2019 to march 2020. this study's respondents were the entire population of grade 10 students at the school. this study attempted to assess the major variables, namely the students' academic well-being, educational aspirations, and mathematics performance, as well as how each variable affects the others. the limitations of the study are those aspects of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the interpretation of your research findings. further research should indicate the number of gaps in our knowledge that result from our findings, or it should extend and test the research further. references abubakar, a. m., a. m., abubakar, y., itse j. d.,(2017).students’ engagement in relationship to academic performance.journal of education and social sciences, vol. 8, issue 1 albano jr., e.(2019, september). nat scores at low mastery level.the manila times. retrieved from https://www.manilatimes.net/2019/09/ 26/campus-press/grade-6-nat-scores-atlow-mastery-level/621772 arens, a. k., and hasselhorn, m. 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(2018). academic well-being, mathematics performance, and educational aspirations in lower secondary education: changes within a school year. front. psychol., 13 march 2018 sec. educational psychology https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00297 wonglorsaichona b.,& wongwanichb,s.(2014) .the influence of students school engagement on learning achievement: a structural equation modeling analysis.procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1748-1755 yisak tafere (2015).educational aspirations of students in developing world: evidence from ethiopia, aspirations in action. retrieved august 1, 2020, from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/272182396 microsoft word 503-article text-3607-1-10-20211230.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson1 1br. andrew gonzalez fsc college of education, de la salle university, philippines abstract the majority of science students are facing different problems in applying their calculus knowledge to physics courses. researchers started to develop an integrated approach to address this problem. however, many schools are still teaching calculus and physics as two separate subjects. moreover, there has been no significant research on senior high school students' transfer of learning and difficulties in calculus-based physics subjects. it is crucial because this is when the students first experience applying calculus in a physics context. hence, the study investigated the engagement of senior high school stem students to horizontal transfer from basic calculus to general physics subjects and the difficulties they experience in solcalculus-based physicsysics problems. a correlational study research design was employed to explore the relationship between the students' physics and calculus performance using a physics worksheet. both qualitative and quantitative methods were also employed to determine the students' difficulties in calculus-based physics problems. the pearson correlation revealed that there is a significant positive correlation between the students' physics and calculus performance. although this could not serve as strong evidence of transfer, this strong correlation implies that senior high school stem studcouldle to construct the similarities between the calculus-based physics problems and their calculus schema. as revealed in the questionnaire and the student's responses in the worksheet and interview, students have difficulty in solving calculus-based physics problems in terms of identifying the variable that needs to be integrated, setting up the limits of integration, evaluating the limits of integral, and identifying the appropriate rules of integration and applying it in solving the physics problem. these difficulties are rooted in the fact that students have little experience using calculus in word problems, especially in the physics context. keywords: horizontal transfer, calculus-based physics problem, students’ difficulties introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. the k to 12 basic education curriculum was implemented in the philippines in 2013. it covers kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school. students under the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) strand are required to enroll in general physics 1 and 2 after taking the pre-calculus and basic calculus subjects (department of education, 2016). stem students need to take conceptual and algebra-based physics and calculus-based physics as basic calculus is a pre-requisite of the two general physics courses. the majority of science students are facing different problems in transferring their calculus knowledge to physics courses. in the study of nguyen et al. (2011), they investigated the common difficulties the students experience when answering physics problems that involve the use of integral calculus. the results reveal that even though students acknowledge the use of calculus in solving physics problems, they fail to apply it in their solution, especially in setting up the correct integral. moreover, bollen et al. (2015) explored college students' difficulties in applying vector calculus in a physics context. the researchers discovered that students are good at performing vector calculations, but they struggle in interpreting and applying calculus in different physics corresponding author jemquimson@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/ 10.31098/ijrse.v3i1.503 research synergy foundation international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson problem contexts. they believed that traditional instruction in physics and calculus are not enough to solve this problem. based on the reports that the majority of students experience problems in calculus-based physics courses, researchers started to develop an integrated approach to physics and calculus. their common goal is to enhance the abilities of the students to connect their knowledge between the two subjects meaningfully. for example, dominguez et al. (2016) proposed a curricular sequence called fis-mat integrated physics and mathematics, for which they reorganized the calculus and physics courses to integrate both disciplines. this provides an instructional model that gives the students the tools to address their difficulties when the two subjects are taught separately. another study proposed an instructional model that integrated the two subjects to establish to the students how calculus is used and applied in physics. the model includes the rearranging of course content and combining the different effective teaching approaches for the two subjects and the use of educational technology. the students perceived the positive effect of the instructional model as it provides them a valuable learning experience that lessens the boundaries between the two subjects (domínguez et al., 2015). despite several studies exploring the difficulties of the students in calculus-based physics and different studies proposing an integrated approach between physics and calculus subjects, especially in engineering courses, many schools are still teaching calculus and physics as two separate subjects. several studies are assessing the problems and challenges of college students in calculus-based physics, but there has been no significant research on senior high school stem students. this is crucial because this is when the students first experience applying calculus in a physics context. moreover, the connection between the two subjects is evident in different perspectives, but few studies focus on the transfer of learning from calculus to physics (cui, 2006). hence, the present study investigates the engagement of senior high school stem students in horizontal transfer from basic calculus to general physics subject and the challenges they experience in answering calculus-based physics problems. the theoretical framework developed by rebello et al. (2007) is used in the study, which is based on the associations and control framework of redish. this framework distinguishes the different types of transfer processes significant to problem-solving. a small number of physics textbook problems require a vertical transfer. commonly, students do not need to activate different schema and decide which of them is applicable or not to create a new schema and solve the physics textbook problem (cui, 2006). thus, vertical transfer of learning is beyond the scope of this study. this study centers only on the students' horizontal transfer of learning from an actor-oriented view of transfer perspective and the challenges they encounter in solving calculus-based physics problems. horizontal transfer in an actor-oriented idea occurs when students successfully construct the similarities between the new situation (calculus-based physics problems) and prior knowledge (calculus schema). in horizontal transfer, students need to activate a schema related to the question when reading and analyzing the given information. students do not require to explore whether their activated schema is applicable or not, nor do they need to choose between different possible valid schema to solve the problem. the majority of the textbook's issues are categorized under this kind of transfer (rebello, et al., 2007). research problem this research seeks to investigate the students' difficulties in calculus-based physics problems and horizontal transfer from essential calculus to general physics subjects. the study focuses on answering the two research questions: │ 37 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson stage 1: assessment of current situation • interview to students and teachers • collection of related studies stage 2: design and development of instruments • worksheets • self-report questionnaire • interview protocol stage 3: administration of the instruments the instruments were administered to 29 senior high school stem students stage 4: data analysis • percentages of frequency • pearson correlation • qualitative analysis 1. can senior high school stem students engage in horizontal transfer by connecting their physics problem with calculus schema? 2. what are students' difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems? methodology research design the study aims to assess the students’ difficulties and horizontal transfer from calculus to physics. a correlational study research design was employed to determine the horizontal transfer and explore the relationship between the students’ performance in physics and calculus. both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to answer the problems. research setting and participants this study identifies the participants' engagement in horizontal transfer from basic calculus to general physics subjects and their challenges in calculus-based physics problems. the study was implemented in a private high school in metro manila. one grade 12 stem section with 29 students is the participant of the study. the researcher also served as the teacher of this section. at this school, essential calculus and general physics subjects are taught separately. research procedure four stages were followed in the study to answer the research problems. figure 1. schematic diagram of the research procedure 1) stage 1. assessment of current situation the researcher examined the curriculum guide of general physics 2 subject for grade 12 stem students especially the topics that require the use of calculus. interview with the physics and calculus teachers and some stem students was also done to assess the current situation in the school and the learning experiences of both teachers and students. lastly, resources and materials about the calculus-based physics topics were collected. 2) stage 2. design and development of the instrument based on the data collected during stage 1 of the study, the researcher started to develop the instruments that will be used as the sources of data. source of data the data used in conducting the study are the following: (1) scores in the worksheets using scoring rubrics; (2) results in the self-report questionnaire; and (3) interview. 38 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson a) scores in the worksheets using the scoring rubrics the worksheet has two parts: part a is composed of physics problems that align with the sample problems presented during the lecture/ discussion. in contrast, part b is composed of physics problems that are new to students but related to the topic discussed in the lecture/ discussion. in addition, physics problems are problems that are commonly appeared in the majority of physics textbooks. for each physics problem in the worksheet, the student's performance in physics and calculus are measured individually using the calculus and physics performance rubric. this was done to assess the student's physics performance and calculus performance using one calculus-based physics problem. the rubrics that were used in the study are modified versions of cui (2006). each answer of the students in the worksheet is analyzed qualitatively to determine the typical difficulties of the students in answering the calculus-based physics problems. b) self-report questionnaire the self-report questionnaire was administered through socrative. socrative is an online platform that allows students to take an online assessment that provides immediate feedback. the questionnaire identified the students' difficulties solving calculus-based physics problems and their learning experience in their calculus and physics classes. the questionnaire uses a five-point likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. c) interview an interview with students was conducted after administering the worksheets to obtain insights into the student's learning experiences and difficulties. semi-structured questions are utilized to collect the students' answers. the questions comprise the students' problems solving calculus-based physics problems and their learning experiences in their calculus and physics classes. 3) stage 3. administration of the instrument after gauss's law and electric potential topics were discussed, the researcher administered the worksheet to 29 stem students. a few days after, the self-report questionnaire was administered through socrative. moreover, interviews with the students (n =12) were conducted to counter-validate the gathered quantitative data. using a developed interview protocol, students were questioned about their learning experiences in their physics and calculus class and their difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems. 4) stage 4. data analysis to answer each research problem, the following analysis methods for every source of data were implemented in the study. a) worksheet analysis each physics problem was assessed using two scoring rubrics: the physics performance rubric and the calculus performance rubric. the pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine whether the students' performance for each physics problem in calculus and physics was significantly correlated. the method of analysis used by cui (2006) will be implemented in the study which is based on the following premise: │ 39 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson • having a statistically significant correlation between calculus and physics performance is one evidence of transfer of learning. conversely, a not statistically significant correlation will mean an absence of transfer. • having a statistically significant correlation between calculus and physics performance is not the only requirement for transfer. correlation does not always show transfer, but it can indicate a transfer from different physics and calculus sources. qualitative analysis was also done on each student's answer in the worksheet to determine the students' common difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems. b) self-report questionnaire analysis for each rating, percentages of the frequency were computed. the frequency of ratings indicates the difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems of the students and their learning experience in the calculus and physics class. the reported difficulties of the students in the questionnaire will also be used to support the analyzed results in the worksheets. c) interview analysis three groups of students were selected to probe deeper into students' difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems. the selection is based on the students' total scores in the worksheet: the first group consists of three students who got the highest scores; the second group consists of three students who got the lowest scores; the third group consists of students with average scores. the responses in the interview are transcribed and analyzed to validate and acquire more insights about the students’ difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems and their learning experience and background in calculus and physics subjects. result and discussion students’ horizontal transfer from basic calculus to general physics subject the pearson correlation between students’ physics and calculus performance on each problem in the worksheet was calculated to assess whether students were able to engage in horizontal transfer by connecting the physics problem with their background knowledge in calculus. as stated in the data analysis, a significant correlation is necessary to indicate horizontal transfer. however, this is not adequate proof for a dynamic transfer. table 1. pearson correlation between students’ calculus and physics performance gauss’s law and electric potential worksheet worksheet item pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) physics scores in problem1 calculus scores in problem 1 0.735 0.000 physics scores in problem 2 calculus scores in problem 2 0.474 0.009 physics scores in calculus scores problem 3 in problem 3 0.839 0.000 physics scores in calculus scores problem 4 in problem 4 0.763 0.000 40 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson the results of the pearson correlation for problems 1 to 4 revealed that there is a significant positive correlation between the students’ physics and calculus performance in the worksheet at the p<0.001 significance level as shown in table 1. the four problems in the worksheet are shown in the appendix. a strong correlation between the scores of the students in calculus and physics in each item reveals that students were able to construct the similarities between their calculus schema and the calculus-based physics problems in the worksheet. this shows a possibility of students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics. this result is consistent with part b (problems 3 and 4) which are physics problems that are new to students but related to the topic discussed in the lecture/ discussion. cui (2006) stated that pearson correlation analysis is not sufficient to assess the transfer of learning. although the positive results indicate that the students were able to connect calculus and physics internally, this is not enough to measure transfer dynamically. the result of the correlation could not serve as strong evidence of transfer, but having a positive result is necessary for determining the possibility of horizontal transfer. the question of how far students can connect their calculus schema in solving the physics problem cannot be answered in this study, but to extend the investigation. the researcher examined students' difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems using the same worksheet, questionnaire, and interview. students’ difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems students' difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems are determined using a self report questionnaire. the result of the questionnaire is validated by the results of the worksheets and the interview. as shown in table 2, students perceived that they have difficulty identifying the variable that needs to be integrated, setting up the limits of integration, and evaluating the limits of integration. this result is aligned with the study of nguyen, et al. (2011) and bollen, et.al. (2015). table 2. students’ difficulties in solving calculus-based-physics problems n=29 indicators strongly agree (5) agree (4) undecid ed (3) disagree (2) strongly disagre e (1) f % f % f % f % f % i have difficulty identifying the variable that needs to be integrated/ differentiated. i have difficulty setting up the limits of integration. i have difficulty evaluating the limits of integral. i have difficulty identifying whether calculus is applicable in a given physics problem. i have difficulty choosing the appropriate rules of integration. i have difficulty applying the integration rule in solving physics problems. │ 41 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 1 3 1 8 1 4 3 5 1 5 5 2 1 3 0 4 1 4 2 1 1 4 2 1 0 0 1 3 1 3 2 7 4 14 3 10 9 31 8 28 1 3 3 10 11 38 1 3 7 24 6 21 0 0 6 21 7 24 4 14 4 14 9 31 0 0 3 10 10 34 1 3 international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson figure 2. student’s actual solution in problem 3 in problem 3, the students were asked to solve the electric potential inside and outside a conducting sphere. as shown in figure 2, the student used the correct formula for electric potential and substituted a correct equation for the electric field. however, the limits of integration are wrong. he used a to r, instead of r to a, where a is the radius of the sphere. this revealed that students have difficulty in setting up the limits. in addition, when the students were asked why 𝑎3 is put outside the integral sign, they are not sure about the reason. he is just aware that the variable attached to d (derivative) is the only variable that needs to be integrated. this reflects that student are not aware of determining the variable that needs to be integrated and not. this particular student got three points for his calculus performance because he completed the integration correctly. however, he got only two points for the physics performance. the majority of the students retain their knowledge in calculus; however, they have difficulty recognizing when to activate it. figure 3. student’s actual solution in problem 1 table 2 also revealed that students have difficulty identifying whether calculus is needed or useful in solving a particular physics problem. as shown in figure 3, the student did not show in his solution that the electric flux (φ) is equal to the surface integral of e.da (𝛷 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴), instead, he proceeded to use the formula 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 which he based on the sample problem in the lecture. when 𝗌0 asked about this, he stated that he doesn’t know the significance of that equation in the problem. this implies that most of the students are not aware why they use integration in solving a particular physics problem, they just copied the method on how to solve it in a similar sample problem. moreover, some of the students’ solutions started from 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝗌0 even though the teacher 42| issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson reminded them to start the solution with the surface integral of e.da. this suggested that they prefer to use a pre-derived equation instead of showing how to derive it using integration. nguyen et al. (2011) explained why students who finished calculus subjects and enrolled in a physics class commonly have difficulties identifying whether calculus is applicable in the physics problem. since students during their calculus course typically received integrals to solve, physics problems commonly do not have prearranged or set integrals. thus, students need to identify whether integrals are necessary for a particular physics problem and to write the correct integral appropriate for the problem. students are not used to doing these two tasks in their calculus course. this is also revealed by some of the students based on their interviews. figure 4. student’s actual solution in problem 4 as also revealed in the questionnaire, most students perceived that they have difficulty choosing the appropriate rules of integration and how to apply them in solving the physics problems. for example, when asked to calculate the electric potential of a non-conducting infinite long wire with radius r, the student was able to use the correct equation for electric potential, and he was able to set up the correct limits of integration as shown in figure 4. however, he was not able to finish the solution. when asked if insufficient time is the reason why he did not finish the solution, he stated that he did not know how to integrate 𝑑𝑟, but based on his worksheet, he was able to integrate 𝑟2𝑑𝑟 this revealed that students in other problems. this is true with the majority of the students. have limited knowledge with regards to identifying the integration rules to be used. students learning experience in basic calculus and general physics subject table 3 shows the learning experience of the students in their basic calculus and physics subjects. the majority of the students believed that they had learned the necessary calculus topics in their basic calculus subject. still, they also perceived that they have little to no experience connecting and applying calculus in physics topics during their calculus classes. based on the interview, they had few experiences applying differential calculus in physics during their calculus classes, and applying integral calculus in physics is new to them. │ 43 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson table 3. learning experience in basic calculus and general physics indicators strongly agree (5) agree (4) undecided (3) disagree (2) strongly disagree (1) f % f % f % f % f % basic calculus. calculus class that is useful in physics. and physics topics in my physics class. and physics topics in my calculus class. problems in my physics class. problems in my calculus class. students are used to receiving integrals to solve and they seldom solve word problems in their basic calculus subject. this is also revealed in the study of hu and rebello (2013). hence, students need more practice applying calculus in physics. some students stated that having word problems in their calculus, even not related to physics, can give them an idea of how to apply calculus in different physical situations and help them prepare to solve calculus-based physics problems. there is one student who suggested integrating calculus and physics subjects to strengthen their understanding of how calculus is applied in physics. this revealed that students recognized the connection of the two subjects and acknowledged that they need more practice applying calculus in word problems, especially in physics subject. conclusion the study aimed to investigate the senior high school stem students’ horizontal transfer from basic calculus to general physics subjects and their difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems. the study used a worksheet, self-reported questionnaire, and interview to examine the students’ transfer of learning and difficulties. frequency, percentage, and pearson correlation are utilized to analyze the data. the study revealed the following results: question 1: can senior high school stem students engage in horizontal transfer by connecting their physics problem variables with calculus schema? as revealed in the results of pearson correlation for problems 1 to 4 of the worksheet, there is a significant positive correlation between the students’ physics and calculus performance. the strong correlation presented a possibility that senior high school stem students were able to engage in a horizontal transfer. however, as stated by cui (2006), pearson correlation analysis is not sufficient to measure the transfer of learning. transfer should be measured from a different perspective. hence, for future research, the researcher recommends utilizing a calculus test as one of the instruments that will measure students’ calculus knowledge needed in physics and correlate it to the students’ scores in the calculus-based physics exam. also, the researcher recommends extending the research by evaluating the ability of the students to engage in horizontal transfer with regards to applying differential calculus in physics. moreover, since the philippine educationis utilizing online learning because of the pandemic, having a recorded video of the students while solving a calculus-based physics problem will give more information on how the students activate their calculus schema to solve a calculus-based physics problem and engage in the horizontal transfer. |44 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) i learned the necessary calculus topics in 7 24 16 55 4 14 1 3 1 3 i learned the knowledge and skills in 4 14 16 55 5 17 3 10 1 3 i learned the connection between calculus 7 24 14 48 5 17 1 3 2 7 i learned the connection between calculus 3 10 8 28 7 24 10 34 1 3 i learned how calculus is applied in physics 12 1 10 34 4 14 3 10 0 0 i learned how calculus is applied in physics 6 1 3 10 8 28 12 41 0 0 international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson question 2: what are the students’ difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems? students' difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems are determined using the worksheets, five-point likert scale self-reported questionnaire, and interview. based on the results, the majority of the students have difficulty identifying the variable that needs to be integrated, writing the limits of integration, evaluating the limits of integral, and identifying whether calculus is useful in a particular problem or not. this result is aligned with the study of nguyen, et.al. (2011) and doughty, mcloughlin, and van kampen (2014). moreover, based on the result of the worksheet, students also have difficulty identifying the appropriate rules of integration to be used and how to apply them in solving the physics problems which is parallel to the results of the study of bollen et al. (2015). students perceived that even though they have learned the necessary calculus topics in their basic calculus subject, they have few experiences applying calculus in physics topics and other contexts. they used to receive integrals to solve but they rarely solve word problems in their basic calculus subject. students believe that having word problems in their calculus, even those not related to physics, can prepare them to solve calculus-based physics problems. for further improvement of the study, the researcher recommends conducting an interview with several calculus and physics teachers to get a teacher's perspective of the students' difficulties in solving calculus problems and calculus-based physics problems. also, exploring how teachers addressed the difficulties of the students can make the research more meaningful. the results of the study revealed that students' physics performance is positively correlated with the students' calculus performance which means the possibility that students were able to connect the two subjects. however, students experience many difficulties in solving calculus-based physics problems as described in part iv of the study. these difficulties are rooted in the fact that students have little experience applying calculus in word problems, especially in the physics context. this is also perceived by the students and was revealed in other studies (cui et al, 2006 and nguyen et al, 2011). the researcher believes that word problems in calculus are helpful to prepare students in calculus-based physics subjects. putting more effort in giving word-problem exercises in both physics and mathematics instruction would also help students to understand the physical meaning of the equations that they are deriving and the application of calculus in real-life situations. moreover, the majority of the students recognize the connection between the two subjects and the need to integrate them. this is contrary to the result of the study of cui (2006), and roorda (2015). several studies (dunn et al, 2000; tyson, 2011; and dominguez et al, 2016;) are proposing instructional models that integrated the two subjects to establish to the students how calculus is used and applied in physics. however, many schools are still teaching calculus and physics as two separate subjects. the researcher believes that establishing the connection between the two subjects by integrating it as early as the senior high school will address some of the difficulties they experience. this would also help future college science students prepare to solve calculus-based physics problems that require complex calculations. acknowledgement i would like to extend my warmest and sincerest appreciation and gratitude to my statistics professor, dr. frederick talaue of de la salle university, who continuously guide and support me in writing and improving this study. i am also thankful for my colleagues' feedback and the cooperation of the respondents to make this study possible. references bollen, l., van kampen, p., & de cock, m. (2015). students’ difficulties with vector calculus in electrodynamics. physical review special topics-physics education research, 11(2), 020129. cui, l. (2006). assessing college students’ retention and transfer from calculus to physics (doctoral dissertation, kansas state university). domínguez, a., de la garza, j., & zavala, g. (2015). models and modeling in an integrated physics and |45 issn 2721-2904 (online)| 2721-3242 (print) international journal of research in stemeducation (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 36-46 stem students’ engagement in horizontal transfer from calculus to physics and their difficulties jerrie-marie q. quimson mathematics course. in mathematical modeling in educational research and practice (pp. 513-522). springer, cham. dominguez, a., becerra, j. e. d. l. g., zavala, g., & castro, c. c. (2016, june). fis-mat integrated physics and mathematics: a proposal for a curricular sequence. in 123rd asee annual conference and exposition. american society for engineering education. doughty, l., mcloughlin, e., & van kampen, p. (2014). what integration cues, and what cues integration in intermediate electromagnetism. american journal of physics, 82(11), 1093 1103. dunn, j. w., & barbanel, j. (2000). one model for an integrated math/physics course focusing on electricity and magnetism and related calculus topics. american journal of physics, 68(8), 749-757. hu, d., & rebello, n. s. (2013). using conceptual blending to describe how students use mathematical integrals in physics. physical review special topics-physics education research, 9(2), 020118. nguyen, d. h., & rebello, n. s. (2011). students’ difficulties with integration in electricity. physical review special topics-physics education research, 7(1), 010113. rebello, n. s., cui, l., bennett, a. g., zollman, d. a., & ozimek, d. j. (2007). transfer of learning in problem solving in the context of mathematics and physics. learning to solve complex scientific problems, 223. rex, a., & jackson, m. (2000). integrated physics and calculus. 2. roorda, g., vos, p., & goedhart, m. j. (2015). an actor-oriented transfer perspective on high school students development of the use of procedures to solve problems on rate of change. international journal of science and mathematics education, 13(4), 863-889. tyson, w. (2011). modeling engineering degree attainment using high school and college physics and calculus coursetaking and achievement. journal of engineering education, 100(4), 760 777. young, h. d., freedman, r. a., & ford, a. l. (2013). university physics with modern physics technology update. pearson education. |46 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) microsoft word 1151 reynaldo moral available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 103-119 corresponding author reynaldo v. moral, reynaldo.moral@deped.gov.ph faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1151 and research synergy foundation an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral1, charlie w. zayas 2 1mt-1/ district research coordinator/deped division of cebu city, philippines 2assisting principal/ tip coordinatordeped division of cebu city, philippines abstract the department of education, division of cebu city, philippines, supports its basic education learning continuity plan in the new normal. with the new trend of hiring new teachers, the teacher induction program is one of the challenges ever faced by neophyte educators. this action research determined the challenges encountered by the beginning teachers during their teacher induction program (tip) in improving instructional effectiveness and professional development throughout the process. using mixed methods of research design, the researchers administered survey questionnaires on their performances as well as a structured interview with the 12 novice teachers and conducted cross-validation for qualitative data analysis. results showed that the individual performance commitment rating form (ipcrf) has the highest rating (m= 4.0400) compared with their ipcrf self-rating (m= 3.7242) and tip coordinator's rating (m= 3.7235). there is also a significant mean difference between the three mentioned variables (f= 4.36932) p-value is 0.02073, which leads to the rejection of ho. however, the respondents are less serious when it comes to the challenges encountered in instruction, classroom management, and school location. using colaizzi’s approach, 4 emerging themes surfaced: an orderly learning environment; the development of effective teaching practices; show love, respect, and caring; and the promotion of personal and professional development. based on the findings of the study, an enhanced mentoring program embedded in an action plan is recommended for reevaluating the tip with the past induction efforts of the respondents, with stronger support from the school administrators. keywords: challenges, evaluation, professional development, teacher induction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction lifelong learning is a multifaceted process, adapted to the individual, always taking place everywhere and not only responding to individual needs but also promoting the continuous development and improvement of the knowledge and skills necessary to employment and personal fulfillment", but also collectively. these can-do wonders not only for new teachers' professional lives but also for their personal development, whether they are doing it to develop their skills or advance their careers (terziev, 2019). likewise, it helps them understand how the world works, fulfill their passions, and foster creativity in teaching. whatever their interests, it is a way to live a better life. literally, more recent versions that it should be life-wide, which is embedded in all life contexts from the school to the workplace (laal, 2012). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 104 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) in the local setting, at don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school, it is observed that some beginning teachers comprising batches 1 and 2 from the school years 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 have inadequate support coming from the mentors who should be supposed to be monitoring their teaching competencies on their own field as well as coping with their experience to the extent of mentorship from the veteran teachers during their series of teacher induction program (tip) modular approach/hybrid modalities. consequently, the school represents an excellent case to deepen the analysis of the mechanisms that favor new teachers under the auspices of senior high school master teachers with less support from the junior high school master teachers, which may have a bearing on their teaching loads and area of specializations and assumed to have an impact in the sustainability of the teacher induction program over time. there were no existing studies have been written about teacher induction or related conditions for success in basic education in the schools division of cebu city. it is also the first time that the school has conducted action research pertaining to this novel work on the teacher induction programs to be exact. this encouraged the researchers to investigate the challenges of formal/informal support to new teachers; the number of years of support; mentoring; collaboration among teachers as a method of improving instructional effectiveness; professional development; and evaluation of new teachers throughout the process. action research questions the following research questions guided the study: 1. what is the performance level of the beginning teachers in terms of the following assessments: a. individual performance commitment and review form (ipcrf) rating; b. tip coordinator’s rating; and c. teacher induction program (tip) rating? 2. is there a significant mean difference between the beginning teachers' ipcrf rating, the tip coordinator's rating, and tip rating? 3. what are the challenges encountered by newly hired teachers during their first to five years of service? 4. what for them is the meaning of the challenges and experiences of the teacher induction program (tip)? literature review when it comes to evaluation on correlating the novice teachers' pedagogy and other factors, their performance is a continuous, routine, and mandatory exercise in educational settings. its relevance to students' learning outcomes and school accountability is enormous and cannot be underestimated. similarly, it is a well-known fact that a school is only as good as its teachers' (bichi, 2017). indeed, the study of bonney et al. (2015) showed that even though the quality of teachers was high in terms of their academic and professional qualifications, it did not reflect much on the performance of the students. irvine (2016) also reported that the relationship between total years of experience and teacher effectiveness, as measured by student achievement gains, is complex, nuanced, and nonlinear. in addition, the study by harmsem et al. (2018) shows that beginning teachers perceived negative pupil aspects relate positively to the stress responses perceived tension, discontent, and negative emotions. negative emotions, in turn, are negatively associated international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 105 issn 2721-2904 (online) with observed teaching behavior. as well, graham et al. (2020) support the claim that beginning teachers are less competent than experienced teachers. as a matter of fact, carrion, cuxart, & flecha (2020) asserted that teacher induction had been an object of interest in teacher education and professional development, mostly because of the analysis of the difficulties faced and the coping strategies developed by newly qualified teachers. likewise, teacher induction program (tip) has contributed to enhancing teachers' knowledge, skills, values, and commitment to the profession and improving the students' learning outcomes (bilbao et al., 2018). the number of schools and school districts that have adopted teacher induction programs is growing and varies widely from one-day orientation programs to developmental programs lasting up to three years. although, some school districts provide substantial induction programs as the initial steps in a continuous career-long professional development program (brock & grady, 2006). on the other hand, healthy and supportive professional working environments that value new teacher contributions and honor the notion of personal health and well-being in and out of the classroom are crucial. this enables beginning teachers to flourish and is necessary for retaining and assisting qualified, passionate professionals who will thrive in their classrooms and their careers (gunn & mcrae, 2021). most of the challenges faced by new teachers are connected to the inherent weaknesses of the public school system; lack of congested classrooms; and not enough textbooks, instructional materials, and equipment. the challenges experienced by new teachers in the public school, specifically in dealing with student differences, are related to their being new to the public education system and to the urban setting (ferrer et al., 2018). the implementation of mentoring programs between new and experienced teachers not only benefited novice teachers but guided them to cope and face their anxieties during the first year in the classroom. further implications are presented regarding some mentoring programs and the impact on first-year teachers when they are not implemented due to limited funding and/or lack of administrative support (lacyl & guirguis, 2017). furthermore, studies also show that new teachers face challenges in classroom management, curriculum planning and implementation, conducting assessments, and workload issues (lew & nelson, 2016). furthermore, the findings of jomuad (2017) revealed that the workload challenges were perceived as serious by teachers. additionally, the investigation of mcgeehan (2019) showed that new teachers regard elements of induction programs as important factors in their success as new teachers. being assigned a mentor early in their teaching career, being able to collaborate with other teachers, and having relevant professional development all played a vital role in their decision-making process to remain in the teaching profession. even during the pandemic time, beginning teachers have had tremendous experiences, which prompted the study of agayon et al. (2022), who discovered that these teachers are greatly challenged in terms of learning quality transfer, module distribution and retrieval, and students' difficulties in the following instruction, power disruption, internet connection, and health risks posed by the pandemic. on the other hand, the investigation of kadtong (2021) presents that the new normal challenges encountered by educators in the new normal are the following: technological and online learning, teachers' training, and modular learning. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 106 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) geographical settings also influence the challenges encountered by beginning teachers. according to the study by alam (2018), the beginning years are difficult and crucial for novice teachers to handle and retain and sustain in the profession. that is why the attrition rate of teachers is more than other professions such as engineering, medicine, management, administration, policy making, tourism, etc. it was also found that it was almost half of the teachers have difficulty adjusting to the geographical/physical characteristics of the region where they work (kozikoglu & senemoglu, 2021). in addition, learning problems, discipline problems, communication skills, insufficient knowledge, basic needs, and attitudes and prejudices were among the problems experienced by the teachers in terms of students were some of the considered cultural backgrounds encountered by beginning teachers (sari & yuce, 2020). the abstraction performed by the meta-synthesis used by celik & kahraman (2021) on the early years of the teaching profession is a period in which the teachers both begin teaching and learn how to teach and an important career step that affects their way of teaching. 1) mismatch between theory and practice, 2) school environment context, and 3) interaction between individual factors and contextual conditions. overall, the teaching profession is a period in which the teachers both begin teaching and learn how to teach and an important career step that affects their way of teaching. the reviewed studies from the locals and abroad prompted the writers to bridge the gap between the current practice of the school system's teacher induction program for the improvement of school-based management. therefore, all those factors have a bearing on the new teachers' role, which contribute to appreciable improvement in newly hired teachers' morale and commitment should be upheld with utmost priority. it is also hoped that upon the finished investigation, the student's learning outcomes, as well as teachers' performance, will increase. furthermore, it is hypothesized that there is no significant mean difference between the beginning teachers’ ipcrf, self, and tip ratings. this negates the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the performance of trained and untrained teachers in specific performance areas (arshad & akramnaseem, 2013). however, the study of cominghud and arevalo (2020) revealed that the relationship between the level of teachers’ motivation and the level of teachers’ job performance is found to be insignificant. innovation, intervention, and strategy as a contribution to school improvement plan (sip), the findings of this study were considered useful as one innovation for the school administrators and master teachers in formulating an action program that will address some issues that affect the work quality and wellbeing of new teachers. likewise, this action research could be reflected as one of the evidence-based interventions along with the other salient features of school-based management (sbm), especially for high-quality professional development, building relationship, and adapting the environment between novice and veteran teachers. when well implemented, the selection of participants, which included both members of the school’s management team and the senior high school master teachers, will be made by means of a specifying research sample, considering each informant’s capacity and suitability to provide sufficiently rich and relevant information. furthermore, the study was revised and fully approved by the school research committee. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 107 issn 2721-2904 (online) research method the study used the mixed method or the combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches for application. a validated researcher-constructed and adapted questionnaires will be administered to the beginning teachers in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school, classified as a big school in south district iv, department of educationdivision of cebu city. in totality, there are 12 new teachers who will be surveyed and interviewed. new teachers, as defined in this study, are those who are new to the teaching profession and those who are not new to the public education system and the urban setting. these newly hired teachers who are graduates from either public or private institutions had 0 to 5 years of experience in their own category. the selection of participants was made by means of convenience sampling, considering each informant's capacity and suitability to provide sufficiently rich and relevant information. data gathering methods the questionnaire has six parts consisting of statements that describe the performance rating of the respondents comprising: the teacher’s evaluation tool or also known as the individual performance commitment and review form (ipcrf) rating, and teacher induction program (tip) ratings taken from the six modules; the challenges are categorized into the workload, instructional, classroom management, and school location. the first three categories are based on the findings of llego, as cited in jomuad et al. (2017), on the common struggles of new teachers in the philippines. communicative observations are carried out both during their onsite and work-from-home reporting, as well as in-depth interviews. data analysis descriptive comparative statistics were used for the first and second sub-problems with the determination of the reliability of cronbach's alpha using ms excel, as it is assumed to have a significance level of α 0.05. the four-point likert scale was used with the following responses: very serious at 4, serious at 3, less serious at 2, and not serious at 1. therefore, understanding the interpretation and analysis of data derived from likert scales is essential for these answers. individuals in medical education and educational research (sullivan & artino, 2013). the weighted mean was computed per category and interpreted as follows: 3.41-4.20 – very serious; 20.61-3.40 – serious; 1.81-2.60 – less serious; and 1.0-1.80 – not serious. following the research questions, protocols for communicative observations, as well as scripts to guide in-depth interviews, are designed that include themes aimed at delving into the mechanisms for the induction of new teachers in the school, as well as exploring how teachers embrace the challenges encountered. the steps representing the colaizzi process for data analysis are planned to be utilized by the researchers to read through their data and manually develop and assign codes and themes (shosha, 2012): ethical considerations following ethical guidelines to conduct research with human beings, informed consent is requested from participants. permission to distribute the questionnaires was sought from the superintendent of the division. informed consent was also secured from the target respondents. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 108 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) the scope of the study was explained to the target respondents. they were also informed of the confidentiality of their identity and responses. all target respondents gave their consent to participate voluntarily in the study. findings and discussion the results focused on the respondents' ratings based on teacher induction program, selfrating, and individual performance commitment and review form (ipcrf). these are compared with each other according to their means and standard deviation. the challenges encountered by the newly hired teachers during their first to five years of service are measured by containing workload challenges, instructional challenges, classroom management, and school location. the internal consistency of this study shows the following results of cronbach's alpha: 0.948, 0.961, 0.969, and 0.956, which signifies excellence. table 1 shows the performance level of the beginning teachers having a sample of 12. the respondents’ performance level revealed that their individual performance commitment and review form (ipcrf) has the highest mean (m= 4.0400) while their self-rating and coordinator’s rating are almost tied mean scores of (m= 3.7242) and (m=3.7235). this indicates the individual performance of beginning teachers is extremely important for the effectiveness of the teacher induction program (tip). however, the first two indicators (tip self-rating and tip coordinator’s rating) are considered as performance and obtain findings that can be used to increase the effectiveness and quality of the instructional system as they progress with their job description. when it comes to comparing its standard deviations, self-rating self-evaluation has the greatest potential of producing changes in teaching practices among the respondents (sd= .44488) compared to the coordinator’s rating (sd= .20920) and ipcrf rating (sd= .15886). the results provide beginning teachers with an opportunity to reflect on their teaching and modify it accordingly. this negates the findings of graham et al. (2020), who support the claim that beginning teachers are less competent than experienced teachers. table 1. performance level of beginning teachers under teacher induction program tip self-rating tip coordinator’s rating ipcrf rating mean 3.7242 3.7235 4.0400 n 12 12 12 std. deviation .44488 .20920 .15886 it can be gleaned from table 2 that there is a significant difference between the teacher respondents' self-rating, coordinator's rating, and ipcrf rating wherein f (2, 33) = 4.37, p < .05, which leads to the rejection of ho. at least one of the group means significantly different from the others. in this sense, the effectiveness of the school is the extent to which the determined goals and objectives of a school are fulfilled in relation to quality education. therefore, teachers' performance at the school level directly contributes to school effectiveness by achieving their educational objectives. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 109 issn 2721-2904 (online) table 2. mean difference between the beginning teachers’ ipcrf rating, tip coordinator's rating and tip rating source ss df ms between-treatments 0.7775 2 0.3888 f= 4.36932 withintreatments 2.9361 33 0.089 total 3.7136 35 the fratio is 4.36932. the p-value is.02073. the result is significant at p < .05 since the result is significant, the researchers wished to determine where the significant differences lie through a post hoc test using the honestly significant difference (hsd) or tukey method. it is seen in table 3 that the data shows a significant between the beginning teachers' selfrating and ipcrf rating (hsd= 0.2988 and q= 3.67, p= .03650) together with the coordinator's rating and ipcrf rating (hsd= 0.2988, p= .04263). the computed hsd is statistically lower than the computed difference between the means using the pairwise comparisons (m1= 3.72 and m3= 4.04) and (m1= 3.73 and m3= 4.04). based on the findings, giving the beginning teachers an opportunity in the teacher induction program empowered their mentorship in the process of evaluation and recreated a sense of awareness of the weaknesses they ought to improve. in other words, the involvement of these beginning teachers in making judgments about their achievements and the outcome of their learning is a valuable approach to support learning, particularly when used formatively. table 3. post hoc test to trace where the significant difference lie pairwise comparisons hsd .05= 0.2988 q .05= 3.4702 t1:t2 m1= 3.72 m2= 3.73 0.01 q = 0.10 (p= .99744) t1:t3 m1= 3.72 m3= 4.04 0.32 q = 3.67 (p= .03650) * t2:t3 m2= 3.73 m3= 4.04 0.31 q = 3.57 (p= .04263) * when table 4 is examined, it is seen that the data shows an overall mean of 2.79 with a standard deviation of 0.652, which manifests that the challenges were considered as serious by the beginning teachers. based on the rank, the respondents prioritized assessing across a variety of purposes for writing and gave a complete picture of a student's writing performance across different text structures and genres. however, a tied rank of 3.5 signifies insufficiency of time for the respondents to complete tasks integral to successful teaching, and a host of other stressful conditions often lead to exhaustion as well as sleep loss can have a detrimental impact on work performance. harmsem et al. (2018) show that beginning teachers perceived negative student aspects relate positively to the stress responses perceived tension, discontent, and negative emotions. the last two challenges on workload have a less serious description showing that teaching is a career that comes with its challenges that many are not aware of. furthermore, they regarded those extracurricular activities provide a channel for reinforcing the lessons learned in the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 110 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) classroom, offering students the opportunity to apply academic skills in a real-world context in the new normal. table 4. workload challenges encountered by beginning teachers challenges mean verbal description std. deviation rank spending time at home assessing papers and students’ writings 3.33 serious .651 1 preparing administrative paperwork and report 3.00 serious .603 2 becoming tired of non-instructional duties 2.75 serious .754 3.5 spending sleepless nights because of timeconsuming work 2.75 serious .866 3.5 difficulty in getting everything done because of many assignments 2.50 less serious .522 5 requiring too much time for extracurricular activities 2.42 less serious .515 6 overall mean 2.79 serious .652 parameter: 1.0-1.80 (not serious); 1.81-2.60 (less serious); 2.61-3.40 (serious); 3.41-4.20 (very serious) table 5 shows the distribution of instructional challenges encountered by the respondents. since most of them were less serious (overall mean of 2.39) on this aspect, the context and experiences of the beginning teachers in their effort to improve their teaching and to implement and align themselves with their schools' expectations of effective teaching practices. they were serious (rank 1) about having difficulty in choosing appropriate methods and techniques for their instruction. in other words, they believed that it brings instruction to life while encouraging students to actively engage with content and develop their knowledge and skills, to be exact. it also shows a tied rank of 2.5 with a mean of 2.58 (sd= 0.669 and 0.900) on the difficulty in implementing what is planned and drawing the attention of the students to the activities of the lesson. an alignment of what the teachers want the students to do and how they are supported in these tasks provide an additional point of view to the respondents. also, less seriousness of the responses by the beginning teachers with the same mean of 2.00 or tied in rank (sd= 0.603 and 0.853) indicates that they can decide on what is important to teach and can determine the course objectives of the lesson to be carried out. it is their concrete understanding that teaching and learning take place in brief, clear, specific statements of what learners will be able to do at the end of a lesson because of the activities provided. table 5. instructional challenges encountered by beginning teachers challenges mean verbal description std. deviation rank difficulty in choosing appropriate methods and techniques 2.67 serious .651 1 difficulty in implementing what is planned 2.58 less serious .669 2.5 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 111 issn 2721-2904 (online) challenges mean verbal description std. deviation rank difficulty in drawing the attention of the students into the activities of the lesson 2.58 less serious .900 2.5 experiencing a curriculum problem 2.50 less serious .674 4 insufficient knowledge in the use of teaching strategies 2.33 less serious .888 5 hardship in using instructional materials 2.08 less serious .793 6 cannot decide what is really important to teach 2.00 less serious .603 7.5 difficulty in determining course objectives 2.00 less serious .853 7.5 overall mean 2.39 less serious .754 parameter: 1.0-1.80 (not serious); 1.81-2.60 (less serious); 2.61-3.40 (serious); 3.41-4.20 (very serious) table 6 presents the classroom management challenges encountered by the respondents. the overall mean of 2.38 and a standard deviation of 0.898 indicates that they were less serious only given those challenges. even if the general idea that classroom management is an essential element defining a flourishing teaching career, it could not be felt at the present time due to the alternative modality of learning in the new normal. however, the first in rank shows that there were still unmanageable classes during virtual consultations. more so, tied in ranks with a mean of 2.50 (sd= 1.087 and 0.905) reveals that classroom management is less challenging for beginning teachers. but choosing a leader with the use of social media would be responsible for guiding the rest of the group in establishing a concrete goal and delegating certain responsibilities. finally, classroom management in the new normal is less seriously felt by the beginning teachers (rank 6), with a mean of 2.08 (sd= 0.793). it is assumed that classroom management in today's world includes managing those online risks, and those students belong to modular printed modules. however, the respondents thought that the classroom is the most challenging part of their profession, with insufficiency of time to undertake leadership or coaching roles in classes that are less serious for them. these can be denoted by an equal mean of 2.50 (sd= 1.087 and 0.905) and having tied in rank. furthermore, the least in rank shows that they are also less serious, wherein they could not use effective classroom management strategies with a mean of 2.08 (sd= 0.793). this negates the study of junker et al.; (2021), which shows medium to high levels of classroom management competence among novice teachers. an indication of how the teacher respondents deal with it and get to manage every individual uniquely since the overall mean is less serious for them. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 112 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) table 6. classroom management challenges encountered by beginning teachers challenges mean verbal description std. deviation rank difficulty in managing unruly classes with discipline problems 2.58 less serious .996 1 thinking that the classroom is the most challenging part of the profession 2.50 less serious 1.087 2.5 insufficient time to undertake leadership or coaching roles in class 2.50 less serious .905 2.5 do not know the best way to approach students’ behaviors 2.42 less serious .669 4 problems in determining class rules 2.17 less serious .937 5 cannot use effective classroom management strategies 2.08 less serious .793 6 overall mean 2.38 less serious .898 parameter: 1.0-1.80 (not serious); 1.81-2.60 (less serious); 2.61-3.40 (serious); 3.41-4.20 (very serious) inspection of table 7 reveals that school location challenges are all less serious for them, with an overall mean of 1.88 (sd= 0.828). experiencing fear in the remote assignment is what they meant as a primary concern, with a mean of 2.25 (sd= 0.965). their emotions involved are not that closely tied to their identities, calling into question how they conceptualize their teacher hood during a pandemic. it also creates less bearing with the study of celik & kahraman (2021), wherein important career step affects the way of teaching of the teacher respondents. after all, their experiences in the early years of the profession will also have a lesser effect on their teaching identity. table 7. school location challenges encountered by beginning teachers challenges mean verbal description std. deviation rank experiencing fear in the remote assignment 2.25 less serious .965 1 inability to connect the ex-environment with the current atmosphere of the school 2.00 less serious .953 2 inability to adapt to the culture of the school 1.92 less serious .669 3 difficulty in finding transportation 1.67 less serious .651 4 feeling not accepted in the school community 1.58 less serious .900 5 overall mean 1.88 less serious .828 parameter: 1.0-1.80 (not serious); 1.81-2.60 (less serious); 2.61-3.40 (serious); 3.41-4.20 (very serious) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 113 issn 2721-2904 (online) emergent themes four emergent themes arose from the clustered themes to form the foundation of the findings reported in the study. these emergent themes were as follows: orderly learning environment; development of effective teaching practices; show love, respect, and caring; and promotion of personal and professional development. the themes that emerged during the data analysis provided the foundation to accurately reflect the lived experience of the participants of this study. a sample illustration of the process of analysis that led to the formation of emergent themes can be found in table 8. table 8. illustration of process of identifying emergent themes significant statements formulated meanings cluster themes emergent theme “some of the classroom management practices i used included: getting to know each student as an individual; remembering that you have a choice in how you respond to a student in distress; expectations should be clear and simple, like house rules and responsibility charts; and being more organized allows us to focus on teaching and learning.” (p2, session 1, lines 103-118) classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the delivery of instruction. classroom management orderly learning environment "my almost a year on the job is often difficult (adjusting period), especially when handling an advisory class; though it's not my first time handling advisory, i can see the difference between a private and a public school (regarding the forms, the behavior of the students, the parents and etc.)." (p4, session 4, lines 275-286) allows teachers to support students in meeting their individual needs and facilitate the development of life skills flexibility development of effective teaching practices as a beginning teacher, it’s hard. it’s hard because i am not familiar with all the things that need to be done, like the paper works, the policies, and the system. it takes time for me to adapt to the new environment that i am in now. with all the challenges that i have experienced (p7, session 7, lines 498511) model a caring attitude and promote positive interpersonal relationships roles and responsibilities show love, respect, and caring "promoting quality education amid intrusions and challenges is the basic core of an educator, be it a beginning or a veteran one. as a beginning teacher, honing myself through professional undertakings such as attending training, seminars, and workshops have been very vital in coping let teachers know that the school values them and has an interest in their personal development, leading to value of mentoring promotion of personal and professional development international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 114 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) significant statements formulated meanings cluster themes emergent theme with the different challenges i encountered. (p10, session 10, lines 765-780) increased productivity and a reduction in turnover. through the process of extracting significant statements, creating formulated meanings, and developing cluster and emergent themes, the narratives of the participants revealed a comprehensive explanation of their lived experiences. the following section provides a description of the emergent themes using the narratives of the participants extracted from the semi-structured interview data. a matrix is provided for each participant with examples of the emergent themes. orderly learning environment in this interview, participant 1 reflected on the significance of an orderly learning environment and stated: ah, for me, sir, a major role of the classroom teacher is that of the classroom manager. beginning teachers are not prepared to manage a classroom as they enter the profession of education and have a need for practical strategies to assist them in classroom and behavior management classroom management is a concern for teachers at all levels. the ability to manage the classroom is the key to successful teaching and student learning. (p1, session1, lines 21-34) another aspect of this theme revolves around classroom lessons that run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the delivery of instruction. during the interview, participant 8 commented: during the face-to-face settings, i really had difficulty managing my classroom settings since i just came from the industry and everything during that time was new to me and the span of educating myself as a teacher in the profession, but i am so lucky and blessed it’s because i had a very wonderful team/co-worker that gave some moral support and full of encouragement to adapt to this new environment. (p1, session 8, lines 542-558) apparently, a teacher who can maintain order in the classroom is assured of effective instruction. moreover, the teacher has the respect of students, which in turn develops confidence and trust. thus, in teaching, the ability to maintain discipline is the keystone of success, happiness, and even survival. even during the new normal, the use of google classroom and an orderly learning environment enhances students' academic skills and competencies, as well as their social and emotional development. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 115 issn 2721-2904 (online) development of effective teaching practices the second aspect of the theme is ‘development of effective teaching practices. it encompasses teacher effectiveness which is generally referred to in terms of the focus on students, their performance, teacher behaviors, the classroom procedures, and conduct that are implemented to better the outcomes of the students. this is seen in the following utterances of the second participant who said in part: in these challenging times as a beginner teacher, i always remind myself that there is only so much i can do, resist the tendency to put pressure on myself, work a normal day and always ask for help from my co-teachers, especially on paperwork, for a less stressful workday. i am always open to their ideas for me to become a better educator… (p2, session 2, lines 146-163). teachers' flexibility in the new normal was also viewed by the beginning teachers as they underwent several sessions of the induction program. this was confirmed by the fourth participant of the study, explaining: my almost a year on the job is often difficult (adjusting period), especially when handling an advisory class though it's not my first time handling advisory but i can see the difference between a private and a public school (regarding with the forms, the behavior of the students, the parents, etc.). another the challenge is promoting harmony with colleagues since i am now so, i have to observe what are the things to be done. of course, in that way, i always ask for guidance every time i am in doubt about my work (p4, session 4, lines 275-286) the significant statements of participants 2 and 4 signify that their instructional journey undertakes professional development, carries out a wider array of teaching practices, and are more likely to cooperate with their colleagues. in other words, they are closely linked to their strategies for coping with challenges in their daily professional life and to their general well-being and help shape students' learning environment and influence student motivation and achievement. show love, respect, and caring the third emerging theme describes how beginning teachers show their love, respect, and caring attributes to their students. this was witnessed by the ninth participant, who narrated this way: establishing an atmosphere that supports learning is one of the essential things we can do to proactively manage our class. teachers must be aware of their student’s intellectual, emotional, physical, and social needs and implement rules and procedures to fulfill those needs. even before attending tip, i was known as the type of teacher who international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas 116 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) could adjust to my student’s personalities and enforce discipline (p9, session 9, lines 605-622). the scenario encountered by the above participant allows the making of student interaction effective and safe for participants, and even the teaching staff must create an environment in which people treat each other with dignity, courtesy, and respect, while also promoting an open and serious exchange of ideas. seeking additional guidance and training when from mentors when needed is one way of enhancing the quality of the teaching force, thereby radiating to the benefit of the students. this confirms the next significant statement of the sixth participant, who asserts the value of the professional responsibilities of a classroom teacher. modeling a caring attitude and promoting positive interpersonal relationships with their students are lifetime characteristics of this profession. in addition, the vocation to stand with this sworn job could be attested by this statement: amidst the virtual instruction brought about by the pandemic, classroom management practices have changed either directly or indirectly. after having attended the teacher induction program (tip), i am not able to clearly recall the classroom management practices i adapted aside from the usual classroom management practices. however, i am aware that the tip sessions have contributed to reminding me of the roles and responsibilities of a teacher… (p6, session 6, lines 366-386). the lived experiences of the above-mentioned participants are their obligations as to how they prepare effective lessons, grade student work and offer feedback, manage classroom materials, productively navigate the curriculum, which is now called the essential learning competencies, and collaborate with other staff or call help from their mentors. it means further that experience the novice teachers' contribution to the school program beyond the classroom also increases. likewise, their duties in addition to their rostered teaching duties, provided the responsibility is appropriate to the salary range, qualifications, training, and experience of the teacher. promotion of personal and professional development the final aspect of the themes involves how they know that the school values them and has an interest in their personal development, leading to increased productivity and a reduction in turnover. in this way, the tenth participant said in part: promoting quality education amid intrusions and challenges is the basic the core of an educator, be it a beginning or a veteran one. as a beginning teacher, honing myself through professional undertakings such as attending training, seminars, and workshops have been very vital in coping with the different challenges i encountered… (p10, session 10, lines 764-779). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 103-119 an evaluation of the teacher induction program in don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school through the eyes of beginning teachers reynaldo v. moral, charlie w. zayas │ 117 issn 2721-2904 (online) since the starting point of the induction program, the series of training can help beginning teachers become better at planning their time and staying organized. this ultimately makes teachers more efficient and gives them extra time to focus on students rather than the paperwork. in other words, the program allows teachers to keep up to date on curriculum standards and the latest teaching strategies even during the new normal system of instruction. teachers with curriculum, teaching strategies, and communication skills. it also means that having a mentor is someone to supervise and provide suggestions so that improvements can be made. conclusion after thorough writing and organizing the logical and practical sequence of this first-ever creative investigation of the teacher induction program (tip) at don sergio osmeňa sr. memorial national high school, the authors have critically and systematically revised the manuscript several times based on their observations. the devising of modified and adapted tools for taking, recording, and analyzing the respondents' utterances were made as cases to come up with a solid foundation with the 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(2019). lifelong learning: the new educational paradigm for sustainable development. proceedings of intcess 20196th international conference on education and social sciences https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331064105_lifelong_learning_the_new_ed ucational_paradigm_for_sustainable_development kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 30-39; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.59 article history: received march 1st, 2019 ; accepted november 11th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka gombe state university, faculty of science department of geography p.m.b 127, gombe, gombe state, nigeria e-mail: ycaiaphas@gmail.com abstract the paper reviews research tradition of accessibility level and spatial distribution of student in public secondary school in gombe local government area, gombe state. primary and secondary data were used for the study. primary data was collected using questionnaire and a hand-held gps receiver to capture the coordinate points of schools and other relevant data. secondary data include administrative map, population figures of both students and teachers, names and addresses of the secondary schools in the study area. the data were analyzed using geographic information techniques. from the data survey carried out, the result of the analysis showed the accessibility level and spatial distribution of school in gombe were seventeen (17) public senior secondary and total number of students were nineteen thousand and eleven (19,011). the nearest neighbor analysis (nna) for the spatial pattern of school were carried out based on each ward in study area which as ten (10) wards in each ward revealed two major spatial distributions. the spatial pattern of the gombe lga has nearest neighbour ratio (nnr): 3.385087, bolari east ward with nnr: 3.385087 and shamaki wards nnr: 1.600148, which showed dispersed pattern, while jekada fari ward with nnr: 0.214890, pantami ward with nnr: 0.226863, and herwo gana wards with nnr: 0.185239, were showed clustered pattern. the nearest neighbor index shows clustered pattern for all the wards in the local government area except bolari east and shamaki wards that has dispersed pattern of distribution. the implication of these two patterns means that accessibility is poor in the study area. students travel than normal to overcome the function of distance. keywords: accessibility; spatial distribution; nearest neighbor analysi; secondary school; gis. introduction accessibility is defined as the distance to which people must travel to receive services, or from which a service is provided to the whole community of interest in administration, economy, education, health etc. (lineberry, 2000). it is believed that accessibility is a concept that has taken on a variety of meaning, including the amount of effort required by a person to reach a destination or the number of activities which can be reached from a certain location (geurs and ritsema 2001). the concept of accessibility is used in many contexts and in different ways, for example, as a goal in transportation policy, as a means in rural development policy, as an indicator of rural deprivation and as a variable in location analysis (lu, 2004). “education plays an important role in our society. united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization indicate that the development of education is important to the development of economy all over the world”. world bank points out that the gross domestic product (gdp) of a country will increase 3% every year with increasing level of education (world bank1996). education system is a complex organization of interactions between interdependent bodies, groups and individuals, all aimed at the achievement of educational goals. the stakeholders are usually the governments and religious groups, voluntary organizations, teachers’ associations, the teachers, the parents and the public (ijaduola, 1998). secondary education spreads over the ages of 10 years and 13 years for junior secondary schools, and then 14 years to 16 years for the senior secondary schools. these geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 │ 31 are the years of adolescence. these are the years of transition; indeed, most crucial years of life. there are steady and fast changes in the body structure transforming to adult form and image of life. at this age, the bodily changes take final shape and stabilize. this is also the stage of emotional transformation and maturity that swings between joy and trauma (ogunyemi,2014). the use of gis based will play are vital roles in measuring level whereas accessible pattern of spatial distribution of schools. however, high resolution image, coordinate and questionnaire data of gombe were using for the analysis. aim of the research is to examine geospatial distribution of public secondary schools in gombe local government area, of gombe state thought the following objectives: a) to determine/ascertain the spatial location of public secondary schools in gombe local government area; and b) to examine the spatial distribution pattern of secondary schools in gombe local government. method primary and secondary data were used for this work; these includes: questionnaire, hand-held gps receiver, administrative map of gombe local government area wards, high resolution google earth image 2017, and nigeria shape file. the gps receiver was used to capture the geographic coordinate points of schools, secondary data include administrative map, population figures of both students and teachers, names and addresses of the secondary schools in the study area. the administrative map was scanned and geo referenced to wgs 1984 utm zone 32n.personal geo database, feature dataset and feature classes for existing settlements, roads and wards were created in gis environment. the existing roads, settlements and wards were therefore digitized from the georeferenced administrative map using the above stated feature classes. the data obtained from the administered questionnaire, school data and gps point coordinates of secondary schools were collected, typed into excel spread sheet and saved as .csv format for easy import into gis environment. study area gombe lga is located in gombe state lies between longitudes 11°14′07″e and 11°4′42″e, and latitudes 10°16′48″n and 10°17′24″n. the area is bounded on the east by yamatul deba local government and on the west by akko local government and north by kwami. the study area is inhabited predominantly by the hausa/fulani speaking language. with ten (10) wards (ajiya, bajoga, bolari, bolari east, dawaki, herwa gana, jekada fari, nasarawo, pantami and shamaki). and seventeen (17) public secondary school with total number of nineteen thousand and eleven (19,011) student. it has a total land area of 120 square kilometers, with population of 268,000 (npc, 2006) and 2016 projected population 367,000 inhabitants (npc, 2016). geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 32 │ fig :1 study area result and discussion 4.0: mapping of the public secondary schools and their coordinate location in gombe lga the field survey and data collected reveal that there are 17 public secondary schools in gombe local government area. geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 │ 33 fig:2 the location of public secondary school in study area table 1: secondary schools in gombe local government area with their coordinates. s/n name of secondary schools easting northing 1. government arabia college 2 11.16 10.30 2. government arabia college 1 11.16 10.36 3. government day comprehensive college senior sch 11.16 10.29 4. government day senior school, gombe 11.18 10.30 5. government day senior school, bolari east 11.18 10.27 6. government day senior school, gangu 11.17 10.29 7. government day senior school, herwo gana 11.17 10.28 8. government day senior school, nasarawo 11.21 10.28 9. government day senior school orji 11.12 10.29 10. government day senior school, pantami 11.16 10.27 11. government day senior school pilot, gombe 11.16 10.30 12. government day senior school shehu, bolari 11.17 10.27 geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 34 │ 13. government day senior school, gabukka 11.15 10.27 14. government senior science school, gombe1 11.16 10.29 15. government day science school 2 11.14 10.30 16. hassan central, gombe 11.16 10.29 17. special education central 11.15 10.30 source: field work fig:3 enrolment of student in gombe local government based on ward distribution table 2: addresses of secondary schools with total enrolment in gombe lga s/n name of secondary schls total enrolment 1. gac2 488 2. gac1 1,121 3. gdcss, ahmada gombe 782 4. gcdss, gombe 1,752 5. gdss, bolari east 1,275 6. gdss, gangu 2,289 7. gdss, herwo gana 1,633 8. gdss, nasarawo 719 9. gdss orji 647 10. gdss, pantami 2,095 11. gdss pilot, gombe 1,032 12. gdss shehu abubakar, bolari 1,251 geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 │ 35 13. gcdss, gabukka 770 14. gsss, gombe1 871 15. gdss 2 1,588 16. hassan central, gombe 621 17. special education central 117 total number of the student 19,011 nearest neighbor analysis of the schools in the study area. spatial accessibility index nearest neighbour analysis (nna) was used to determine the pattern of secondary schools in each ward. total number of each school in the ward (which represent n), the size of the area (which represent a) and manhattan distance was used to determine the pattern of secondary schools in each ward and rn value, z score, observed mean distance/ expected mean distance and p – value were generated. figure 4: analysis for public secondary schools in gombe local government area the nearest neighbour analysis of gombe l.g.a here revealed an rn = 0.01 and critical value of >2.58, with n=17, study area = 52km², nearest neighbour ratio: 3.385087, observed mean distance=0.0106, expected mean distance =0.0031, and the test significance: p – value 0.000000 z= 7.903068. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are dispersed and there is no even distribution of schools in the area. geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 36 │ figure 5: analysis for public secondary schools in bolari east the nearest neighbour analysis of bolari east ward here revealed that rn =0.01 and critical value of >2.58, with n=3, ward area =13.7 km², nearest neighbour ratio: 3.385087, observed mean distance= 0.0106, expected mean distance = 0.0031, and the test significance: p – value 0.000000 zscore = 7.903068. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are dispersed and there is no even accessibility to secondary schools in the area. figure 6: analysis for public secondary schools in herwo gana geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 │ 37 the nearest neighbour analysis of public secondary schools in herwo gana ward revealed an rn =0.01 and critical value of <-2.58, with n=1, ward area =7.4 km², nearest neighbour ratio: 0.185239, observed mean distance= 0.0086, expected mean distance = 0.0464, and the test significance: p – value 0.027501 zscore = -2.204327. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are clustered and the accessibility to secondary schools in the area is relatively even. this can be explained from the fact that the ward is relatively urban. figure 7: analysis for public secondary schools in jekada fari ward the nearest neighbour analysis of public secondary schools in jekada fari ward revealed an rn =0.01 and critical value of <-2.58, with n=2, ward area =11.5 km², nearest neighbour ratio: 0.214890, observed mean distance= 0.0073, expected mean distance = 0.0340, and the test significance: p – value 0.009282, zscore = -2.601490. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are clustered and there is no equal access to secondary schools in the area. figure 8: analysis for public secondary schools in pantami ward geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 38 │ the nearest neighbour analysis of public secondary schools in pantami ward revealed an rn 0.01 and critical value of <-2.58, with n=2, ward area =7.6 km², nearest neighbour ratio: 0.226863, observed mean distance= 0.0129, expected mean distance = 0.0567, and the test significance: p – value 0.036464, zscore = -2.091714. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are clustered and there is no equal access to secondary schools in the area. figure 9: analysis for public secondary schools in shamaki ward the nearest neighbour analysis of public secondary schools in shamaki revealed an rn = 0.01 and critical value of >2.58, with n=6, ward area =13.7 km², nearest neighbour ratio: 1.600148, observed mean distance= 0.0044, expected mean distance = 0.0027, and the test significance: p – value 0.004919 z= 2.812321. the result of the analysis showed that all the schools are dispersed and there is no even distribution of schools in the area. conclusion the nearest neighbour analysis (nna) for the spatial distribution of secondary schools indicated two categories of patterns of distribution which is dispersed and clustered pattern. the nearest neighbor index shows clustered pattern for all the wards in the local government area except bolari east that has dispersed pattern of distribution. the implication of these two patterns means that accessibility is poor in the study area. students travel than normal to overcome the function of distance. recommendation the distribution of public secondary schools are not evenly distributed among the ward. therefore, the need of gombe state government are to consider other ward within the study area in other to have equal distribution schools and also to consider the population of base on the distribution of the secondary school in the study area. geospatial distribution of public secondary in gombe local government area, gombe state of nigeria yila caiaphas makadi, rabecca stephen sati, ismail dankaka international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2017 │ 39 reference lineberry, (2000). equality and urban policy. the distribution of municipal public service. lu, y. (2004), evaluation of accessibility to primary schools, pp 26 – 31. geurs k. t. and ritsema j.r. (2001). accessibility measures, review and applications. bilthoven, rijksinstituut voor volksgezondheid en milieu (rivm). lu, y. (2004). evaluation of accessibility to primary schools, pp 26 – 31. world bank (1996). priorities and strategies for education report by world bank development in practice washington d.c. ijaduola k a. (1998). education in nigeria: an historical perspective. ijebu-ode: odoni (nig.) enterprises, pp 68 – 90. ogunyemi sa, (2014). a geospatial approach to evaluation of accessibility to secondary educational institution in ogun state, nigeria. microsoft word 1141 agnita siska pramasdyahsari (1-17) available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 1-17 corresponding author agnita siska pramasdyahsari, agnitasiska@upgris.ac.id faculty of teacher training and education doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1141 universitas terbuka and research synergy foundation improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati1, agnita siska pramasdyahsari2, iin dwi astutik3, ukima nusuki4, sindi nur aini5, julia puspita arum6, wahyu widodo7, ummy salamah8, nafiatuz zuliah9 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 universitas pgri semarang, indonesia 8 seameo qitep in mathematics, indonesia 9 smp barunawati semarang, indonesia abstract critical thinking is one of the important competencies in the twenty-first century that should be acquired. therefore, there is a need to facilitate the students with the teaching approach and learning model that could improve this skill. one of the learning approaches that provide the students with the opportunity to think creatively is stem-pjbl. therefore, the purpose of the study is to describe the application of stem-pjbl able to increase the critical thinking skills of the student. the slr or systematic literature review method was chosen to present a comprehensive and balanced summary of primary research results. the literature review was conducted through google scholar, crossref, and scopus. from 100 works of literature, 15 articles showed that pjbl stem learning was able to improve critical thinking skills. this study examined 15 articles that were analyzed based on research methods, and the findings revealed that the application of stem-pjbl could enhance the critical thinking skills of the student with the literature review method. based on the existing data collection, it is analyzed through case studies that are the subject of discussion. the findings of the study revealed that: 1) the use of stem-pjbl had a positive and significant impact on the critical thinking skills of students in each educational unit, including primary school, secondary schools, and high school; 2) the use of stem-pjbl can help students improve their mathematical critical thinking skills; 3) interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-regulation are among the indicators recommended for use as a reference for students' mathematical critical thinking skills. keywords: critical thinking skills; improving; stem-pjbl this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the learning process is expected to meet 21st-century competencies, namely 4c consisting of creative thinking skills, critical thinking skills, collaboration, and communication. these competencies are integrated into the independent curriculum which has been implemented by the schools. risdianto (2019) said that the implementation of the independent learning curriculum aims to follow education’s challenges in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0. the realization of this curriculum supports the skills that students should have, such as critical thinking in solving problems, being creative and innovative, and being skilled in communicating and collaborating. critical thinking is the basic skill that individuals must possess in the learning proses (özyurt, 2015). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 2 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) however, students critical thinking ability is still low (nuryanti, 2018). at the same time, the students have the potential to master concepts and thinking skills. as stated by yustyan et al. (2016), basically, students have skills in mastering concepts, good thinking skills, as well as critical thinking skills in learning, but sometimes these skills are not can develop well. the interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation serve as guidelines for critical thinking ability tests to be analyzed (fithriyah et al., 2016). the findings revealed that students' critical thinking abilities remain low. this is because students are not able to understand the problem well. these findings indicate that these studies can provide information to teachers about the critical thinking skills of students so that teachers are expected to improve the critical thinking skills of each student by designing the learning activities. susilowati et al. (2017) also stated that the student's critical thinking skill profile is low; therefore, it is expected that teachers will be able to design learning activities that empower students’ critical thinking skills. the selection of appropriate learning strategies can improve the critical thinking skills of students. one of the choice strategies that can be implemented is stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics)project-based learning (pjbl) which is integrated into the learning process. stem is a multidisciplinary learning approach that all students can apply in real-life contexts that connect school, their own work, and the world. as a consequence, using stem literacy helps prepare all students to participate in a new and original knowledge-based economy era. furthermore, stem allows students to engage as objects in higher cognitive activities. stem has an implementation in the classroom that enables the students to comprehend the significance of integrating different disciplines along with their own applications (anwari et al. 2015, in murnawianto, et al. 2017). project based learning is a knowledge approach that strives to be project-based and studentcentered during in the learning process. the pjbl model allows students to plan their own many learning activities, collaborate on projects, and generate quality work products that can be presented to others (kemendikbud, 2017). according to suranti et al. (2016), pjbl is one of the motivation factors for students to take part in investigations, collaborate on research, and create projects that apply their own knowledge to continue to innovate, master the application of technology, and solve difficulties in the form of innovative learning. considering the important role of stem and pjbl learning models in stimulating students' critical thinking; therefore, there is a need to know how the implementation of stem-pjbl could improve the students’ mathematical critical thinking. literature review what exactly is stem? stem refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (reeve, 2013 in yanuar, 2018; devi et al., 2018; and toto, 2019). stem is a multidisciplinary research learning approach in which the students utilize stem in a meaningful context that completely integrates at school, work, and the world, allowing students to compete in a unique knowledge economy era. students' logical thinking skills can benefit from the stem approach. according to anwari et al. (2015, in murnawianto et al., 2017), stem allows students to engage in metacognitive tasks. this metacognitive activity encompasses the steps of selecting, searching, asking, sharing, hypothesizing, and making decisions (sularmi, et al., 2018). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 3 issn 2721-2904 (online) stem provides opportunities for learners to comprehend the significance of integrating various areas of study and their personal applications in learning through its implementation. as a consequence of the implementation, students can enhance their own logical thinking. in line with it though, stem can assist students in increasing their capacity to address any problem which is presented and overcome it using critical thinking. according to a different viewpoint expressed by murnawianto et al. (2017), stem education seems to have a comprehensive character (critical analysis and problem-solving) in providing opportunities for many students to demonstrate their possess thinking skills. through the characteristics of its approach, stem education has a wonderful chance to develop students' thinking skills. the stem framework does have objectives that correspond with the characteristics of 21stcentury education, among which are critical thinking skills, or thinking that is always curious about the information available in order to achieve a thorough understanding. as a result, learning using the stem approach can assist students in enhancing their ability to think critically. according to yanuar (2018), 21st-century competencies that can be established through stem learning encompass critical thinking, creative thinking, communication, and collaboration. using the pjbl or project based learning model in combination with the stem approach (the term used by researchers is stem-based) should improve students' critical thinking skills. this could occur as a result of activities pressured out in learning which are more oriented to students ’ participation, which could also encourage students to reflect critically. thus, using the pjbl stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) model can assist students in enhancing their critical thinking skills. it motivates students while also demanding them, according to capraro et al. (2013, in afriana et al., 2016), because it trains them to analyze, think critically, and strengthening higherlevel thinking skills. thinking abilities are necessary for dealing with life's challenges. that includes critical thinking abilities, creative thinking skills, and skills for problem-solving (kalelioglu & gulbahar, 2014). critical thinking is one of the skills required to deal with personal and social problems. here are some examples of critical thinking definitions. according to facione (2011), critical thinking is the ability to organize and generate evaluations, interpretations, inferences, and analyses, as well as reveal concepts, criteria, evidence, methodologies, and or contextual considerations as the basis for making decisions. according to choy and cheah (2009), critical thinking is required to process cognitive information at a high level and to define complex processes. critical thinking, according to ennis (2011), is one of the skills of reflective reasoning and thinking that is concentrated on what has been believed or completed. critical thinking skills involve original clarification, basic decisionmaking process, inference, providing an extra explanation, estimation, and incorporation, in addition to other abilities. critical thinkers could indeed evaluate and analyze such data that is presented to them. according to duron et al. (2006), becoming able to evaluate data and analyze, inform crucial questions and problems, formulate hypotheses and problems until they are clear, and collect and evaluate relevant information. moreover, a critical thinker can use abstract ideas to find relevant information, be open-minded, and effectively communicate with others. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 4 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) research method in this study, a systematic literature review (slr) is used, which is a thorough and balanced mixed research method that is encapsulated from the primary research results. the systematic literature review method could indeed recognize journal articles in a structured manner, for each process following the sequence that has been established (thovawira et al.,2021). slr aims to locate and synthesize studies comprehensively. this also refers to particular questions, utilizing procedures that are structured, straightforward, and repeatable throughout every stage of the process (juandi, 2021). slr was employed in stem to recognise, critically assess, and synthesize research results from across all relevant research, in addition, to describing learning and instruction in integrated stem (thibaut et al., 2018). developing research questions (formulating research questions), developing the search strategy (looking for articles or literature which match the research topic), selection process (applying integration method to identify articles), evaluating and analyzing data, and interpreting (reporting research findings) are all steps in the slr (andani et al., 2021). data were gathered from articles in the databases semantic scholar, google scholar, education eric or resources information center, and directory open access journal. the articles chosen are those that are relevant to the research question. the keywords used in the search for articles are "stem pjbl to improve critical thinking skills”. the inclusion criteria for this study were figured out in figure 1 as follows: articles related to the theme, that is, stem in mathematics learning, articles variety of different settings used in the stem approach, or articles containing the integration of stem into learning models, articles published between 2018 and 2022, articles from national journals and international indexed or proceedings, and articles from national journals and international indexed or proceedings. the following step is to choose and evaluate articles. the selection of articles that meet the inclusion criteria is pushed out at this stage. only articles that are both relevant and fulfill the inclusion criteria will be analyzed (juandi, 2021). articles that do not meet the inclusion requirements are not taken into account for the following stage. articles and journals that meet the inclusion criteria are then coded and sorted for subsequent review based on their relevance to the theme. the final step is to present the research findings. in this step, the research results are summarized in a systematic and clear manner. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 5 issn 2721-2904 (online) the article search results are depicted in the chart below figure 1. the protocol of systematic review findings and discussion based on the protocol of systematic literature review, the data was gathered as described in table 1. table 1 elaborates on the calculation of stem pjbl in critical thinking skill effect size. table 1. the calculation of stem pjbl in critical thinking skills effect size no author journal/ proceeding research subject research method indicator critical thinking skill result 1 afifah, afni nur ilmiyati, nur toto, toto (afifah et al., 2019) quagga: jurnal pendidikan dan biologi google scholar pre eksperiment al method there are several aspects of inference, analysis, explanation, selfregulation, and evaluation of critical thinking indicators. the study shows that pjbl stem could improve the student's grasping of the concept and improve critical thinking. 2 eja ramalis, t. r. suwarma, i. r. (eja et al., 2020) journal of physics: conference series scopus 34 students this study involved the quantitative descriptive research method. this study uses critical thinking skill indicators consisting analysis, inference, explanation, to process information in terms of cognition at a high level and to define a process at a complex research question database searching using the keyword stem-pjbl in critical thinking (2018-2022) database: scopus (10), crossref (10), and google scholar (80) relevance by abstract scopus (4), crossref (6), and google scholar (5) total : 15 inclusion and exclusion criteria scopus (4), crossref (6), google scholar (5) total : 15 synthesis and results assessment of quality, data extraction) total : 15 relevance by title scopus (4), crossref (6) and google scholar (5) total: 15 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 6 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) no author journal/ proceeding research subject research method indicator critical thinking skill result evaluation, and interpretation level requires critical thinking 3 parno nur'aini, d. a. kusairi, s. ali, m.(parno, 2022) journal of physics: conference series scopus class xi in malang, indonesia quasy experimenm ethode this essay test is in accordance with what is in critical thinking skills this study recommends further research to put an art aspect for stem to improve the critical thinking skill of the student. 4 bulu, vera rosalina tanggur, femberianus( bulu & tanggur, 2021) al-jabar : jurnal pendidikan matematika crossreff this study was conducte d in the first semester of the 2020/202 1 academic year in pgsd (primary school teacher education program) of citra bangsa universit y, kupang. this descriptive method and quantitative research were used in this study. in learning mathematics, students should have critical thinking skills because it can help them to analyze a problem, provide critical responses, and find solutions. pjbl with stem effectively improves critical and collaborative thinking ability 5 rosyidah, nur diana kusairi, sentot taufiq, ahmad(rosyi dah et al., 2021) jurnal pendidikan: teori, penelitian, dan pengembang an google scholar siswa kelas xi mipa 6 sman 1 batu (n=32 siswa). research design used mixed methods as the previous study, this research also employ indicator such as analysis, interpretation, explanation, evaluation and inference this study shows that students' critical thinking ability improves at all of the indicators. 6 rahmawati, yuli aip conference proceedings year 10 students a multimed a qualitative methodology criteria for critical thinking include the rights the analysis of the critical thinking ability international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 7 issn 2721-2904 (online) no author journal/ proceeding research subject research method indicator critical thinking skill result hadinugrahan ingsih, tritiyatma ridwan, achmad palimbunga, uyun sugiarti mardiah, alin(rahmaw ati et al., 2021) scopus ia major at a vocationa l high school in banten province. used to identify the question in question, students' conceptual understanding, and their ability to relate and create ideas, assumptions, and conclusions. assessment guide shows that students can identify the questions asked and make conclusions at a good level, while at a sufficient level at the conceptualbased understanding step, the connection of basic ideas. 7 rahmania, ika(rahmania , 2021) budapest international research and critics institute (bircijournal): humanities and social sciences crossref literatur review critical skills emerged in this study which was measured consisting of five things, namely interpretation, analysis, evaluation, explanation, and inference pjbl and stem can bring up the ability to think critically and creatively, systematically and logically 8 khotimah, rita pramujiyanti adnan, mazlini ahmad, che nidzam che murtiyasa, budi(khotima h et al., 2021) journal of physics: conference series scopus literatur review five aspects are used to determine the critical skill item; there are interpretation, analysis, evaluation, explanation, and inference stem education in indonesia is one of the most effective in student learning outcomes. 9 isro, abda lail anggraito, yustinus ulung bintari, siti harnina (isro et al., 2021) journal of innovative science education google scholar ma tahfizhul qur'an as surkati salatiga a mixmethod to demonstrate critical thinking skills such as basic clarification inference, basic support, advanced clarification, and this study demonstrates that students in pjbl stem already have high critical thinking skills. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 8 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) no author journal/ proceeding research subject research method indicator critical thinking skill result strategic and tactical aspects. an essay test is used to collect information. 10 setyowati*, yeni kaniawati, ida sriyati, siti nurlaelah, elah hernani, hernani (setyowati et al., 2020) jurnal ipa & pembelajara n ipa crossref of junior high school students in class vii. research and development (r&d) to develop a design model, define, distribute, and develop a four-d development model this study shows that the teaching materials developed were valid and suitable for use in learning. 11 dywan, almahida aureola airlanda, gamaliel septian (2020) jurnal basicedu crossref sd negeri dukuh 01 salatiga dan sd negeri kecandra n 01 salatiga quasi eksperiment al method stem-pjbl is used because it is felt that it can improve critical thinking skills in terms of effectiveness 12 sulisworo, dwi kaliappen, narentheren history, article winarti, w sulisworo, d kaliappen, n (sulisworo et al., 2021) indones. rev. phys crossref literatur review this study demonstrates that students in pjbl stem already have high critical thinking skills. this study aims to improve students' critical thinking skills. 13 fithriyah, inayatul sa’dijah, cholis sisworo (fithriyah et al., 2016) prosiding konferensi nasional penelitian matematika dan pembelajara nnya google scholar 26 siswa kelas ix-d smpn 17 malang pada semester ganjil tahun pelajaran 2014/201 5 a qualitative descriptive the student lacked critical thinking skills. students' critical thinking abilities still need to be developed. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 9 issn 2721-2904 (online) no author journal/ proceeding research subject research method indicator critical thinking skill result 14 kurniasih, rini hakim, dori lukman (kurniasih et al., 2019) prosiding seminar nasional matematika dan pendidikan matematika google scholar literature review containing relevant scientific studies to the problem studied. critical thinking skills help students interpret, analyze, discover, and conclude. students in the ability to think critically on quadrilateral material. 15 edi, sarwo rosnawati, raden (2021) jnpm (jurnal nasional pendidikan matematika) crossref peserta didik kelas xi mipa 2 di sma negeri 1 tempel model addie the activities of interpretation, inference, analysis, and evaluation demonstrate students' critical thinking skills. critical thinking skills that are integrated into lesson plans and lkpd are used as learning tools. afifah et al. (2019) discovered the stem pjbl model for program enhancement in terms of concept mastery and critical thinking skills through students. this study's population consisted of students in grade 10 from madrasah aliyah negeri in ciamis regency, split into four classes. the study employed the purposive sampling method on one class. the pre-experimental method was used in this study. a multiple choice test and a critical thinking skill test in the form of critical thinking skills test questions adapted for concept mastery in students are used as instruments. the research data were statistically analyzed. based on the findings of the study, it is possible to enhance conceptual knowledge and understanding (medium) and critical thinking skills (high) by using the stem-based pjbl model. fitriyah and ramadani (2021) found that pjbl-based steam learning has a significant effect on students' creative thinking skills with a sig. of 0.000 less than 0.05 and a fcount of 35.551 and that pjbl-based steam learning has a significant effect on student's critical thinking skills with a sig. of 0.003 less than 0.05 and a fcount of 9.401. this is due to the fact that combining pjbl and steam can be a learning innovation that generates creative and critical ideas and solutions, making it easier to solve a problem. as a result, educators are strongly advised to use the steam pjbl learning model as an innovative learning model in schools. dywan and airlanda (2020) investigate the impact of pjbl models or stem-based projects (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) on critical thinking skills. the population of the gajah mada cluster, sidomukti district, salatiga city, and use a sample of 32 students from sd negeri dukuh 01 salatiga as the experimental group and 33 students from sd negeri kecandran 01 salatiga as the control group. this research employed a semi-experimental research design with a nonequivalent control group design to determine which experimental studies should be performed before and after the others. the results of the study were collected using the independent t-test in spss 20 for windows with a significance level of 0.038 & lt; 0.05, indicating that there is a significant international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 10 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) effect in which h0 is rejected, and h1 is accepted and that the average pre-test for the post-test in the experimental group increases by 13.38 while it increases by 7.51 in the control group. the stem pjbl-based learning model is the most effective in improving the critical thinking skills of 4th-grade elementary school students about science learning content. according to eja et al. (2020), 25% of students' critical thinking abilities were in the low category, 34% of students' critical thinking abilities were in the medium category, and 41% of students' critical thinking abilities were in the high category. peer assessment backs up this result, which shows 12% in the low category, 41% in the medium category, and 47% in the high category. as a result, the study's conclusion is that students' critical thinking processes during pjbl-stem learning produce excellent results. parno (2022) reported that his effect size is 1.13 (very large typeshows), indicating the need for af stem pjbl learning to be carried out more frequently in the field. students in the comparison group had no more positive learning responses than students in the experimental group. in future studies, "art" is highly recommended to be incorporated into the stem approach in order to further develop students' cts. bulu and tanggur (2021) the purpose of this study is to determine how the pjbl stem model affects students' cooperative attitudes and critical thinking skills. this study is a quantitative study using a descriptive method. data was gathered using critical thinking skills tests, collaborative attitude questionnaires, and observational learning guides. the researcher must perform a preliminary test consisting of the normality test, the homogeneity test, the covariance-matrix homogeneity test, and the n-test before analyzing the data. gain and efficiency testing the results of the basic hypothesis test indicate that the manova test can be used. manova results indicate that pjbl stem is an effective learning model for improving students' critical thinking skills and cooperative attitudes. according to rosyidah et al. (2021), the integrated experimental design was used in mixed methods research, and the sample size was 32 students. according to the findings of the analysis, the activities carried out can help students improve their critical thinking skills. overall, students improved in all critical thinking indicators. the stem approach is adopted by incorporating a project-based learning model. when students reach a sufficient level of conceptual understanding, connecting assumptions and ideas as demonstrated by the critical thinking skills rubric analysis, they are able to identify problems and draw conclusions at a high level. time management, a lack of student participation, and project development that must be relevant to the subject of study are all issues. according to rahmania (2021), the findings of this research demonstrate that a number of the initial skills in junior secondary school could be integrated into a stem approach to learning to provide projects for students. as a result, stem can be utilized in scientific learning in junior high school students to prepare them for the twenty-first century's signature. human resources, which could really think critically and creatively, systemically and logistically, can be oriented in pjbl and stem approaches to satisfy human standards in the twenty-first century and investigate challenging issues. khotimah et al. (2021) findings indicate that: 1) project-based learning (pjbl) within stem in indonesia as a carry outer, 6e, assessment-based learning hots, inquiry, paired thinking (tps), problem-based learning (pbl), pjbl is the most widely used learning model in the implementation of stem education in indonesia, with android games, digital learning, and student international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 11 issn 2721-2904 (online) books. 2) stem education is implemented in elementary, middle, and high schools in indonesia but is very limited at the university level. 3) in indonesia, stem education has a significant impact on student learning outcomes such as scientific knowledge, creative thinking, critical thinking, attitude, hots, personality, achievement, problem-solving, and 21st-century skills. according to research, 1) work stem-pjbl implementation has a significant and positive impact on student's critical thinking skills at all educational levels, including elementary, middle, and high school. 2) stem-pjbl can help students improve their mathematical critical thinking skills. 3) the following indicators are recommended as benchmarks for assessing students' critical thinking skills in math: interpret, analyze, draw a conclusion, evaluate, interpret, and self-correct. isro and colleagues (2021) revealed that students could demonstrate diversity in their critical thinking skills. all aspects of all strategies and tactics fall into this category. the top category includes explanations of basic aspects, basic support, and conclusions. the first step is to define the type of intermediary. the critical thinking of students in relation to environmental change learning materials pjbl stem has a relatively high average. in setyowati et al. (2020) study, the topic of stem pjbl became a topic for instructional content as a method of increasing students' critical thinking and awareness in a lengthy period and sustainability. based on the feasibility test results, a score of 85 with a very strong grounding for the critical thinking ability test and a score of 97 with a strong background for the sustainability perception test. the pjbl-stem model and the esd approach to pollution serve as the foundation. the creation of learning aids is an effort to enable teachers to use esd as a scientific learning method in high school. dywan, aureola, airlanda, and septian (2020) examine the effects of pjbl-based (projectbased learning), stem (science, technology, engineering, and math), and non-stem-based learning models on skills. fourth-year elementary school students' critical thinking. the population of the gajah mada cluster, sidomukti district, salatiga city, used sd negeri dukuh 01 salatiga sample as an experimental group of 32 students and sd negeri kecandran 01 salatiga sample as a control group of 33 students. to ascertain test accomplishment, this study used a semi-experimental study design with a non-equivalent control group and required preand post-trial trials. an independent t-test with a significance level of 0.038 produced the results of this study. 0.05 when using spss 20 for windows. this means that h1 is accepted and h0 is rejected, which has a significant effect on increasing the mean pre-test to post-test scores in the experimental group from 7.51 to 13.38. to enhance 4th-grade elementary school students' critical thinking skills by using the most effective science-related content and the pjbl stem-based learning model. the findings show that stem is taught at the high school and undergraduate levels in indonesia, according to sulisworo et al. (2021). in addition, relevant research on stem-based physics with learning media. this study has several limitations, including the fact that the main reference material used as the main research material is still limited to indonesian research. the findings of the indonesian language study cited in this article are not from peer-reviewed international journals. other researchers should use critical thinking skills to demonstrate the performance of various learning materials, learning models, and scientific bibliographies published in reputable international journals to ensure universal use. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 12 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) according to fithriyah et al. (2016), smp viii students' critical thinking ability remains low. the low average score of students in the correct category demonstrates this (b). students' low critical thinking ability is caused by a lack of exposure to active learning, which maximizes students' potential. the findings of this study provide teachers and researchers with an overview of the critical thinking skills of young college students. teachers must be more creative in designing and developing learning tools to help students become more familiar with critical thinking. through various active learning models, teachers should engage students in learning situations that stimulate their critical thinking skills. kurniasih and colleagues (2019) describe that critical thinking teaches us when solving the tetrahedron problem various descriptions can be found. critical thinking abilities are required to educate students in math and problem-solving abilities. however, the students remain unable to answer the questions. when the researcher asked the question, the students were still undecided about responding to the 4-page document question. average students lack analytical ability because they do not comprehend the fundamentals of the problem, therefore, are unable to create mathematical models. as a result, they continue to be incorrect when providing explanations or solving problems. computational steps are taken in the skills assessment for incorrect answers because students are still confused about how to implement the strategies used. furthermore, students remain incapable of drawing correct conclusions from questions about their ability to formulate conclusions because they are unable to make judgments based on concepts and concepts. based on edi, rosnawati, and raden (2021) we can learn a lot from the description of critical thinking when solving the tetrahedral problem, and various descriptions emerge. critical thinking skills are required to train students in the solving and solving of mathematical problems. students continue to be unable to interpret the questions. when the researcher asked, students were still perplexed about completing the 4-page material question. on average, students with analytical competence do not understand the concepts in the problem, so they are unable to create mathematical models. as a result, they continue to provide incorrect explanations or solve problems. because students are still confused in implementing the strategies used, computational steps are performed in the competency assessment for incorrect answers. furthermore, students cannot draw correct conclusions from the questions asked in relation to their ability to draw conclusions; this is because students still cannot draw conclusions based on concepts and concepts. the description of critical thinking teaches us a lot. only 15 stem-pjbl compliance exercises can improve critical thinking skills, including 5 research papers with quantitative methods, 2 articles with qualitative research methods, 2 articles with mixed methods, 2 research papers with research and development models, and 4 literature reviews. each article suggests that stem-pjbl can assist students to improve their critical thinking skills. the aspects of critical skill measured in this research included five aspects: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, and inference (facione, 2007). the trend of improving critical thinking in stem-pjbl research in last 7 year-publication figure 2 depicts search trends over the last seven years based on vosviewer-processed bibliographic data. colors that are the same color represent the same group, and the size of the circle represents keyword popularity. the larger the circle, the more frequently the topic is covered international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 13 issn 2721-2904 (online) in the 34 articles. the figure appears to be able to connect the lines between the circles as well as the keywords directly. figure 2. the keyword network visualization of the 34 processed articles categories of keywords or variables that occur frequently and their relationships being able to observe the most frequently studied topics over a given period of time could unveil research trends on critical thinking skills in stem-pjbl learning over the last 7 years. comparisons were also made to research trends in critical thinking in stem-pjbl learning in order to identify developmental milestones. this can be seen in topics that have only been around for a short time, as well as the most popular ones. there are four keyword groups that reveal related keywords in the processed articles. current keywords include critical thinking skills in stem-pjbl learning, critical thinking skill indicators, and research participants. the popularity of the 34 articles mentioned is indicated by each circle-sized keyword. the larger the size and the circle indicate more keyword usage in search. this implies that the previous variable was searched. figure 3 illustrates the direct relationship between the keyword "critical thinking skills in stempjbl learning" and other keywords. figure 3. the relation of the 'critical thinking skill in stem-pjbl learning’ keyword with other keywords international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 14 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) figure 3 illustrates the inclusion of the keywords "critical thinking and stem-pjbl" in group 2 with 10 links and 4 facts. the 21st century skills, student critical thinking, pjbl-stem, and project model, are keywords related to "critical thinking skills and stem-pjbl." these keywords are directly related to others in three groups, namely those in group 2, namely 6 (blue) and 5 (orange). this means that, in 34 studies, keywords from the four groups were more likely to appear as a topic in the search title. figure 4. publication trend from 2015 to 2022 color demonstrates trends, as shown in figure 3, with lighter marks indicating the most recent posts. the most recent publications, highlighted in yellow, show that keywords such as integrated project, stem integrated pjbl, and stem model pjbl is trending. for researchers, information about the topic's novelty is critical in representing the current state of studies carried out throughout time. benchmark for students’ mathematical critical thinking skill regarding the previous research employing the stem pjbl to know its impact on the critical thinking skill (afifah et al., 2019; rahmania, 2021; edi & rosnawati, 2021; khotimah et al., 2021); thus, there are five aspects used to determine the critical skill item. there are interpretation, analysis, evaluation, explanation, and inference were first introduced by facion (2011) as indicators of critical thinking skills. each indicator, called the metrics, is described in table 2. table 2. metrics indicators critical thinking skill indicators description interpretation understanding how to convey significance or meaning based on a variety of personal experiences, circumstances, information, occurrences, evaluations, behavioral patterns, traditions, opinions, regulations, methods, or requirements. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah │ 15 issn 2721-2904 (online) indicators description analysis actual referential correlation is intended for questions, declarations, notions, explanation, or other depiction that aims to convey opinions, decisions, experiences, reasons, data, or viewpoints. evaluation reviewing credibility of questions or other representation in the form of reports or descriptions from perceptions, experiences, situations, judgments, beliefs, or opinions, and interpreting logical power of referential correlation or other intended representation. explanation examining the validity of questions or other types of representation derived from perceptions, experiences, circumstances, decisions, belief systems, or thoughts and analyzing the rational authority of referential correlation or other intentional representation. inference recognize and obtain the components required to reach a logical conclusion, such as making assertions and assumptions, contemplating relevant data, and drawing conclusions from data, circumstances, questions, and other representations. conclusion based on the findings and discussion of this literature review, several conclusions have been drawn: 15 articles from 100 documents show that learning pjbl stem can improve critical thinking skills. this is a literature review in which 15 articles are analyzed using research methods, and the results show that the use of stem-pjbl can enhance students' critical thinking skills. the articles in the dataset were analyzed using a case study. according to the findings of the study, (1) the use of stem-pjbl has had a positive and significant impact on the critical thinking skills of students in each educational unit, including elementary, middle, and high schools; (2) the use of stem-pjbl can assist students in enhancing their mathematical critical thinking skills.; and (3) the following metrics are recommended as benchmarks for students' mathematical critical thinking skills: interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, interpretation, and self-correction. limitation & further research the findings of this systematic literature review have some limitations. to begin with, the literature is only searched from 2018 to 2022. only stempjbl can improve critical thinking skills are the two keywords. therefore, there is a need to add several keywords from aspects of psychological mathematics related to stem-pjbl and the skills for twenty-first learning, such as mathematical literacy, collaborative, computational thinking, problem-solving, and creative thinking. references afifah, a. n., ilmiyati, n., & toto, t. (2019). model project based learning (pjbl) berbasis stem untuk meningkatkan penguasaan konsep dan keterampilan berpikir kritis siswa. quagga: jurnal pendidikan dan biologi, 11(2), 73. https://doi.org/10.25134/quagga.v11i2.1910 andani, m., haki pranata, o., & hamdu, g. (2021). pedadidaktika: jurnal ilmiah pendidikan guru sekolah dasar systematic literature review: model problem based learning pada pembelajaran matematika sekolah dasar. all rights reserved, 8(2), 404–417. http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/pedadidaktika/index international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 1-17 improving mathematical critical thinking skill through stem-pjbl: a systematic literature review rina dwi setyawati, agnita siska pramasdyahsari, iin dwi astutik, ukima nusuki, sindi nur aini, julia puspita arum, wahyu widodo, ummy salamah, nafiatuz zuliah 16 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) bulu, v. r., & tanggur, f. 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(2016). peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kritis dengan pembelajaran berbasis scientific approach siswa kelas x sma panjura malang. jpbi (jurnal pendidikan biologi indonesia), 1(2), 240–254. https://doi.org/10.22219/jpbi.v1i2.3335 microsoft word 1174 lilian ganira (135-150) available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 135-150 corresponding author lilian ganira, lilianganira@gmail.com faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka and doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1174 research synergy foundation adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira1 1 university of nairobi, kenya abstract integration of science, technology, engineering, art, and maths (steam) ideals in early years education (eye) builds a strong foundation for learners to discover, explore, play, discuss and experiment with the environment. given that the goal of eye is to expand an understanding of the world through observation, experimentation, and exploration, the integration of steam activities requires an intentional connection between lesson design and implementation for long life learning. skills of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and inquiry processes embedded in steam concepts prepare learners to develop a scientific mindset for solving global challenges. therefore, the study determined the influence of steam strategies on the development of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication skills among learners in nairobi city county, kenya. based on a descriptive survey design, the study purposively sampled 107 teachers in eye, 99 head teachers, and 55 parents. the teacher questionnaire, which anchored the study in data collection, was complemented by observation of class activities and documentary analysis. multiple intelligence theory was adopted to explore the nexus between steam and core competencies required for survival in the 21st century. results illustrated that even though teachers in eye implemented steam activities, which resulted in the development of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and collaboration skills, there exist challenges emanating from pedagogy and inadequate support for instructional resources. the study recommends that teachers should be equipped with tools and resources for integrating steam activities in eye, considering the nature of practices to apply and attributes that may promote or deter learning. keywords: steam; creativity; collaboration; critical thinking; communication this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction early years education (eye) contributes to basic skills of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving for survival in the 21st century and beyond (ganira, 2022). the learner, when provided with opportunities to explore the world around them, tends to ask questions and make interpretations regularly, which allows inquiry processes for observation, prediction, investigation, and drawing conclusions. this is premised on the basis that steam lessons involve the integration of science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematics activities for inspiring learners to think broadly and solve problems with a hands-on approach for sustained learning. in line with this, the basic education curriculum framework advocates for the integration of science and technology skills in eye, given that economic growth and social progress rely on innovation (becf, 2017). not only do innovative structures require integrating steam in eye but also nurturing progress from project-based learning through collaborative exploitation to probleminternational journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 136 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) solving by focusing on real-world situations. therefore, exposing learners to steam which is an inter-disciplinary approach to learning, develops a strong basis for blending cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal features for knowledge transfer. in support of steam activities, sessional paper no. 1 of 2019 calls for the integration of skills and competencies with emphasis on the ability to relate knowledge to real-life situations for sustainable development. in addition to encouraging 21st-century skills of literacy, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity, the ministry of education (2018) acknowledges that steam encourages the development of social ideals for effective interaction in society. in the early years of education, steam lessons focus on self-directed play and exploration rather than concentrating on teaching concepts. therefore, teaching-learning strategies employed are directed towards encouraging curiosity and supporting inquisitive, curious perspectives for problem-solving. in support of this position, arnott and duncan (2019) argue that when implemented effectively, steam stimulates discovery and research as learners mix and sieve water and sand, build projects, sink and float items and determine the height of construction for enhancing innovative mindset. given that learners in eye are naturally curious and filled with wonders and fascination with the world, the steam disposition is likely to stimulate innovation for sustained learning. in order to stimulate curiosity, learners need opportunities to explore, experiment, manipulate, create and learn from an environment that can nurture steam inquiry. discovery of the world may assist learners in widening their knowledge and acquiring essential skills for making sense of the surrounding. in this regard, odundo and ganira (2018) argue that exposing learners to steam activities encourages a strong foundation in scientific disciplines identified as vital for economic growth. in cases where steam is integrated effectively into eye, there are high chances of promoting a natural learning process where complicated perceptions will be less threatening to learners who are likely to pick up advanced concepts in life. as such, yates and twigg (2017) aver that teachers with a passion for steam nurture positive attitudes where learners are enthusiastic about solving real-world issues. on the other hand, baer (2018) raises concern about whether teachers are equipped with tools for integrating steam activities in eye, considering the nature of practices to apply and attributes that may promote or deter learning. in an effort to address this concern, dejarnette (2018) points out that in eye, steam is grounded on the conception of experiment and problem-solving through the integration of the following activities: 1. science activities entail investigation and answering questions, often involving exploration and experimentation. 2. technology requires applying scientific knowledge to encourage the use of simple tools, including crayons and rulers, and multifaceted equipment like microscopes and computers. 3. engineering concept concerns design and building to allow learners to recognize problems and test solutions. learners identify a problem, design, construct solutions, test the product and work to improve on it. 4. arts support creativity and process development to allow learners to illustrate learnt concepts. 5. mathematics includes not only numbers but also the ability to create patterns, shapes, and organizational skills. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 137 issn 2721-2904 (online) kelley and knowles (2016) affirm that learner experiences with steam activities in eye set the stage for future engagement and success in diverse fields for the global market. therefore, combining diverse components of steam activities in eye is likely to stimulate the asking of inherent questions for determining responses in applying knowledge to problem-solving situations. achievement in steam skills, therefore, requires teachers to be equipped with knowledge, concepts, processes, and activities for inspiring inquiry ideals. however, ganira and odundo (2020) posit that despite the recognition of steam education, inadequate data exist to support effective instructional practices and issues associated with the implementation of scientific ideals in eye. this is based on the realization that steam implementation requires learners to; identify real-world problems, raise questions to determine challenges, develop solutions and explore hands-on activities. anchored on this contention, quigley and herro (2016) are concerned that teachers in eye struggle with huge workloads with little energy to plan elaborate steam lessons. similar sentiments were put forward by ganira (2019), who found out that teachers in eye demonstrate inadequate awareness of technology and how to relate engineering skills in instructional management. even though technologies are the product of engineering, inappropriate integration in teaching-learning makes learners miss out on engaging in steam activities. this is attributed to inadequate leadership in education, perpetuated by an insufficient motivation to produce skilled steam graduates in eye (clements & sarama, 2016: bekir, 2020). hence, a competency-based curriculum calls for the integration of core competencies, which include creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication, among others, for learners geared toward long-life learning. statement of the problem there is a global concern for equipping learners with 21st-century skills of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication for innovation and problem-solving. in order to compete effectively in the global economy, there is a need for the integration of steam activities in eye to encourage learners to take thoughtful risks, engage in experiential learning, persist in problem-solving, embrace collaboration, and work through creative procedures. does integration of steam activities not only develop 21st-century competencies but also nurture learners to work in fields that are anchored in the growth of the economy. for learners to navigate the world as problem solvers, they need creativity: (innovation and personal expression), collaboration: (working with and leading others to solve problems), critical thinking: (the ability to gather, analyze, and interpret information and solve problems) and communication: (listening, presenting, public speaking). however, even though technologies are the product of engineering, inappropriate integration in teaching-learning makes learners miss out on engaging in steam activities. this raises concern about whether teachers are equipped with tools for integrating steam activities in eye, considering what practices to apply and which aspects may promote or deter learning. hence, a competency-based curriculum calls for the integration of core competencies which include creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication, among others, for learners geared toward long-life learning. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 138 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) purpose and objectives the purpose of this study is to explore the impact of the steam strategy in the development of 21st-century skills among learners. the specific objective was to determine the influence of steam activities in enhancing creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and community skills in early years education. the determination of the study was anchored on the view that as the world moves towards science and technological standards, educationists tend to ignore what an advantage an early inception of steam ideals can be to learners in eye. the interdisciplinary approach in steam implies more connectedness and relatedness of disciplines in eye for expanding knowledge to real-life situations. literature review this section has been structured into themes in line with the objectives of the study. also explored is the theoretical literature showing the nexus between key concepts of the study. steam and creativity skills creativity is the ability to go beyond traditional ways of thinking in order to develop new and original ideas, methods, or objects. in the view of gardner and weinstein (2018), creativity is the ability to imagine objects that are not real while forming pictures in the mind of things that one has not seen or experienced and turning pictures into real situations. in cases where creativity is enhanced, learners express and cope with feelings, which in turn foster mental growth by providing opportunities for trying out new ideas and innovative ways of thought processes. therefore, yates and twigg (2017) point out that steam integrates creativity and design thinking, and innovation in learners by providing opportunities for trying out new ideas for generating solutions, storytelling, and brainstorming. further still, arnott and duncan (2019) observe that implementing steam in eye encourages creativity for learners to think differently and approach problems in appropriate ways. this is premised on the view that integrating steam in eye encourages participation in craft projects, where learners enthusiastically apply fundamental innovation and engineering procedures while initiating habits for questioning and intuitive creativity. this idea supports the creation of variety in an educational culture where learners in eye are encouraged to take risks and try out new ideas and innovations for sustained learning. in the view of clausen, parpucu, gray, and rule (2018), innovative learners find invention processes as pleasant occurrences, which create a nexus between creativity and science as strongly connected disciplines. thus, overlooking this connection by teachers may lead to focusing on learning rules in scientific environments with no regard to its prospects for developing creativity. by engaging in steam activities that promote creativity, learners may develop accustomed thinking of new possibilities for making meaningful connections and pathways. this is based on the idea that learners in eye have a natural sense to work with materials, try out things, and solve problems. on the other hand, baer (2018) found out that teachers in eye face challenges in integrating steam ranging from pedagogy, instructional resources, and professional competence. thus, when designing learning experiences, teachers should plan and frame curriculum and provide tools that support the learner with options, voice, and choice for developing creative ideals. in order to enhance learning in stem education, odundo, ganira, and ngaruiya (2018) suggest that teachers should improve not only content knowledge but also motivation, thought processes, and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 139 issn 2721-2904 (online) creativity skills for learners to develop confidence and improve social development. consequently, a learner who is used to thinking creatively can more easily problem-solve than one who follows a rigid protocol when searching for a solution to a problem. steam and collaboration skills collaboration is the process of two or more people or organizations working mutually to realize shared goals. as noted by anyiendah and odundo (2017), collaboration requires activities for teamwork and thoughtful discourse, which necessities the exchange of ideas and concerted problem-solving. this contention supports the perception of jamil, linder, and steglin (2018), who notes that steam involves teamwork and the exchange of ideas where learners share views and discuss ways of solving problems. steam activities are collaborative in nature for learners to raise questions about class work, identify features observed in the environment and draw conclusions from investigations, and in so doing, learn how to acknowledge criticism from peers and work together with group members. through collaboration, sochacka, guyotte, and walther (2016) affirm that learners discover how to divide responsibilities, compromise, listen to and encourage each other, and such activities encourage different learning styles and opportunities to celebrate success. as a result, odundo and ganira, (2017) study on teacher position in spurring value-based education in early learning observed that learner who is naturally nervous or anxious about new tasks might be encouraged and supported by those who approach steam with curiosity and enthusiasm. therefore, teachers have the opportunity of placing learners in groups by combining diverse capabilities and personalities for scaffolding each other to realize learning outcomes. according to aldermir and kermani (2016), placing learners in groups is a feature of steam, which creates powerful teams of helping each other and figuring out how to apply diverse talents and skills with enthusiasm. collectively, knowledge skills and enthusiasm could be utilized to help successfully complete projects through networking, sensitivity to viewpoints, and shared decisionmaking. this contention supports the opinion of quigley and herro (2016), who deduced that learners need to be involved in collaborative learning and gain knowledge in ways that can hold attention, just as social media and internet sites do. since steam activities provide hands-on experiences to learners, aldermir and kermani (2016) assert that frequent use of different materials and tools to discover how projects work and ways of fixing things in-group work exposes girl children to acquire 21st-century skills. in this regard, thammaprateep and chartisathian (2018) disclose that learners exposed to steam during eye tend to be less gender-based stereotypes and experience fewer obstructions in learning. based on this regard, learners may negotiate and explain their own needs, discern what peers need, and view ideas from others’ perspectives in reaching mutually beneficial resolutions as team players. steam and critical thinking skills critical thinking is the ability to gather, analyse, interpret and evaluate information to ascertain reliability or genuineness. fullan and langworthy (2014) describe critical thinking as the capability to manage projects, solve problems and make effective decisions using a variety of tools. based on this definition, klein, gray, zhbanova, and rule (2015) illustrates that critical thinking disposition can be fostered through inclusive steam integration by stimulating innovative international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 140 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) exploration for providing dynamic inquiry. therefore, learners empowered with critical thinking ideals are more likely to avoid being prejudiced and use logic and evidence to reach conclusions. this, according to waddell (2019), allows learners to systematically think through problems by applying information about technology and engineering to figure out appropriate solutions. through appropriately integrated steam activities, learners are more likely to discover ways of designing solutions to address dilemmas without having to rely on a fixed procedure which sharpens the ability to access information by considering that problem-solving models can be made flexible. given that the world is rapidly growing in technology and knowledge, fazylova and rusol (2016) aver that the future economy needs learners to move from passive information to active thinkers who can gather, analyse and interpret data to solve problems in society. to achieve this, teachers should promote and encourage critical thinking disposition by allowing learners to explore, manipulate objects, build structures and evaluate evidence for and against various positions. as such, jacobson, seavey, and mueller (2016) acknowledge that teachers who allow learners to pose questions and participate in role-play shift creative skills to boost engagement in critical thinking. however, ganira, odundo, gatumu, and muasya (2020) are concerned that allowing learners to observe a phenomenon that encourages managing projects, solving problems, and making effective decisions requires a variety of tools and resources for enhanced critical thinking. therefore, adequate teaching-learning resources coupled with firm and discrete regulations allow learners to build confidence in demonstrating adaptive critical thinking and problem-solving. steam and communication skills communication is the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether vocally, visually, or non-verbally. in the view of odundo and ganira (2018), effective communication allows learners to work interdependently with interpersonal and group-related skills within and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media. the rationale for communication is to convey a message concerning occurrences or observations and to express viewpoints. hence, jamil, linder, and stegelin (2018) content that learners can demonstrate steam concepts with crayons, clay, and water and express learning through descriptive language, stories, music, and dance. this is because steam learning encourages learners to use all senses in exploring the world around them, which naturally boosts fine motor skills and the development of language to communicate about observed phenomena. through active participation, jamil et al. (2018) posit that learners are more likely to connect and internalize new knowledge in an inclusive environment for sustained learning. likewise, safe learning environments permit learners to try innovative ideas and develop the self-assurance required to use new tools to explore different objects. according to sochacka, guyotte, and walther (2016), teachers develop steam skills by talking, reading, singing, playing, or using other devices to communicate whatever works best for learners. a similar view is supported by dejarnette (2018), who suggests that simple ways to promote learner’s communication abilities are by encouraging them to document observations through drawing, painting, or recording voices to describe what they are noticing while constructing objects with blocks or talking about changes in nature – like the weather. to achieve these, teachers should determine steam-based challenges by encouraging learners to international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 141 issn 2721-2904 (online) communicate ideas, listen to each other and use effective tools like lists and mind maps to generate data as a team. not only do these expose learners to a wider variety of thinking styles, but they also encourage the development of communication skills for lifelong learning. jamil, linder, and steglin (2018), who expounded that learners exposed to effective steam instruction, which provides opportunities for rich vocabulary learning to develop enhanced communication skills and achievement in scientific knowledge for igniting curiosity and problem solving, support this contention. theoretical framework the theory of multiple intelligences by gardner (1983) suggests that intelligence is not a single static iq number but a dynamic collection of skills and talents, which are evident differences in people. the multiple intelligence theory focuses on individual learning needs anchored on different levels of ability while supporting areas of intellectual growth. according to gardner (1983: 1999), human intelligence accounts for a wide range of potentials which include; linguistic, logicmathematical, visual-spatial, body-kinaesthetic, music-rhythmic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalistic. this view suggests that not only do individuals have one intellectual capacity but a range of talents and abilities, including interpersonal, musical, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligence. for instance, an individual might possess a dominant intelligence – such as musical intelligence – but is also likely to have a blend of additional abilities too. in the same way, learners are likely to have different preferred ways of learning to understand concepts. more still, tomlinson (2014) suggests that while one learner may favour a verbal explanation, another may choose ‘hands-on’ (kinaesthetic) learning, while yet another may desire to follow pictures or diagrams. integrating the theory of multiple intelligences with steam is ideal for enhancing problemsolving skills by identifying definite intelligence, which can assist learners in developing an interest in learning. gardner (2011) suggests that when learners understand what they are good at (innately good at something), they learn to be engaged and stay out of nuisance, are accommodating and contented to participate in learning. in this regard, adria and mao (2017) affirm that understanding learner needs and multiple intelligences authenticates intuitive and spontaneous evaluation of participation in natural talents. this can be achieved by linking instructional objectives to more than two types of intelligence for learners to discover strengths and potential. given that multiple intelligence theory is connected to multisensory learning, providing diverse instructional strategies through steam activities is likely to engage learners' visual, tactile, auditory, and more senses in sustained problem-solving. drawing on problem-solving activities focusing on multiple intelligence encourages learners to learn new skills. therefore, kallick and zmuda (2017) encourage hands-on outdoor steam activities, allowing learners with diverse learning styles to work in groups and present information in different ways. such activities allow learners to act out the steam concept by presenting a play, doing a speech, or drawing conclusions to research. on the other hand, jamil, linder, and stegelin (2018) indicate that though teachers commonly incline towards math and science facets of steam, multiple intelligence theory clarifies that learners have strengths in different types of intelligence, which should be exploited. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 142 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) conceptual perspective figure 1. perceived framework on steam and competency skills the conceptual framework in figure 1 shows the nexus between the independent and dependent variables of the study. steam activities thrive in an inclusive eye learning environment that supports the development of competency skills of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication. when learners engage in activities that combine different elements of steam, they experience enhanced creativity, sustained collaboration, increased critical thinking, and improved communication for sustainable development. research method research methodology provides guidelines for organizing, planning, designing, and conducting effective studies. this study adopted a descriptive survey design in determining the impact of steam activities on the development of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication in eye. in descriptive survey designs, orodho, nzabalirwa, odundo, ndirangu, and ndayambaji (2016) argue that the focus is on describing characteristics of the population or phenomenon under study through observation method, case studies, and survey research. thus, a descriptive survey allowed for the observation of a phenomenon in an absolutely natural and unchanged environment. instruments for data collection included a questionnaire for teachers, an creativity  generating solution  storytelling  innovation collaboration  networking  decision making  brainstorming communication  persuasive speaking  managing ambiguity  feedback critical thinking  gather  analyze  interpret data steam inclusive eye learning environment enhanced creativity: sustained collaboration: increased critical thinking: improved communication. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 143 issn 2721-2904 (online) interview schedule for head teachers and parents, an observation schedule, and a documentary analysis. data collection was based on the view of orodho et al. (2016) that appropriate methods were used to reduce the likelihood of errors consistent with results. the teacher's questionnaire, which anchored the study, was devised to examine ways in which integration of steam activities encourages the development of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication skills among learners. qualitatively, data collected using open-ended questions in the respective instruments enabled understanding and interpretation of the implementation of steam in eye. the sample frame for the qualitative study included 107 teachers of eye, 99 head teachers, and 55 parents who were purposively sampled from 17 sub-counties. the goal of purposive sampling was to focus on particular characteristics of the population based on knowledge and interest in eye. as indicated by guetterman (2015), samples should be as representative of the population as possible, given that illusory samples yield distorted data. for validity, research instruments were subjected to content validity index (cvi). when computed, a cvi greater than 0.7 was considered satisfactory for this study. hence, orodho et al. (2016) indicate that validity is ascertained through scrutiny and cautious designing of items of the tool with a focus on research objectives. in qualitative research, creswell (2015) observes that validity is based on dependability, effectiveness, and constancy. given that research methodology is judged for rigor and based on the strength of reliability and validity of instruments, the teachers' questionnaire, which was the main research tool, was administered to the same pilot sample twice an interval of two weeks. two sets of scores obtained were used to calculate a reliability coefficient of 0 to +1, and above was acceptable. a coefficient above 0.8 is considered satisfactory in qualitative research. data analysis involves examining collected data and making deductions and inferences (creswell, 2015). the study took into consideration the key phenomenon under investigation by bringing order to data, organising it into patterns, and categorising it into descriptive units. findings and discussion the findings are anchored on creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication aspects of competency-based learning. steam and enhancement of creativity framework for creativity was measured by three intertwined elements interacting with each other based on how learners generated solutions to issues and participated in storytelling and innovative activities. the focus was on whether steam lessons assist learners in developing creativity. out of 107 teachers who participated in the study, an average of 88.81% strongly agreed, whereas 11.90% were uncertain. with steam lessons, learners are offered an opportunity to create products in a resourceful environment where they continuously raise questions, wanting to know how things work and why things are the way they are. this is critical for motivating the ability to learn and problem-solve creatively. as noted by yates and twigg (2017), steam encourages learners to tap into problem-solving tools and approach work with a creative eye, particularly in the eye school setting. as such, steam lessons lean more toward hands-on learning, where learners spend less time in lecture-styled settings and more on their own and working with classmates. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 144 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) more still, when teachers were asked to comment on how learners generate solutions, tell stories, and participate in innovative activities, one teacher said, " in my class, i allow learners to explore tools like screwdrivers and hammers used to attach things together (plastic bottles, doors, chairs, etc.) and present them with a problem to solve but without the use of the right tool (e.g., clean up sand table area without a broom or try to cut paper without scissors) or have learners use the “wrong” apparatus for the job (e.g., a fork to eat soup or scissors to paint). as they work through the project, learners also express feelings of sadness, happiness, joy, or excitement in order to find solutions. teaching children to think ‘outside of the box’ causes them to approach tasks differently. similar results were observed by arnott and duncan (2019), who affirms that learners discover creativity by exploiting a broad array of thought processes and skills throughout class activities by rearranging elements of ideas to create innovative facts and products. this helps learners to focus on the function of the appropriate apparatus and about other ways to solve the problem and teaches children about the purposeful structure and function of different tools. steam and collaboration competency the second objective focused on how learners demonstrated collaboration competencies such as networking, decision-making, and brain storming through steam activities. in response to these, an average of 84.53 % of teachers strongly agreed, and 15.47 % remained uncertain. the argumentation was that steam activities are extremely collaborative, with learners operating collectively to grip new information with numerous contact points. learners distribute responsibility and negotiate by working on group projects which incorporate multiple disciplines. in addition to these findings, jamil, linder, and steglin (2018) noted that working together on collaborative stem projects aid learners in developing social skills, which allows for working with diverse groups, and to make a distinction of viewpoints for negotiating and coming to a conclusion. this type of collaboration benefits learners not only by inspiring problems solving skills but also by nurturing tools and acting as a team which is vital throughout life and careers. more still, parents who were interviewed indicated that having children participate daily in household chores with siblings is a practical way of encouraging collaboration. therefore quigley and herro (2016) argue that steam lessons are not just teaching gaining knowledge on how to discover and be creative but also advocating for learners to develop a range of skills, including turn-taking, teamwork, and cooperation. with further probing, one teacher remarked…… “to infuse steam in my lessons, i have created an effective collaborative class environment where i encourage learners to practice listening to each other and raise questions in turns, as well as negotiation and accountability ideals, among others. as you can see, learners work in groups of five, and instead of limiting learning to a one-way approach, i allow them to learn from each other. as a result, each learner can develop a unique set of skills and knowledge in an efficient way” these findings imply that with steam activities, learners of varying levels of ability can work together in teams to find solutions to problems, record data, write reports and give presentations. the end result is learners who understand how to collaborate with others and thrive in a team-oriented environment. this analysis is consistent with aldermir and kermani (2016), who noted that through collaboration, learners discover each others' strengths, interests, and capabilities which helps in increasing understanding of how others view the world. learners, therefore, develop new and stimulating viewpoints by learning how to appreciate diverse outlooks. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 145 issn 2721-2904 (online) this is crucial not only to coexist and live side by side in harmony but also to move forward as a civilization. steam and critical thinking competency the third question was based on the contention that steam allows the incorporation of multiple disciplines at the time for promoting experiences where learners can explore, ask questions, discover, and exercise innovative building skills for gathering, analysing, and interpreting data. in this regard, 73.81 % of teachers strongly agreed, yet 26.16 % were uncertain. when requested to provide an explanation of findings, one teacher remarked….. “ since learners are curious by nature, steam activities help them to form hypotheses, ask questions and offer observation only when an appropriate environment is provided for analytical thinkers where they actively get involved in directing own education”. these findings are consistent with that of klein, gray, zhbanova, and rule (2015), who reported that critical thinkers have the ability to evaluate their own thinking using standards of good reasoning such as accuracy, clarity, depth, and breadth of treatment, coherence, significance, and relevance. however, in a departure from these findings, one teacher argued that even though eye is a period to start learning about scientific content like weather, energy, ecosystems, plants, animals, motion, stability, and life cycles, inadequate resources hinder the development of steam activities. in an interview with parents, which was conducted to examine whether they supported steam activities in their families, one participant made the following remarks….. “when a child presents you with a problem, such as requiring a new video game, ask them why. they may say because it is fashionable and their friends have it. your second ‘why’ will have them explaining what makes it popular or famous. they might say what the video is based on, and you should ask ‘why’ again. the third ‘why’ will make them expound deeper into the reasons for needing the video. continuing to pose 'why' in the end may even help them come out with a detailed understanding of the video game. this argumentation, according to waddell (2019), is based on the fact that learners in eye are naturally inquisitive and attempt to make sense of the world, just like scientists. further still, one teacher said…… "in eye, we support steam teaching by integrating various activity areas within a significant context. as a result, steam integration helps us focus on content (what to learn) and processes (how to learn). for instance, you may involve learners in recording the weather each day on a chart and creating weekly summaries (e.g., sunny days, two cloudy days) to encourage learning of science and math content and also data gathering and analysis procedures”. these suggest that learners start practicing basic science skills like observation, prediction, and using evidence to support answers during eye. steam and communication competency in stem lessons, empathetic communication is essential for success, where learners can ask questions, make connections with prior knowledge, and gather and analyze data. the study focused on how steam activities enable learners to persuasive speaking, manage ambiguity, and provide feedback during communication. the analysis revealed that an average of 94.38% strongly agreed, and 5.60% were uncertain. teachers argued that in eye, learning is based on hands-on activities where learners communicate as they explore shapes at learning centres while touching and playing international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira 146 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) with different shaped objects, thereby describing similarities or differences in shapes. more still, the documentary analysis showed that teachers incorporate systems of communication-based on individual needs by the use of visual aids and pictures to encourage new skills. however, in the view of quigley and herro (2016), effective communication requires that teachers provide learners with opportunities to express views and be genuinely listened to in an inclusive environment. this is because when learners actively contribute to learning, they are more likely to be engaged in play that responds to their interests, abilities, and strengths. to achieve this, one teacher made the following remarks……….. “i guide children's activities as i play with them. children learning how to model a house do ask questions about how it works, try out different techniques to get it fixed, discuss the meaning behind artistic creation, and experience the creative process involved going from a design on paper to a tangible, functional object”. this finding implies that providing daily opportunities for learners to participate in stimulating activities fosters communication. further still, when asked to explain whether learners use persuasive speaking and feedback. one teacher said.... “to infuse steam activities throughout the day, i make use of common issues within my class. issues like how children might share a snack, how to organize materials in the nature corner, or how to recycle materials in class for an art project can be used to create a steam experience. as i focus on integrated activities, i find that steam initiatives provide complementary perspectives on the world. for instance, i find role play with telephones as an effective way to develop communication skills among children, where even the introverts have something to say when you hand them a telephone” as noted earlier by jamil, linder, and steglin (2018), when children learn to express ideas in an influential way and respond pleasingly to reactions to viewpoints, they will be able to promote innovation and social change through fields like bioengineering or video game design and the outcomes are transferred to real-world situations. these findings imply that synthesis with steam activities requires effective pedagogical approaches which allow learners to apply knowledge to lifelong learning. conclusion the study examined the influence of steam activities and the enhancement of creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and community competencies in early years education. analysis revealed that steam activities are developed by extending learners' natural activities, helping them to discover and to understand processes, challenging learners, and projecting targeted educational situations. when learners participate in various steam activities, they become part of the process of asking questions, making plans, discovering answers, and applying knowledge to solving problems. through the integration of steam in eye, learners are offered an opportunity to create products in a resourceful environment where they continuously raise questions, wanting to know how objects work and why things are the way they are. this encourages increased engagement in steam projects where learners connect artistic mediums that they enjoy (like visual arts and music) with more technical projects, which seemed overwhelming at first. parents should also encourage children to pursue steam activities at home in order to increase awareness and interest in sustained learning. collaborative stem projects aid learners in developing social skills, which allow working with diverse groups and distinction of viewpoints for negotiating and coming to a conclusion. given that peer interaction starts in eye, teachers who encourage teamwork have learners with enhanced international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 135-150 adopting steam development strategies in early years education in nairobi city county, kenya: implication for 21st century skills lilian ganira │ 147 issn 2721-2904 (online) collaborative skills. more findings indicated through collaboration, learners develop new and stimulating viewpoints by learning to appreciate diverse outlooks. this is crucial not only to coexist and live side by side in harmony but also to move forward as a civilization. teachers emphasised that steam activities are extremely collaborative, with learners operating collectively to grip new information with numerous contact points by asking questions and speaking their minds. communication is integral to a learner's self-expression, development, and social development. steam activities demand that learners communicate with each other about actions, emotions, needs, and ideas. through such activities, learners become motivated to think critically and consider information across multiple fields to form comprehensive methods of coming up with solutions. when learners engage in activities that combine different elements of steam, they experience guided inquiry in which they ask thoughtful questions, discover answers, apply what they learn, and problem-solve creatively. recommendations the study makes recommendations for practice, policy, and further research based on its findings. for practice: the study recommends that teachers should be equipped with tools and resources for integrating steam activities in eye considering the nature of practices to apply and attributes that may promote or discourage learning. recommendations for policy: the ministry of education, kicd, and nairobi city county government should ensure that is a policy framework that supports formal integration of steam activities in eye since teachers lag in technology and engineering skills. this would assist schools in adopting effective instructional strategies that lay a foundation for steam concepts in eye. limitation & further research limitations of the study: the entire core skills advocated by kicd were not addressed due to the vastness of the study. recommendations for further research: the gap between strategies used in adopting steam ideals in eye seems to emanate from instructional methods used. in order to address this concern, the study recommends further research on the implementation of steam strategies in early years education which formally incorporates engineering activities. references adria, m., & mao, y. 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(2018). fostering inquiry and creativity in early years stem education: policy recommendations from the creative little scientists project. european journal of stem education, 3(3), 15. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/3875teske. thammaprateep, j & chartisathian, c. (2018).steam collaborative teacher professional development: preschool teacher’ understanding and teaching practice, journal of rangist university: teaching and learning, vol. 12(1), 82-95. tomlinson, c. a. (2014). the differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners (2nd ed.). alexandria, va: ascd. waddell, b.m. (2019). influence of steam lessons on critical thinking. unpublished master's thesis, university of nebraskalincoln. yates, e., & twigg, e. (2017). developing creativity in early childhood studies students. thinking skills and creativity. vol. 23, 42-57 campbell, c., speldewinde, c., howitt, c., & macdonald, a. (2018). stem practice in the early years. creative education,9, 11–25. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2018.91002. microsoft word 255-article text-1547-3-10-20201130.docx available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 2 number 2 (2020): 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi universitas terbuka, indonesia abstract this paper expounds some notes on philosophy in terms of the contrast between idealism and realism in its various shades of grey. included in its shade in (certain) islamic perspective. the method of analysis is that of wittgenstenian language games (wlg), which proceed from several well-known statements or examples to the dense possible meaning of them. the wlg is considered fruitful for the purpose of grounding theory and practice science-technology-engineering-math (stem) based curriculum development and implementation. the subject matter discussed is how idealism and realism is expressed in the three three-generations of philosopher socrates-plato-aristotle (spa), schopenhauer-nietszsche foucault (snf) and hegel-marx-habermas (hmh). after mentioning an islamic expression on idealism and realism as a contrast of jabariyatism and mutazilitism, then it is time to see if universitas terbuka (ut) specifically and all (indonesia) educational establishments, in general, have some lesson learned from that note on philosophy. in ut, in line mostly with islamic expressions, idealism and realism are seen as the contrast of content-based vs competency-based approach to curriculum development and implementation. keywords: wittgenstenian language games, idealism-realism, stem-based curriculum introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. the following is simply a note on philosophy. moreover, it is a note on a more specific topic in philosophy, that is, on idealism and realism. it is of interest to see it from time to time ever since ancient greek time to our contemporary time. with –againmore specific time chosen, that only of ancient greek time and of our contemporary time. from the ancient greek time, it is chosen that philosophy propounded by the three-generation philosopher of -plato-aristotle (spa). while from the contemporary time, it chooses two three-generation philosophers of schopenhauer-nietszsche-foucault (snf) and hegel-marx habermas (hmh). not to mention it is an expression of idealism and realism from an islamic perspective. and from the latter, it seems easier to see if universitas terbuka (ut) or (indonesia) educational institutions, in general, could learn something from that short durrantian story of philosophy. the method of analysis is that of wittgenstenian language games (wlg), “the notion [that] is never explicitly defined. wittgenstein preferred to proceed by example, using fragments of short, dense analyses to convey what the language games are http://www.signo-semio.com/ wittgenstein/language-games.asp). thus, in the following, it is first mentioned the main points of each philosopher discussed and then proceeded to the dense meaning of it. that for the lesson learned for science-technology-engineering-math (stem)-based curriculum development and implementation in universitas terbuka (ut), the usefulness of wlg methods of corresponding author dodisy@ecampus.ut.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v2i2.255 research synergy foundation international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 115 analysis, can be inferred from the very figure of wittgenstein, “ludwig josef johann wittgenstein … 26 april 1889 – 29 april 1951) was an austrian-british philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language". thus, his works are in the area, which could be very fruitful for any stem perspectives on the curriculum. the following further elaboration about him shows his reputation and standing among stellar names like feigl, monk, brouwer, ramsey, keynes, russel and moore, “according to feigl (as reported by monk), upon attending a conference in vienna by mathematician l. e. j. brouwer, wittgenstein remained quite impressed, taking into consideration the possibility of a "return to philosophy". at the urging of ramsey and others, wittgenstein returned to cambridge in 1929. keynes wrote in a letter to his wife: "well, god has arrived. i met him on the 5.15 train." despite this fame, he could not initially work at cambridge as he did not have a degree, so he applied as an advanced undergraduate. russell noted that his previous residency was sufficient to fulfil eligibility requirements for a phd, and urged him to offer the tractatus as his thesis. it was examined in 1929 by russell and moore; at the end of the thesis defence, wittgenstein clapped the two examiners on the shoulder and said, "don't worry, i know you'll never understand it”. moore wrote in the examiner's report: "i myself consider that this is a work of genius; but, even if i am completely mistaken and it is nothing of the sort, it is well above the standard required for the ph.d. degree." wittgenstein was appointed as a lecturer and was made a fellow of trinity college” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ludwig_wittgenstein), the successor of ‘the god’ sir isaac newton and paul a.m dirac, the second einstein. next, take a further look at ramsey: “frank plumpton ramsey (1903–30) made seminal contributions to philosophy, mathematics and economics… he was acknowledged as a genius by his contemporaries…his historic significance was to usher in a new phase of analytic philosophy, which initially built upon the logical atomist doctrines of bertrand russell and ludwig wittgenstein, raising their ideas to a new level of sophistication” (https://plato.stanford.edu/ entries/ramsey/). the first period of idealism and realism it is said that there is no philosophy but plato. meaning all philosophy has already been completely and totally written by him. the rest is only a footnote to his philosophy. this might be totally wrong or only half right. totally wrong will be the case if we consider what plato himself might say about this. he would say that ‘mine is only a written version of what socrates says. thus, the proposition -if it is acceptableshould be “there is no philosophy, but socrates”’. so, the proposition ‘there is no philosophy, but plato’ is totally wrong. the proposition might be half right when we consider that plato is later on known as the (first) father of half of the philosophy named idealism. the other half -named realismis fathered by his famous follower, aristotle. thus, in some senses, both plato and aristotle is only a half-written version of socrates. so, the proposition 'there is no philosophy, but plato' is only half right for the correct proposition should be 'there is no idealism philosophy, but plato.' to put it in simple words, idealism hold that every single thing is only ideas. there is no matter. forget the clumsy word 'every single thing is only ideas,' forget the synonym -or association if you like of 'thing' with 'ideas.' on the other hand, realism holds that there is no such thing as ideas, as minds, everything is matter. there is never mind (now maybe you can get a wider smile for 'everything is matter', for 'thing' is now a synonym for -or is associated with'matter'). summing up, if you talk about idealism and realism, your subject matter is the problems of no matter, never mind. please stop problematizing the word 'subject matter' mentioned in the last sentence. on the one hand, when we try to convince others that education, for example, is important for our well-being, we might summarize our arguments with a sentence like education matter! so, in this perspective, does the term 'subject matter' really means 'subjectivism matter, and thus mind matter, and in turn: there is no international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) 116 │ matter?'. on the other hand, in 'subject matter', 'subject, subjectivism, and thus mind' is only an adjective for the matter. it comes before the word 'matter'. thus, everything is matter really, and there is never mind? thus, as mentioned earlier '(your) subject matter is no matter, never mind the second period of idealism and realism in the second period of idealism and realism, there are at least two similar successions of the like spa. each with their own specific characteristics. there are a) the succession of hmh, and b) snf. schopenhauer is contemporary to hegel, as well as nietzsche to marx and foucault to habermas. these three-generation successors of philosophers is a rare happening in the history of philosophy. some people even do not recognize these three-generations of the philosopher as existing and the like of the three generations of socrates-plato-aristotle. no matter what, however, the wittgensteinian games of philosophy (seem to) lingers on to any of these three-generations of philosophers. socrates is said to be the first philosopher to focus on humanity after the long period of humanity is awestructed and/or overwhelmed by nature. socrates is confucian in the sense that he simply questioned why we should focus on the dead matter when we hardly know what life really is, for we are fed up yet with life, nor we have done yet with life. we might perhaps say that socrates lived a heavenly comfortable life in physical terms -even not as advanced as we have todayas the fruit of his/our past generation's focus on nature, on dead matter. physical convenience, even in our advanced stages, is only for the lucky few. neither it suffices nor necessary for a happy life, no matter how we define happiness. the point of this view of the socio-cultural background of philosophy is to say that the philosophy of socrates is basically the adolescent time of philosophy (the childhood of which is that philosophy which focuses on nature) when dreaming everything nice about life is possible. that the death sentence of socrates is only to wake up philosophy to the fact hobbsian short, brutish and nasty life, to wake philosophy to enter its more mature period. that its first reasonable reaction is to resort to some idealism as propounded by plato. only to be found its realism in his successor, that of aristotle. that wittgenstenian games of philosophy are to dream a single category, an entity, to explain everything that exists (and at the same time, most of the time to deny that god is indeed the single category, to deny that the philosophy of religious people is their religion). to dream like physicists nowadays of toe (theory of everything), no matter how unimaginable that it fails sorely in the very subject matter it claims to study, ie, dead matter: when it cannot even define what dead matter -the main business of ithow it dream about toe? hasn't the story thales -that ancient greek nature philosopher or more precisely astronomer-philosopherif you like gives it a lesson? when thales, who was observing the sky above, felled due to the ditch he un subconsciously came across, a power of emak2 said: how can we believe you on what you say high above there when you can't even see what is in your feet? in other words, how can we believe in toe if its basic object is undefined yet? schopenhauer-nietszsche-foucault (snf) wittgenstenian games in the philosophy of spa is somewhat repeated in the philosophy of snf. if socrates is known as the first father of humanist philosophy with no specific (ontological) notions, schopenhauer specificnotion is the platonic (as wellas -some sayvedic) world as will and representation, ”the world we experience around us—the world of objects in space and time and related in causal ways— exists solely as ‘representation’ (vorstellung) dependent on a cognizing subject, not as a world that can be considered to exist in itself (i.e., independently of how it appears to the subject's mind). our knowledge of objects is thus knowledge of mere phenomena rather than things-in-themselves. schopenhauer identifies the thing-in-itself—the inner essence of everything—as will: a blind, unconscious, aimless striving devoid of knowledge, outside of space and time, and free of all multiplicity. the world as representation is, therefore, the ‘objectification’ of the will. aesthetic experiences release a person briefly from his endless servitude to the will, which is the root of suffering. true redemption from life, schopenhauer asserts, can international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 117 only result from the total ascetic negation of the ‘will to life.’ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_world_as_ will_and_representation). according to him, “the universe and everything in it is driven by a primordial will to live, which results in a desire in all living creatures to avoid death and to procreate” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/will_to_ power). his successor, nietzsche, simply said that it is not so much about the will to life, but the will to power. nietzsche does not specifically define what the will to power is. however, from prominent influences of him, for example, that of nazi appropriation of nietzsche's philosophy, it can be inferred that the appropriation is based “arise from overlooking nietzsche's distinction between kraft ("force" or "strength") and macht ("power" or "might"). [2] kraft is primordial strength that may be exercised by anything possessing it, while macht is, within nietzsche's philosophy, closely tied to sublimation and "self overcoming", the conscious channeling of kraft for creative purposes. which can, however, include forceful and violent acts of legislating and moral and political founding”. basically, he says that those who are successful in self-overcoming possess what he called noble mentality/ethics, while those who failed, herd mentalities. one characteristic of his works is that they overturn what people usually do or think. for example, people are usually skeptical and says, 'birth certificate ... is paper, diploma ... also paper, marriage certificate ... paper, passport ... paper, home ownership letter ... also paper. money ... also paper’. nietzschean perspective will powerfully enlighten us by saying that ‘a piece of paper is so powerful, that in one time it takes the form of birth certificate, in other time diploma, in some other time marriage certificate, still in some other time passport, etc.’. as if to ascertain that ‘knowledge is power, as well as power is knowledge’, nietzsche successor, foucault, is better known with his notion of ‘the will to knowledge’, instead of the schopenhaueurian will life or nietzschean will to power, “the study of truth is inseparable from the study of history, is thoroughly at odds with the prevailing conception of what philosophy is… towards the end of his life, foucault insisted that all his work was part of a single project of historically investigating the production of truth” (https://iep.utm.edu/foucault/). foucault’s first lecture series, lectures on the will to know (1970-1971), introduces a number of important themes concerning knowledge, the will to know, and the power of truth and truth-telling—themes that foucault would develop during the next thirteen years in his lectures, conferences, and books (http://blogs.law.columbia.edu/foucault1313/1-13/). one prominent plawilling to take even simple and dirty objects as works of art, why do they simply most of the time ignore the most precious object in their life, that of their body, of their own well-being? hegel-marx-habermas (hmh) now we come to the three-generation of hmh. its elaboration will be short. not that their roles is insubstantial. one gross saying in our contemporary world is that ‘the life of one third of our world today is written in their life of foucaultian marxist narratives, the other one third that of christianity, and the rest one third is that of moslem’. this saying is to show how influential is marx, and probably his predecessor and successor as well, hegel and habermas respectively. thus, the significant, influential three-generation of hmh. the wlg is still played along in these three-generation philosophers in the sense of firstly renaming their ontological entity. the ‘matter-mind’ of spa is renamed ‘the will to life, power or knowledge’ in snf and now renamed ‘base-supertructure’ (following the image of a building) in hmh. the second sense is that of aritotlian-nietzschean overturning, to see thing upside down: the aristotle of ‘mind-games’ over that of ‘plato matter-games’, the foucault ‘knowledge-games’ over that of nietzsche ‘power-games’ and now the marx ‘base-dictate-superstructure games’ over that the hegel ‘superstructure-dictate-base games’. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) 118 │ one other specific wlg, however, is also played in an ‘upside-down’ sense. both spa and snf started from the most general –of 'humanity of socrates' or of 'the schopenhauer will to life-and ended in the specifics, of ‘matter or mind’ games in plato-aristotle or of ‘power or knowledge’ games in nietzsche foucault. and upside down games is played in hmh: started from the ‘specifics’ –of marx vs hegeland ended in the general, of habermas interaction of base and superstructure. islamic idealism and realism now that we come to easier ways of reading through wlg: that of religious –if philosophical is too much of luxury in the following elaborationnuances of idealism and realism. in this easier reading, it is better expounded by a simple story. in the wlg of this paper, the story should be read as imam malik representing jabariyatism-idealism, while his successor imam syafii representing mutazilitism-realism; thus, the wlg rematch of plato-aristotle. the meaning of the story speaks for itself as well as the story itself speaks. imam malik (imam syafii's teacher) in the majlis said: surely the fortune comes without reason, enough with the resignation that is true to god, surely allah will give sustenance. do your part, then let god take care of the rest. while imam syafii (the student believes differently): if a bird does not come out of the cage, how could he possibly get sustenance. the teacher and students are adamant about their opinions. one time he was leaving the hut, imam syafii saw a group of people harvesting grapes. he also helped them. after the work was finished, imam syafii was rewarded with several bunches of wine as a reward. imam syafii was excited, not because he got wine, but the gift strengthened his opinion. if a bird does not fly from a cage, how will it get sustenance. if he did not help harvest, surely he would not get wine. he hurried to meet imam malik, the teacher. putting down all the wine he got, he told me. imam syafii slightly hardened the part of the sentence "if i had not left the hut and done something (helped harvest), of course the wine would never reach my hands." hearing that, imam malik smiled as he took the wine and tasted it. imam malik said softly. "today i did not come out of the hut ... just taking on an assignment as a teacher, and a little thought it would be nice if on a hot day i could enjoy wine suddenly you came while bringing some bunch of wine for me. is not this also part of the sustenance that comes without cause. enough with the true resignation to allah surely allah will give sustenance. do what is your part, then let god take care of others." the teacher and student then laughed. two imams of madzab take two different laws from the same hadith. lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka now at last, we come to how wlg of idealism and realism in the like of islamic daily life activities – albeit of more restricted regimes, that is of curriculum development and implementation. the following starts with the reading of stem with it alphabet 'e' could be read as representing e(nvironment) or more appropriately as context. while the reading of stem should as well include arts (thus more properly become steam), for indonesian context is quite well-known for its artistic tendencies, if not its artistic achievement due to its multi-cultural background. principles of curriculum development1 it should be noted that contemporary indonesia is the world's largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands, the 14th largest by land area and the 7th largest in the combined sea and land area. with over 261 million multi-ethnics, multi-languages peoples, it is the world's 4th most international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 119 populous country as well as the most populous muslim-majority country (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/indonesia). at the moment, indonesia is preparing what so-called indonesia 4.0. it is the decision to implement ten national priorities to deal with industry revolution 4.0. it is in this indonesian context that we need to ascertain principles of curriculum development. curriculum development in the indonesia context, as is in any place, needs to be based on certain philosophy of education. the latter, in turn, is derived from the nature and structure of knowledge in interest, which is in dynamic interaction with both the needs of society and the needs of the learner. not to forget, in this digital era is fact that educational technology could enhance –as well as could delimit various imaginative-creative instructional design, which basically is the core of curriculum development product. or, put in another way, curriculum development requires some certain instructional design which, in turn, also require some certain educational technology. this is all basically is the concepts of (indonesia) curriculum development, while its context should as well be noted. the context is basic knowledge in the interest and needs of society and learners which is now currently deeply immersed in so many advanced educational technology unimaginable even decades ago. the fast pace of changes in everything we see and do in our daily life could unsettle our understanding of the world around us. summing up, in the context of curriculum development, we need some basic principles to guide us so that our philosophy and goals in education could be achieved as we intended it to be. the broad steam concepts and context of curriculum development is basically formulated in the so-called tyler model of curriculum development. the model consists of four steps: a) defining objectives or competencies to be achieved, based on our philosophy of education, b) elaborating content to attain the objectives defined, c) deliberating methods to deliver such content, and lastly, d) to evaluate whether our objectives have been achieved. it is possible that a more elaborate model of curriculum development could be used, but these four basic steps are 'a must steps' and is inseparable from one another. it needs to be noted that the tyler model is basically a deductive-administrator approach to curriculum development, which lays great stress on aims/objectives, control, and evaluation. it believes that teachers' role is only to implement it, not to create it. to address such realization, we could balance it –at least in some certain part of the curriculumwith what is the so-called inductive-teachers' approach model of taba. taba model believes that the teachers are the ones who really understand students' needs; hence, it is teachers who should develop and implement the curriculum. classroom action research is one powerful tool for teachers to develop their autonomy as professionals in its field, while at the same time, the learners could gain more meaningful knowledge and experiences. however, to fully make learning more meaningful for learners, even the taba model need to consider and be sensitive to the differences between what is so called teacher and learner-centered approach to teaching. thus, our next consideration is the schooling levels learners are in, whether they are still in pre school, primary, secondary, or tertiary level of study. consideration for each level is on the proportion of knowledge, skill, and attitudes. it seems to be generally agreed that the stress on attitudes is to be decreasing the higher one goes in the level of education, while that of knowledge and skill is to be increasing. in terms of krathwohl-dyers-bloom taxonomy, each level of study is characterized by certain its respective key terms. as an example, for pre-school and primary level of study, learners are supposed to achieve only in knowing, understanding, and a few applying levels of bloom knowledge taxonomy. in dyers' skill taxonomy, they are supposed to achieve the skill of observing, questioning, and experimenting to some smaller extent. and in krathwoll's taxonomy, the learners are supposed to internalize the attitude of accepting, responding, and a few ways of valuing. not to mention is that, in this era of digital learning, the bloom knowledge taxonomy is not only needed to revised, as is widely believed, it also should be adapted to the needs of the era. in the so-called bloom's digital taxonomy, there are several terms expressing digital-oriented thinking skills as well as its communication spectrum. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) 120 │ in formal-legal discourse, curriculum development needs to notice at which level of study mono, inter, multi and trans-discipline study is used. indonesia qualification framework (iqf, or named kkni in indonesia) stated that the sarjana s1 level used only mono-disciplinary study, while the magister s2 level used to interand multi-disciplinary study, and the doctoral s3 level used inter, multi and trans-disciplinary study. however, it should also be noted that the so-called k13 (the primary and secondary curriculum of 2013) stated that teaching should integrate vertically intra-disciplinary study (the inter-relation of subject matter one with another), horizontally intra-disciplinary study (the inter-relation of various subject matter) and externally trans-disciplinary study (the inter-relation of steam context or issues developing in today’s society). lastly, as an inseparable and important part of the communicating spectrum, a higher level of writing skill of learners is increasingly needed, especially in remembering that the handheld gadget easily available to anyone at any time prompts them only to simple and crude writing skills. these habits, widely popular as well deeply penetrating into one's sub-conscious area, could easily erase our writing ability. therefore, sound curriculum development principles should also consider how learners could write in an ethos, logos, and pathos ways of writing, i.e., to write in respectively ethical, logical, and emotional appealing/persuasive style. even more appropriate is that they also write in kairos (timeliness, proper context, circumstance, opportunity, etc.), telos (noble purpose, aims), and topos (appropriate theme, style, etc) ways. curriculum implementation if there is a wlg of idealism and realism in the principles of curriculum development, then it would be the differentiation of teacher and learner-centered approach to teaching. the teacher-centered approach (tca) to teaching is in accord with idealism for it presumes teacher-knows-all every learner need, while that of learner-centered approach (lca) to teaching is in accord with realism for it really take care of the learners’ needs. as the table mentioned previously show, tca focus on ‘knowledge’, while that of lca on ‘learner experiences. a further wlg of idealism and realism in the principles of curriculum development can be inferred from the utilization of the krathwohl-dyers-bloom taxonomy. this utilization of the taxonomy in curriculum development and implementation might be said to indicate that it must be a kind of curriculum, named competency-based curriculum (cmc), which is in contrast with, for example, content-based curriculum (cnc). with these notions of wlg of idealism and realism in indonesia's curriculum context, it is now to assess what could have been happening in ut’s context, or at some moments –to be more precisein the faculty of education of ut. in a recent event of an attempt to refresh ut's ways of doing the certain assessment, it was found retrospectively that a) with meager to none of the learner involvement and/or contributions to curriculum development, it can hardly be said that ut's curriculum is of the kind of (pure) lca, though its focus on 'learner experiences', and b) ut's curriculum in its overall construction and implementation is of the kind of cmc. yet, in some aspects of it, like its grading style is hardly purely cmc. neither is in the fact of, for example, stating certain courses as constituting foundation courses for its end of-study-program examination. the latter sounds like that of cnc. conclusion in concluding the paper, it seems appropriate to show how wlg of turning things upside down can be shown as well here. so far, retrospectively speaking, we have always been presenting cases or examples and then proceed to dense analysis. now, let us take this upside down, that is, we start from principles and then proceed to what case or example we can present. thus, let us with the first three of the seven wittgensten basic propositions as follow (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wittgenstein/): ogden translation pears/mcguinness translation international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) │ 121 1. the world is everything that is the case. the world is all that is the case. 2. what is the case, the fact, is the existence what is the case—a fact—is the existence of atomic facts. states of affairs. 3. the logical picture of the facts is the a logical picture of facts is a though. though. then the following eleven propositions –like the eleven hotshots of a soccer teamis a possible case or example of those seven wittgenstein propositions. it is based on a real dense discussion in a certain forum of the member of the ut education faculty. and it is not only applicable to curriculum implementation but to all possible ut could design and do! it is a case of how simple case could loom large as later on must be handled in the complex –or chaos-based theory or more other exotic theoriesways as we see in, for example, physics when it deals with the so-called elementary particle(s)! 1. how things run is how faculty, study program, and an individual member of the faculty/study program run things. 2. faculty is to facilitate the study program, while the study program is to facilitate each individual member of the faculty/study program member. 3. we will never find a famous dean, perhaps only a very rare famous study program, but certainly, there are many famous individuals. 4. it is highly unlikely if someday, later on, people know from which study program einstein, hawking, and other stellar names come from, let alone which faculty. nor would it be worth known. 5. thus, only individual matters, s/he has main roles, faculty, and study program is the only subsidiary! 6. the root word of facilitating is from fa-cile, much like a doctor is from do-cile, and do-cile is in a level better than imbe-cile. in these terms, faculty is in imbe-cile roles, while study program is in do-cile and individual faculty member in fa-cile roles. 7. in hamiltonian-habermasian perspective, the three levels of imbe-, do and fa-cile is respectively to reflect (like you do in action research, in self-evaluation), to reconstruct (like you do in archeology), and to change the world (like you do in this real hobbsian short, brutish and nasty life)? 8. in hamiltonian perspective, the outcome of the three levels is respectively to socialize (familiarize!) them with their own world, to educate (improve!) them to the desired world, and to school (discipline!) the learners in (and to!) their own world. 9. so cherish guys, dear faculty/study program member, the world is in your hands, your independence day is here for you make it flourishing, in mao’s word, ‘let thousand flowers flourish”, though soekarno’s “give me 10 strong guys to conquer the world’ hardly be could ever be refuted as well. 10. dear faculty/study program member, your gua (grand unified application) is on the way; an application in ut is a digital-computerized way of managing and archiving a portion of ut’s work/job. gua is the universe of bernstenian constellation after the constellation of applications. gua is how the imbe-cile faculty could offer you! how the study program does its do-cile roles and how you do your fa-cile roles is up to you to design and run… 11. how faculty, study program, and an individual member of faculty/study program run things maybe is how things really are (or even should be) run. last remarks. it is clear in spa which idealism, which realism. it is as well quite clear in hmh. but, in snf, in islamic perspectives, and in ut’s educational practices, maybe which idealism, which realism, it is so much that much as clear cut as in spa or in hmh. or, even maybe it is now time to cite the seventh wittgenstein basic propositions (https://plato.stanford. edu/entries/wittgenstein/), international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 2 (2), 114-122 a wittgenstenian language games on idealism and realism: lesson learned for stem based curriculum in universitas terbuka dodi sukmayadi issn 2721-2904 (online) 122 │ ogden translation pears/mcguinness translation whereof one cannot speak, thereof one what we cannot speak about we must pass over must be silent. in silence. every lesson is already learned. every lesson learned has been elaborated. that it is time to end the paper now, as "wittgenstein clapped the two examiners on the shoulder and said, "don't worry, i know you'll never understand it” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ludwig_wittgenstein)”, this paper would as well do and say the same to its readers. references bidet, j and foucault, m., (2017) foucault with marx, zed books ltd danaher, g. et. al. (2000), understanding foucault, sage pub. london. durant, w. (1966), the story of philosophy: the lives and opinions of the world’s greatest philosophers from plato to john dewey, washingtion square press, ny. finlayson, j.g. (2015) habermas: a very short introduction, oxford university press inc., new york habermas, j. (1984), the theory of communicative action, heinemann ed., london. hamilton, d. (1987) education: an unfinished curriculum, university of glasglow. horrocks, et. al. (1997) mengenal foucault: for beginners, mizan, jakarta kemmis, s. and fitzclarence, l. (1986), curriculum theorizing: beyond reproduction theory, deakin press. geelong. murphy, m (2017), habermas and social research: between theory and method, routledge ltd. nietzsche, f. (1977), a nietzsche reader (selected and translated by rj hollingdale), penguin books ltd., london. stavro, a. and moore, c. (2017), socrates and the socratic dialogue, brill academic pub. sukmayadi, d. (2020), curriculum development principles for contemporary indonesia, kementerian hukum dan hak asasi manusia, surat pencatatan ciptaan, nomor pencatatan: 000143106 internet sources. microsoft word 8. ijrse-515-article text-3403-1-15-20211114.edited by le.docx available online at: https://researchsynergy.org/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 2 (2021): 64-75 corresponding author bada.aa@ufs.ac.za; jitalc@ufs.ac.za doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i2.515 research synergy foundation rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada1, loyiso jita 2 1, 2 faculty of education, school of natural science and technology education, university of the free state (rsa), south africa abstract physics, a major branch of science, requires adequate implementation of its theoretical and practical components. the critical role of the laboratory in realizing this goal cannot be overemphasized hence, the need for proper management of laboratory resources. this study investigated the rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions and its implications for stem subjects using students' voices. the investigation adopted a descriptivesurvey research design which comprised 596 students taking physics-related courses in six tertiary institutions in ondo state. a questionnaire with 19 item statements was designed titled ‘questionnaire on physics laboratory resources management’ (qplrm) and used to collect data for this study. the data collected were analysed using mean scores and ranking. inadequate funding to carry out managerial plans and lackadaisical attitude on the part of lecturers were rated highest to have hindered the proper management of physics laboratory resources for improving stem subjects. the study concludes that adequate funding and improved positive attitude on the part of lecturers and support staff are important to guarantee proper teaching of stem subjects. the study recommends that the government, through its agencies, should provide more funds for the adequate implementation of stem subjects. keywords: physics laboratory resources management, learning, rating, stem, teaching this is an open access article under the cc-by-nc license. introduction as a subject, physics is an important aspect of science that relies greatly on practical work (practicals). it is an essential component that is taught at the senior secondary and tertiary levels of education in nigeria. since the proper teaching of physics depends greatly on practicals, there is a need to look into the proper management of physics laboratories at the secondary school level and, most importantly, at the tertiary institutions in nigeria. this is because graduates of physics-related disciplines need to be properly grounded in the subject matter so as to ensure professionalism in the discharge of their duties, especially as it relates to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) education. physics is the study of matter, energy, and its interactions (omosewo, 2001). the importance of physics to nation-building has been stressed in different fora, especially towards the realization of the philosophy of education in nigeria. regarding tertiary education in nigeria, the national policy on education (federal republic of nigeria [frn], 2013) has, among other objectives, the objective that tertiary education should contribute to national development through high-level workforce training. this objective might remain a mirage if the necessary steps that could guarantee proper teaching of the subject are not treated with all the importance it deserves. physics is an essential subject that contributes to the successful implementation of stem education in nigeria. in nigeria, physics forms one of the compulsory subjects students need to pass with at least a credit pass at the secondary level of education before students can gain admission to study stemrelated courses at tertiary institutions (frn, 2013). the need for the proper teaching and learning of physics, therefore, cannot be overemphasized. therefore, it is important to pay more attention to the use of its laboratory and how the resources are being managed to help improve the teaching and learning of the subject. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 65 ebirim and ochai (2011) define resources as all humans, finances, and materials available in the organization or institution which are used as input in production. resources are seen as those inputs that can help guarantee the required results. this emphasizes the fact that adequate resources can help in achieving the objectives of the teaching-learning process. these resources are usually kept and used in the laboratory; hence, the importance of a laboratory to the proper study of not only physics but science education in general. a laboratory is a place where scientific investigations are carried out. akinbobola and author (2017) view a laboratory as a place where problems are created and solutions are also generated. the importance of the laboratory and its management to the study of physics and other stem subjects becomes imperative because of the sensitive height it occupies to ensure that teaching science goals are met. laboratory management is the proper planning, development, and utilisation of human and nonhuman resources in order to provide a conducive environment that can prevent accidental injuries (akinbobola, 2015). in the words of oyekan, asaaju, and obe (2017), laboratory management is the adoption of appropriate human and material resources to ensure a safe and healthy environment that prevents injuries or accidents to those in the laboratory. as with other sciences, the study of physics requires that the resources to be used should ensure that students are not exposed to accidental injuries. armstrong (2006) thus views the management of resources as the process of setting and achieving goals through the execution of planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling the utilisation of human, material, and capital resources. good laboratory management begins with the design of the laboratory because a laboratory is described as a place where scientific investigation or research is carried out. a good physics laboratory must be at least 89.2 m2 with a demonstration bench of about 0.23 m high. it must have a preparatory room of about 21.37 m2 and a store. akinbobola and author (2017) have identified some importance of the physics laboratory: this includes: i. the laboratory is the source of problems for students to solve; ii. the laboratory provides for the solutions to problems students encounter in the laboratory, classroom, or elsewhere; iii. the laboratory gives room for critical reasoning and generation of ideas in physics; iv. the laboratory provides for illustration of phenomena, principles, and applications that provide means to verify facts, laws, and generalisation; v. the laboratory contributes to students’ knowledge and understanding of facts, laws, principles, and concepts; vi. the laboratory contributes to the development of scientific knowledge, skills, and attitudes. since all the resources for teaching physics are kept in the laboratory, there is a need to properly manage these resources. the adequate use, proper use, and management of the laboratory might have the capacity to enhance concept formation and remove misconceptions to facilitate meaningful learning of physics and stem subjects at large. this study has two objectives (i) to investigate how physics students rate the management of physics laboratory resources in tertiary institutions (ii) to investigate the strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for stem education. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 66 purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to rate physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions and its implications for teaching and learning stem subjects. specifically, this study found out: i. how physics students rate the management of physics laboratory resources in tertiary institutions. ii. how physics students rate the strategies suggested for improving the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem subjects. research question the following research questions were raised to guide this study. 1. how do physics students rate physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions? 2. how do physics students rate the strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem? literature review according to sauders (2009), the acronym stem was first coined many decades ago by the national science foundation (nsf). american nsf researcher judith ramaley first used stem as a term. its teaching in nigeria began in the year 1859 in cms grammar school, lagos, and was limited to the teaching of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc philosophy (ugo & akpoghol, 2016). this was closely followed by the constitution of different science-curricula development committees such as the phelps-stokes education commission, comparative education study and adaptation centre (cesac), and the science teachers association of nigeria (stan), to mention a few. stem is an abbreviation that comes from four closely related and connected areas of study – science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stokdyk, 2016). this abbreviation is relatively new because badmus and omosewo (2020) opine that stem was formerly referred to as science, technology, and society (sts). the national inventors hall of fame (2021) define stem education as an inter-related disciplinary method to learning. through this method, major academic concepts are combined with real-life-situation lessons to the way students apply stem disciplines. these ways ensure inter-relation among schools, communities, workplaces, and the entire world. this subsequently gives rise to the development of stem literacy. morrison (2006) defines stem as an interdisciplinary method to learning where several science and technology subject disciplines are taught by integrating mathematics and engineering into the curriculum such that it represents a shift from the conventional teacher-centered classroom. ubawuike (2018) defines stem as a metadiscipline that came to light as a result of other areas to bridge gaps over several subject areas. science, the first word that makes up stem is defined as any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical environment and its occurrences, which also involves factual observations and systematic experimentation (britannica, 2020). it is the investigation of natural occurrences through careful observations, theoretical explanation, and experimentation of the knowledge derived from such findings. the second letter in stem was taken from the word technology. according to volti (2009), he defines technology to mean the techniques, methods, and processes used to produce the products of science, which includes accomplishing objectives to meet the needs of society. technology has to do with modifications of the environment to satisfy society's needs and aspirations. volti (2009) defines technology as a system created by humans who use knowledge and organization to produce objects international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 67 and techniques for the attainment of specific goals. when said goals are achieved through knowledge and organization, this can be referred to as the science behind the goals having been successfully implemented. some of these goals include the designing and producing of devices such as televisions, laptops, and phones. engineering stands as the third word whose first letterforms an integral part of the acronym, stem. engineering is the application of science to the maximum conversion of the resources of nature to products that can be used by humankind (smith, 2020). engineering deals with the utilisation of scientific principles to design materials and devices that tend to make life more meaningful for humankind to be useful in society. it is the careful application of science and mathematics to solve identified problems. last but not least, mathematics, as another integral part of stem, is the science of structure, order, and relation derived from basic practices like counting, measuring, and explaining the shapes of objects. mathematics is the study of measurement, relationship, and properties of quantities and sets using numbers and symbols, which is also referred to as the science of logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. dictionary.com (n.d.) defines mathematics as operations and processes that help in providing solutions to problems related to the scientific field. this suggests that knowledge of mathematics is important in studying science. stem education is important in almost all countries over the world because its indices are usually used in rating nations (national research council, 2012). the national research council (2011) views stem education as the tendency to encourage inter-disciplinary knowledge and skills relevant to living a good life, especially in the k-12 educational setting. stem education also can elevate the current generation's mindset to be more innovative (corlu, capraro & capraro, 2014). in the study carried out by brown, brown, reardon, and merrill (2011) on whether stem education is important, the researchers found that stem education is a way to bridge disciplines, provide cognitive building blocks for students, and teach the needed skills. the researchers are also of the opinion that stem education has a role to play in teaching problem-solving. in their research on the importance of stem education in the elementary grades according to preservice and novice teachers’ perspectives, madden, beyer, and o'brien (2016) indicate that all the participants agreed that stem education was important at the elementary level. this is because stem is the foundation of later studies, connects to everyday life, nurtures positive stem attitudes, integrates or balances contents, and prepares students for jobs. in addition, stem promotes learning or higher-order thinking, allows for the development and spread of technology, promotes hands-on inquiry or design, promotes gender equity in stem fields of work, and maintains global competitiveness in the world of scientific discovery. in nigeria, stem education is an important topic because it occupies a high position in ensuring the development of the nation (adeyemo, 2010). the laboratory has been found as a crucial place for the learning of stem because it is a place where problems are created and solutions generated. okeke and chinwe (2006) therefore opine that the learning of stem must start and end in the laboratory. this suggests that the laboratory plays a major role in the realisation of stem objectives. hence, there is a need to pay more attention to stem resources management in all levels of education and, most especially in tertiary institutions, which are the scope of this study. oriafo (2002) carried out research on refocusing science, technology, and mathematics education in nigeria. he argued that stem education is grossly affected by content inadequacy; poor teaching methods by teachers; dominating international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 68 cultural lapses; and paucity of facilities, equipment, and materials in the laboratory. his findings also emphasize the prominent role the laboratory plays in the achievement of stem goals. brown et al. (2011) conducted research on understanding stem and its current perceptions by students in stem education and leadership program at illinois state university. the researchers discovered that stem education is not well understood by administrators of teachers doing a stemfocused master’s degree and that there is a need to increase awareness at both administrator and student levels. the researchers also suggest that there is no clear vision for stem education, even among those who believe in its importance. hence, there is a need for raising awareness and defining stem and how stem education should be implemented. brown et al. (2011) conclude that there was little evidence that stem education existed in the schools surveyed based on the lack of existing collaboration that should exist among schools. ugwu, nwokocha, and ozioko (2011) investigated teachers' position in the reform of stem education in nigeria. the researchers emphasize the crucial role teachers’ play in the successful implementation of stem education. they conclude that stem teachers in nigeria are rarely involved in the process of curriculum development and reforms, which might be why these teachers show reluctance towards implementing any reform connected with stem education. the position the teacher occupies in the realization of teaching and learning objectives has been clearly stressed, as no nation can develop further than the quality of its teachers (frn, 2013). nwagbo and ukaegbu (2012) carried out research on biology laboratory resource management in colleges of education in nigeria and its implications for universal basic education (ube). the researchers found that lack of funds to carry out management plans, lack of supervision of resources, and excessive use of available staff and materials are some of the factors militating against the effective management of resources in the country’s colleges of education. the researchers also discovered that proper supervision of resources and materials, documentation of funds, and logistics of resources are some of the strategies that can be adopted to improve the management of resources for ube programs. corlu et al. (2014) carried out an investigation into the implications of educating teachers for the age of innovation through the introduction of stem education in turkey. the researchers emphasize the importance of integrated teaching knowledge as teacher knowledge varies with the school type, school level, and teacher characteristics. they propose a stem education model with particular reference to mathematics and science. the researchers submit that integrated teacher education programs may prepare pre-service teachers with the skills to implement reforms, thus making the teacher the driving force behind and a genuine supporter of reforms. madden et al. (2016) carried out an exploratory study on the structure of beliefs among prospective and novice teachers regarding the importance of stem education. they found that stem education is important at the elementary level because it lays a foundation for later courses. in addition, ugo and akpoghol (2016), in their study on improving stem programs in secondary schools in benue state, nigeria, identify poor teaching qualification, lack of improvisation, lack of cooperation, lack of basic laboratory reagents, and instructional methods as some of the challenges facing stem education in nigeria. famunyan (2019) conducted research into the challenges of teaching stem in nigeria. the researcher discovered various challenges being faced by stem education in the country. these include inadequate facilities such as standard laboratories, lack of educational infrastructures, imbalance in the school curriculum, continuous gap between nigerian students and their international peers, lack international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 69 of digitalisation of education, brain drain and gain to developed countries, corruption in the educational setting, low salaries and lack of incentives for teachers. umar (2019) investigated stem education as a catalyst for national development. the researcher probed into the problems and prospects of stem education in nigeria and found that class size, teacher factor, teaching method, language, resource utilisation, and workload are factors hindering the successful implementation of stem education. the researcher also identified innovative teaching methods, the establishment of more technical colleges and universities, and the provision of science equipment and laboratories to improve stem education in nigeria. the reviewed literature emphasizes the importance of the laboratory, among other factors, in the successful implementation of stem education in nigeria (omosewo,2006; adeyemo, 2010; nwagbo & ukaegbu, 2012; famunyan, 2019). omosewo (2006) emphasized the importance and effectiveness of the laboratory method as a method that can be used to better student science-based disciplines. this buttresses the fact that special attention should be placed on how the resources in the laboratory are being managed to ensure the realization of set objectives in stem education. rating is an aspect of evaluation, and this has always being left in the hands of teachers, directors of school units and municipality technical service assistants, head of schools, departments and programs, school stakeholders, and approved government agencies, with little or no desired results achieved (baltas & consultant, 2005; hasbullah, yusoff, ismail & vitasari, 2011; limon, 2016). evaluation can also be left in the hands of the students, who are also important stakeholders in the business of teaching and learning. the voice of students as regards rating of school experiences can also go a long way in giving a clear picture of the situation. this assertion is supported by aladejana and aderibigbe (2007) and omiko (2015), who gave students the voice to access school facilities and various components of the science laboratory in their different studies. the reviewed literature revealed that little or no studies had been conducted on the management of physics laboratory resources with implications for teaching stem subjects in ondo, nigeria. literature also showed that only one related study was conducted on laboratory resource management, even though it was on biology (nwagbo & ukaegbu (2012). despite the fact that the study by nwagbo and ukaegbu (2012) was carried out in nigeria, the investigation into laboratory resources management was not viewed using the students as a lens to unpack its implication for stem subjects but rather it was on universal basic education (ube). therefore, the present study leveraged students' voices to investigate the management of physics laboratory resources in tertiary institutions. it also used the findings from the study to infer implications for the teaching of stem subjects. research method this study adopted a descriptive-survey research design. a descriptive study is used to describe the distribution of one or more variables without taking into consideration any cause or hypothesis (aggarwal & ranganathan, 2019). the method used in this investigation was discussed under the following headings: participants, instrument, the procedure for data collection, and the data analysis technique. participants the population for the study comprised all the tertiary institutions in ondo state, nigeria. there are 10 tertiary institutions in ondo state, and out of this number, the purposive sampling technique was used to select two institutions, each from the three senatorial districts of ondo state. a simple random technique was used to select 596 students who took a major course in physics in the year under review. efforts were made to ensure that only students in the penultimate year of study were used in the study because it was assumed that these students would have been exposed to most of the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 70 laboratory resources for teaching the different physics components and also aware of the management of these resources. it was also assumed that students would be able to suggest how the successful implementation of the management of these resources can affect the teaching and learning of stem education. the demographic information of the participants is shown in figure 1. instrument a researcher designed a questionnaire titled ‘questionnaire on physics laboratory resources management’ (qplrm) and used to obtain data for this study. the items that make up the questionnaire were compiled from an initial survey on the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching physics. twenty-three students who were not part of the study were initially interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire on the management of physics laboratories in tertiary institutions. the responses of the respondents were audiotaped and recorded. the researchers later transcribed the recorded data in order to have an idea of those components that should form part of the questionnaire. the draft from the transcribed data was used to collect data for this study, and it was divided into two sections. section a requests the participants' demographic data, whereas section b consists of 19 statements on the management of physics laboratory resources. response types for section b were strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd). qplrm was validated by two experts in the department of curriculum and instruction and three lecturers in the department of physics at adeyemi college of education, ondo state, nigeria. the comments of the validators on the content and structure of the instrument were duly corrected. the reliability of the qplrm was achieved by trial testing it on a sample of 45 students in one other tertiary institution who was not part of the sample used in this study. a reliability coefficient index of 0.78 was obtained using cronbach’s alpha. this achieved index of 0.78 showed that the instrument is consistent enough to measure what it was designed to measure. procedure for data collection the researchers sought the consent of the selected institutions’ administrators to use their students as participants for this study. the researchers also sought the permission of the students to take part in this study. only those who indicated a willingness and gave consent to take part in the study were used for this study. after due permission had been given by the institutions and the consent of the students received, copies of qplrm were administered to the participants with the help of five research assistants. the research assistants assisted with the administration of the instruments in order to give them wider coverage. students completed the questionnaires, and the research assistants and the researchers immediately retrieved it. the administration of the questionnaire was done over a period of four weeks. data analysis technique the data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics. we used the microsoft excel spreadsheet package to compute the data obtained from this study. the two research questions were answered using mean. participants responded to the questionnaire, and their responses were analysed using the following grading system: strongly agree (sa) =4, agree (a) =3, disagree (d) = 2, strongly disagree (sd) =1. for the decision rule, an average mean value (amv) less than 22.0 implies that the management of physics laboratory resources was rated low by the students, while an average mean value equal to or greater than 22.0 implies that the management of physics laboratory resources was rated high by the students. for research question 2, an average mean gain less than 16.0 implies that the strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem were rated low, while an average mean value (amv) equal to or greater than 16.0 implies that the strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem were rated high by the students. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 71 results and discussion figure 1: demographic information of respondents by senatorial district as seen in figure 1, 214 of the respondents were from ondo central senatorial district, 95 were from ondo south senatorial district, and 287 were from ondo north senatorial district. a total of 596 respondents took part in this study. in this section, each research question and its related findings are discussed. research question 1: how do physics students rate physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions? table 1. physics laboratory resources management statement on physics laboratory resources management mean decision rank inadequate funding to carry out managerial plans 2.54 sa 1st inadequate supply of human and material resources 2.40 sa 3rd poor supervision of physics laboratory resources 2.32 sa 5th too large coursework for lecturers to teach and handle 2.34 sa 4th poor record-keeping of activities in the laboratory 2.31 sa 6th constant and timely replacement of bad materials and resources in the laboratory 2.21 a 10th lackadaisical attitude on the part of lecturers and laboratory support staff to managing materials and resources 2.43 sa 2nd ignorance on the proper use of materials and resources 2.25 sa 8th poor planning on the part of lecturers and laboratory support staff 2.23 a 9th poor monitoring strategies on the part of lecturers 2.20 a 11th poor cooperation between lecturers and students 2.28 sa 7th average mean value (amv) 25.51 decision rule: wmv < 22.00 = low; wmv ≥ 22.00 = high as seen in table 1, inadequate funding to carry out managerial plans was rated first, whereas lackadaisical attitude on the part of lecturers and laboratory support staff was ranked second. 287 214 95 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 ondo north ondo central ondo south total number of respondents international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 72 inadequate supply of human and material resources was ranked third, while too large coursework for lecturers to teach was rated fourth. the statement rated fifth was poor supervision of physics laboratory resources, with poor record-keeping of activities in the laboratory ranked sixth. participants rated poor cooperation between lecturers and students seventh, while ignorance on the proper use of materials and resources was rated eight. furthermore, poor planning on the part of lecturers and laboratory support staff was rated ninth, while constant and timely replacement of bad materials and resources in the laboratory was rated tenth. the statement rated last (11th) was poor monitoring strategies on the part of lecturers. this means that inadequate funding topped the list of factors affecting the proper management of physics laboratory resources and invariably has a negative effect on the proper administration of stem education in ondo state. this finding agrees with nwagbo and ukeagbu (2012), who found that a lack of funding to carry out managerial functions affects the proper implementation of ube through proper management of biology laboratory resources. in summary, the management of physics laboratory resources was rated high because the average mean value (amv) of 25.51 is greater than the amv benchmark of 22.00. research question 2: how do physics students rate the strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem? table 2. strategies to improve physics laboratory resources management strategies to improve physics laboratory resources management mean decision rank adequate training of lecturers and laboratory support staff on the need for proper management of laboratory resources 3.54 sa 2nd improved funding of laboratory resources to enhance managerial plans 3.86 sa 1st constant evaluation of the effectiveness of physics laboratory resources 3.22 sa 6th keeping adequate records of activities in the laboratory 3.41 sa 4th proper supervision of human and material resources 3.26 sa 5th prompt repair and replacement of damaged resources 3.42 sa 3rd proper monitoring of the use of resources and materials 3.18 a 7th giving counseling to lecturers and laboratory support staff on the need for proper management of physics laboratory resources 2.86 a 8th average mean value (amv) 26.75 decision rule: wmv < 16.00 = low; wmv ≥ 16.00 = high table 2 reveals that participants rated improved funding of laboratory resources to enhance managerial plans as the first strategy that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem. adequate training of lecturers and students on the need for proper management of laboratory resources was rated second. prompt repair and replacement of damaged resources for efficiency was rated third, while adequate keeping of records of activities in the laboratory was rated fourth. the strategy rated fifth was proper supervision of human and material resources, with constant evaluation of physics laboratory resources rated sixth. participants rated proper monitoring of the use of resources and materials as the seventh strategy, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 64-75 rating of physics laboratory resources management in tertiary institutions: implications for teaching and learning stem subjects abiodun bada, loyiso jita 73 and staff and student counseling on the need for proper management of physics laboratory resources as the eight. the findings from this study show that improved funding for physics laboratory management was ranked first as one of the strategies that can be adopted in eliciting the desired results for stem education. conversely, giving lecturers and laboratory support staff counseling on the need for proper management of physics laboratory resources was ranked last. in summary, strategies that can be used to improve the management of physics laboratory resources for teaching and learning stem were rated high because the average mean value (amv) of 26.75 is above the amv benchmark of 16.00. implications of the findings for stem education the findings of this study showed that inadequate funding to carry out managerial plans, lackadaisical attitude on the part of lecturers and laboratory support staff to managing materials and resources, and inadequate supply of human and material resources are the top three factors that militate against the effective management of physics laboratory resources. as such, improved funding, adequate training of lecturers and laboratory support staff on the need for proper management of laboratory resources, lecturers and support staff needing to have the right attitude, prompt repair and replacement of damaged resources, and keeping adequate records of activities in the laboratory are some of the means by which the objectives of stem education can be achieved. recommendations based on the finding from this study, the following recommendations were considered appropriate: 1. through its relevant agencies, the government should provide more funding for the management of physics laboratory resources in tertiary institutions, organise seminars and workshops for lecturers and laboratory support staff, and promptly repair and replace damaged resources in the laboratory. 2. physics lecturers and support staff should develop a positive attitude towards the management of physics laboratory resources management and keep adequate records of activities in the laboratory. references adeyemo, s. a. 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(2009). society and technological change. 7th ed. new york: routledge. microsoft word 1188 udan kusmawan available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 18-38 corresponding author udan kusmawan, udan@ecampus.ut.ac.id faculty of teacher training and education universitas terbuka and doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.1188 research synergy foundation a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan1 1 universitas terbuka, indonesia abstract through a distance education system, the teacher education program meets its challenges in the pedagogy of practical courses. correspondingly, student-teachers face challenges in completing their practical courses due to professional and geographical constraints. the survey research results revealed the effectiveness of a virtual lab application in connecting the pedagogical approach to the student teacher's needs for practicum through implementing the scalable practicum. the results showed that the virtual lab promotes excellent facilitation for student-teachers conducting science scalable practicum in their limited circumstances. this study recommends further research on wider scopes and samples to receive more comprehensive pictures regarding the effectiveness of the virtual lab. keywords: virtual lab (virlab); scalable practicum; distance education; online learning; 10-point likert scale this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction although the world is continually dealing with the impact of the covid-19 pandemic, most educational activities have gradually adapted to a new normal with innovative pedagogy, which is more than just encompassing the available resources through engaging pedagogy and technology together (morgado et al., 2021; nuere & de miguel, 2021). nonetheless, various limitations are still imposed by the government of the republic of indonesia, and those of other countries (unicefindonesia, 2021), including the limitation in geographical constraints, technological infrastructure, people's access to appropriate communication technologies, etc. meanwhile, the pandemic, which is gradually changing into an endemic in indonesia (supanji, 2021), has changed lots of the conventional education system into a distance learning and education system better known as online learning. the learning emphasizes delivery processes through various communication and information technologies. the design of the learning system integrates content and technology in effective and efficient manners and is delivered asynchronously, synchronously, or both (akimov & malin, 2020; bhaumik & priyadarshini, 2020; bordoloi et al., 2021). due to the limited face-to-face meetings, a distance and online learning system require teachers and lecturers to create a virtual learning atmosphere to facilitate practical and efficient online learning (brinson, 2015; dalgarno et al., 2009; domínguez et al., 2018; estriegana et al., 2019; faour & ayoubi, 2018; viegas et al., 2018). distance learning requires students to meet the challenges of geographical constraints, such as remote and isolated areas. in contrast, online international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 19 issn 2721-2904 (online) learning challenges students to comprehend their information and communication technology literacies, including access to appropriate technological tools, in particular, laptop and smartphone. at the same time, in such limited conditions, due to the pandemic, students are required to be actively involved in online learning activities. they are challenged to skillfully use various digital and online technologies (atmojo et al., 2021; tamim et al., 2021; thompson, corrin, & lodge, 2021; wajdi et al., 2020) to support their access to the online learning process (clark & post, 2021; lópezmeneses et al., 2020; tamim et al., 2021; thompson, corrin, & lodge, 2021). constraints in online learning arise when a course must be delivered practically and conducted in a laboratory. implementing these practical learning and laboratory-based activities often fail, especially in covid-19 times, due to restricted access to laboratories and other facilities (koşar, 2021). we strongly understand why such practicum activities must be conducted in a laboratory or natural environment. a practical course is designed to provide students with realworld learning experiences that encourage a natural and active learning process (domínguez et al., 2018; potkonjak et al., 2016; tatli, 2012) to strengthen critical and creative thinking skills (firmansyah & suhandi, 2021; miguel-revilla et al., 2020; papanikolaou et al., 2017). this indicates a challenge that critical and creative learning skills can promote active learning in students. this learning constitutes necessarily skills that students create knowledge and understanding simultaneously throughout their learning (howard-jones, 2021). based on preliminary research, we found that universitas terbuka (ut), as an open and distance education university, has reconstructed face-to-face learning services to online delivery modes for the “praktikum ipa di sd” (translated: elementary science practicum—esp) during the covid-19 pandemic through microsoft teams (ut team 2020). however, several issues arose related to supervisory processes during the implementation. a supervisor had limited access to providing intensive or frequent directions (discussion) and issuing assessment results of the student's practical work. at the same time, the students also experienced problems performing the practicum independently and were uneasy writing (uploading) online reports through the platform. these constraints degraded the quality of course implementation. we assumed that the platform was not prepared for online practicum communication interactions. the ut elementary education study program has equipped its students with “kit praktikum ipa” (translated: basic science practicum kit) to facilitate the science practicum (faqih et al., 2015). a kit is a set of tools, instruments, and materials prepared for students to address all topics of the science practicum based on ut standard guidelines. several universities in indonesia developed the student science practicum kit, as exampled in figure 1, following their instructional design (faqih et al., 2015; listyalina et al., 2020). all materials required for the science practicum were included in the science practicum kit. however, in the case of ut, the accessibility to the kit for the students conducting practicum has been frequently limited. these limitations are often caused by the distance and time constraints between students and ut as kit providers. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 20 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) based on these preliminary research results, we strongly agree that innovation must be directed to facilitate students with open opportunities to conduct the science practicum independently and provide intensive communication and individual supervision from the lecturers (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). for this reason, we argue that a platform needs to be explicitly designed to facilitate and monitor students’ independent practicum activities. in addition, it must also help lecturers efficiently work on monitoring and evaluation processes. we believe that a virtual lab application or virlab application can be designed to meet such needs. as for the open and distance education system, their students’ domiciles are spread across various locations in indonesia. a new issue arose: equal access by all students to the kit science practicum. frequently, the practicum tools/instruments and materials have not been in good condition. some instruments or materials may physically be damaged on the way to the student’s location. the damaged condition may also be due to the frequent use by the students. as a result, for example, the students have limited access to ‘pulleys’ for the energy practicum in physics, feel unsafe working on ‘flies’ in the biology practicum, or do not have an ‘erlenmeyer flask’ to measure the volume of practicum materials in the chemistry practicum. thus, when students cannot access these instruments and materials, they cannot do the practicum. alternatively, these students only receive lectures about the practicum from their lecturer but do not do the actual practicum individually. above all, we argue that the virtual lab can become a platform that ensures intensive communication between lecturers acting as practicum supervisors and students according to the instructional principles and practical learning characteristics to facilitate virtual interactions, regardless of geographical and time constraints. with the above explanation regarding the virtual lab, the researcher believes that in addition to direct, sustained, and intensive communication, this virtual lab can facilitate the performance of the student practicums independently. in this case, the students are permitted and even challenged to creatively and innovatively look for alternative tools or instruments and materials available in their local environment to conduct their practicums after completely and critically understanding the objectives set in the science practicum standards. thus, the questions are as follows: what kind of practicum can provide students with creative, critical, and innovative challenges? how can these practicum activities be accommodated so that the students’ creative, critical, and innovative skills figure 1. an example of science is kit (listyalina et al., 2020). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 21 issn 2721-2904 (online) can be well nurtured? this study aims to find out whether such a practicum conducted through virtual labs with scalable practicum methods can increase the potential for creative, critical, and hence innovative learning skills. literature review scalable practicum kusmawan & handayani (2021) defines a scalable practicum (sp) or local-scale practicum as a practicum designed for students to independently perform practicum using tools or instruments, and materials existing in their surrounding environment. it provides students with the accessibility to independently apply the standard practicum prepared by ut. they can still conduct practicums without going to the laboratory under the direction of the supervisors in their local practicum areas. in the principle of procedural diversity, this circumstantial is conceived as decontextualized versus contextualized interventions of the science practicum (cofré et al., 2019; garcía-carmona & acevedo-díaz, 2018; kruse et al., 2021). students acquire real-world scientific skills through the sp practicum, such as creative, critical, and innovative skills (commager, 1992; owen, 2019). during preliminary research in 2021, based on testimonial statements from both the experts and students who actively participated in the study, we understand that the sp is appropriate for developing students’ practical competencies with accessibility limitations to the standard practicum (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). this promotes active learning in essence that the students must learn the calibrations skills of the instruments and materials for their practicum under guidance from their supervisors to ensure their clear understanding of the standard practicum procedures (davis et al., 2018; kusmawan & handayani, 2021; listyarini et al., 2019). the sp allows studentteachers (science practitioners) to conduct practicum programs independently using the tools and materials obtained from the surrounding environment (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). furthermore, kusmawan highlights that this practicum must be under the expertise of supervisors to validate the calibration processes (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). in several studies, sp programs have similar principles to the micro-scale practicum (mp) model. the mp experiments are conducted on a small scale using tools and materials with simplified sizes but with the same working procedures as those used in the laboratory experiments (listyarini et al., 2019; suchyadi & karmila, 2019). the similarity between sp and mp practicums lies in their aim to encourage students to practice and train themselves to become more alert to the real problems involved and build solutions from the natural, social, and cultural environment around them. the two practicums have a similar implementation principle: preparing students by skillfully converting standard scale references into a new scale for the newly validated practicum procedures. in another learning strategy, larsen has revised and expanded gregory bateson’s learning theory to demonstrate how scaffolding content and context occurred in computer games. larsen suggested that the presented revision rest on a micro-level analysis of how learning occurs in the computer game, demonstrating how scaffolding content and incremental construction of contexts work in and outside the computer games' realm (larsen, 2020). these two learning contexts of learning strategy lead us to understand that the students are encouraged to think creatively, critically, and innovatively. the students are invited to creatively find alternative tools and materials, critically develop new scales, and innovatively develop new practicum procedures under international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 22 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) the supervision of lecturers. meanwhile, the essential difference between the two lies in the notion of micro and scalable. the mp emphasizes simplifying the scale of tools and materials, while sp emphasizes the availability of tools and materials in the surrounding environment. the sp encourages students to develop critical, creative, and innovative thinking skills through their demands to respond to natural phenomena in education. critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what actions can be taken or what reality can be trusted (commager, 1992; firmansyah & suhandi, 2021; ocak & eğmir, 2016). owen (2019) & thompson et al. (2021) provide clues about the character of critical thinkers, including (1) understanding the relationship between logic and ideas; (2) identifying, constructing, and evaluating arguments; (3) solving problems systematically; (4) identifying the relevance and importance of ideas; and (5) sympathizing with the meaning and justification of values in a person. the accumulation of these characters can foster creative and innovative personalities. suchyadi & karmila (2019) state that creative thinkers are proficient in broad—and even out-of-the-ordinary—thinking. individuals who have these thoughts possess characteristics that often trigger the creation of innovation and are good at handling various situations, are optimistic, and always spread enthusiasm. as a result, their creative spirit is closely related to an innovative personality. they are enthusiastic about producing works/products that have never existed before or creating something completely new and inimitable. the virtual lab several experts generally define virtual labs as online practicum simulation activities (alexiou et al., 2004; dalgarno et al., 2009; domínguez et al., 2018; dyrberg et al., 2016; kfir, 2005; kusmawan, 2017; ligoxygakis, 2001; potkonjak et al., 2016). more specifically, purnamasari et al. (2021) explain that computers could be used to modify practicums and display complete practicums in virtual form, especially for abstract science concepts. it is in line with nurhayati and suryani (2021), who explained that conducting practical activities can not only be done in the laboratory but also in a virtual laboratory—a series of tools, materials, and laboratories in the form of computer software by a computer that can simulate activities in the laboratory as if the user were in a natural laboratory (kusumaningsih, y.r, iswahyudi, c., & susanti, 2014; wijayanto et al., 2018). however, in this study, the meaning of virtual lab is not limited to the concept of a simulative representation of scientific activities through computer application programs but also to direct, sustained, and interactive communication activities between lecturers and students conducted online. thus, the virtual lab concept in this study is defined as practicum activities that are managed online—either through simulation application activities or actual, independent practice by students in the field, who are guided directly through intensive communication in an application. as previously described, the second part of the virtual lab concept embodies the sp principle. as a result, this study characterizes the virtual lab in three functions. the first function is to provide access to simulation-based laboratories in various disciplines of the science practicum. the second function is to stimulate students to conduct experiments by arousing their curiosity to practice critical, creative, and innovative scientific actions to help them learn basic and advanced concepts. the third function is to provide a complete learning management system around the virtual labs where the students and lecturers can avail themselves of the various tools for learning, including additional web resources, video lectures, animated demonstrations, and self-evaluation international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 23 issn 2721-2904 (online) (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). given the third function, guillén-gámez et al. have concluded their research that the level of digital competence and the motivation to use ict were two variables that correlate positively and together will improve future learning skills (guillén-gámez et al., 2020). having the technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) learning method introduced by shulman in 1986 in koehler (2012), a virtual lab functioning as an sp can reinforce the development of technology-based student learning. an sp helps apply tpack principles in synergizing technology-based student learning activities with the learning content, which functions as a vehicle to improve critical, creative, and innovative thinking skills. a lecturer devises learning approaches to integrate technologies into content and pedagogy. the content is not the target for learning outcomes; instead, it triggers constructive interactions between students' learning process and their thinking process development through appropriate technology. furthermore, various technologies devise learning innovations to strengthen the efforts to achieve the students’ learning objectives. even though the current conditions have improved the integration of technologies into learning due to the covid-19 pandemic, practicum implementation is still experiencing some access barriers. ut manages an average of more than 300,000 students per semester from all provinces of indonesia, including remote and isolated areas (universitas terbuka, 2022). some other similar online universities are also serving a large number of students. with many students, including to student teachers, the universities have implemented some strategies for practicums, including in-class face-to-face, laboratory, and remote practiciums (mesci et al., 2020; wan et al., 2013). regarding the strategies, the experts explained that scientific experiments in certain subjects were conducted by students independently in virtual labs (qiang, zhe qiang, alejandro guillen obando, yuwei chen, 2020) in a remote laboratory in collaboration with partners (nesenbergs et al., 2021), and even in their homes with tutors’ guidance (davis et al., 2018). distance education institutions commonly provide students with printed and/or non-printed modules as teaching materials (martin et al., 2020). in addition, ut provides students with a science practicum at kit (ut mobile lab) for scientific experiments. as a result, a virtual lab is an essential application when the practicum allows students to conduct scientific experimentation independently. integrating various technologies into learning through the application can allow students and lecturers to interact actively and sustainably to build a proper and comprehensive understanding of the practicum. research method the research and development (r&d) study focused on virtual lab development was addressed under the research umbrella, entitled “penerapan model scalable practicum via virtual lab dalam meningkatkan kualitas bimbingan mahasiswa pada praktikum ipa sd” (translated: the implementation of virtual lab-based scalable practicum to improve the quality of student engagement in science practicums (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). universitas terbuka funded the research in compliance with the statement of research order no. 15974/un31.lppm/pt.01.03/2020, signed by the head of research ut institute on april 20, 2020. the design of the r&d research, which refers to (gall et al., 2007), is shown in figure 2. the research, which began in 2021, focused on developing a virtual lab-based scalable practicum model based on students’ local wisdom called “scalable practicum (sp),” where the virtual lab application international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 24 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) functions as a vehicle for student-teachers implementing the sp. the research population included students actively studying at the elementary school teacher education study program (read: pgsd) of universitas terbuka, indonesia. in a preliminary study in 2021, the quality of the sp itself model was assessed qualitatively using interviews with experts and student research participants. we invited the students participating in the sp to convey their testimonials about the sp model. apart from the literature reviews, the concept of the sp was discussed in depth in the focus group discussion (fgd) activities with lecturers (expert research participants) whose expertise was in elementary science practicums and the student-teachers (student research participants). the results of interviews, testimonials, and fgds related to the sp have been published in a digital book entitled “memahami scalable practicum” (translated to the understanding of scalable practicum and available at https://sl.ut.ac.id/scalablepracticum2021. meanwhile, the virtual lab application (virlab) was assessed quantitatively using a survey instrument to obtain information regarding the ease of use and usability of the application (ux survey). the survey was administered to students participating in the sp practicum and others who passed the science practicum course. the instrument was developed using a 10-point likert scale. the study developed a 21-item likert scale survey, as shown in table 1. in addition to the reliability and validity of the instrument, we conducted statistical processing using the scale measurement based on the evaluation results of the latest science practicum, develop a theoretical framework for a scalable practicum through literature review and focus group discussions. develop virtual lab apps ux analyses on virtual lab analyses on design and construct of scalable practicum students carry out scalable practicums referring to standard practicum while communicating with the tutor/lecturer through discussions and submitting reports of the practicum results through the virtual lab. some students underwent all the features of the virtual lab app, attempted to understand the instructions and contents of the standardized science practicums, and developed new practicum procedures while conducting the sp practicum. revise the virtual lab application figure 2. r&d design for implementing scalable practicum through virtual lab international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 25 issn 2721-2904 (online) testing of the spss to obtain information related to the categories of the respondents’ answers about web-based virtual lab quality. a total of 201 ut students registered in the elementary teacher education study program participated in the ux survey. table 1. instrumen survey ux virtual lab scale no. ux-` scale theme 1 front-site looks of the website 2 ease of understanding the content of the information available on the website 3 level of creativity of the website 4 information of content is easy to predict 5 the novelty of the information on the website 6 practically of illustrations and information on the website 7 level of complexity of searching for information on a website 8 the website is fun 9 the inventiveness of the technological concept on the website? 10 the website contains essential information to be known 11 level of security interacting on the website 12 the website brings up your motivation in improving digital and online skills. 13 the website meets your expectations 14 the website works efficiently in delivering information. 15 clarity of commands, appearance, and menus 16 comfort level during searching information on the website 17 the website increases motivation to do your practicum 18 responsiveness the website 19 information structured on the website 20 the website shares the usefulness of the information 21 you will recommend this virtual lab website to other students. findings and discussion explanation of the research results begins with elaborating on the results of scalable practicum (sp) implementation testing through testimonial data from student-teachers involved as practical students (student research participants). the testimonial results should give insights into the understanding of the virtual lab to improve the quality of student practicum. qualitative approach scalable practicum in the digital book at https://sl.ut.ac.id/scalablepracticum2021, all testimonies were expressed by the expert and student participants. during the focus group discussions at the preliminary study stage, the experts affirmed that the concept of the sp should improve the existing weaknesses of the elementary science course’s practicum. they agreed that the level of undergraduate learning outcomes for science education should be devoted to equipping students with learning competencies that encourage critical, creative, and innovative thinking skills. in the video testimonial recording presented in the digital book on page 21, one of the experts restated his exceptional understanding of the "scalable practicum," including the strengths and weaknesses of the concept in its effort to improve the quality of science learning through distance international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 26 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) and online systems. his positive view of the sp has allowed him a clear and even practical understanding of the sp. the following are testimonial statements regarding the concept and implementation of sp. quote #1; experts 1; page 21: scalable practicum concepts: “… praktikum scalable merupakan suatu model pembelajaran ipa dengan fokus praktikum ipa berdasarkan kekuatan lingkungan sekitar yang bertujuan untuk mendorong mahasiswa dalam melatih berfikir kreatif dan kritis…. dalam proses penyusunan scalable praktikum, mahasiswa mempelajari prosedur praktikum standar dari lembaga dan video pelaksanaan praktikum standar, selanjutnya mahasiswa mengembangkan sendiri penuntun scalable praktikum yang divalidasi oleh pembimbing praktikum dan membuat video pelaksanaan penuntun scalable praktikum tersebut… praktikum scalable juga sangat sesuai untuk siswa yang mempelajari program pendidikan non-sains. dengan kegaitan praktikum sp, sampai batas tertentu, mereka dilatih untuk secara kreatif dan kritis memahami makna praktikum bagi diri mereka sendiri” translated into: “… scalable practicum is a model of learning science focusing on science actions in the real word and the self-environment. it aims to encourage students to think creatively and critically while preparing for implementing the scalable practicum…. the students must first learn the standard practicum procedures from the institutions. then, the students think of the possibility of finding alternative instruments and materials for practicum and then develop new scalable procedures validated by their practicum supervisor, followed by making videos of the implementation of the scalable practicum… a scalable practicum is also appropriate for students studying non-natural science educational programs. to some extent, with the scalable practicum, they are trained to, and hence accustomed to being, creatively and critically understand the meaning of the practicum for themselves.” from the statements above, it appears that the experts can directly understand the concept of scalable practicum after they were directly involved as practicum supervisors in the sp practicum activities. it is because they immediately saw how the students underwent it. the experts emphasized that if clear standard procedures can be accessed anytime by the students and intensive guidance from practicum supervisors is available anytime, they will eventually be capable of building their creativity and criticality through their local-based practicum. these statements correspond with michael scriven in commager (1992: 159), suggesting that the ability to think critically can be seen from two aspects of ownership, namely 1) a set of skills that generate and process information and beliefs and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, to use these skills to guide behavior. we understand this situation as an excellent opportunity to further international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 27 issn 2721-2904 (online) implement scalable practicum concepts to improve student access to practicum without geographical and professional constraints. having completed guiding student practicums, the experts found that the sp was also suitable for other educational practical activities, including teaching practice and other social-content practical courses. this statement corresponds to alice laquinta in commager (1992: 116), suggesting that when students exhibit the attitude of creative thinking, they will be able to encourage others to think creatively. this similar attitude increases the self-esteem of others and themselves. they may apply these behaviors and attitudes in every area of their lives, including the classroom. we understand this situation as another opportunity to expand the sp practicum for non-science teacher students. from the student-teachers points of view, this study found that most of the students stated that the sp met their need for better access to practicums by utilizing materials available in their surroundings. they also admitted that they received intensive and prolonged communication with the supervisor through the virtual lab during their practicum. below is the quotation from one of the student sp-participant testimonies. quote #1; experts 1; page 23: “…jika praktikum sp dilakukan sendiri menurut saya sangat menarik dan menantang untuk siswa, karena siswa akan menemukan percobaan yang bisa dilakukan dengan alat dan bahan yang sederhana…” translated into: “…if the sp practicum is done individually, i think it is exciting and challenging for us as students because we will find experiments that can be done with simple tools and materials.…” it is apparent from the student statements that the sp should be simple and easy to implement by the student as instruments and materials are reachable from their local environment. in general, likewise, the students stated that the sp made it easier for them to practice science despite the covid-19 pandemic. besides, they live in a small area far from the city, where face-toface science practicum activities are usually managed. with the sp, the students do not need to leave their residences to do a practicum. the reason for stating their convenience for the students participating in the sp is related to their conditions as active teaching teachers. leaving to perform their practicum out of town means leaving their duty to teach students at the school where they were teaching. in addition, some students said that the sp did not make it difficult for them to develop reports. they emphasized that they gradually filled out the practicum report and submitted it through the virtual lab application while conducting the sp. in addition to reducing the cost of photocopying and spending money on administrative matters, they also felt that they had benefited from the practicum because the data were well managed and directly reported via the application, which immediately received responses from the lecturer (supervisor). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 28 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) connections between scalable practicum and virtual lab science is a subject that naturally requires laboratory activities. in an educational context, hands-on and experimental actions in the laboratory require guidance from supervisors in order for students to acquire comprehensive knowledge and science through inquiry and discovery learning (copriady, 2014). the laboratory activities facilitate the students to experience experimental activities to link their conceptual understanding with their abstractive thinking skills so that meaningful and long-term memory will be cultivated (demı̇rcıȯğlu & yadigaroğlu, 2011; tüysüz, 2010). even though a virtual lab cannot replace a conventional laboratory, students' interactiveness with practicums can be represented in this digital era. the virtual lab is considered a learning medium that can provide direct experimental visualization, an interactive virtual environment, and simulative-practical experimentation (tatli, z., & ayas, 2013; zare bidaki, 2018). a virtual lab allows the students to work independently and collaboratively online regardless of the school laboratories, chemicals, and equipment available (herga et al., 2016; widowati et al., 2017). as a result, meaningful learning requires real-world experiences. therefore, a virtual lab as an educational strategy offers a conducive environment for teaching and learning which further gives room for students to learn at their own pace (commager, 1992; kirikcilar & yildiz, 2019; ndukwe & daniel, 2020; rohim, 2020). the literature-based discussions above mostly deal with campus-based practicum activities. in this case, a virtual lab is defined as an alternative to physical laboratory activities. most of the analysis results have represented the issues of this study, except for the context of distance education. it requires a unique challenge in that the students face difficulty in access to working in the physical laboratory and lack of opportunity and time to work on the practicum itself due to time and geographical constraints. this study is oriented toward the population of academic services for ut students domiciled spread out in about 6000 islands in indonesia, where some are isolated and remote. with such unique issues, then this study promotes the scalable practicum. in addition to providing alternative access to a physical laboratory through digital and online technologies, this study promotes a virtual lab for students to reach standardized academic competencies of the practical courses. as a result, as explained earlier, the scalable practicum or local-scale practicum is promoted as a practicum designed for students to independently perform practicum using tools or instruments and materials existing in their surrounding environment. the virtual lab in this study functions as an interactive communication medium for scalable practicum programs carried out by students from various regions, regardless of professional and geographical constraints (kusmawan & handayani, 2021). the following discussion deals with the quantitative analysis results regarding the virtual lab. quantitative approach virtual lab: validity and reliability of the ux instrument the validity of the survey instrument was tested using pearson’s product-moment statistics, and reliability was tested using cronbach’s α (glen, 2022; raharjo, 2021; research, 2018). the pearson product-moment correlation validity test uses the principle of correlating each item score international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 29 issn 2721-2904 (online) with the total score obtained from all the respondents through spss v. 25 (raharjo, 2021). the data processing results are presented in tables 2 and 3. table 2 shows that 100% of the data (n = 201) are valid. the results of instrument reliability using cronbach’s α show a score of 0.948 (table 3). this score indicates a high level of internal consistency for the ux scale instrument with 201 respondents (glen, 2022). in addition, based on the items-total correlation, the data show that all statistical scores are higher than r-table (0.138, df = 199; table 4); these data indicate a high level of validity for each survey item used in this study. this indication is supported by a high score for the statistical data “cronbach’s alpha if item deleted,” indicating that overall, the survey results show a high-reliability coefficient. table 2. case processing summary table 3. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items 0.948 21 table 4. items-total statistics no. of ux statements scale mean if item deleted scale variance if item deleted correlation values of item score with total score** corrected item-total correlation cronbach's alpha if item deleted r-tabel* n=201 (df=199) 1. 309.5771 1473.185 .447** 0.414 0.752 0.139 2. 310.0846 1453.958 .667** 0.642 0.748 0.139 3. 310.1095 1432.848 .768** 0.747 0.743 0.139 4. 310.0846 1447.278 .706** 0.685 0.746 0.139 5. 309.3532 1460.270 .676** 0.667 0.749 0.139 6. 310.0100 1422.510 .742** 0.729 0.742 0.139 7. 309.6169 1434.528 .709** 0.691 0.744 0.139 8. 309.6468 1426.400 .854** 0.842 0.742 0.139 9. 309.2736 1445.440 .695** 0.675 0.746 0.139 10. 309.6667 1431.693 .870** 0.863 0.743 0.139 11. 309.6617 1431.415 .873** 0.866 0.743 0.139 12. 309.4328 1426.977 .738** 0.717 0.743 0.139 13. 309.4279 1454.546 .621** 0.594 0.748 0.139 14. 309.4677 1456.630 .676** 0.657 0.748 0.139 15. 309.7214 1437.762 .817** 0.806 0.744 0.139 16. 309.8507 1446.428 .781** 0.771 0.746 0.139 17. 309.7910 1450.706 .737** 0.728 0.747 0.139 18. 309.2139 1446.649 .682** 0.665 0.746 0.139 19. 309.4378 1437.057 .750** 0.732 0.744 0.139 cases n % valid 201 100.0 excluded 0 0.0 total 201 100.0 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 30 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) no. of ux statements scale mean if item deleted scale variance if item deleted correlation values of item score with total score** corrected item-total correlation cronbach's alpha if item deleted r-tabel* n=201 (df=199) 20. 309.3184 1476.068 .423** 0.422 0.752 0.139 21. 309.3184 1476.068 .423** 0.422 0.752 0.139 note: *: significance level of 0.05% **: taken from inter-item correlation matrix results (source: https://sl.ut.ac.id/virlab-publishdata-2022) virtual lab: students’ view on the virtual lab application the further investigation aimed to obtain information from user applications regarding the level of user-friendliness and usability of the virtual lab application (virlab), which can be reached at https://virlab.ut.ac.id/. in simplifying the analysis, the study recategorized the 10-point likert scale of the ux instrument into a 5-point scale ranging from “very bad” to “excellent.” furthermore, this study paired the respondents’ answers into five categories after first calculating the interval range. the formula for calculating the interval range was 100:5 (interval), and the interval range obtained was 20 (hidayat, 2021). table 5 presents the respondents’ ux category data intervals. the total score of their answers for each survey item was converted into a percentage by dividing the total score of each survey item by the maximum score of the respondents’ answers; thus, the total score of the respondents was 201×5 = 1005. the percentage calculation results of each survey item are presented in table 6. figure 3. front-side of the virlab application international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan │ 31 issn 2721-2904 (online) table 5. data interval on student respondents. interval category % interval limits bottom top very poor 0 19.99% poor 20.00% 39.99% acceptable 40.00% 59.99% good 60.00% 79.99% excellent 80.00% 100% (i = 20; n = 201; skor total = 1005) based on tables 5 and 6, it is apparent that the respondents agreed that the virlab was “good” based on the aspects represented by items 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 16, 17, and 18 and “excellent” based on the rest of the survey aspects of the virlab’s quality. these results indicate that the virlab application is ready for further improvement in the larger population to gain more general views regarding its quality. a higher level of user appreciation for virlab is essential because it involves user satisfaction while interacting with all the information on the application. the main goal of any application is to be easy to use and efficient when users interact with it (cooper, james m., 1971; ed-era., 2021; islam et al., 2017). table 6. category of students’ response on the virtual lab apps no. of ux state ments very poor poor acceptable good excellent total % total category 1. 3 4 66 508 235 816 81.19% excellent 2. 1 8 78 472 260 819 81.49% excellent 3. 1 10 135 556 55 757 75.32% good 4. 5 8 120 556 65 754 75.02% good 5. 3 8 100 523 154 787 78.26% good 6. 0 4 42 536 255 837 83.28% excellent 7. 6 14 84 556 105 765 76.12% good 8. 4 8 69 488 240 809 80.50% excellent 9. 2 10 45 528 235 820 81.59% excellent 10. 3 9 60 527 209 808 80.37% excellent 11. 1 10 60 616 105 792 78.81% good 12. 1 10 60 616 105 792 78.81% good 13. 4 8 42 544 215 813 80.90% excellent 14. 1 4 66 532 215 818 81.39% excellent 15. 2 4 27 628 155 816 81.19% excellent 16. 3 8 60 640 70 781 77.71% good 17. 1 10 66 640 65 782 77.81% good international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 18-38 a virtual lab as a vehicle for active learning through distance education udan kusmawan 32 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) no. of ux state ments very poor poor acceptable good excellent total % total category 18. 1 2 75 616 100 794 79.00% good 19. 1 6 45 432 370 854 84.98% excellent 20. 1 6 69 552 180 808 80.40% excellent 21. 1 6 33 528 270 838 83.38% excellent conclusion firstly, as described in this paper, science learning requires actual activities in the environment, laboratory, or both. this fundamental principle becomes an issue in open and distance universities such as ut, where student domiciles are distributed in various geographical areas in indonesia. in addition, the teachers studying at ut were active teaching teachers. professionally, they are obliged to fulfill their professional obligations as a teacher. therefore, these student-teachers have very limited time to leave some of their teaching schedules with their students. in this case, providing massive student services can be assisted by virtual services, such as the virtual lab, which allows individual services to be provided equally and fairly to all students, both in urban areas and in remote and geographically isolated areas. all sp research participants agree that science practicum activities facilitated by the virtual lab significantly encourage the effectiveness and efficiency of learning and teaching programs. secondly, the research has successfully built a virtual lab application that accommodates an individual practicum’s management system. this application is also designed to consistently maintain the nature of the science practicum as a real-world activity. as for the scalable practicum, a supervisor controls and validates the quality of the student calibration processes of all practicum tools, instruments, and materials. based on the statistical analysis results, it is evident that the virtual lab application has an excellent level of user-friendliness and usability. limitation & further research for further improvement, this study recommends further research with a broader range of respondents to get a more thorough level of trust from potential users when using virtual lab applications. in addition to a broader range of respondents, further research should be carried out involving several study programs at the universitas terbuka so that variations in issues caused by 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(2018). pentingnya pengembangan geography virtual laboratory (geo v-lab) sebagai media pembelajaran litosfer. jurnal pendidikan (teori dan praktik), 3(2), 119. https://doi.org/10.26740/jp.v3n2.p119-125 zare bidaki, m. (2018). application of virtual reality simulators and virtual labs in medical education. interdisciplinary journal of virtual learning in medical sciences, 9(1), 2173–2175. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijvlms.66284 microsoft word 457-article text-2225-1-10-20210529.docx doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse. v3i1.457 research synergy foundation available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 1 (2021): 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana1 1 medical faculty of udayana university, indonesia abstract the covid-19 pandemic brings many psychological and physical changes. in coping with the covid-19 pandemic, breathing exercise meditation is useful to calm the mind and body. breathing exercise practice can change the brain, especially amygdala. this paper aims to give insight about amygdala changes through breathing exercise meditation in coping with the covid-19 pandemic. this paper is a literature review. literature was identified from the archives from pubmed, scopus, and elsevier. the inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed paper. keywords were amygdala, breathing, covid-19, meditation, mindfulness. results: breathing exercise meditation and mindfulness practice can increase our awareness and reflections. in the long term, there will be changes in brain structure such as the amygdala. conclusion: this paper is useful for psychology health knowledge. patients, individuals, psychologists, physiotherapists, and psychiatrists can apply breathing exercise meditation and mindfulness methods for relaxing to prevent bad brain changes during the covid-19 pandemic. keywords: amygdala, breathing, covid-19, meditation, mindfulness introduction this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. on december 31, 2019, there were some pneumonia cases with unknown origin in wuhan, hubei. wuhan is located in the central-eastern of china. it was found that a new coronavirus (sars-cov-2) as the etiology. when this virus attacked humans, it can develop a severe pneumonia. the fatality rate was high for the elderly and patients with comorbid diseases. the disease is called as the coronavirus disease 2019. it is commonly called as the covid-19 (de giorgio, 2020). at first, the covid-19 was thought of as a common respiratory infection. the symptoms were fever and cough. however, the symptoms became more severe such as respiratory distress, anosmia, cognitive dysfunction, defect of neuro-axonal integrity, brain, liver, heart, and kidney. at the later stage, there was cytokine storm (dysfunction of the immune system), thrombosis of multi-organ systems, and stroke withneurological deficits (brann et al., 2020). italy and many other countries in the world were attacked by the covid-19 also. the covid-19 became pandemic in march 2020 as stated by the world health organization (who). until this paper was written, institutions and individuals are still struggling with the covid-19 pandemic and all of its implications (de giorgio, 2020). the covid-19 pandemic had many significant threats and impacts on our psychological life (hagerty & williams, 2020). all of the humans in the world have opportunities to see this pandemic from many different points of view. people can use this special time to observe in detail what is going on. how we react as an individual is dependent on our characteristics and vulnerability. our reaction is affected by our thinking. emotions in coping with the covid-19 can be various. they are fear, sad, frightened, anxious, restlessness, and uncertainty. the uncertain feeling is towards the government, the health care system, and the duration of the existing pandemic. quarantine, corresponding author lee.yuliana@gmail.com international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana | 8 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) lockdown, confinement, any mitigation forms, and social distancing will make anxiety and fear worsened (de giorgio, 2020). social mitigation during the covid-19 pandemic will give a big threat to physical human connection, individual mental health, motivation, and brain profile in general (hagerty & williams, 2020). social isolation during the covid-19 pandemic had a tremendous impact on our daily life satisfaction. going through distress and crisis need social support and group communities. social isolation has a threat to survival. social distancing can cause loneliness. loneliness will make a psychological downward cycle, depress the immune systems, and cognitive function. in the severe form, it increases suicide rates. decreasing social interaction will reduce memory performance and brain connectivity functions. people who have some social groups are less likely to develop depression. social groups can be sports, religious, hobby, or charity groups. social interactions increase the natural killer cell and endorphin systems. meanwhile, there will be lower levels of blood pressure, body mass index, and c-reactive protein. on the other side, social isolation changes the prefrontal cortex function (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). loneliness will cause underexpression of antiinflammatory-genes and overexpression of pro-inflammatory immune responses. limited social stimulation is related to loneliness. in loneliness, there will be decreasing in the information processing (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). the ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, also striatal nucleus accumbens have a special role in social stimulation. the amygdala and hippocampus size are greater in people with larger social networks. they showed growth trajectories. the closer relation yields a more reactive amygdala. the amygdala lesion will diminish the sense of suitable private space with other people. the grey matter of the amygdala, the lower fiber tract integrity, the grey and white matter tissue has a smaller volume in social phobia. social isolation lowers gene expression in the amygdala. the amygdala triggers the emotional reaction and regulates private physical distance (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). social isolation and distancing have big impacts on the public. there will be changes in neurobiological architecture and functional brain. antisocial behavior will develop. when social isolation happens on a large scale, there will disturb community stability and social cohesion. loneliness for a long time may predispose to neurodegenerative diseases like alzheimer’s disease in the elderly. a longitudinal study of 332 adults showed there was improved empathy after being given regular training of cognitive skills. the improvement was in affective state and perspective taking. in this condition, the results revealed structural remodeling in the brain region, especially in the social brain network. the brain network involved is the frontoinsular network. when the training was given every day, there was thickening of the right anterior and middle of the insula. compassion ratings were increased significantly. joining the social club, singing (choirs), community, and hobby group was known to have an immediate effect on sense of the social engagement. video conference in digital communication is very important to increase the social bonding between family and friends. although they are in virtual space, the bonding is good. the visual component in video conference has an essential role in increasing social interaction (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). all people have their specific backgrounds. however, the experiences and feelings with the covid-19 pandemic are very unique. the affected feelings might last for a long time and become maladaptive after the covid-19 pandemic subsided. pain, loss, grief, anxiety, and stress are all the feelings during the covid-19 pandemic. a feeling has an emotional and neurobiological cascade. the cascade will let our body ready to respond and do an adaptation. stress and fear will reduce brain function, mood regulation, decision making, and cognitive performance (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). on the other side, positive emotion increases creativity (spitzer, 2020). in the end, long term of negative feeling will change autonomic, endocrine, and immune system function in systemic physiology. immune suppression, heart disease, and obesity will increase the risk for depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and addiction (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana 9 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) women tend to have an increased prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) compared to men. there are sex differences of learned fear inhibition and medial prefrontal cortex function. medial prefrontal cortex dysfunction can cause post-traumatic stress disorder. fear generalization promotes defense mechanism in predicting the possible upcoming threat. expressing fear excessively to insignificant stimuli can increase the possibility to develop post traumatic stress disorder in the long term. any disturbance in the inhibition of learned fear is the predisposition of post-traumatic stress disorder (day et al., 2020). based on maslow’s hierarchy, there is a hierarchy of psychological needs and self actualization. there are five levels of human needs according to maslow’s hierarchy. the first level is physiological needs, including air and food. the second level is safety and comfort. the third level is love and possession. it includes emotional love with other people. the fourth level consists of evaluation and respect. the fifth level is self-actualization. during the covid-19 pandemic, those five levels may be disrupted based on individual conditions. when the disruption is great, mental health will be burdened. the most often impact from the covid-19 pandemic is human (social) connection. it includes in the third level of maslow’s hierarchy, i.e. love and belonging (possession). the physical isolation and social distancing are unsuitable with our basic needs as social beings (hagerty & williams, 2020). sun et al. studied 2091 adult individuals in one month after the covid-19 outbreak in wuhan. they found the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder cases of the public in mainland china was 4.6% (sun et al., 2020). liu et al. did a similar study of 285 respondents. they got a prevalence of 7% for post-traumatic stress disorders (liu et al., 2020). women and insomnia patients have a higher prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorders (sun et al., 2020). post-traumatic stress disorders have a great impact on brain structure. there are changes in the fronto-limbic network. this will reduce emotion regulation. the volume of the hippocampus will decrease. reactivity of the amygdala will higher (guessoum et al., 2020). the brain structures that correspond to our emotions are very complicated. the structures involved in fear and anxiety are the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, hippocampus, and insular cortex. these structures undergo plasticity changes (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). the fear is useful to protect human beings from dangerous situations. when we feel fear, we disrupt the circadian system. we can try to make some ways to save ourselves from dangerous conditions. sometimes the danger hasn’t come, but the fear and anxious feeling are needed to make people prepare for the future. remember possible dangerous event might predispose our brain to some changes. amygdala mediates fear and other emotions for learning and behavior. fear is related to anxiety, panic, and substance disorders. the frontal brain area also controlled anxiety, panic, and fear. frontal brain areas can minimize the emotional activation of other brain areas. decision making has better result when anxiety is disappeared (de giorgio, 2020). the covid-19 pandemic might have a catalyst role that exacerbates human connection deficits via various brain styles and pathways. these changes have profound effects on mental health consequences. there are three brain styles, i.e. “rumination” brain style, “anhedonia” brain style, and “threat dysregulation” brain style (hagerty & williams, 2020). “rumination” brain style is often related to depression. it is repetitive distress as the source of the disorder. there is overwhelming brain connectivity regarding inner concerns and worries about the next moment in life. meanwhile, it is too little connectivity for self-sensation. these unusual worries and concerns will affect how people see themselves. in the long term, the condition affects the relationship with others. dependency, neediness, and aggressive behavior are negative characters of the “rumination” brain style. they tend to have less support from others due to social friction. “rumination” brain style could exacerbate during the covid-19 pandemic. thus, the perceived threat might distort physical health (hagerty & williams, 2020). “anhedonia” brain style is a lack of happiness from doing activities. it is not grateful for the brain’s reward network. in anhedonia patients, there is less activation of the striatum. the reward system is under-activated. there is a dysfunctional reinforcement. people with anhedonia brain international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana | 10 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) style tend to ignore rewards in social relationships. right now, the covid-19 pandemic is the trigger of anhedonia in vulnerable personality people. it is also known as blunted anticipatory characteristic. the motivation will be decreased. anhedonia individual has a high risk of social withdrawal (hagerty & williams, 2020). individuals with “threat dysregulation” brain style tends to have a bias in interpreting stimuli threat in their life. this is due to increased reactivity within the brain. attentional bias is one of the symptoms of hyperactivation of the amygdala. there is less activity in the anterior cingulate and cortex. social withdrawal and disconnection are reported in “threat dysregulation” brain-style individuals. during the covid-19 pandemic, internal stimuli threats are our body signs and symptoms of any illness. meanwhile, external stimuli threats are possible transmission from infected people and contaminated objects (hagerty & williams, 2020). the sympathetic activity has a higher level of adrenocortical release during this covid-19 pandemic. there will be muscle vasoconstriction. peripheral vascular resistance will be greater. palpitation, tachycardia, and feelings of warmth and cold can cause overloading systems in the body. due to this condition, sleep disturbance happens. it is similar to post-traumatic stress syndrome (zhang et al., 2020). anxiety involves the reactions of the central nervous system, the prefrontal cortex, the motor region of the brainstem, the limbic and paralimbic structures. the paralimbic structures are the insula, amygdala, and the anterior cingulate gyrus. in normal conditions, the prefrontal cortex region is responsible for behavior, thought, and emotional regulation. it also inhibits unsuitable motor responses. in a stressful situation, the amygdala impairs the prefrontal cortex system. the amygdala activates the hypothalamus and brainstem pathway (zhang et al., 2020). the amygdala is critical in the processing of emotions. it is sensitized by acute stress. acute stress will cause anxiety (herrmann et al., 2020). however, the change of the amygdala is dynamic. we can reduce the size of the amygdala by practicing mindfulness. it will reduce anxiety and depression. this practice is important for professionals, health workers, and populations as general. the reaction can be balanced. understanding will be better when coping with the covid 19 pandemic situation. this practice can make the reactive amygdala smaller. positive emotion contagion is sharing positive thoughts to deliver positive emotion to other people (de giorgio, 2020). emotions connect the brain and body. emotions regulate what we perceive (carlson, 2020) when information about the covid-19 pandemic overwhelmed our minds, our brain is difficult to proceed with that complicated information. our brain tends to create its logical thinking to protect from fear and insecure feeling. this is a kind of defense mechanism. the mechanism might cause stereotypes. in this condition, people are easily influenced by hoax or fake information on social media. vicious cycles about negative news can bombard our minds severely. the immune system will be down (de giorgio, 2020). social media has a double-edged sword. it can give virtual friendship, new information, and insight. however, on the other side, social media may bring hoax, social comparison, and unreal information. increasing browsing time in social media and repeating message checking will increase levels of anxiety, fear, and psychological distress. the distress caused sleep disturbance (keles et al., 2020). fear is a response to the upcoming threats. it is an adaptive response to fight for danger (mertens et al., 2020). it helps in forming a suitable defense mechanism. the option can be fight or flight based on the signal. fear is also a form of learning to anticipate a new situation. the amygdala is an important regulator of fear. there are special circuits in the basolateral part of the amygdala. it mediates fear learning and associated conditioned response. there is linking synaptic plasticity in the basolateral amygdala related to fear in the learning process (sah et al., 2020). when the dangerous situation is uncertain and continuous such as during the covid-19 pandemic, fear can turn into a maladaptive chronic burden. the manifestations can be the social phobia, xenophobia, and panic buying (mertens et al., 2020). it is crucial to investigate the reason for fear during the covid-19 pandemic. merten et al. identified the reasons for fear during the covid-19 pandemic. from the online survey of 439 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana 11 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) respondents, the fear was evaluated by a special questionnaire. the fear of the coronavirus questionnaire consisted of eight questions. the questions were eight questions about subjective worry, safety behavior, risk control, the risk for loved ones, and an open ended-question (mertens et al., 2020). taylor et al. (2020) made the 36-item scale for the covid-19 pandemic assessment. it was called the covid stress scale (css). it consisted of five stress and anxiety-related factors in the united states and canada. the factors were danger and contamination, fear about financial problems, xenophobia due to the covid-19, repeated browsing, and traumatic symptoms (nightmare). xenophobia during the covid-19 pandemic means fear of foreigners that may transmit the infection (s. taylor et al., 2020). lee et al. did a survey of 398 adult workers in the us. they used the coronavirus anxiety scale (cas) using an online survey. it was revealed that there was solid discrimination ability in functional impairment. this online survey tool is valid and practical in screening fear and anxiety related to coronavirus. the score of the survey was related to negative psychological emotion and wrong coping during the covid-19 pandemic. the negative reactions about the covid-19 were fear, alcohol use, negative religious practices, hopelessness, and suicidal idea. there was a different cas score based on different sociodemographic and background (lee et al., 2020). there was a survey study of 120 medical staff who were fighting against covid-19. the scores were high for somatization, anxiety, depression, and terror. the sleep quality was poor. severe insomnia was 26.67%. maintaining a good sleep quality can stimulate the body to have the physical strength and a strong mental health state (wu & wei, 2020). coping with the covid-19 pandemic means to anticipate the potential threat. when the coping mechanism is activated, fear will be lower. fear can fluctuate. it is a subjective concern. fear and anxiety can shape behavior (schimmenti et al., 2020). reassurance, browsing appropriate news, identify emotional reactions, maintain social contacts, and stress-reducing activities are coping strategies (wang et al., 2020). corona phobia is a phobia to anything connected to coronavirus. corona phobia may drive people to the hospital as soon as possible although they only catch a common cold or mild respiratory tract infection (asmundson & taylor, 2020; de giorgio, 2020). it is an emotional feeling that causes stress. longer-term of corona phobia might be accompanied by cyberchondria. cyberchondria is a repeated internet browsing for medical information due to worries about the physical health condition. cyberchondria is related to anxiety. increasing anxiety will lead to cyberchondria. irrational belief system makes cyberchondria and corona phobia worsened. therefore, browsing about coronavirus news should be balanced. we must browse positive and negative news about coronavirus equally. the more positive news is the better for our brain and mind (de giorgio, 2020). meditation and mindfulness can improve sleeping for health workers, patients, and individuals in general. there is a specific method like mindfulness-based stress reduction. this system can improve anxiety and depression. in the long term, meditation and mindfulness practice can change the structural and functional of the brain. meditation is a low cost. it can be done anywhere by everyone without any restrictions (behan, 2020). mindfulness and meditation can lower physiologic stress markers, depression, and anxiety (w. d. taylor & blackford, 2020). methodology this paper is a literature review. literature was identified from the archives from pubmed, scopus, and elsevier. the inclusion criteria where the literature should be peer-reviewed and related to the topic of the paper. keywords were amygdala, breathing, covid-19, meditation, mindfulness. after careful screening based on title, abstract, and full text, there were 26 journals. from all of them, two journals from pubmed, 23 from scopus (17 journals are q1, 5 journals were q2, one journal was q3), and one from elsevier. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana | 12 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) journal selection was based on the journal contribution, looking for comparison and contrast among the journals, then giving synthesize and summary as the last step. finally, the selected journals were put into a comprehensive narrative review. discussions in facing the covid-19 pandemic situation, adaptation is a must. every people have different problems and struggles. coping and adaptation must be done every second. patients with psychiatric disorders previously might feel depressed and overwhelmed. children have to stay at home during online learning. parents mostly must work from home. finally, a house is a space for doing everything. in this restricted space, pressures may come from house members (behan, 2020). the financial burden and job losses during the covid-19 pandemic make the situation more difficult (behan, 2020; hagerty & williams, 2020). parents have to struggle for financial stability. children have to remain at home during the covid-19 pandemic. domestic violence would happen if the parents’ mind is not well controlled. meditation and mindfulness give hope in calming complicated minds during this hard time (behan, 2020). fear has three phases, i.e., acquisition, storage, and retrieval. acquisitions are sensory input and conditioning. storage is the forming of memory. retrieval is the initiation of a defense mechanism (sah et al., 2020). schimmenti et al. (2020) analyzed four reasons for fear. the reasons are fear of the body, fear of anything happens to other people with interpersonal relationships, fear of not knowing anything, and fear of not taking the right action. fear is related to idiosyncrasies. the most common anxiety and fear during the covid-19 pandemic is health anxiety. fear about infecting our loved ones is a bad feeling of all. uncertainty with the current pandemic condition will increase fear and anxiety. hypervigilant about any changes in the body will induce fear and anxiety. any unusual feeling about the body is not permanent. fear about knowing something can lead to inaction due to afraid of risk taking-behavior (schimmenti et al., 2020). the stress response is arranged by the autonomic nervous system (ans) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (hpa) axis. this axis is important in stress neurobiology. it has a critical role in social isolation (bzdok & dunbar, 2020). the hypothalamus and brainstem are the most important brain regions in stress responses. the corticotropin-releasing factor is released at a higher level. changes in neuroanatomy and neuroendocrine during the stress condition can make the immune systems weak. the inflammatory factors, such as tumor necrosis factor-a (tnf-a), interleukin (il)-1b, il-6, and interferon-g will be higher. this will increase the risk of autoimmune or inflammatory diseases (wu & wei, 2020). noradrenaline is increased during the stress period. this will sensitize the amygdala (herrmann et al., 2020). the amygdala is sensitized by acute stress. the specificity of the amygdala will diminish; thus, it becomes more difficult to differentiate between stimuli. in adverse circumstances, the acknowledgment of every potential risk may be beneficial. the basolateral amygdala complex, the insula, the prefrontal cortex, and the anterior cingulate cortex mediate stress and emotional effects on memory consolidation. memory consolidation of the covid-19 pandemic could lead to fearful memories. fear in long term can cause anxiety disorder. finally, there will be increasing spine numbers in the amygdala to add connectivity of synapses. decreasing stress will change the morphological pattern of the amygdala. reducing stress will also decrease the grey matter. the left amygdala was more activated during a fearful situation. it means there are lateralization effects of the amygdala when there is any stressor. the left amygdala has more frequent activation compared to the right one in trauma conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorders (herrmann et al., 2020). the amygdala is a region in the middle of the temporal pole, associated with fear learning mediation. the amygdala is the emotional center of the brain. the amygdala is made of a group of nuclei. it receives input from the cortex and sub-cortex parts of the brain. there is a lot of internuclear activity in the amygdala, especially in the basolateral amygdala and central amygdala. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana 13 | issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) the basolateral amygdala forms the main input, meanwhile, the output structure is formed by the central amygdala. information is kept in the basolateral amygdala. this action will result in a memory trace. projection from the basolateral amygdala to the central amygdala arises a defensive mechanism (sah et al., 2020). the basolateral amygdala is in the middle of the temporal pole. it consists of the lateral and basal nuclei. the lateral part is at the dorsal side of the basal nuclei. the lateral nuclei are divided into dorsolateral, ventrolateral, and ventromedial nuclei. meanwhile, the basal nuclei are formed by the basolateral nucleus and the basomedial nuclei (accessory basal nuclei). their divisions have distinct cytoarchitectonic and connection. the basolateral nucleus consists of the rostral magnocellular, caudal intermediate, and parvicellular subdivisions. the accessory basal nuclei have magnocellular subdivision and mediocaudal parvicellular subdivision (sah et al., 2020). when people feel that the danger is incoming, there will be several internal psychological responses. the responses include emotional, behavior, and thinking changes. fear, anxiety, grief, depression will happen. physiological reactions may vary, i.e. pain, palpitation, chest tightness, and fatigue. doing physical and mental exercise can overcome post-traumatic stress disorder (wu & wei, 2020). strengthening psychological health can be done in many ways. those ways are increasing appraisal of the body, secure attachment, regulation of emotion, acceptance, thinking positive things, and responsibility. appraisal of the body means to evaluate the body condition honestly without any subjectivity. improving posture, doing physical, and mental exercise (mindfulness practice) can reduce fear and increase safety. acceptance is flexible, receptive, and open to any experience. meditation and mindfulness stimulate acceptance and self-compassion (schimmenti et al., 2020). mild pain, mental problems, and somatic conditions can be relieved by meditation and mindfulness. however, these heterogeneous conditions are difficult to be researched in a systematic system. mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction are formal meditation practices. the practices consist of eight-week programs for two hours duration each week. mindfulness-based stress reduction was developed by john kabat-zinn in the 1970s. mindfulness-based cognitive therapy is more general. it is focused on a combination of cognitive and mindfulness methods (behan, 2020). meditation is different from mindfulness. meditation is intended to calm the mind and increase awareness of ourselves, the environment, and our minds. meditation has been used as a routine practice to calm the mind all over the world by different cultural backgrounds. moreover, meditation is used as one of the therapy methods for psychological problems. mindfulness is being aware of every second of the present situation. meditation practice includes mindfulness of breathing (especially diaphragmatic breathing), walking meditation, the compassion of love, mantra, or other simple repeated activities (behan, 2020). emotion can be decoded from the body posture (spitzer, 2020). that’s why any mindfulness and meditation practice by using the body gesture (breathing, walking, or others) may stimulate positive feelings (behan, 2020). breathing in meditation practice is done by inhaling deeply to expand the lungs downward. the inhaling process is by the nose, then do a pause before exhaling slowly by the mouth. counting is done while breathing slowly. it is important to maintain the respiratory rate between six to eight breaths per minute. inhale is 5 second’s count. exhale is also 5 second’s count. there is a pause between inhale and exhale. ten-minutes sessions of diaphragmatic breathing can reduce stress, blood pressure, and cortisol level in the saliva in a preliminary experimental study. even 30 to 60 seconds of deep breathing before doing any stressful activities can make big difference in the level of perceived pressure. this practice of breathing is useful as a prevention tool. when the stress, fear, and anxiety are too heavy, medical attention such as a psychologist or psychiatrist should be contacted (hopper et al., 2019). mindfulness can be implemented while doing simple daily activities such as waiting for a red light in the traffic, washing hands, or using hand sanitizer. mindfulness is a wellness self-check international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (1), 07-16 amygdala changes through breathing exercise in coping with the covid-19 pandemic yuliana | 14 issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) to increase energy levels. one-minute mindfulness each time is enough. compassion and love meditation means to visualize the presence of empathy and calmness to the present moment. in meditation, past and future moments need to be put away for a while. naming the arising feeling or emotion is also self-awareness. by naming the emotion, it is easier to tame it (behan, 2020). meditation means let go of anything in the past. being aware of the present moment will arise a new perspective. observing the flow of thought is useful for remaining calm and aware. our mind is like a huge complicated network. we need to sort the important thing. breath is used as the anchor for the thought and present moment. a wandering mind is an unhappy mind. body scanning from the head until toe can be used as an anchor also. this type of body scan is different from the scanner machine for imaging in hospitals. body scanning in the meditation methods means being aware of all parts of the body from the most upper part (the edge of the hair) until the most lower part (the toes). the goal of meditation is to make someone spend the time in every moment calmly. long-term meditation will have a better effect on reducing stress and anxiety. there is increasing activity in the cingulate cortex, the prefrontal cortex, and the hippocampus. meanwhile, the amygdala had decreasing activity. it results in better emotional regulation (behan, 2020). the most common negative emotional feelings during the covid-19 pandemic are anxious, despair, fear, and overwhelm. these negative feelings are natural for this condition. the feelings can remain for an uncertain duration although the covid-19 pandemic has ended. therefore, practicing mindfulness is very essential at this moment. post-traumatic stress disorders can be relieved by this method. stress, cortisol level, and blood pressure can be reduced through the regular practice of mindfulness (singh & hwang, 2019). mindfulness and meditation can be learned online. these techniques are easy to be done by children, teens, adults, elderly, and even disabled people. there are many applications available for online meditation such as calm, insight timer, and headspace. in the short term, sleep quality will increase by practicing mindfulness and meditation (zheng et al., 2020). there are some organizations for meditation practice such as the royal college of physicians (#pauseforapoem). the sanctuary, and also the dublin buddhist centre. they offer online learning meditation for a free or discounted price. there is a lot of demand for such courses. this is a good sign for coping with the covid-19 pandemic. it is a huge area to be studied (behan, 2020). in every crisis, it was shown that the eternal thing is the change. the covid-19 pandemic will be ended although it is not unsure when the time is going to be. meditation and mindfulness provide shelter for people during this insecure time. the regular practice of mindfulness and meditation must be taken by all people to increase awareness during this hard time. this will bring benefits to ourselves and our society. anything shall pass is the suitable motto for coping with the covid-19 pandemic in a mindfulness way (behan, 2020). conclusion the covid-19 pandemic has many effects on the biological and behavioral parts of human life. in the biological aspect, the covid-19 pandemic affects the human brain, especially the limbic system and the amygdala. in behavioral parts, it affects mental health and psychology. fear will disturb the amygdala in structurally and functionally. mindfulness and meditation can soothe fear and other negative feelings. fear of being infected and spread the virus to others cause anxiety and corona phobia. mindfulness and meditation can be done in simple ways such as breathing practice, walking, and realizing the present moment. limitation & further research the limitations of the study are lack of recent studies about the effects of breathing exercise to amygdala changes during the covid-19 pandemic. further 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(2020). mindfulness buffers the impact of covid-19 outbreak information on sleep duration. psyarxiv, 20(3). doi: 10.31234/osf.io/wuh94 microsoft word 254 kate angelli d. cuizon (39-57) available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) volume 4 number 2 (2022): 39-57 corresponding author christopher h. punzalan, topherhpunzalan@gmail.com faculty of teacher training and education doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i2.254 universitas terbuka and research synergy foundation learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon1, fiona ysabella z. de luna2, anne gwyneth e. natividad3, justine z. ortiz4, lynie v. osorio5, kyla bianca t. san juan6, and christopher h. punzalan7 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 national university, manila, philippines 7 national research council of the philippines, philippines abstract students can attain higher academic comprehension and performance by using instructional tactics and approaches that naturally match their interests. researchers investigated potential learning gaps that could occur due to disparities in students' learning abilities. as a result, this study determined students' preferred learning styles, study habits, and academic achievement in mathematics as a general education course. a total of 100 freshmen college students were non-randomly recruited for this study, which used a quantitative descriptive approach. the study adopted the reid perceptual learning style questionnaire and gilbert wrenn's inventory of study habits as tools for data collection. furthermore, descriptive statistics such as mean, anova, and post-hoc tukey hsd test were used to investigate freshmen college students' preferred learning styles, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics. the survey's findings revealed that students favor the tactile, group, and individual learning styles as minor learning modes, despite having poor study habits. a high level of academic achievement was also revealed. gender and course caused significant disparities in their study habits, according to a test of difference. when categorized by profile factors, no significant variations in learning styles or academic achievement were discovered. the study's recommendations can help teachers and future researchers develop and implement educational interventions. keywords: learning styles; study habits; academic performance; mathematics; freshmen college this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction mathematics has been essential in improving people's lives. mathematics has aided mankind since the birth of human existence on earth, according to the scientific world (2018). mathematics education has a good impact since it helps people develop mental discipline and improve problemsolving and reasoning abilities. numerous studies have demonstrated the usefulness of mathematics in everyday life. the efficacy of learning mathematics is influenced by several things. this research investigated freshmen college students' preferred learning styles and study habits. inequality in education is one of the most pressing issues today. due to differences in learning preferences, the researchers of this study wanted to reduce learning gaps that develop when studying mathematics as a general education subject in college. to put a stop to poor, unequal, and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 40 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) ineffective mathematics instruction, learning style preferences and study habits must be discovered. preferences for learning styles, study habits, and academic success all play a part in learning. understanding the learning styles and preferences of students may aid instructors in developing effective learning strategies. furthermore, students who share the teacher's learning style remember information better and are more passionate about studying (lohri-posey, 2003). because of the complexity of the environment in which humans live, students pick a variety of study habits to improve their learning. according to the previous study, good study habits include studying in a quiet environment, studying daily, turning off devices that interfere with study (such as tv and cell phones), taking notes on important content, taking regular rests and breaks, listening to soft music, studying according to one's own learning style, and prioritizing difficult content (ebele & olofu 2017). academic success is inextricably linked to learning preferences and study habits because they impact and demonstrate how they improve students' learning outcomes. students who do not receive enough study method instruction do not attain effective and sustained learning and, as a result, do not realize their maximum academic potential (arora, 2016). furthermore, students with better academic achievements make more use of these abilities than those with lower academic achievements (rezaie looyeh et al., 2017). as a result, in order to boost students' learning and broaden their knowledge, people should think about ways to make studying easier for them, given that learning mathematics necessitates critical thinking, conceptual skills, and creative abilities. by providing effective instructional strategies and other instructional interventions to increase their academic accomplishment, the development of proper study skills will make them better learners. as a result, students enrolling in mathematics as a general education subject had their learning styles, preferences, study habits, and academic performance compared. understanding the diverse learning styles of college students taking mathematics as a general education course will lead to more successful learning experiences in the long term. similarly, alavi and toozandehjani (2017) discovered that knowing students' learning styles can assist them in improving their learning while also fostering self-actualization. teevan et al. (2011) go on to say that understanding learning styles can help instructors use the right teaching strategies and methodologies to help students succeed in school. individual, group, kinesthetic, tactile, visual, and auditory learning modes were studied. metacognitive thinking and activities help students become more adaptive and imaginative. understudies with specific educational obstacles in mastering learning tasks, self-organizing, and managing their own learning can benefit greatly from metacognitive or individual learning. students' communication, personality, and leadership skills may benefit from group learning. students' critical reasoning and analytical abilities improve with kinesthetic learning. as children learn through their tactile senses, it becomes increasingly important for their brain growth. students who are exposed to tactile learning have better learning growth, which correlates with their academic achievement in the future. visuals simplify knowledge by breaking it down into smaller, more consumable parts. as a result, the student's excitement for the subject will grow. when a student learns in a way that they enjoy and appreciate, they pay more attention, and the results are more obvious. students' critical listening, thinking, and comprehending abilities improve with auditory learning. as a result, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 41 issn 2721-2904 (online) auditory learning aids students’ ability to think more clearly. it helps individuals focus better, pay more attention, and comprehend the material more thoroughly. barman et al. (2014) looked at the link between learning style awareness and student academic accomplishment and discovered that students' understanding of their advantages, such as learning style, and how to leverage these advantages could help them achieve academic success. learning styles may assist students in reflecting on their preferred learning techniques, allowing them to take greater ownership and control of their own education. the learning styles of each student serve as a reminder that they are all unique. finally, they have the potential to make teaching more enjoyable while also expanding instructors' professional capabilities. the study habits of freshmen college students enrolled in a mathematics course are another variable being investigated in this study. according to jafari et al. (2019), study habits are key predictors of students' academic achievement, and study habits influence academic success. according to ebele and olofu (2017), there is a link between students' study habits and their academic achievement. study habits and academic achievement are favorably and highly connected, according to siahi and maiyo's (2015) findings, as evidenced by the coefficient of correlation index "r" of 0.66. mashayekhi et al. (2014) also concluded that there is a significant link between academic achievement and study habits. as a result, through written and practical assessments, academic performance evaluates students' talents and learning. according to caballero et al. (2007), academic success comprises meeting the goals, milestones, and objectives defined in the program or course in which a student is enrolled. according to previous studies, both intellectual and non-intellectual factors influence freshmen college students' academic progress. as a result of this research, teachers will be able to better adapt and change their teaching approaches to their student’s learning styles. this could also help teachers locate more appropriate and improved academic outcomes. students will gain a better grasp of their learning styles and study habits because of the study's findings. this research may also aid students in determining their preferred learning method in mathematics. because mathematics is so important in today's students' lives and the world at large, this research would be beneficial to society. this will come in handy when putting the findings of the study into practice. this study could be useful in choosing the best educational strategy to adopt in the future. statement of the problem there has been a lot of debate about which learning style will ensure that all children receive a good mathematical education. learning gaps emerge because of variances in learning preferences that change from person to person. each student's learning style and study habits significantly impact their ability to solve mathematical problems. inadequacies, inequity, and poor mathematics teaching would result if students’ choices were not assessed. this study focused on identifying freshmen college students' preferred learning methods, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics from various higher education institutions in the philippines to address current difficulties. this study investigated whether there is a substantial difference in learning styles, study habits, and academic achievement when respondents' profile characteristics are combined. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 42 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) research questions this study aimed to determine the preferred learning styles, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics of freshmen college students in a private and public higher education institution in the philippines during the a.y. 2021-2022. specifically, this study sought to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the average number of freshmen college students who prefer individual? group? kinesthetic? tactile? visual? auditory learning style in mathematics? 2. what is the level of the study habits of freshmen college students? 3. what is the percentage number of students who excelled in individual? group? kinesthetic? tactile? visual? auditory learning in mathematics? 4. is there a significant difference in the perceptual learning styles, study habits, and academic performance when grouped according to their profile variables? literature review perceptual learning styles and academic performance learning style refers to the characteristics, strengths, and preferences with which people comprehend and interpret information (hsieh et al., 2011). the learning methods that students like have a substantial impact on their academic performance and conduct. learning styles, on the other hand, clearly differ from one learner to the next due to the common concept of diversity. as a result, according to gokalp (2013), learning style relates to the concept of each individual having their own learning mode or academic tactics. learning styles, as stated, are a complicated process by which understudies successfully comprehend, acquire, organize, and retain academic experiences. as a result, educational institutions must identify a wide range of learning styles in order to accomplish rapid growth in understudies' level of comprehension, motivation, and confidence. indeed, williams et al. (2013) discovered a beneficial relationship between learning styles and understudies' scholarly presentation in the scholarly circle. khan et al. (2019) even described the students' learning styles and their association with academic accomplishment in their studies. according to the findings, college students' chosen learning styles have a high relationship with academic accomplishment. furthermore, success in mathematics is a key indicator of a country's educational system's presentation (reddy, 2005). mathematics is also an important topic for countries with growing economies since it allows students to pursue careers in sectors such as design, natural sciences, bookkeeping, and a variety of other fields that are critical to the financial turn of events (makgato & mji, 2006). inadequate scholarly achievement and pessimism about a subject may also be related to the educator's approach, as delayed confounds between the educational strategy in the study hall and the learning patterns of most students can add to poor academic accomplishment and pessimism (breckler et al., 2011). several studies have found that most students prefer to study with clusters of images, diagrams, graphs, and other visualization techniques. as a result, visual learners make up the majority of the students in a course (nel et al., 2016). a large majority of auditory learners prefer international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 43 issn 2721-2904 (online) to hear or speak information, which supports the conventional teaching method. reading and writing are effective learning tools for auditory learners. similarly, kinesthetic learners thrive on performance-based activities and find it difficult to learn just by sitting (bennett, 2013). as a result, students who excelled academically were also stronger visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners. cabual (2021) also addressed how most students' preferred learning styles, as well as their chosen learning modalities, are primarily visual, auditory, read/write, and kinesthetic and that learning styles and preferred learning modalities are tightly linked among students. according to banas (2018), students that did well in class are largely visual and auditory learners based on their academic success in terms of perceptual learning styles. students who are kinesthetic, as well as visual and auditory learners, enjoy the class. the perceptual learning style of students has an impact on their academic success. significantly, if students' learning styles are recognized, this can serve as a springboard for developing more appropriate and effective learning tactics, as well as aligning the overall instructional content with the learning styles. alzahrani (2017) found that mathematics education is important as a planned and intentional process. it is said that providing a model that assists both teachers and students in achieving this type of learning is critical. the findings revealed that evaluating students' reasoning when solving arithmetic problems is a basic foundation of learning. furthermore, the findings emphasize the importance of learning methods in shaping students' attitudes and mentality. following kanevsky's (2015) goal of determining whether high-ability learners prefer to learn alone or in a group, the general conclusion was that the percentage of high-ability learners who prefer or enjoy working alone is higher than working in a group. according to wismath and orr (2015), students' learning and thinking habits may influence their decision to work alone or with others. according to wismath and orr (2015), students concentrate better in class when they employ their chosen learning style. students, on the other hand, find it difficult to study when they are unable to apply their preferred learning method owing to an unsupportive atmosphere. finally, the findings of this study will show that learning styles do have an impact on student learning outcomes since they influence students' willingness to learn as well. learning style is defined as "the manner in which individuals begin to focus on, process, assimilate, and retain new and difficult lessons" in this context (hawk & shah, 2007). because learning style is influenced by many factors such as age, gender, course, and culture, the previously described link between learning style and academic achievement is complicated. study habits and academic performance study habits are the most important part of academic performance and have a large impact on a student's academic success (jafari et al., 2019). several relevant research has also been undertaken in this respect. according to lawrence (2014), the goal of the study was to determine whether there was a significant association between study habits and academic achievement of higher secondary students, and the researchers employed the survey method to do so. the data revealed that higher secondary school students’ study habits are moderate, and their academic international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 44 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) accomplishment is moderate as well. finally, in higher secondary schools, there is no substantial relationship between study habits and academic achievement. kyauta and dachia (2018) conducted another study to determine how students compared their study habits to their academic performance. according to the findings, there was a significant correlation between study habits and academic success. as a result, students who practice good study habits are more likely to succeed academically. akpan and salome (2015) investigated the impact of study habits on the academic success of agricultural science students. there was also no significant link between students' academic performance and their study habits, such as individual studies, reading at the library, reading outside of the library, and reading during the day rather than at night, according to the research. in an online programming language course, çakıroğlu (2014) investigates the links between learners' learning styles, study habits, and learning outcomes. kolb's learning style questionnaire (lsi) and another inventory devised by the researcher were used to measure the student's learning styles. their learning abilities were also assessed using achievement assessments. as a result, significant relationships between learning styles, study habits, and learning performance have been discovered. for instructors desiring to deploy synchronous courses and assist learners, the findings provide insight into the learning styles and study habits of distant learners. in addition, odiri (2015) investigated the relationship between students' study habits and their math ability. a correlational research design was used in this study. to assemble information on respondents' arithmetic performance, data was gathered from their individual universities. the main research questions led the investigation. they used regression and anova to evaluate the data. their studies revealed a high correlation between students' study habits and their mathematical achievement. also, there was a substantial difference in math achievement between students who practiced good study habits and those who practiced bad study habits, according to the findings. sakirudeen and sanni (2017) have also conducted research into the relationship between study habits and secondary school students' academic achievement in mathematics. the dependability coefficient was 0.91 using the spearman-brown formula. the data were analyzed with the pearson product moment correlation coefficient (ppmc) and assessed for significance at the 0.05 level. as a result, the researchers discovered that taking notes, using the library, allocating study time, and a student's academic success in mathematics all had a significant relationship. fernandez et al. (2021) investigated latinx students' achievement in college-level mathematics, as well as their mathematics anxiety and how it influences their study habits. pairwise examinations of a sample of latinx students in a hispanic serving institution and their levels of mathematics anxiety reveal significant disparities among subgroups. furthermore, regression analysis found a link between latinx students' study habits and math anxiety. furthermore, uslu and korukcu (2021) did their research study to determine what middle school students believed about study habits and how they felt about them. their research employed a mixed methods approach with a sequential explanatory structure. the quantitative data were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss v. 24.0). participants exhibited a moderate level of study habits, according to the findings. study habits were unaffected by gender international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 45 issn 2721-2904 (online) or grade level. study habits were better in those who had adequate study areas. the participants connected good study habits to future success. according to the findings, the internet, tablet computers, and television had negative effects on study habits, as well as positive and negative effects on parents and teachers. additionally, nisar et al. (2017) did a research study that focused on secondary school students' socioeconomic background, school atmosphere, and study habits as variables of academic success. their survey looked at the study patterns of students by gender and geography. the data were examined using descriptive and inferential statistics. students' academic achievement was influenced by their parent's socioeconomic status, school climate, and study habits, according to their findings. students study habits are also influenced by gender and geography. based on the findings, it was determined that changing the school climate and fostering healthy study habits could help children achieve greater academic success. carbonel (2013) also did a study on characterizing and evaluating students' perceptual learning styles, study habits, and the impact of these aspects on their academic progress, particularly in college algebra. students study habits were average, and their performance in college algebra was equally average, according to the statistics. students study habits in college algebra have a considerable impact on their performance in the subject, according to this finding. the children described their learning style as visual and aural rather than touch. research method research design the study employed a descriptive research design. the descriptive component of the study also revolved around the personal profile of the respondents, their learning style preferences, study habits, and academic achievement. thus, to assess if there is a significant difference in the perceptual learning styles, study habits, and academic performance of the freshmen college students when grouped according to their profile variables. in fact, a descriptive research design is acceptable, according to siedlecki (2020), when the researcher's goal is to explore a phenomenon that tends to seek the participants' opinions without attaching the researcher's value. similarly, this research methodology did not only collect and tabulate data, but also included adequate analysis, interpretation, comparisons, and trend and association detection. this strategy is frequently used as a prelude to more quantitative research designs, with the overall overview providing helpful hints as to which factors might be tested quantitatively. in order to obtain relevant data, a descriptive research design was used in accordance with the study's aims. instrument this study adapted quantitative structured survey questionnaires to obtain clear, in-depth data on the understudies' preferred learning styles, study habits, and academic achievement in mathematics education. given the current public health crisis, personally handing out study surveys was difficult, so distribution was done online via google forms. the survey form included a set of questions based on the reid learning styles assessment by reid (1987), notably the perceptual learning style preference questionnaire, as well as gilbert wrenn's study habits international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 46 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) inventory (wrenn, 1941) and the university's grading system's grade ranges. all of these statistical tools were useful in determining preferences for learning styles, study habits, and academic success, which were meticulously organized and gathered. participants the population refers to the specific community or group of people who are part of a study. as a result, the study's population centered around freshmen college students from private and public higher education institutions in the philippines to fully achieve the researchers' goal and interest for this paper. similarly, the researchers chose and distributed the questionnaire to a total of 100 participants who were enrolled in a general education mathematics course as a pilot study in the university to serve as a basis for future expanded research studies. thirty-four (34) male freshman college students and sixty-six (66) female freshmen college students were among the participants. the researchers used convenience sampling to determine the individuals' learning styles, study habits, and academic achievement in mathematics using the non-probability sample approach. procedure after acquiring the necessary data, the study's findings were deciphered using relevant statistical tools. mean, frequency, standard deviation, rank, and percentage were employed as descriptive statistics. to test the study's theories, inferential statistics such as the independent sample t-test and one-way anova test were used. a post hoc tukey hsd test was also utilized to determine whether the differences between the downright factors were statistically significant. the assessment of the respondents on their learning style preferences used the following common scale: 1 (strongly disagree); 2 (disagree); 3 (undecided); 4 (agree); and 5 (strongly agree). furthermore, the scales used in study habits are 1 (rarely or never), 2 (sometimes), and 3 (often or always). in like way, to decipher the major and minor learning style inclinations of the respondents, the accompanying score ranges were adapted: 40-50major learning style preference; 25-39minor learning style preference; and 0-24negligible learning style preference. consequently, in study habits, the legends used were: 4.20-5.00 (always); 3.40-4.19 (usually); 2.60-3.39 (sometimes); 1.80-2.59 (low); and 1.00-1.79 (very low). the findings were interpreted, absolute values were determined, and significant prerequisites for developing a deep and meaningful understanding of first-year college students' chosen learning styles, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics were identified using descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tools. the researchers used descriptive statistics like mean, frequency, and percentage to describe their findings. the researchers then used the post-hoc tukey hsd test to evaluate whether there were any significant differences between the category variables. findings and discussion learning styles of freshmen college students and the test of significant difference when grouped according to profile variables international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 47 issn 2721-2904 (online) the assessment of freshmen college students enrolled in mathematics as a general education course at private and public institutions in the philippines is shown in table 1. tactile learning styles, group learning styles, and individual learning styles were viewed as minor learning style preferences by students. visual learning styles, auditory learning styles, and kinesthetic learning styles were their negative learning style preferences. many freshmen students learn better with a tactile, collaborative, and individual learning strategy, as evidenced by the data. table 1. learning style preference scores and test of significant difference learning styles total mean score (n= 100) sd score description age p-value gender p-value course p-value visual learning style 24 8.79 negligible lsp 0.37 0.73 0.15 tactile learning style 25 8.67 minor lsp 0.52 0.15 0.56 auditory learning style 24 9.06 negligible lsp 0.59 0.93 0.49 group learning style 27 8.18 minor lsp 0.54 0.82 0.75 kinesthetic learning style 24 8.83 negligible lsp 0.75 0.74 0.25 individual learning style 25 8.82 minor lsp 0.97 0.75 0.25 *the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level legend: 40-50major learning style preference; 25-39minor learning style preference; 0-24 negligible learning style preference a closer examination of the table reveals a more detailed picture of the student's preferred learning approaches. the table shows that the group learning style is the highest, yet it is still one of the respondents' smaller learning preferences, with a total mean score of 27 (σ = 8.18). according to the findings, most respondents preferred collaborative or group learning. they learn more when they collaborate because they exchange different perspectives, ideologies, and expertise. nonetheless, group participation in college classes through group projects can help them learn more efficiently. allowing students to learn in small groups and absorb knowledge as a group is a cooperative learning strategy that develops higher understanding (acikgoz, 2002). tactile learning style also received a total mean score of 25 (σ = 8.67). it is the respondents' second preferred learning style and one of their minor learning style preferences. students have a greater comprehension of a tactile approach to learning, according to the findings. similarly, most first-year college students like to study by taking notes, listening to music, and being physically international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 48 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) active. additionally, children who prefer the tactile learning technique demonstrate a greater understanding by doing something rather than just hearing. role-playing, field trips, and active engagement will eventually help children improve their learning abilities. "movement during the day helps children re-energize their bodies and minds, allowing them to focus and improve concentration," says ferlazzo (2021). individual learning style came in second with a total mean score of 25 (σ = 8.82), indicating that the respondents have a modest learning style. it means that responders learn more effectively on their own. they prefer and perform best when they may go at their own pace. several studies (westwood, 2004; 2008) found that students learn mathematics best in classes where teachers emphasize academics, use challenging activities, hold all students (including poor achievers) to high standards, and implement an individual learning plan. as a result, magulod (2018) suggests that students use multi-sensory learning aids to adapt to their various learning styles, helping them to be more successful in their academic activities. however, the respondents did not consider visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learning styles, as the results suggest that freshmen college students have a negligible learning style preference. this indicates in the table that when learning mathematics, students do not consider using images, films, or objects. the total mean score for visual learning style was 24 (σ = 8.79). the auditory learning style had an overall mean score of 24 (σ = 9.06). finally, the total mean score for the kinesthetic learning method was 24 (σ = 8.83). this demonstrates that respondents liked learning at their own pace, being physically active, and learning in groups. the data show that freshmen college students in the philippines favor learning approaches that include constructing models, working alone, and collaborative learning. furthermore, when students taking the subject mathematics are classified according to their profile variables, table 1 demonstrates that there is no significant difference in learning style preferences. the researchers took the average per learning style according to age, gender, and course after categorizing the raw data by learning style. they then gathered the data and ran the one-way anova test and t-test. it includes years 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24, for which the anova single-factor test revealed a significant difference. because all p-values in this category were greater than the alpha level of 0.05, it suggests that under the age variable, all learning styles exhibited no significant difference, implying that age is not a relevant factor in determining the learning style preferences of freshmen college students. furthermore, a two-sample t-test with equal variances was used to determine gender, with male as variable 1 and female as variable 2. this test revealed that there is no statistically significant variation in learning methods based on gender. finally, the researchers divided the courses into three categories: health-related courses, arts, and science-related courses, and engineering-related courses in the course section. doctor of dental medicine, doctor of optometry, bs psychology, and bs nursing are among the health-related courses. bs information technology, bs accountancy, bs criminology, bs hospitality management, bs techvoc teachers education, ba multimedia arts, bs architecture, bs computer science, bs information system, and bs legal management were among the arts and science-related courses. finally, bs civil engineering, bs mechanical engineering, bs marine engineering, bs computer engineering, bs aeronautical engineering, and bs air transportation are engineering-related courses. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 49 issn 2721-2904 (online) because the respondents were unbalanced in terms of number, especially in courses with just one (1) response, this grouping strategy was perfect for the study. as a result, there was no discernible difference between the three (3) sub-categories in the course section. when grouped by age, gender, and course, the test of difference in learning styles of freshmen college students with a subject of mathematics indicates no statistically significant difference. study habits of freshmen college students and the test of significant difference when grouped according to profile variables the information in table 2 illustrates the study habits and skills of freshmen college students who are studying mathematics. according to the calculated grand mean of 1.99, respondents have poor study habits and skills. this shows that the students have not yet acquired strong positive attitudes about the set of skills that will assist them in preparing for the subject in question. as a result, strengthening students' study habits will assist them in becoming better students. according to mark and howard (2009), the most prevalent obstacle to students' success is a lack of productive or pleasant study habits. table 2. study habits scores and test of significant difference study habits and skills mean sd di rank age p-value gender p-value course p-value time management 1.94 1.52 low 6 0.74 0.04* 0.26 concentration 2.08 1.68 low 2 0.73 0.17 0.24 note taking 1.83 1.40 low 7 0.59 0.84 0.16 reading comprehension 2.02 1.56 low 4 0.41 0.37 0.00* test preparation and test taking 2.04 1.59 low 3 0.56 0.70 0.01* reading speed 1.94 1.50 low 6 0.81 0.43 0.24 writing skills 1.97 1.54 low 5 0.12 0.44 0.74 test anxiety management 2.09 1.66 low 1 0.08 0.01* 0.01* grand mean 1.99 low *the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level legend: 4.20-5.00 always; 3.40-4.19 usually; 2.60-3.39 sometimes; 1.80-2.59 low; 1.00-1.79 very low the data in table 2 depicts the study habits and skills of first-year college students studying mathematics. respondents have weak study habits and skills, according to the estimated grand mean of 1.99. this indicates that the students have not yet developed strong positive attitudes toward the set of skills that will help them prepare for the subject at hand. as a result, improving students’ study habits will help them improve their grades. the most common barrier to students' success, according to mark and howard (2009), is a lack of effective or enjoyable study habits. also, werner (2003) analyzes the impact of self-awareness regarding learning styles on learning strategy choice and comprehension process development to back up this notion. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 50 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) according to the findings of this study, most students rate themselves as having a low level of proficiency in all their study habits and skills. test anxiety management, concentration, test preparation, test taking, and reading comprehension are the top four study habits and skills in learning mathematics. to summarize, freshmen college students' skills and habits must be further strengthened and enhanced for them to better understand the lessons of mathematics. according to hill and ballow (2000), students' study habits reflect the quality of their education and their mathematical ability. according to odiri (2015), good study habits contribute to improved mathematical achievement, while a lack of good study habits leads to bad mathematical academic performance. students who have excellent study habits and skills perform better than those who do not. for the gender variable only, the table shows the tested one-way anova p-value and the ttest two-sample assuming equal variances p-two-tail values. these tests were performed to investigate if there were any significant differences in the study habits of students taking the subject of mathematics when they were grouped by age, gender, and course. similarly, the p-value must be greater than the alpha level of 0.05 to determine if a variable has no significant difference. tukey's hsd post hoc test will be utilized if the p-value is less than the alpha threshold. the participants are divided into age groups of 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24. the one-way anova results revealed that there is no significant difference between the study habits factors since all p-values generated were bigger than the alpha level. furthermore, raw data were analyzed using the t-test two-sample assuming equal variances, which revealed that there is a significant difference in terms of time management and anxiety management, with p-values of 0.04 and 0.01, respectively, being lower than the expected alpha level of 0.05. the t-test results suggest that students' gender has a significant impact on their anxiety control. because the t-test is designed to detect significant differences, tukey's hsd post hoc test is not necessary. finally, the researchers divided the courses into three sub-categories in the course area: health-related courses, arts and science-related courses, and engineering-related courses. reading comprehension, test preparation, test-taking, and anxiety management p-values of 0.00, 0.01, and 0.01, respectively, were found to be less than 0.05 alpha level using one-way anova, indicating that there are significant differences under these variables. tukey's hsd post hoc test was also applied to the p-values that were less than the 0.05 alpha threshold. table 3. summary results of post hoc tukey hsd test in study habits grouped courses reading comprehension test preparation and test taking anxiety management remarks combination of courses cd avcd cd avcd cd avcd international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 51 issn 2721-2904 (online) healthrelated courses and arts and sciencerelated courses 0.21 0.36 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.41 significant difference note. cd – critical difference; avcd – absolute value critical difference the data revealed a substantial difference in students' study habits in terms of reading comprehension, test preparation, test-taking, and anxiety management between the groups of health-related courses and arts and science-related courses solely, as shown in table 3. there is a considerable difference between the two-course sub-categories because the absolute value crucial difference between the three study habits is bigger than the critical value. academic performance of freshmen college students and test of significant difference when grouped according to profile variables the percentage of students who excelled in metacognitive, collaborative, kinesthetic, tactile, visual, and auditory learning styles in mathematics is shown in the table. the survey had a total of one hundred (100) respondents, which is the frequency of the results. the standard deviation is 14, and the average mean of these findings is 89, indicating excellent performance. many responders received a 3.50, which is like a score of 91–95 on an excellent scale. the response rate was 43 percent overall. the second highest score is 3.00, which corresponds to a performance level of 8790. there was 39 percent of persons responded. the third-best response received a 4.00 with an exceptional rating, which is equal to 5%. they both earn the same score of 1.50 with a fair performance level of 78-80. answering 2.00 with a decent level, which is equivalent to 81–83, and 1.00 with a passing level, which is equivalent to 75–77, yields the same result. they all make up 2% of the population. the ultimate lowest score was 0, with a performance level of only 1%, which is considered a failure. table 4. academic performance scores and test of significant difference grade range description frequency percentage 4.00 (96-100) excellent 5 5% 3.50 (91-95) outstanding 43 43% 3.00 (87-90) very good 39 39% 2.50 (84-86) good 3 3% 2.00 (81-83) satisfactory 2 2% 1.50 (78-80) fair 5 5% 1.00 (75-77) passing 2 2% 0 failing 1 1% total mean average = 89 (very good) sd = 14 age p-value = 0.44 gender p-value = 0.23 course p-value = 0.16 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 52 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) *the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level the respondents' highest midterm grade was 3.50, and they have an outstanding academic performance level, excelling in group learning style, according to these findings. group learning had a grand mean of 27 with a minor learning style preference level, indicating that they prefer this learning style for studying mathematics, according to the results in table 3.1. the tactile and unique learning approach, which has a 25 grand mean, is the second most favored learning style. with a failing level, the lowest result is 1 percent, which is equal to zero (0). the results of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic with an insignificant level, as well as the 24 grand, mean, were substantially equal. when visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles are split down, the proportion of students studying mathematics is the least desired. learning styles have a considerable impact on a student's academic success, according to castolo and rebusquillo (2008). the table shows the results of the one-way anova test, which is used to see if there is a significant difference in academic performance among students when they are grouped by profile characteristics like age, gender, and course. when the students are divided into age groups of 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24, it is evident that there is no statistically significant difference in their academic achievement, with a p-value of 0.44, which is higher than 0.05 alpha level. furthermore, the researchers achieve a p-value of 0.23 when students are sorted by gender, with variable 1 being male and variable 2 being female, which is greater than the alpha level of 0.05. it is then assumed that when students are classified by gender, there is no substantial difference in academic achievement. finally, the one-way anova findings show a p-value of 0.16, which is higher than the 0.05 alpha level, in the course area, which is sub-categorized as health-related courses, arts and science-related courses, and engineering-related courses. this finding indicates that when students are classified according to their course, there is no statistically significant difference in their academic achievement. conclusion the preferences for learning styles, study habits, and academic performance of freshmen college students studying mathematics as a general education course were investigated in this study. the survey found that students enjoyed tactile, group, and individual learning styles the most, even though these are minor learning styles. while visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning modalities are considered minor by students. as a result, it appears that freshmen college students in the philippines favor learning strategies such as constructing models, working alone, and collaborative learning. study habits and skills such as time management, concentration, note taking, reading comprehension, test preparation and test taking, reading speed, writing skills, and anxiety management was also found to be lacking in the students. similarly, it was revealed that most of the students perform well academically. knowing one's preferred learning styles will help a person maximize his ability when using his preferred learning methods. notably, the test of difference revealed that students' perceptual learning styles are not affected by their age, gender, or course. as a result, the idea has been rejected in terms of learning styles. similarly, statistically significant differences in their study habits were found when they international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan │ 53 issn 2721-2904 (online) were classified by gender and course, indicating that the hypothesis was accepted. finally, when students taking mathematics are grouped by their age, gender, and course, there is no statistically significant difference in their academic achievement, rejecting the hypothesis. the findings of the study can help instructors design a plan for delivering appropriate instructional changes and interventions. the following instructional strategies may be applied by various academic institutions because of the study's findings: 1. using a cooperative, experiential, and solitary learning ways to implement teaching and learning exercises will take great care of the respondents' group, tactile, and individual learning styles. while formed using the profile factors, these learning styles were regarded as minor learning styles with no critical distinction. 2. the low level of understudies' study habits could be improved with online seminars, counseling, and workshops conducted by the guidance and counseling office and an office of students' administrations and welfare assistance, focusing on all study habits and skills, primarily time management, improving concentration, encouraging taking notes, advancing reading comprehension, managing test preparation, and test-taking, developing reading speed, and improving writing skills. 3. providing in-house training for faculty members who teach the mathematics course, with a focus on effective instructional approaches. in addition, collaborate with the teacher to help more mathematics students achieve academic success, as study habits are linked to academic performance. 4. providing a suitable online learning environment and areas for students to expand their learning options. limitation & further research as to the limitations of the study and future research directions, this present study is subjected to a few recommendations. based on the conclusions, this study has the following recommendations: 1. future researchers should use various technologies to investigate learning preferences in each demographic to widen and precisely collect the preferred learning styles in mathematics of freshmen college students. as a result, educators must be innovative while teaching freshmen college students as they acclimate to their new surroundings. as a result, assisting students in identifying their learning styles will have a substantial impact on their understanding and performance in mathematics. 2. because study habits are one of the most important factors influencing students' academic success, larger research with a larger sample size is recommended to obtain more accurate results. furthermore, future researchers should investigate what factors influence students' study habits. 3. the goal of this grade range is to figure out what percentage of students succeed at individual, group, kinesthetic, tactile, visual, and auditory math learning. when determining the relationship between the acquired midterm grade and academic performance and the learning techniques chosen by students when studying mathematics, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (2), 39-57 learning style preferences, study habits, and academic performance in mathematics: perspectives of freshmen college students amidst the covid-19 pandemic kate angelli d. cuizon, fiona ysabella z. de luna, anne gwyneth e. natividad, justine z. ortiz, lynie v. osorio, kyla bianca t. san juan, and christopher h. punzalan 54 │ issn 2721-2904 (online) it is recommended to be specific. discovering and explaining why students obtained such a low or high midterm mark in their favorite learning modality is also ideal. 4. because there was no significant difference in the test of difference in perceptual learning styles, the researchers recommend including more profile characteristics such as culture and family history, as these may play a key influence in determining students' learning styles. similarly, when students study habits were grouped according to their profile factors, the researchers recommended that they analyze and consider the relevance of each component to one another further. it will also assist students in better understanding how their opinions of themselves and their surroundings may influence future performance. according to the study's findings, students’ academic performance did not differ considerably when grouped by profile characteristics; thus the researcher recommends conducting additional research to address these differences. to learn more about this issue, potential researchers will need to look at different demography or another set of data. overall, the researchers propose using proportionate stratified sampling rather than nonrandom sampling to collect and assess data from diverse subgroups since it provides more precision. also, consider incorporating a bigger population from several universities and include more variables. finally, similar or equivalent research should be conducted to understand more about students' preferred learning styles, study habits, and academic success in mathematics and other courses. references acıkgoz, k. u. 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(1941). study-habits inventory. stanford university press. kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 40-49; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.60 article history: received july 1st, 2019 ; accepted september 11th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in north-west, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila1, abdullahi kadage tukur2, isiaka amoson gambari3 1department of curriculum studies, faculty of education, sokoto state university, nigeria 2department of educational foundations and curriculum studies, faculty of education and extension service, usman danfodiyo university, nigeria 3department of educational technology, federal university of technology, minna, nigeria e-mail: abdullahi.ismailabubakar@ssu.edu.ng abstract this study “ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in north-west, nigeria” was guided by two objectives, two research questions. the researchers used descriptive survey research design in the study. the researchers used mixed method (quantitative and qualitative) for data collection. the population of the study was 113,030. random sampling technique was employed to select the sample. the total population of the sample is 32,300. the entire sample that was chosen is 371 for quantitative which is in line with raosoft sample size and 6 for qualitative. the instruments used for data collection were adopted questionnaire prediction of user acceptance and adoption of smartphone for learning with technology acceptance model questionnaire (puaasltamq) by sek, et al, (2010) and data-blank. the frequency and percentage were employed to analyze the respondents’ demographic information. to answer research question one (1), descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were used. to answer research question two t-test was used. the summary of the major findings indicated that smartphone is very easy to use for learning by the pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria and male pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria use smartphone for learning more than their female counterpart. the research shows that smartphone may be accepted as instructional tool in future, because the mode of smartphone operation is not difficult. keywords: smartphone; learning; education. introduction no doubt technology becomes part and parcel of all human endeavor, in administration, finance, military, business, education, just to mention but a few. the north-west, nigeria states has been contributing to the development of education in the country through its various colleges of education. the proactive effort of north-west states government on pre-service teachers’ education is in line with the assertion contains in the national policy on education (2013), which is considered as an instrument for national development. however, with the contemporary technological advancement, there is need to emphasize on students’ skills and competence in various tertiary institutions in the country (npe, 2013). technological advancement makes open revolution in education and new technology emerged in teaching and learning, where e-learning, blended learning and collaborated learning becomes an integral part of technology in education in its all aspect by merely future. the use of technology is globally recognized due to its contributions to human existence and socio-economic development. wireless communication has emerged as one of the fastest diffusing media on the planet, fuelling an emergent “mobile youth culture” (kingsley, 2013). for many years, researchers have been interested in identifying the conditions or factors that facilitated technology integration into businesses. over time, models were developed and tested to predict technology acceptance. among these models, the technology ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 41 acceptance model (tam) is arguably the most popular (teo, 2008). undoubtedly, the wireless technology can be used for leisure as well as for academic purposes. indeed, mobile phones such as smartphone have been useful for learning purposes in the recent. onwards mobile learning (m-learning) describes new form of learning that merge e-learning with mobility. however, mobile learning is the new dimension of e-learning, for example, falade and alimi, 2014, explained e-learning as learning supported by digital tools and media. it is also explained that mobile learning as e-learning that uses mobile devices and wireless transmission. according to this, many similarities can be found when comparing mobile with e-learning. it is obvious that both applications came to support and enhance the learning experience by utilizing technology. on one hand, both applications further provide common services such as the delivery of the learning content, support learners and provide quizzes and assessments. on the other hand, there are some differences between the two learning forms. mobile learning is more flexible than e-learning; mobile learning supports the learner’s mobility by providing access to the learning content anywhere and anytime while in e-learning the mobility is constrained to the weight and the size of desktop or laptop computers. furthermore, transport mobile device have some capabilities that can be delivered with greater ease than any other electronic devices (falade et al, 2014). indeed, smartphone are parts of devices useful for both mobile learning and e-learning. a smartphone is a device that combined the normal function of phone of sending and receiving telephone calls with other functions that are computer related. it is mobile phone with more advanced computer capability and connectivity than regular phone. the first smartphone combined the functions of a personal digital assistant (pda) with a mobile phone. later models added the functionality of portable media players, low-end compact digital cameras; pocket video cameras, just to mention but a few. many modern smart phones also include higher resolution touch screens and web browsers that display standard web pages as well as mobile-optimized site. high speed data access is provided by wi-fi and broadband (ibrahim & ibrahim, 2015). bisen, s., & deshpande, y. (2016), in their study, they found that male students are more prone to smartphone addict compare to female students. female students also equally posing risk increasing in utilization of smartphone in near future. male students are more interested in using cell phones in their studies, muhanna, w. n., & abu-al-sha’r, a. m. (2009). jena, (2014) there is no relation between smartphone usage and gender of the students. banda (2011) and ho (2014) suggested that perceived ease of use has a direct effect on positive attitude. but hassan, m., kouser, r., abbas s. s., & azeem, m. (2014), argue that there is no direct relationship between peou and behavioral intention, whereas easy use of technology might be influential to users’ perceived usefulness and affecting users’ adoption intention indirectly. pre-service teachers may find smartphone very difficult to use for learning which may or not make them lose interest to utilize it. and female pre-service teachers’ in colleges of education may use smartphone for learning more than male. the pre-service teachers of colleges of education in north-west, nigeria may not accept smartphone as tool that would help them to achieve their academic purposes, if they have this belief they could not use the technology for learning. some pre-service teachers hardly use smartphone because of its mode of operation. such pre-service teachers usually find it very difficult to operate and use such devices for academic activities, for instance, accessing network, installation of apps, browsing, downloading file become quite tasking for them, and it could not be possible to used smartphone without knowing how to operate it, as such they may not used it for academic activities. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 42 │ it seems female pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria engage their time with smartphone more productively for academic or other purposes than their male counterparts. in most cases, they use it to interact with their peers for social media apps such as facebook, whatsapp, 2go to mention but a few. this is telling us even if they used the smartphone more than male, there is a problem because of how they used the technology. more so, there is no sufficient academic research on the “ease and level of use between male and female pre-service teachers’ adoption of smartphone for learning in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria”. therefore, there are two underlining factors, i.e. perceived ease of use and level of use with regard to the adoption of smartphone for learning among pre-service teachers’ in north-west, nigeria. the objectives of this study are to examine the extent to which pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria find smartphone easy to use for academic purposes and find out how the use of smartphone differs between male and female pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria. method descriptive survey research design was used in this study, the selection of this design allowed the researcher to collect sample from a large group based on the opinion and perception of people and subject the data to analysis. the researchers used mixed method research through the use of quantitative and qualitative mode of data collection; as such research became more interesting and qualitative. more so, the researcher used convergent mixed method approach. this enabled the researcher to collect data separately (both quantitative and qualitative data), later compares them and see the result if the findings is the same or not. the target population of the study is the pre-service teachers of fourteen colleges of education in north-west, nigeria. a total of one hundred and seventeen thousand, one hundred and forty (113,030) pre-service teachers are studying in the fourteen colleges of education in north-western, nigeria. the details about the names of institutions and population of the pre-service teachers’ are presented in table 3.1. random sampling technique was employed to select the sample from the colleges of education selected. the researcher relied on every member of the population likely to be selected to participate as representative of the whole. the colleges of education that were selected as per the population were federal college of education, zaria, kaduna state, shehu shagari college of education, sokoto, sokoto state and zamfara state college of education, maru, zamfara state. the population of each institution listed above is: 14,221, 12,244, and 5,835 respectively. however, the total population of the sampled colleges is 32,300. hence, the sample that was drawn from the fce, zaria was as follows: 375×14,221 =165, sscoes was 373×12,244 =141 while zscem was 361×5,835 =65 32,300 32,300 32,300 ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 43 table 3.1: name of colleges and their respective pre-service teachers’ population: s/n name of the college population 1 jigawa college of education, gumel, jigawa state. 8,582 2 federal college of education, zaria, kaduna state. 14,221 3 kaduna state college of education, gidan-waya, kafanchan, kaduna state. 7,324 4 federal college of education, kano, kano state. 15,235 5 federal college of education (technical), bichi, kano state. 9,983 6 sa’adatu rimi college of education, kumbotso, kano state. 8,123 7 federal college of education, katsina, katsina state. 10,151 8 imam sa’idu college of education, funtua, katsina state. 1,105 9 isa kaita college of education, dutsin-ma, katsina state. 7,896 10 adamu augie college of education, argungu, kebbi state. 7,101 11 biga college of education, arkilla, sokoto, sokoto state. 2,80 12 shehu shagari college of education, sokoto state. 12,244 13 federal girls college of education (technical), gusau, zamfara state. 4,950 14 zamfara state college of education, maru, zamfara state. 5,835 total 113,030 source: academic office of the colleges of education in north-west, nigeria. the entire sample that was chosen is 371 for quantitative, which is in line with raosoft sample size. raosoft is a software programmed to give a researcher readymade and correct sample of given population. once you enter your population, it will give you the sample population. according to raosoft 5% is a common choice for margin of error that can be accepted, 95% was selected as confidence level. the name of institutions, population and sample size were presented in table 3.2. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 44 │ table 3.2: name of institutions, population and sample size for quantitative: s/n college of education population sample size 1. federal college of education, zaria, kaduna state. 14,221 375×14,221 =165 32,300 2. shehu shagari college of education, sokoto state. 12,244 373×12,244 =141 32,300 3. zamfara state college of education, maru, zamfara state. 5,835 361×5,835 =65 32,300 total 32,300 371 the qualitative sample is smaller than that of quantitative. the entire population that was chosen is 6, 2 from each school i.e. 1 male and 1 female (see table: 3.3). the data for qualitative sample will be smaller than that of the quantitative. this is because the intent of using qualitative method is to locate and obtain information from a small sample and to gather extensive information from the sample; whereas, in quantitative research, a large number is needed in order to conduct meaningful statistics analysis (creswell, 2014 and bian, 2017). table 3.3: name of institutions, population and sample size for qualitative: s/n college of education population sample size 1. federal college of education, zaria, kaduna state. 14,221 2 2. shehu shagari college of education, sokoto state. 12,244 2 3. zamfara state college of education, maru, zamfara state. 5,835 2 total 32,300 6 the reason behind the selection of fce zaria, sscoe sokoto and zamfara scem were due to the time factor, financial constraint and logistics problem. structured questionnaire was used to collect data. the questionnaire by sek, lau, teoh, law & parumos (2010), prediction of user acceptance and adoption of smartphone for learning with technology acceptance model questionnaire (puaasltamq) was adopted in this study. the questionnaire adopted has two parts; part a and b, these two parts make one single instrument. part a is for demographic information of the respondents with 7 items, while part b contains 6 items based on ease of use, which were developed through sek et al, (2010), (puaasltamq) questionnaire. in part a, the respondents’ tick (√) appropriate answer in the spaces provided. in part b, the respondents tick (√) the appropriate option, the abbreviation in the columns: sd, d, n, a, sa; stand for: s.d. = strongly disagree, d= disagree, n= neutral, a= agree, s.a. = strongly agree which were answered based on five rensis likert scale 1-5. the responds told us the accurate personal opinion of the respondents. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 45 individual interview the three institutions (college a, college b, and college c) were used for collection of data from the respondents through data-blank. 6 pre-service teachers were selected, two from each college (one male and one female). the responses were analyzed one after the other, summarizing the key points of the elucidation by the respondents which make the researcher to arrive at the right decision/interpretation. procedure for data collection an introductory letter was presented to the concerned authorities at tertiary institutions where the data was collected. the researcher also explained the purpose of the study to the various authorities. procedure for data analysis data was analyzed in two stages which are: demographic information and the level of use between male and female pre-service teachers for academic activities was analyzed using part a of the instrument, while part b of the instrument used to analyzed how pre-service teachers’ find smartphone easy to use for academic purposes. the research quantitative data collected was analyzed using statistical package for social science (spss) version 16:0; the study used frequency count and simple percentage to elucidate the demographic data of the respondents. to answer research questions one (1), descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were used. to answer research questions two (2) t-test was used. while, the qualitative data collected from individual interview were interpreted and right decision were made. there are two ways of analyzing qualitative data. one of the approaches is to examine your findings with a pre-defined framework, which reflects your objectives. this approach is relatively easy and is closely aligned with policy and programmatic research which has pre-determined interests. this approach allows you to focus on particular answers and abandon the rest. we refer to this approach as ‘framework analyses’ (celano, nd). result and discussion descriptive statistics was used to analyze research question 1, while research question 2 t-test was used. individual interview was analyzed through interpretation of data collected via data blank. research question one: to what extent do pre-service teachers in colleges of education in northwestern nigeria find smartphone easy to use for learning purpose? this research question is answered using frequency and percentage. summary of the analysis presented in table 4.5. table 4.5 confirmed that, the sampled respondents 256 (69%) agreed that learning through the use of smartphone was easy for them; 84 (22.7%) disagreed with the statement while only 31 (8.4%) were neutral with the statement. it was perceived by the majority of the respondents 242 (65.3%) that they agreed that they find it easy to get smartphone what they want to do. however, 97 (26.1%) disagreed with this while 32 (8.6%) maintained neutrality with the statement. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 46 │ table 4.5: the extent by which pre-service teachers find smartphone easy to us for learning purpose s/n items disagree neutral agree 1. learning using smartphone for learning would be easier for me. 84 (22.7%) 31 (8.4%) 256 (69%) 2. i would find it easy to get a smartphone to do what i want it to do. 97 (26.1%) 32 (13.7%) 242 (65.3%) 3. my interaction with a smartphone would be clear and understandable. 83 (22.4%) 47 (12.7%) 241 (65%) 4. i would smartphone to be flexible to interact with. 93 (25.1%) 49 (13.2%) 229 (61.7%) 5. it would be easy for me to become skillful at using smartphone. 92 (24.8%) 59 (15.9%) 220 (59.3%) 6. i would find smartphone easy to use. 71 (19.1%) 36 (9.7%) 264 (71.2%) cumulative percentage 23.36% 12.26% 65.25% moreover, the respondents (241 or 65%) agreed that their interaction with smartphone would be clear and understandable 83 (22.4%) disagreed on this while 47 (12.7%) were neural. in addition, the majority of the respondents 229 (61.7%) agreed that they would find smartphone to be flexible to interact with 93 (25.1%) disagreed with the statement while 49 (13.2%) were neutral in this regard. the sampled respondents 171 (59.3%) agreed that they are skillful at using smartphone 92 (24.8%) disagreed with the statement while 59 (15.9%) maintained neutrality. the respondents 233 (71.2%) agreed that they find smartphone easy to use 20 (20%); 71 (19.1%) disagreed with this while 36 (9.7%) were neutral with this. pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-western nigeria find smartphone very easy to use for learning purposes; this is so because the percentage of 65.25% is greater than 23.36% and 12.26%. research question two: how does the use of smartphone for learning differ between male and female pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-western nigeria? this research question is answered using t-test. summary of the analysis presented in table 4.6. table 4.6: the use of smartphone for learning differ between male and female pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-western nigeria. gender n mean std. deviation use of smartphone male 186 21.4409 5.41162 female 185 21.0541 6.25780 the result revealed that, there was significant difference in score for males (m=21.44; sd=5.42) and females (m=21.05; sd=6.25; t (369) =0.63, p=.11 two-tailed). the magnitude of the differences in the means (means difference=.38’ 95% ci=-1.80-1.58). table 4.6 shows the use of smartphone for learning differs between male and female pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 47 analysis of individual interview quantitative and qualitative instruments were used in this study to improve the quality of research findings in order to make good elucidation on the quantitative data. individual interview was held with six pre-service teachers selected at random from three institutions. the institutions are: fce, zaria (a), sscoe, sokoto (b) and zcoe, maru (c). several elements of an interview report are: themes and contents; methodology and methods (from designing to interviewing, transcription and analysis); result (the data analysis, interpretation and verification); and discussion (alshenqeeti, 2014). reporting is not just of what has been said, it has to include discussing and justifying the information and answers given (alshenqeeti, 2014). as your aim is to condense all of the information to key themes and topics that can shed light on your research question, you need to start coding the material. a code is a word or a short phrase that descriptively captures the essence of elements of your material (e.g. a quotation) and is the first step in your data reduction and interpretation (celano, nd). below are responses that were sampled of some respondents. respondent a1 (male) “smartphone is easy for me to use smartphone without any assistance. smartphone will be the key instructional tool for teaching and learning”. respondent a 2 (female) “to use smartphone is not easy because of the network problems. smartphone will be use for storing learning materials”. respondent b 1 (male) “is not difficult for me to use smartphone, is very easy”. respondent b 2 (female) “i cannot use smartphone alone, but if someone assists me then i can use it”. respondent c 1 (male) “smartphone is easy to use but i seek for assistance in case of new applications”. respondent c 2 (female) “smartphone is easy to use; sometimes i seek for assistance from other people. for me smartphone will be good for learning in future”. with regard to qualitative research 6 pre-service teachers were interviewed, 2 each (1 male and 1 female) from college a, college b and college c. base on the qualitative research findings: the preservice teachers’ find smartphone very easy to use for their learning, but few of them need to be guided incase of new application (they need someone to assist them). if they are guided then they can use smartphone without any difficulty. conclusion in conclusion, smartphone is very easy to use for learning by the pre-service teachers in colleges of education in north-west, nigeria and male pre-service teachers in colleges of education in northwest, nigeria used smartphone for learning more than their female counterpart. the outcome of this research also showed us that in future smartphone may be accepted by the pre-service teachers’ and their instructors as instructional tool. ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 48 │ references alshenqeeti, h. 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(2014). a study on adoption factors of korean smartphone users: a focus on tam (technology acceptance model) and utaut (unified theory of acceptance and use of technology). advanced science and technology letters. 57, 27-30. ibrahim, m., & ibrahim, a. a. (2015). rethinking lesson delivery in english language class-room in nigeria: the role of smartphone. paper presented at the 2nd annual national conference of the faculty of education and extension services, usmanu danfodio university,sokoto, nigeria. jena, r. k. (2014). the impact and penetration of smartphone usage in students’ life. global journal of business management. 8 (1), published. nagpur, india, 29-35. kingsley, e. e. (2013). the usage and impact of internet phones on academic concentration among students’ of tertiary institutions: a study of university of ibadan, nigeria. international journal of education and communication technology, 9(3),162. muhanna, w. n., & abu-al-sha’r, a. m. (2009). university students’ attitudes towards cell phone learning environment. conference icl. austria. http://www.sciedu.ca/elr https://dokumen.tips/ http://www.ijip.in/ ease and level of use of smartphone for learning amongst pre-service teachers colleges of education in northwest, nigeria abdullahi abubakar ismaila, abdullahi kadage tukur, isiaka amoson gambari international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 49 sek, y. w., lau, s. h., teoh, k. k., law, c. y., & parumos, s. b. (2010). prediction of user acceptance and adoption of smartphone for learning with technology acceptance model. journal of applied sciences, 10 (20): 2395-2402. retrieved on 24/08/2017 from https://scialet.net/fulltextmobile teo, t. (2008). modelling technology acceptance in education: a study of pre-service teachers’. published by elsevier. journal of computers & education. journal home page: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu kemandirian aparatur sipil negara (asn) melalui literasi keuangan available online at: http://journals.rsfpress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal on research in stem education volume 1, no. 1, november 2019, pp. 50-61; doi: 10.31098/ijrse.v1i1.61 article history: received march 1st, 2019 ; accepted november 11th, 2019; published november 30th, 2019. appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid1, sufiyanu dauda2 1federal science college, sokoto/ federal ministry of education, nigeria 2federal government college, sokoto/ federal ministry of education, nigeria e-mail: mustaphaa@gmail.com abstract the study examined the attitude and utilization of information and communication technology among university students. the study adopted descriptive – survey as its design, and a population of one thousand three hundred and seventy seven (1377) students were used for the study out of which three hundred and two (302) were purposively sampled from the department of science and vocational education of the faculty of education and extension services, usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto. two research instruments were used students’ attitude towards information and communication technology (saict) and information and communication technology utilization (ictu). the instruments were pilot tested using cronbach alpha and reliability index of 0.93 and 0.77 were obtained. the research found that students have positive attitude towards ict, it was also found that students utilize ict for academic purpose, and that students attitude is related to utilization. the study recommends that science education students should be encouraged by the university to sustain their positive attitude towards ict by ensuring that the students have easy access to the facilities at every point in time. keywords: ict; attitude; utilization; science education students and university. introduction technology today has turn the world around, as magnificent as the world is, it has been converted into a global village, it has pave ways for the difficulties encountered years back when the need to access information arise. the entire world is connected technologically in such a way that advancement in technology is felt in every nuke and crannies of the globe. information and communication technology is a vital tool that helps the world in communicating information that are relevant to the development of the society. according to chafe (2000), ict refers to the convergence of information technology (it) and communication technology (ct). ict is the acquisition, processing, storing and disseminating of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by micro – electronic based combination of computers and telecommunication. many nations of the world have since incorporated ict into their everyday activities including teaching and learning, nigeria as nation is not an exception. nigeria is just about two decades into the embracement of ict (nwagu, 2006). however, even with the late embracement of ict into its system the nigerian government has invested a lot in the technological development of the nation. the nigerian universities like other universities of the world are centres for teaching and learning as well as research, and none of these can be easily actualized unless ict facilities are made available and used effectively. ict is a key tool that is having a revolutionary impact on educational methodology globally (ekeke & mbachu, 2015). however, the impact of the revolution would not be felt if ict are not fully integrated into the education system to serve as a tool that can enhance the teaching and learning pedagogy. no nation can grow beyond the quality of its teachers (frn, 2014). since science education students will eventually become certified to teach science subjects in the nearest future, it is therefore of appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 51 great importance that attention is dully paid to the teaching and learning pedagogy in order to make it competitive. agboola (2006), is of the opinion that many nations of the world including nigeria have been forced to reposition their educational system in order to make it competitive. university students varies from one another in terms of their perception and understanding while some students accept the ict facilities and use it to boast their academic career others still feel reluctant to accommodate the facilities into their academic pursuit, they use it to surf the internet for as long as they wish but will never seize the opportunity to use it for something beneficial academically. it is in this regard that this paper seeks to assess the attitude and utilization of ict among science education students in nigerian universities. statement of the problem despite the investment in technology by the nigerian government, and the tremendous efforts made by the university management to make available the ict facilities, one may still wonder why university students still find difficulty in accepting and utilizing the facilities for academic purpose. although, students spend quite a lot of time on the internet but very few seize some part of their time to justify timing to better themselves academically. this study therefore focused on the attitude of science education students towards ict, and what they use the facilities for and at the same time assessed the relationship between their attitude and utilization of the facilities in usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto. research questions the study investigated the attitudes and utilization of ict among science education students in usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto. specifically, the study provided answers to the following questions: 1. what is the attitude of science education students towards ict? 2. what do science education students utilize ict facilities for? literature review attitude of students towards ict determines what they use the facilities for, students vary in term of utilization, and this is attributed to their various perception of the ict. however, the right attitudes towards ict by students pave way for its utilization in the right direction and vice versa. the utilization provides feedback which serve as a reinforcement toward the academic performance. this practice of interacting with ict facilities for academics exposes the students to generate more interest in the technology usage, which in the long run affects their academic performance and give them the desire to use the ict to try something new and use the acquired knowledge now and later in future. fig 1: conceptual framework showing the relationship between attitude and utilization of ict. appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 52 │ concept of attitude the concept attitude has been defined by different scholars in a seemly different ways. kassin (2008), defines attitudes as relatively enduring beliefs or opinions that predispose people to act in a positive, negative, or ambivalent way to a person, object, or idea. attitude refers to a person's response to an event either positively or negatively. attitude as defined by abdulaziz, jamaluddin & leng (2013), refers to ones judgment about a particular event or subject. this judgement could be positive or negative. attitude can be learnt or influenced; attitude may also change with experience of the stimulus objects and with social rules or institutions. victor – edema (2014), is of the opinion that attitude is within the frame work of social psychology as a subjective or mental preparation for action. attitude determines what an individual hears, sees, thinks and does. therefore attitudes are not automatic instead they are sourced from experience. also, bello (2009), refers to attitude as a mental predisposition to respond favourably or unfavourably to a particular object or event. hence science education students’ attitude towards information and communication technology could be positive, negative or ambivalent. information and communication technology (ict) information and communication technology (ict) is made up of diverse technological tools that can be used to communicate, disseminate, store, retrieve, and manage information. according to chafe (2000), ict refers to the convergence of information technology (it) and communication technology (ct). ict is the acquisition, processing, storing and disseminating of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by micro – electronic based combination of computers and telecommunication. ict is concerned with the use of technology in handling, acquiring, processing, storing and disseminating information (bello, 2007). also gbadebo, abimbola, ademi & odupe (2013), see it as a generic term which refers to technologies that are used for collecting, storing, editing and passing information of various forms. basically ict is an aggregation of technologies vis-à-vis communication facilities that facilitates and helps to improve the nature in which messages are stored, relayed and disseminated for pre-determined purposes. the use of information communication technologies has received tremendous attention from both staff and students in nigerian universities. ict offers seemingly infinite access to up-to-date research reports and knowledge (nwokedi, 2007). therefore it has become an invaluable tool for learning, teaching and research in nigerian universities. it has been widely accepted as a channel through which students and researchers communicate in higher institution of learning. there has been positive impact of technological usage on students and researchers in nigerian universities in their critical thinking, problem solving and networking. sanni, awoleye, egbetokun and siyanbola (2009), stated that the internet has been applauded as one of the most significant technological development of the 20th century and is seen as tool poised to significantly influence academic research in the nearest future. its strength lies in the unprecedented growth of the network world wide and its ability to connect computer and several individuals irrespective of their geographical location (sanni, awoleye, egbetokun & siyanbola, 2009). the university as a research institute and a very important body that is relevant in national development must continue to strive to create a suitable learning environment that will give room to students to construct their own knowledge rather than embracing the traditional method. to move the nation forward, the use of information and communication technologies should be encouraged and practiced in nigerian universities (nwezeh, 2010). current information is very useful for the appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 53 development of students in the universities, and this information can easily be obtained through the use of modern technologies, therefore university library will serve as an important infrastructure of the school that could provide such services. however, the technology oriented service has made most university libraries to shift from traditional library services to technologically oriented services, libraries now provide reading resources alongside their online resource or information that are always available on the web. this is significant to the study as the study hoped that students embrace the ict and make it part of their everyday life. however, some of the most commonly use information and communication technology in the university will be discussed as follows. ict utilization among students information and communication technologies are electronic technologies used for information storage and retrieval. the emergence of these technologies has shrunk the world into a global village that anyone or organization ignoring it is asking to be side-tracked and placed in the periphery in the international arena. this new technological age is a revolutionary period whose impact is far surpassing those of the agricultural and industrial revolutions. information has now become the most strategic resources that has transformed the world economy, changed many facets of life, education inclusive. internet which is one out of the many components of ict has changed the way we work and interact with each other. the internet has increasingly become an invariable asset in education in terms of learning, teaching and research (amuoge, & ejike, 2016). the use of internet in the higher institution is an exciting prospect especially when the rugged terrain is the significant impediment to obtain information for the vast majority of people. the world today is information driven and internet has become a key player in education. the need for internet use in tertiary institutions in nigeria has become very imperative in view of its roles in learning and research. the students cannot ignore the impact of automation and information processing system on their skills and discipline since almost everything within and around their environment are centred on technological innovations. it was observed by ajala (2007), that the internet has opened up numerous possibilities for doing resource sharing at local and global levels and that information on latest journals, books and discussion can be exchanged directly through the use of internet services. the use of these technologies is therefore inevitable in our everyday life, especially by the science educators who will always pass the knowledge acquired through the use of technological gadgets unto others. this study like many others also aimed at assessing the level of ict utilization among science education students. review of related empirical studies mbah (2010), conducted a research on the impact of ict on students' study habits. this is related to the work under study in such a way that it shows concern on the science education students’ attitude towards ict. the study sample was drawn from the department of curriculum studies and teaching cst/biology in the university of buea, cameroun. his findings were that students have positive attitude towards ict and used the tools to facilitate their learning. although male students are more favoured to use ict, students constantly change their study habits based on the type of ict they use to ease their studies. this study is wider in the sense that in addition to the students study habits, it also looked at students’ utilization of ict and their academic achievement. appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 54 │ arthur (2010), investigated the relationship between academic achievement of students and their attitude toward ict. eighty four students were drawn from among the undergraduate b. ed health science education and postgraduate students of various programmes in the faculty of education at the university of cape coast, ghana. attitude scale for computer was developed to assess students’ attitude towards computer. the study also adopted the end of semester examination on ict which consisted of hands on computer exercise in ms-word and spss. the result of the analysis revealed that there is moderate correlation between undergraduate students’ attitude toward ict and their achievement in ict, as the pearson correlation between undergraduate students attitude towards ict and their achievement was 0.432. the study also revealed is a weak correlation between postgraduate students’ attitudes towards ict and their achievement with pearson correlation of 0.185. however, the general achievement of the undergraduate students and postgraduate students was good as the average score for both categories was 74% and the standard deviation of the respective category was 15.6 and 10.1. the study also indicated both set of students showed positive attitudes toward ict. this study also created a gap by studying only attitude towards ict and academic achievement leaving ict utilization by students; it was carried out in ghana while this study aimed at studying the nigerian university. abdulaziz, jamaludeen and haileng (2013), conducted a research that investigated postgraduate students' attitude towards internet and computer use in the year 2011 at university of malaya in malaysia. the participants were 289 postgraduate students of university of malaya. the survey questionnaires were administered to the students who volunteered to be part of the survey. the result of the analysis revealed that postgraduate students showed positive attitude toward computer and internet usage. this was attributed to the availability and accessibility of the internet by the post graduate school of the university of malaya. the study also revealed that postgraduate students have high attributes towards computer usage as a result of regular use of computer and the internet in instructions, homework and relevant task that required computer usage. the study above failed to study academic achievement alongside attitude and internet usage among postgraduate students of university of malaya, malaysia. while the ongoing study focus on all the three variables among undergraduate students in nigeria. nwezeh (2010), examined the level of awareness and usage of internet among staff and students of obafemi awolowo university ile-ife. this study gathered information from both staff and students by the use of questionnaire. a total of 100 staff and 300 students were randomly selected for the study. ninety nine and 279 questionnaires were returned by the staff and students respectively. the data was analyzed using simple descriptive statistics. the result from the study showed that 50.5% of the students and 70.7% of staff are aware of the internet facilities provided by the university. it also revealed that 50% of the staff as well as 56% of the students use the internet as their source of information for research. the study concluded that the use of ict is gaining momentum in nigerian universities as the internet is used by both staff and students in sourcing information, and once these facilities are effectively utilized, it will facilitate development and the rate at which information flow will improve. the study created a gap in the area of attitude of students towards ict as well as academic achievement, which the ongoing study aimed to cover using the undergraduate students of usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto ogedebe (2012), examined the extent and purpose of internet usage among nigerian university undergraduate students and researchers. questionnaire were designed and administered to students in the department of accountancy and microbiology in the university of maiduguri, nigeria. a total of 350 students were selected and responded to the questionnaires and returned the questionnaires. he found appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 55 that 45% of the university students use the internet for academic purpose. it indicated that they use the internet to search for relevant academic materials, though some few students used the internet to send and receive emails. he also found that about 60% of the total respondent used the internet facilities regularly. it also indicated that internet usage has influence academic performance of the students with 79% of the respondents in support of the improvement in their academic performance as a result of ict usage. it was therefore concluded that a strong relationship exists between the rate at which students use the internet facilities and their academic performance this was indicated by correlation coefficient of 0.57 at 0.05 significance level a strong positive correlation. the study concluded that there is a positive relationship between internet usage and students academic performance. the study above was limited the internet usage and academic performance of students at the university of maiduguri, it failed to look at the attitude of students towards the internet, which is the concern of ongoing study in addition utilization and academic achievement of students in usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto. chukwudi and godspower (2015), investigated the role of ict on university of benin undergraduate students academic performance. the study used questionnaires which were distributed among 100 students both full time and parttime students. the survey includes male and female undergraduate students from diverse age bracket and faculties in the university of benin. a total of 93 questionnaires were returned and data were analyzed using the statistical packages for social sciences (spss) 16.0 software. the percentages of the responses were also calculated. the study revealed that there was 100% technological usage, with the new generation of mobile phones called smart phone, the respondents are capable of sending emails, files and multimedia at an amazing speed, through the mobile phones, laptop, ipad and desktop. the study also found that 83.9% of the students of the university visit social network sites on a regular basis. other sites such as chat engine, entertainment site and adult sites were also visited. it was also revealed by the study that 60.9% of the students in addition to the social network also surf academic related sites. the study also revealed that 6% of the students could make a first degree, 31% second class upper, 43% second class lower and 20% third class degree. the study affirmed that ict have less influence on students academic performance. though, it seems to have a profound impact on the process of learning in higher education by offering new possibilities for students and researchers. however, with the recent proliferation of ict tools and services, students are finding it difficult to curtail its negative appeal. this study was also limited to ict usage in connection with academic achievement in the university of benin, it failed to look at the attitude towards it, which should be the determinant for its usage. amuoge and ekijke (2016), examined internet awareness and use by the undergraduate students in college of agriculture and science education, michael okpara university of agriculture, umudike, abia state, nigeria. it sought to find out their level of internet awareness, frequency of internet use, purpose of internet use, impact derivable from the internet use and factors affecting their usage of internet. a descriptive survey design was used for the study with a population of 1800 undergraduate students. sample size of 360 of the population was used for the study. the instrument for data collection was structured questionnaires. percentages and frequency tables were used in analyzing the data. the result of the study revealed that all the 224 respondents responded positively with regards to being aware of the internet. it also revealed that 76.8% of the respondents make use of the internet more frequently. the study also found that 52.7% use the internet mainly for learning purposes, while use it for chatting, sending emails among others. he result of the study revealed that all the 224 respondents responded positively with regards to being aware of the internet. it also revealed that 76.8% of the respondents appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 56 │ make use of the internet more frequently. the study also found that 52.7% use the internet mainly for learning purposes, while use it for chatting, sending emails among others. the result however, showed self-assessed impact of the internet on the students’ academic performances. 73.2% of the respondents claimed that the internet has exercised very high level of impact on them while 23.2% of the respondents agreed that the impact is low. the study concluded that the potentials of internet awareness and its use in education system and in the life of students can never be overemphasized as it gives quick access to numerous and varied information on net which is a vital ingredient needed by every student in all academic endeavor. this work could not incorporate students attitude towards the ict, which is another gap been created by the study and the ongoing study aimed at bridging the gap yusuf (2011), also examined the attitude of student-teachers attitude towards the use of ict, competence of student-teacher in the use of ict and the influence of gender on student-teachers competence and attitude towards ict. a total of 500 student-teachers were randomly selected for the study from five departments of the faculty of education, university of ilorin, ilorin, kwara state, nigeria. the students comprises of undergraduate student-teachers enrolled into various concurrent teacher education programmes, the students were stratified into male and female. 500 questionnaires were administered to randomly selected student-teachers, 407 were returned, out of which 25 were discarded due to incomplete data and only 382 was found usable as a returned and usable rate of 76.40%. the responses from the students were tabulated and compared, descriptive analysis was carried out and chi-square was also use to analyze the data. the result of the analysis revealed that student-teachers generally have positive attitude towards ict, with over 50% of the students responding in that respect, the student-teachers believe that ict could generally provide better learning experience. the study also showed that over 50% of the respondents are competent and have confidence in using the computer and other ict facilities, and about 25% of the respondents noted that they had occasionally used these facilities but need further training. the study also indicated that there is no significant difference between male and female student-teachers attitude towards ict. it also revealed that no significant difference was established between the male and female student-teachers with the male student-teachers having the mean values 2.46 and 2.58 respectively, and the female student-teachers had 2.21 and 2.38 respectively at 0.05 level of significant. the study therefore affirmed that student-teachers have positive attitude toward ict usage. it also confirmed that gender had no influence on the attitude of student-teachers towards ict and similarly no significant difference was established between male and female student-teachers in their ict competence. the study only focuses on attitude of students towards ict, not considering utilization and academic achievement. odogwu and mbah (2015), sought to determine the level of utilization of ict by mathematic teachers, their attitude towards the ict and competence in ict use. gender influence on their attitude and competence was also examined. the study adopted 310 participants randomly selected; they were 212 male and 98 female mathematics teachers in surulere local government area of lagos state, nigeria. the result of the analysis revealed that 80% of the participants uses ict and use it for academic purpose. the study further indicated that majority of the mathematic teachers 83% do not lack skills in various ict applications needed to enhance teaching and learning. over 50% of mathematic teachers are competent in the use of spreadsheet, presentation, locate and run programmes, download files from internet among others. the study also revealed the existence of significant difference on mathematic teachers’ attitude towards ict, as the t-value was found to be statistically significant with 12.714 greater than t-tabulated appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 57 1.96 at 0.05 level of significant. it indicated that male and female mathematics teachers do not have same attitude towards ict. female teachers had more positive attitude than male teachers. the study concluded that significant difference exist between male and female mathematics teachers in their competence in use of ict. it also affirmed that female mathematic teachers were more competent than n male mathematic teachers. the study focused on attitude and utilization of ict by mathematics teachers, while the ongoing study is interested in attitude, utilization and academic achievement of pre-service science teachers and male mathematic teachers. the study focused on attitude and utilization of ict by mathematics teachers, while the ongoing study is interested in attitude, utilization and academic achievement of pre-service science teachers. n male mathematic teachers. the study focused on attitude and utilization of ict by mathematics teachers, while the ongoing study is interested in attitude, utilization and academic achievement of pre -service science teachers. method the design adopted by the study was a descriptive survey type. the survey involved the use of questionnaires to collect information from science education students of the department of science and vocational education, faculty of education and extension services, usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto on their attitude toward ict and its utilization. the population of the study cut across the one thousand three hundred and seventy seven (1377) students in the department of science and vocational education of the faculty of education and extension services of the usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto and a sample size of three hundred and two (302) students were purposively drawn for the study, the students comprised of various levels ranging from 200, 300 and 400 level. research instruments two instruments were used for this study, the instrument on students’ attitude to ict (saict) was adapted from bello (2009), and a self designed instrument ict utilization (ictu) respectively. the saict and ictu have 25 – items and 20 – items questionnaires respectively. the instruments were validated by experts in the field of education and it was pilot tested using cronbach alpha to obtain reliability index of 0.93 and 0.77 respectively. result and discussion research question one: what is the attitude of science education students towards ict? table 1: attitude of students towards information communication technology s/n students’ attitude score range mean std. deviation 1. high positive attitude 90 – 120 106.67 9.72 2. low positive attitude 60 – 89 86.11 6.37 3. negative attitude 30 – 59 46.25 3.96 total 96.68 8.72 source: research survey (2017) table 1 presents data on attitude of student teachers to ict, the results shows that students with high positive attitude have the highest mean score of 106.67 and sd of 9.72, students with low appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 58 │ positive attitude have a mean score of 86.11 and sd of 6.37 and students with negative attitude have a mean score of 46.25 and sd of 3.72. generally the average mean score of student’s attitude is 96.68, this therefore implies that students have high positive attitude towards ict. this finding answer research question one that is science education students in usmanu danfodiyo university have positive attitude towards ict. research question two: what do science education students utilize ict facilities for?table 2: students’ utilization of information and communication technology item frequency percentage 1. academic only 199 65.2 2. for sending and receiving messages only 35 11.5 3. social media 68 22.3 total 302 100% source: research survey (2017) from the result of table 2 science education students use the ict facilities mainly for academics, as the greater percentage of 65.2% used ict for academics, while the remaining 33.8% was shared among the science education students who use ict, 11.5% for sending and receiving messages, 22.3% used it to access social media. this finding revealed that pre-service teachers use ict facilities for academic purpose. null hypothesis there is no significant relationship between attitudes of science education students towards ict and its utilization. to test this hypothesis, data generated for the study was analyzed using spearman rank order correlation coefficient, and the result is shown in table 3. table 3: relationship between students’ attitude towards ict and its utilization. variables n mean std rho p – value decision attitude towards ict 302 96.68 8.72 0.68 0.04 significant ict utilization 302 38.26 3.46 α = 0.05: source: research survey (2017) from the result of table 3, students’ attitude towards ict and its’ utilization were positively related and significant, p = 0.04. this indicates that there was significant relationship between students’ attitude towards ict and its utilization, because p value was less than α value of 0.05 level of significance. therefore the hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between attitude of science education student towards ict and its utilization was rejected. it was found that student – teachers have positive attitude towards ict. this finding was in line with arthur (2010), who found that postgraduate and undergraduate students of health science education in cape coast university have positive attitude towards ict. this finding was also in conformity with abdulaziz, jamaludeen and haileng (2013), who found that postgraduate students of malaysian university have positive attitude towards ict. yusuf (2011) also found that students – teacher appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 59 generally have positive towards ict. the students’ attitude could be attributed to the availability and accessibility of the facilities in the university. this study also found that students used ict for academic purpose. though they also use it for other purposes, but majority of them used it for academics. this finding agrees with chang and fang (2007),who found that students uses the internet to search for relevant information on their academics alongside making friends, online shopping among others. also, ogedebe (2012) found that students use ict for academic purpose. the students’ utilization of ict for such purpose could not have been possible, if the facilities are not within the reach of the students in the university. however, the students’ positive attitude towards the facilities was also a contributing factor that influences the use of ict in the right direction. the study also found significant relationship between attitude towards ict and its utilization. this was in line with gao (2005) who found that the students’ attitude towards ict correlates positively with its utilization. it also agrees with liaw (2002), who reiterated that success of internet utilization was very much related to the users’ attitude towards it. bello (2009), was also in favour of this finding as he found correlation between students’ attitude and ict utilization. the use of ict facilities therefore depend so much on the users’ attitude. if a user has a negative attitude towards it, he uses it for less important and less relevant purpose, and when one has positive attitude, it would be expected that he uses the facilities for relevant academic purpose, even though researches have shown that they can be used for other purposes. however, a positive attitude will facilitate utilization in the right direction. conclusion it was concluded in this paper that students have on the average a high positive attitude towards information and communication technology. students utilized the facilities for academic purpose, even though they utilized it for other purposes. students’ attitude thus plays the determinant role in the utilization of ict among students. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: 1. science educations students should be encouraged by the university to sustain their positive attitude towards ict by ensuring that the students have easy access to the facilities at every point in time. 2. the university should make available facilities as technology evolves and create easy access to those facilities in order to sustain students’ attitude towards ict which will in turn aid students’ utilization for high academic performance. references abdulaziz, n.,jamaludeen, s.,& haileng, c. 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(2007). internet awareness, accessibility and use by undergraduate and postgraduate students in nigerian universities: a case study of lautch, ogbonwo. nigeria information technologist, 4(2), 147-162. amuoge, d. a & ejike, u . i (2016). assessment of internet awareness and use by the undergraduate students of college of agricultural and science education in michael okpara universityof agriculture, umudike. american journal of educational research, 4 (2), 200-203. arthur, k. a (2010). relationship between students’ attitudes toward ict and their achievement in ict at the university of cape coast. international journal of basic education, 1, 74-80 bello, m. r (2007). postgraduate students accessibility to and utilization of information and communication technology (internet). sokoto educational review, 9 (2), 85-93. bello, m. r (2009). a study of science education students' attitude and utilization of information and communication technology in federal university of technology, minna unpublished masters' dissertation, usmanu danfodiyo university, sokoto. chafe, a. i. (2000). using information and communication technologies in the teaching and learning of mathematics. reading in education, 3(13), 178-193. chan, k., & fang, w. (2007). use of internet and traditional media among young people. young consumers, 8(4), 244-256. chukwudi, t.a, & godspower, o.e (2015). ict social services and students’ academic perfomance. a multidisciplinary journal publication of the faculty of science, adeleke university, ede, nigeria, 2 (2), 29 – 46. ekeke, j .t , & mbachu, c. e ( 2015). the place of ict in teaching/learning in nigeria tertiary institutions. american journal of educational research 3, 340 – 347. federal republic of nigeria (2014), national policy of education. nerdc press, lagos. gao, y (2005). applying the technology acceptance model to educational hypemedia. a field study. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia, 14 (3), 237 – 247. gbadebo, a.d., abimbola, o.c., ademi, t.s.,& odupe, t.a (2013). extent of teachers awareness, gender and utilization of ict tools for effective teaching of mathematics in epe local government of lagos state. south – west journal of teachereducation, 5 (12), 136-148. liaw, s.s (2002). a n internet survey for perceptions of computers and the world wide web; relationship, prediction and difference. computer in human behavior, 18, 17-35. mbah, t. b (2010). the impact of ict on students’ study habits. case study: university of buea, cameroon. journal of science and technology education research, 1(5), 107 – 110. nwagwu, w.e. (2006). integrating icts into the globalization of the poor developing countries. information development, 22 (3), 167-179. nwezeh, m. t (2010). the use of information and communication technology (ict) in nigerian universities: a case study of obafemiawolowouniversity, ile-ife. library philosophy and practice. nwokedi, v.c (2007). impact of internet use on teaching and research activities of the academic staff of faculty of medical sciences, university of jos: a case study. gateway library journal, 10(1), 13 – 22. appraisal of attitudes and utilizations of information and communication technology (ict) among students in nigerian universities mustapha abdulhamid, sufiyanu dauda international journal on research in stem education, volume 1, no. 1, november 2019 │ 61 odogwu, h. n & mbah, s (2015) attitude and competence of mathematics teachers to the information and communication technology (ict) use. proceeding of mathematical association of nigeria (man) annual national conference sept, 2015, 16-27. ogedebe, p.m. (2012) internet usage and students’ academic performance in nigeria tertiary institutions: a case study of university of maiduguri. academic research international, 2(3), 334-343. sanni m, awoleye o. m, egbetokun a. a, & siyanbola w. o. (2009). harnessing the potentials of internet technology for research and development among undergraduates in nigeria: a case study of obafemi awolowo university. international journal of computing and ict research, 3(1), 10-17. victor-edema, u.a (2014). teachers’ attitude towards delivering mathematics instruction in senior secondary school. journal of issues on mathematics, 16(11), 111-119. yusuf, m.o (2011). student teachers’ competence and attitude towards information and communication technology: a case study in a nigerian university. contemporary educational technology, 2011, 2(1), 18-36 18. microsoft word 13. ijrse-604-article text-3440-1-15-20211121.docx available online at: https://researchsynergy.org/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 2 (2021): 51-63 corresponding author joan.hesti.fis@um.ac.id doi:https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i2.604 research synergy foundation students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice (ppl) anif fatimatus sholichah1, joan hesti gita purwasih2, seli septiana pratiwi3 1universitas negeri malang, indonesia 2universitas negeri malang, indonesia 3universitas negeri malang, indonesia abstract this research focuses on the readiness and the lack of students’ competence as pre-service teacher in dealing with field experience practice (ppl). the research was carried out using a mix method. researchers develop research designs using qualitative method first, and then explain the findings obtained more comprehensively using qualitative method. the results of quantitative research were obtained through questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained through interviews and literature studies. the results of the study show that the low competence of students is in three domains, that are 1) mastery of making learning tools, 2) determining learning strategies and models, and 3)mastering materials. keywords: practice field experience (ppl); students competence; ukg this is an open access article under the cc-by-nc license. introduction education is one of issues needing special attention in indonesia. the quality of learning in indonesia has not performed optimally and evenly. therefore, education is one of 17 (seventeen) sustainable development goals (sdgs). the result of program for international student assessment (pisa) shows that reading, mathematical and scientific competencies decrease (subdirektorat statistik pendidikan dan kesejahteraan sosial [sub statistic directorate of education and social welfare], 2020). data can be seen in table 1. as the measure to improve pisa value, the minister of education and culture, nadiem makarim, prepares five strategies, one of which is related to the transformation of teacher professionalism education (kasih, 2020). table 1 result of pisa indonesia competency mean score of pisa (year) 20 12 20 15 2 018 reading 38 2,3 38 6 3 58 mathematics 37 5 38 6 3 79 science 38 2 40 3 3 96 source: (purwasih, 2020) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi 52| teacher is a very important component in education. teacher is an individual who plans learning, implements learning process, assesses, and guides the students. the main role holder in teaching and learning activities is the teacher(ulfah, 2018). consequently, teacher contributes very considerably to determining the quality of education. therefore, a teacher should master competencies as a professional educator. it is corresponding to republic of indonesia’s law number 19 of 2005 about national standard of education, particularly article 28 clause 1, mandating that an educator is required to have academic qualification and competency as the agent of learning. however, data of teacher competency test (tct) result in 2019 shows that 70 percents of teacher in indonesia obtains ukg value below 80. it means that only 30 percents of indonesian teachers are competent. the fact that majority teachers have ukg score below 80 indicates that the teachers have not developed teaching performance or competency maximally yet. even many teachers are assumed to have not understood fully their profession (sekretariat gtk, 2019). this fact should be the point to consider and to reform. the quality of education in indonesia should be reformed continuously, but the development of teacher competency has not been met satisfactorily in indonesia. moreover, education is faced with covid-19 pandemic require the teacher to update the competency owned. the change of traditional learning in the class into long distance learning (ldl) due to covid-19 pandemic requires the teachers to have digital competency. the development of a teacher’s digital competency is no longer an option, but an obligation (ramadhan, sukma, & indriyani, 2019). in fact, pre-service teachers graduated from college have not had adequate digital competency yet (reisoglu & cebi, 2020),(gudmundsdottir & hatlevik, 2018), (tondeur, van braak, siddiq, & scherer, 2016). indonesian government through minister of education and culture attempts to deal with social, cultural, work realm, and technological changes in industrial revolution 4.0 era by issuing the policy “merdeka belajar-kampus merdeka (freedom to learn – independent campus)”. such policy is implemented in the attempt of creating prepared and competent students (ministry of education and culture, 2020). the problem also attracts colleges or universities’ attention, particularly the organization of field study education (pratiwi, purwasih, rozakiyah, & apriyadi, 2021). college is the first place to correct the problem related to teaching competency of pre-service teachers. it is in line with sukmawati (2019) stating that preparation made by a pre-service teacher begins with attending the lecturing in college. college has an obligation to prepare the competency of pre-service teachers through both theoretical and practical courses. preparation that should be made by a teacher, according to maipita and mutiara, involves the learning material mastering ability, physical and mental abilities (maipita & mutiara, 2018). college or university is the place where students learn soft skills and hard skills expectedly supporting their activity of seeking job. however, many college graduates find job difficultly due to inadequate competency (purwanti, 2021). from the result of previous studies (hapsari & widhianningrum, 2016), it can be seen that students could not deal with the class well in implementing field experience practice (thereafter called ppl) because they prepared inadequately the learning procedure and the learning material. in addition, studies conducted by khoirunnisa, suwarni, & yarmaidi, (2015), idrius, triansyah, & yunitaningningrum (2016), and mustafa (2020) found that the problems faced by ppl students are primarily: 1) poor competency in applying idea to create learning circumstance and media, 2) inadequate flexibility in interacting with students, 3) not mastering teaching skill, 4) poor mastery of creating learning design (rpp), and 5) incapable of integrating learning materials. the fact that students have not been prepared should be highlighted. students’ preparedness to be professional teachers is very important because, their preparedness can minimize the error in international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi | 53 undertaking their profession. pre-service teachers’ preparedness highly determines the quality of teacher later, so that the more quality the teacher, the more quality is the education. thus, some improvement should be made from basic unit, college level. therefore, the author is interested in studying the preparedness and the cause of students’ low competency mastery in attending ppl.this research aims to find out the factors causing the students’ poor competency as pre-service teachers in implementing ppl and finding solution to cope with the poor competency of pre-service teachers. literature review teacher professionalism is a factor affecting the quality of learning. teacher with qualified professionalism will be able to improve the students’ cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains (bakar, 2018). a professional teacher will has competency to support the learning. competency is an individual’s ability of doing something obtained through both education and training (sahertian & sahertian, 2000). therefore, competency is an adequate ability an individual has to do a job obtained through education and training. so, the teaching competency intended is something the teachers should have and master at any level of education. competency is useful for teachers to develop their profession as good educator. teachers can control and cope with any difficulties in doing their obligation as educators when they have good competency. additionally, they will understand and be aware of their duty and obligation as educators, corresponding to the demand they should meet (susilowati, sutanto, & daharti, 2013). a teacher should have at least four teaching competencies: pedagogic, personality, social, and professional, according to the law no. 14 of 2005 about teachers and lecturers in article 10 clause 1 (“uu no.14 thn 2005 guru dan dosen [law no.14 of 2005 teacher and lecturer],” n.d.). pedagogic competency is a teacher’s ability of managing the learning. the ability a teacher should have includes understanding the students, designing and implementing the learning, evaluating the learning outcome, and developing the students. personality competency includes teachers’ ability of being well-established, stable, mature, wise, and prestigious person, being role model to students and having noble character. professional competency includes teachers’ ability of mastering learning material broadly and in-depth, thereby enabling to guide the students corresponding to the standard educational competency. social competency is a teacher’s ability as the part of society as indicated with the ability of communicating and interacting with students, all teachers, and teaching staffs, students’ parents/guardians, and surrounding people. a ppl teacher should have the four competencies in order to create a joyful learning. a joyful learning will affect students’ interest and motivation in the learning process (wahyudi, 2012). there is a positive significant relationship between pedagogic competency and professional competency of ppl teachers in improving the students’ learning motivation. thus, the better the pedagogic and professional competencies of ppl teachers, the better is the students’ learning motivation (santika, darmawiguna, & santyadiputra, 2018). therefore, the teaching competency is fundamental to students who want to have career as professional teachers. research method this research employed mix method. mix method is an approach implemented through collecting qualitative and quantitative data. both data are integrated to acquire richer and complementary understanding (cresswell, 2014: 4). mix method was chosen in the attempt of finding out the interinternational journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi 54| variable relation and to interpret and to draw a conclusion from the data obtained. the mix method researchdeveloped was explanatory sequential mixed method. in this study, the research design developed quantitative research first, and then explained the data found more in-depth using qualitative research (cresswell, 2014: 15-16). this research focused on the preparedness of 2018-generation students in department of sociology of um in attending the field experience practice. the result of quantitative research was obtained through distributing questionnaire, while qualitative data was obtained through interview and library study. questionnaires were collected from the 2018-generation of sociology students who are implementing and will implement ppl through google form. the result of questionnaire was measured using likert scale and completed by 41 students. spss data shows that the questionnaire items are valid. meanwhile, the reliability of table regarding the data above indicates that viewed from n of items, there are 14 items with cronbach’s alpha of 0.918. it indicates that the score of reliability test is higher than 0.80; thus, it can be concluded that the fourteen question items have strong reliability. the fourteen question items of questionnaires distributed are related to professional and pedagogic competencies the students should have in planning the learning for ppl activity. meanwhile, the interview was conducted with 8 (eight) sociology students in the 2018 generation who are currently attending and will attend ppl. considering the result of data obtained from questionnaire distribution, students were worried with at least three matters in the topic of students’ competency planning readiness in facing ppl. the three matters are: developing learning set, strategy, and teaching method, and material mastery and development as teaching material. these matters are then developed into 10 semi-structured question items, so that the qualitative data can support quantitative data that have been obtained in-depth and comprehensively. findings and discussion 1. obstacles in preparing ppl field experience practice (ppl) is one of programs implemented by campus to create and to build students’ professional competencies as pre-service teachers. the implementation of ppl is intended to enable the students to obtain competencies relevant to teachers’ duty. the competency intended is related to learning, training, and facilitating (hapsari & widhianningrum, 2016). students acquire teaching competency through attending educational (pedagogical) course. students are obliged to attend some certain courses before taking ppl. the courses are given to equip them to teach. thus, the students are expected to have mastered teaching competency before implementing ppl. regarding this, students often found some obstacles in preparing the implementation of ppl. the problems with the preparation of ppl implementation found by the author are as follows: international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi | 55 a. developing learning set the skill of preparing learning set is very important to a teacher. learning set functions as an instrument to facilitate a teacher in implementing the learning process. students’ characteristics and school environments are varying, so that teachers are expected to be able to develop rpp (learning implementation plan) independently. however, ppl students still find some difficulties in preparing learning set. this condition can be seen from figures 1 and 2. figure 1 ability of designing rpp about 9.8% of students have not been able to prepare rpp yet. but, although most students admit that they have been able to prepare rpp, they still find difficulties in preparing it. students are often found to duplicate preexisting rpp. considering the result of interview, it can be seen that students have not been sure whether or not the rpp they have prepared has been correct. it is because the students understand poorly the good and right standard of rpp. students have not understood yet the function and the application of bloom’s taxonomy. consequently, students have not understood how to lower main competency (ki) and basic competency (kd) in rpp to be the appropriate indicators. additionally, when attending the learning strategy and design course, lecturers explain the materials inadequately and do not give feedback to the assignment done. thus, students cannot identify the error made in preparing rpp. “the explanation given by lecturers is less understandable. in addition, lecturers have never given feedback when giving such assignment as preparing rpp, assessment instrument and other duty. so, i do not know whether the rpp or other instruments i have prepared is correct or not”. “actually i do not understand what the appropriate rpp is. so, when preparing rpp, i just copy some texts from internet and edit them. even i cannot prepare it independently from the beginning”. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi 56| figure 2 ability of preparing evaluation instrument additionally, students still find difficulty in preparing the learning instrument. about 19.5% of students have not been able to prepare evaluation instrument yet. meanwhile, evaluation is an important point in the learning. evaluation is useful to be the indicator of students’ success in attending the learning in the class. therefore, teachers should obligatorily know how to prepare an objective learning evaluation instrument. when pre-service teachers are assigned to prepare the learning evaluation instrument, they tend to copy it from internet source, book, or other sources. they will find difficulty in developing the evaluation instrument independently. besides, they have not understood yet the non-test evaluation standard. thus, the instrument tends to be prepared using the preexisting one. “i usually find the problem relevant to the material in internet or books, and then edit it” “i understand poorly the objective non-test evaluation standard. so, i find difficulty to determine the indicator of evaluation or assessment” b. setting up learning strategy and method learning strategy and method are the references the teacher can use to condition the class. as an educator, a teacher should establish good relation with students and condition the class. it is related to the achievement of learning objective in the class. therefore, the ability of setting up effective and efficient strategy and effective in the class is the competency a pre-service teacher (who will do or is doing ppl) should have obligatorily. however, the author’s data shows that 39% of students have not mastered learning strategy and method. students find difficulty in deciding on what learning strategy and model are appropriate. the limited mastery of learning strategy and model also makes the students decide on difficultly the appropriate strategy to use. the 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi | 57 students also find difficulty in conditioning the class corresponding to the strategy applied. “it is difficult because typical characteristics of students in the class are varying, so it will be confusing to decide on learning strategy and model to use. i worry that the model will be compatible to one class but uncertainly compatible to other classes. it is because the learning strategy in one rpp is used for several classes”. “i have limited knowledge on learning strategy and model, so i tend to prepare learning strategy and model monotonously. and i find difficulty in determining strategy based on the material”. figure 3 the mastery of learning strategy and method c. material mastery the mastery of a material is a basic weapon to a teacher. it is related to the knowledge to be transferred to students. therefore, a teacher should master the learning material broadly, in order to achieve the learning objective better. if a teacher masters poorly or even does not master the learning material, any problems will occur in the learning process. although the mastery of learning material is an obligation to a teacher, some pre-service teachers still have not understood it yet. 0 5 10 15 20 25 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi 58| figure 4 the mastery of learning material structure, basic concept, and mindset considering the result of research, about 31.7% of students have understood the learning material. meanwhile, learning material is the competency a teacher should have obligatorily. it is because material is one of basic goals in the learning implementation. a teacher’s material mastery will contribute to optimizing the absorbability of knowledge to a student. in some students, the material mastery is achieved difficultly because students graduated from science major in senior high school. in addition, students also find difficulty in developing and processing the material creatively in senior high school students’ language. it is confirmed with the result of survey as shown in figure 5. about 24.4% of students feel incapable of developing the learning material. most students should reread the learning material before conducting a teaching activity process. “i took science major in senior high school and i do not understand the sociological material of senior high school, so if i should teach the material, i should have looked for the material and learnt it first before teaching it” “i understand the basic material of sociology, but i can not teach it directly. i should repeat first the material to be taught”. “i find difficulty in developing and processing the material in the language compatible to senior high school students’ language” 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 strongly agree agree disagree international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi | 59 figure 5 the mastery of material development 2. learning reflection students acquire their teaching competency during the lecturing activities. this process is related to the relationship between lecturers and students in the learning activity. the lecturers design the lecturing material so far using lecturer-oriented method. meanwhile, the learning process cannot run effectively if the lecturers focus on their own lecturing design (purwasih, 2020). additionally, lecturer still has some weaknesses as an instructor. it can be seen from the students who find difficulty in understanding the development of rpp components. therefore, lecturers can make some change to the teaching design such as discovery learning. the learning can be implemented in three stages: information understanding, information processing, and evaluation (bruner, 1999). discovery learning enables the students not only to remember the material taught by lecturers but also to find out new ways and ideas. students are directed to construct their own experience through experience in order to find the principles, like the one in experiment (rahman, 2017). the process forgotten most frequently by lecturers is giving feedback to the assignment submitted by students. meanwhile, the mastery of learning material, strategy, and method is correlated positively to rpp development. it means that the better the teachers’ mastery of learning material, strategy, and method, the better is the rpp developed and implemented in the school. otherwise, the poorer the teachers’ mastery of learning material, strategy, and method, the poorer is the rpp developed and implemented in the school. thus, rpp developed and to be implemented in school will have poor yield. see the author’s finding as shown in figure 6. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi 60| in data elaboration, students mention that no feedback given to the assignments they have submitted makes them understand poorly the material. students expect feedback to each of assignment they have done. feedback provides information on students’ learning outcome and performance. through feedback, students can fill in the gap of competency they have currently with the competency they want (bulut, cutumisu, aquilina, & singh, 2019). students expect the repetition of senior high school sociological material entirely. the material repetition is expected to be a reference and to strengthen the knowledge of students as pre-service teachers when they should teach. the repetition of all materials likely becomes a problem in the learning in the class. it is related to the duration of lecturing allocated. therefore, lecturers can provide module of senior high school sociological material to support the learning process. thus, module can substitute for the learning time not accommodated by the learning in the class(purwasih, 2020). in addition, the administration of department as the organizer of study program should create mapping program for pre-service teachers in order to create high-quality teachers. study program can collaborate with some schools to be the location of observation for the students before participating directly in the teaching activity as the teachers. as such, students can obtain an illustration about what a teacher should do during ppl (field experience practice). figure 6 korelasi pembuatan rpp dengan penguasaan materi dan penguasan strategi dan metode pembelajaran international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 51-63 students’ teaching competency preparedness in attending field experience practice anif fatimatus sholichah, joan hesti gita purwasih, seli septiana pratiwi | 61 conclusion ppl activity is the one to evaluate and to improve the teaching competency of pre-service teachers. ppl implementation is expected to make students prepared to be competent instructor after they have graduated. the teaching competency of 2018-generation sociology students is still low, thereby requiring the improvement in the quality of pre-service teacher’s resource. it is intended to prepare the graduates to be professional educators. therefore, some improvements are required in the learning model in the campus in order to create the competent or qualified pre-service teachers. study program should conduct learning evaluation on both students and lecturers. evaluation is used as an instrument to improve the learning process in the campus. thus, the graduated students will have necessary competencies. lecturers can provide the learning model needed by students as the reference in preparing the learning set or instrument. references bakar, r. 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(2012). pengembangan pendidikan: strateg inovatif dan kreatif secara komprehensif. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. microsoft word 9. ijrse-659-stem after corrections.edited by le.docx available online at: https://researchsynergy.org/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 2 (2021): 28-36 corresponding author abdullahi.ismailabubakar@ssu.edu.ng doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i2.680 research synergy foundation perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar1 1sokoto state university, nigeria abstract technological advancement in this era boosted e-learning. e-learning is the privilege in which students can learn in respective of time and place or distance. social media are websites created to disseminate information between an individual/group of people through the use of emerging technology. web 2.0 technologies are among the technological innovations used for social media like smartphones and computers, just to mention a few. people interact with one another in respect of time, location, or distance for exchanging pleasantry, new ideas, or materials. this paper was guided by three objectives that are based on usefulness, ease of use, and attitude of students of higher institutions of learning. three research questions. the researcher used a descriptive survey research design in the study. the researcher used the qualitative method with the use of individual interviews for data collection. a random sampling technique was employed to select the sample. the entire sample numbers was 10. the instrument used for data collection was data-blank. coding system was employed to gather and interpret data. the results indicated that the majority of students used whatsapp for learning. the poster that whatsapp is very easy to operate for learning and shows that students' attitude towards the use of whatsapp for learning is positive. the research manifested that whatsapp may be accepted as an instructional tool in teaching and learning. keywords: whatsapp; learning; social media; e-learning. this is an open access article under the cc-by-nc license. introduction in this technological advancement era, e-learning is everywhere. e-learning is the privilege in which students can be able to learn in respective of time and place or distance. social media are websites created for the purpose of dissemination of information between an individual/group of people through the use of emerging technology. web 2.0 technologies are among the technological innovations used for social media like smartphones, computers just to mention but a few. people interact with one another in respect of time, location, or distance for exchanging pleasantry, new, ideas or materials. it has been observed by the researcher social media have become part of student life. the majority of them use social media for one reason or for the other. whatsapp applications have become important as they serve as platforms for users to interact and relate with their peers; social networks are now being seen as learning platforms or communities that could be utilized to enhance student engagement and performance. a number of researchers have found several positive outcomes in online community engagement among students and their peers (kaitibi, nyelenkeh, tunde, musa, and jalloh, nd). it is amazing how the whatsapp platform became part and parcel of human activities; whatsapp is one of the social media applications that can let you communicate and disseminate information to peers, family, colleagues, mates, etc. whatsapp can be possible through the use of a smartphone, iphone, laptop, etc with a network connection. whatsapp is a mobile application used for instant international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar | 29 messaging purposes to replace the normal phone short messages (sms) because of its capacity to send a large volume of messages and media files, unlike sms (sandra & nkeiruka, 2018). whatsapp came into existence in the year 2009 and has become the most popular social media application used by mostly young people for communication (sandra et al., 2018). one can install whatsapp from google play store or an apple store into their emerging technology and get access to the application. something interesting about the use of whatsapp is that when you install the application, you will open it, and they will direct you to register with them (creation of an account); after that, you will be visible to your contacts in the smartphone that are using the application. as such, the users can start sending and sending information between them. through whatsapp, users can send written, audio, or audio-visual messages individual or group chat using an internet connection or wireless/wi-fi. brian acton and jan koum purposely created whatsapp in 2009 to make communication and the distribution of multimedia messaging more easily and faster; much as the application brings us so many benefits, it has also got it flaws that are currently causing harm than good among the students today, in cognizance of the rate at which our youth are up to social media, there is the need to educate them on its advantages and disadvantages in their performance accordingly (baburao, 2018). the use of the whatsapp application by the students may bring many benefits to them; they could use it to pass information relevant to their academic activities, send learning material, etc. the two hundred level students of curriculum studies they are many, they are about 447 students' the value allocated to them for lecture may not be conducive for them to take lectures because the population is too much and the majority of them own a smartphone, and they may use whatsapp application for learning or for other purposes. whatsapp messenger can be used as a learning media besides as a communication tool; it makes the teacher and the students easy to communicate and discuss reading material before going to the class to improve students' reading comprehension. whatsapp is very easy and cheap to apply in teaching reading comprehension because the students have been familiar with whatsapp. the steps using whatsapp in teaching reading comprehension are setting the rules, creating a unique name for the whatsapp group, starting the reading comprehension activity, and giving them feedback (napratilora, lisa, and bangsawan, 2020). this research will serve to call the attention of both teachers and students of higher institutions of learning that whatsapp could be used for teaching and learning purposes by assessing usefulness, ease of use, and attitude of students in higher institutions of learning. statement of the problems the researcher observed that the majority of tertiary students in sokoto state-owned web 2.0 network provider, specifically, the smartphone, which can enable you to install whatsapp application for sending and receiving short messages. these messages could be written, audio, or video clips. it has not known whether or not the students use this whatsapp application for learning purposes. if these students are not using this whatsapp for learning in the future, our teachers, curriculum planners, and curriculum implementers would be analog. some students hardly use whatsapp because of its mode of operation. such students usually find it very difficult to operate and use such applications for academic activities, for instance, accessing a network, installation apps, receiving and sending messages both audio and video, downloading files become quite tasking for them, and it could not be possible to used whatsapp without knowing how to operate it, as such they may not use it for academic activities. despite the use of whatsapp among the students, some may hardly use it for their learning activities because of its mode of operation, for example, accessing the network, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar 30| installation of apps, browsing, downloading (audio and video messages), sending and receiving messages become quite tasking for them, and it could not be possible to used whatsapp without knowing how to operate it, as such they may not use it for academic activities. students become addicted to their smartphones, and social media be their favorite applications used by them frequently, like whatsapp, facebook, 2go, instagram, twitter, imo, snapchat, telegram, ayoba, tiktok, palm chat, whatpad, likee, etc., this is manifesting us that our future teacher, curriculum planners, and curriculum implementers may not be able to impart knowledge, plan curriculum and implement curriculum to the younger ones because they didn't use the technology appropriately. however, from their attitude, it is not known whether or not they use whatsapp for the enhancement of their academic activities. this research aims to investigate the usefulness, ease of use, and attitude of students’ adoption of whatsapp for learning. objectives of the study the objectives of this study are to: 1. find out the perceived usefulness of whatsapp by the students’ of the university. 2. examine the extent to which students perceived ease of use of whatsapp for academic purposes. 3. examine students’ attitudes towards the use of whatsapp for the improvement of their learning. research questions the following are the research questions: 1. how do the students of the university perceive the usefulness of whatsapp? 2. to what extent to which students of the university perceive ease of use of whatsapp for academic purposes? 3. what is the students’ attitude towards the use of whatsapp for study? literature review literatures have been reviewed as stated; bello (2015) in his research "effects of multimedia instructional formats on senior secondary school students’ achievement and retention in agricultural science in minna educational zone, niger state, nigeria" he used quasi-experimental pre-test post-test control group design. the experimental groups were taught with multimedia instructional formats, and the control group was taught using the lecture method. the finding showed that students in the experimental group achieved significantly better than their counterparts in the control group. social media tools are available and often utilized by ekiti state university during their instructional delivery (bamidele, 2016). whatsapp is useful, easy to use, easy to learn, and provides satisfaction (widodo, 2019; barhoumi, 2015). therefore, whatsapp can implement in the learning system. barhoumi (2015); hezekiah & patrick (2016); gertrude & anum (2016); anthony, damola & joel, (2016); yahya (2018); annamalai (nd) their findings show teachers and students have a positive attitude towards the use of whatsapp application for educational activities. that whatsapp was used for sharing study materials in the form of links, notes, assignments, and coursework; it was used to enhance communication between teachers and students; students used whatsapp environment to help one another and to cater for anywhere anytime learning. the above review indicated that the whatsapp application is used for international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar | 31 enhancing teaching and learning; the application is saved as a tool for passing information/materials between student and their mate or teacher and his/her students, which enables them to access them so fast and easy. itighise (2016), in his research, revealed that lecturers lack expertise skills in the use of innovative teaching methods and interactive whiteboard utilization for course content delivery; they are addicted to the conventional teaching method. young people tend to spend more time on social media, and that familiarity with social media diminishes with aging. it was concluded that social networking sites are yet to be maximally employed for instructional purposes among students of the national open university of nigeria (ogunmakin & adekunle, 2016). whatsapp has a profound negative impact on students and adversely affects their education, behavior, and routine lives. it messes up much of the study time of students and distracts them from completing their assignments, and this app has been found to be highly addictive (rabbani (2015); bhatt & arshad (2016); irfan & dhimmar (2019). this review shows us that lecturers of higher institutions of learning use whatsapp for one thing or for the other, but they lack the skills to use it for teaching purposes; students use the application for less important things like chatting with their peers, which serves as entertainment purposes; which make them reluctant to do their academic activities. based on the literature reviewed so far, i didn't lay my hand on research on the usefulness, ease of use, and attitude of the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst the students of higher institutions in sokoto state, nigeria. there are different results/findings by different researchers that conducted research based on the adoption of whatsapp for learning; some indicated that whatsapp is one of the apps to be used as teaching and learning tools, while some said is not worthy as teaching and learning tool rather a source of class distraction. there is a need for research on perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst higher institutions in sokoto state, nigeria. this is because the findings of the research will now give a general overview regarding the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students in nigeria. this makes the study work different. research methodology descriptive survey research design was used in this study. a qualitative method was employed for data collection. the target population is the two hundred level curriculum and instruction studies i students’ of sokoto state university, nigeria. however, the random sampling technique was employed to select the sample; the total populations of the sampled students were 10; the data for the qualitative sample will be small. the rationale behind the use of the qualitative method is to reach and get data from the small group and handle a huge amount of data from them, shown in table 1. table 1: two hundred level curriculum studies students’ of sokoto state university, population and sample size: s/n sokoto state university population sample size 1. male students 244 05 2. female students 203 05 total 447 10 individual interview information was gathered through a data-blank from the respondents. 10, two hundred level curriculum and instruction studies i students’ of sokoto state university were selected (five male and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar 32| female each). the questions that the respondents responded to were analyzed one after the other using code, summarizing the key points of the information gathered through respondents to make the researcher arrive at the right decision/interpretation. data analysis of individual interview coding system was used to gather and interpret data. the individual interview was held with ten (five male and female each) two hundred level curriculum and instruction studies i students’ of sokoto state university, which were selected at random from the university. the use of a coding system will allow the researcher to use numbers or alphabet that can enable him/her to collect data one after the other and proceed to selection and interpretation. below are responses that were sampled of some respondents using coding; male students (a), female students (b). the 460% of respondents find whatsapp as a useful tool for learning; it is only 150% of respondents find whatsapp not useful for learning. the result shows that the whatsapp application is useful for learning (see table 2). this finding was in accordance with that of bello (2015) and that of bamidele (2016). the result is contrary to that of ogunmakin & adekunle (2016), which shows social networking sites are yet to be maximally employed for instructional purposes among students of the national open university of nigeria. table 2: usefulness of whatsapp s/n statement’s yes no 1 do you use whatsapp? 10 (100%) 0 (0%) 2 did you use whatsapp for learning? 7 (70%) 3 (30%) 3 did whatsapp improve your learning activities? 7 (70%) 3 (30%) 4 did you find whatsapp useful for learning? 8 (80%) 2 (20%) 5 did whatsapp encourage you to read? 7 (70%) 3 (30%) 6 did you receive immediate feedback from your lecturers while using whatsapp? 7 (70%) 3 (30%) percentage (460%) (150%) the 590% of respondents find the whatsapp application very easy to use; it is only respondent 100% of the respondents that find the whatsapp application difficult to operate. the result indicated that whatsapp application is very easy to use for learning (see table 4.3). this finding supports the earlier findings of widodo (2019) and barhoumi (2015). table 3 ease to use s/n statement’s yes no 1 did whatsapp available to you? 9 1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar | 33 (90%) (10%) 2 is it easy for you to use whatsapp for learning? 9 (90%) 1 (10%) 3 did your interaction with whatsapp clearly and understandable? 9 (90%) 1 (10%) 4 did you think you will be skillful using whatsapp for learning? 9 (90%) 1 (10%) 5 did you need someone to assist you while using whatsapp for learning? 9 (90%) 1 (10%) 6 did you use whatsapp for learning alone? 9 (90%) 1 (10%) 7 did you have adequate electricity for better use of whatsapp learning? 5 (50%) 5 (50%) percentage (590%) (100%) on the students’ attitude towards whatsapp for learning use, respondent 280% agreed that the use of whatsapp for learning would positively impact their learning. it is only respondent 20% indicated negative attitudes towards online learning use for learning. the result shows that the attitude of students on the use of whatsapp for learning is positive (see table 4). this finding is in line with previous studies by barhoumi (2015); hezekiah & patrick (2016); gertrude & anum (2016); anthony, damola & joel (2016); yahya (2018); annamalai (nd). the research conducted by rabbani (2015), bhatt & arshad (2016), irfan & dhimmar (2019) revealed that whatsapp has a profound negative impact on students and adversely affects their education, behavior, and routine lives. table 4 attitude of students towards the use of whatsapp s/n statement’s yes no 1 did you like to use whatsapp for learning? 10 (100%) 2 using whatsapp for learning, it’s a good idea? 10 (100%) 3 did the use of whatsapp for learning, it’s a bad idea? 10 (100%) 4 did you appreciate the use of whatsapp for learning? 8 (80%) 2 (20%) percentage (280%) (20%) conclusion the research uses a descriptive survey research. qualitative method served as a mode for data collection; the populations of the study are the two hundred level students of sokoto state university, nigeria. the study shows that students of the universities use whatsapp for learning; they find the application very easy to use for academic activities, and their attitude towards the use of whatsapp for learning is positive. whatsapp will play a vital role in promoting students learning if teachers' and students' get to know and utilize it as a learning tool; it’s a huge privilege with this technological advancement which promotes students use of whatsapp for learning very easy in a positive way, in international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar 34| future e-learning will be possible everywhere, whatsapp will be used for teaching and learning purposes. references annamalai, n., (nd). using whatsapp to extend learning in a blended classroom environment. teaching english with technology, 19(1), 3-20, http://www.tewtjournal.org files.eric.ed.gov anthony, o. o., damola, o. & joel, a. o., (2016). students’ acceptance and attitudes towards using instructional mobile technology package in college of education in osun state. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 122-136 baburao, s. c., (2018). the impact of whatsapp massager usage on students’ performance. international journal of trend in scientific research and development, 2456-6470 barhoumi, c., (2015). the effectiveness of whatsapp mobile learning activities guided by activity theory on students’ knowledge management. contemporary educational technology, 6(3), 221-238. www.files.eric.ed.gov bawa, n. & abdullahi, a., (2016). using whatsapp to extend learning into undergraduate students’ digital lives: measuring its effects on academic performance in general studies. atbu journal of science, technology and education, 4 (2), 2277-0011. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335207659 bamidele, o. o. & omoron, a. j., (2016). social media: a veritable tool for effective instructional delivery in the tertiary institution for sustainable national development. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 225-237 bello, a., (2015). effects of multimedia instructional formats on senior secondary school students’ achievement and retention in agricultural science in minna educational zone, niger state, nigeria. a master’s thesis in educational technology, submitted to postgraduate school, federal university of technology, minna, niger state-nigeria. published bhatt, a. & arshad, m., (2016). impact of whatsapp on youth: a sociological study. ira-international journal of management & social science. issn: 2455-2267, 4(2), 376-386. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.21013/jmss.v4.n2.p7 bian, h. (2017). mixed method research [powerpoint slides]. contact information, office: 1001 joyner library (room) 1006. phone: 252-328-5428, website: core.ecu.edu/statisticsresearch. https://dokumen.tips bisen, s., & deshpande, y., (2016). an analytical study of smartphone addiction among engineering students: a gender differences. the international journal of indian psychology. issn; 23493429(p), 4, (1) 81, http://www.ijip.in international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar | 35 creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). library of congress cataloging in publication data. printed in the united states of america. gertrude, k. e. & anum, o., (2016). enhancing tertiary education using social media. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 287-297 hezekiah, b. b. & patrick, e. e., (2016). responses of students’ of christian religious studies to challenges faced in utilization of social media for educational communication in nigeria. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 238-263 irfan, m. & dhimmar, s., (2019). impact of whatsapp messenger on the university level students: a psychological study. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332093442 itighise, a. e., (2016). innovation in higher teachers’ education: an imperative for achievement of sustainable national development. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 264-273 kaitibi, d, b., nyelenkeh, a. t., tunde, e. t., musa, a. y. & jalloh, m., (nd). impact of whatsapp massager on the performance of students in tertiary institution in southern sierra-leone. napratilora, m., lisa, h., & bangsawan, i., (2020). using whatsapp as a learning media in teaching reading. prodipendidikan guru madrasah ibtidaiyah stai auliaurrasyidin tembilahan, 6 (2), issn: 2443-0021, e-issn: 2716-416 ogunmakin, r. & adekunle, a. a., (2016). access and use of social networking sites among students of national open university of nigeria. joel, l. a. (ed.) nigeria association for educational media and technology (emtan). journal of nigeria association for educational media and technology, 21, 1, 1, 48-62 rabbani, g. s., (2015). impact of whatsapp messenger on the university level students: a sociological study. international journal of national and social sciences. issn: 2313-4461, 2(4), 118-125 sandra, a. e. & nkeiruka, n. q., (2018). whatsapp utilization and academic performance of computer in university of port-harcourt. international journal of education, learning and development, 6, 5, 15-25 widodo, l., (2019). users’ perceptions of the whatsapp usefulness in learning. open journal for information technology, 2 (1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.32591/coas.ojit.0201.01001w international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 28-36 perception on the adoption of whatsapp for learning amongst university students’ abdullahi ismaila abubakar 36| yahya, m. m., (2018). social media in the classroom: whatsapp a new communication tool for enhanced class interactions. business education journal, 11(1), http://www.cbe.ac.tz/bej retrieved on 03/06/2018 from pdfs.semanticscholar.org microsoft word ijrse2_rtp_659-article text-4152-1-15-20220510.edited-2.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 29-38 corresponding author dyah.aniza@ecampus.ut.ac.id; udan@ecampus.ut.ac.id; leonard_rh@ecampus.ut.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.659 research synergy foundation thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati1, udan kusmawan 2 , leonard r. hutasoit3 1, 2, 3 universitas terbuka, indonesia abstract practicum is an essential part of the student learning process. it promotes strengthening scientific process skills in students. on the other hand, limited access to experiencing hands-on activities requires serious attention due to the characteristics of a distance education system that restrains face-to-face activities in student learning. for this reason, a virtual lab is necessary to meet the needs of students to comprehend the functions of scientific actions while their learning. the paper will discuss the role of a virtual lab in the biology practicum at universitas terbuka (ut) and the suitable type of virtual lab in biology practicum for universitas terbuka students. this paper is a meta-analysis study of the journals and articles about virtual laboratories. there are about 17 journals and articles used, starting from 2001 to 2021, except that this study involves preliminary data from ut students who attended biology practicum courses during the covid19 pandemic. the sample of the students is 33, and it used purposive sampling. the data analysis is descriptive. the research recommends using the virtual laboratory to advance biological knowledge in biology practicum and virtual reality as suitable for urogenital system material because virtual lab provides many benefits as a medium of learning in biological practicum because it can represent the dissection of animal urogenital organs so that students will more easily understand the material. 3d simulation in virtual reality should provide an exciting and meaningful learning experience for students. keywords: virtual lab, virtual reality, urogenital system, biology practicum, universitas terbuka this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction biology practicum in higher education is a critical activity that supports the biology learning in the course. practicum drives student learning through observation, experiment, or testing of a concept. its principles relate to strengthening students' understanding of scientific knowledge and actions inside and/or outside a laboratory. additionally, practicum strongly promotes scientific skills improvement of students (kusmawan, 1998) through activities of fostering or increasing students' observation skills, stimulating their curiosity, and improving students' accuracy, objectivity, and honesty (budiastra, 2020). hofstein & lunetta (1982) said that laboratory courses foster more robust potential advantages than a classroom activity. assessed students' abilities to ask questions in inquiry-based laboratory activities are better than students in conventional courses (hofstein et al., 2005). moreover, with the pandemic covid-19, students' access to the biology practicum has more limitations. unesco recognized that the coronavirus pandemic has a very bad impact on the education system around the world (unesco, 2020). the coronavirus (covid-19) affect income level of the state (wajdi et al., 2020). as pujari (2020), coronavirus affects all areas of the education system, examination, and evaluation; it starts from a new semester (term) and extends the school year. unesco began to implement the practice of distance education to address some of the risks of this pandemic. distance learning is the education system provided by an online learning environment and on which research has been undertaken (akimov & malin, 2020; bose, 2013; lee, 2017; dean nielsen, 1997; international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit 30 │ ramos et al., 2011; raygan & moradkhani, 2020). distance learning is different from face-to-face education, shown in the learning set by the physical attendance of the teacher and students. the delivery modes change from face-to-face education to distance learning, and so do the learning outcomes (koşar, 2021). distance education provides solutions in the form of educational applications, platforms, and resources to help teachers, students, also parents. a digital learning management system, a massive open online course platform, and self-learning content (unesco, 2020) constitute a solution to cover this problem with the adaptation of virtual laboratory. a virtual laboratory is proven to be an important educational medium to overcome the problem of lack of practical experience in education (kfir, 2005). the virtual laboratory provides a simulated version of a conventional laboratory with a student-centered approach. students are fully equipped with virtual representations of natural objects used in the conventional laboratory (faour & ayoubi, 2018). the use of a virtual laboratory offers student’s opportunity to investigate situations that cannot be tested in areal-time without speeding up or slowing down (becker, 2005). related to this, universitas terbuka (ut) has been applying a distance learning system since 1994. universitas terbuka has the vision to become a qualified world open and distance higher education institution in generating academic programs, as well as in implementing, developing, and disseminating information on open and distance higher education. it is one of the missions of universitas terbuka to conduct research and develop an open distance-education system (belawati et al., 2012) as in ratnaningsih (2013), universitas terbuka (ut) provides a very wide range of learning opportunities and assistance services for everyone without time barriers. the open and distance education system has enabled ut to attract all communities in the most remote areas categorized as the least privileged. in facilitating the biological practicum constrained by coronavirus disease, ut seeks to make breakthroughs to support creating facilities used in distance learning. one of them is by holding a webinar tutorial (tuweb). the tuweb is an online tutorial mode that is synchronous (at the same time) and non-contiguous (not side by side), where interactions between tutors–students, and students are conducted in the same time (real-time) but in different spaces/places (universitas terbuka, 2020). unfortunately, the practice of biology courses implemented by tuweb still contains some constraints. students are still practicing a total face-to-face and a blended system practicum in some areas, even though some somewhat dangerous risks, considering the pandemic has not entirely disappeared. biology practicum held tuweb also causes polemics where students lack knowledge and skills in real. sometimes, students do not perform the procedure of practicum independently as they should, even though there have been guidelines for the implementation of practicum. some practicum topics can only be done by a few students, namely those related to the body's metabolic system: blood flow, muscle system, respiratory system, urogenital system, and respiration system. with these concerns in mind, we convened a working group of researchers and educators to address two questions concerning the future of virtual lab in biology: (1) why are virtual lab essential to advancing biological knowledge in biology practicum? moreover, (2) which ones of the virtual laboratory design are better for biology practice in higher education, especially in universitas terbuka? here, we explore each of these questions from the study literature. theoretical perspectives literature review what is a virtual lab? as an intermediary solution for practicum materials, a virtual lab is an interactive environment for creating and conducting simulated experiments involving experiments with domain-dependent simulation programs (larby-apau, 2020). a virtual laboratory can also be explained as one where the student interacts with an experiment or activity that has no immediate physical reality or is intrinsically remote (haltherly, 2009). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) │ 31 the virtual lab (virtual laboratory) in biology was first used to assist students in learning abstract concepts or difficult-to-visualize topics (dyrberg et al., 2016). virtual lab has many benefits for students. virtual laboratory offers students to get the individual experiences as additional material to prepare a manual laboratory or provide experiences similar to the conventional laboratory. it was helpful to show science as a process, emphasize scientific concepts and build students' understanding of the phenomena, objects, also environment. it also makes students manipulate and observe variables, objects, and processes. they can also understand the relationship between discovery, science theory, and empirical evidence (vincenti et al., 2014; whittle & bickerdike, 2015; hotaling et al., 2018). types of virtual lab the virtual lab has several designs in its implementation. kyle et al. (2017) mention 3 types of virtual lab, which are commonly discussed in pedagogical research: supplemented virtual lab or hybrid, remote lab, and simulated lab or completely virtual. in remote labs, students conduct the experiment outside of the physical lab by utilizing web applications that enable actual equipment to adjust the feedback directly from the commands and inputs of the user (waldrop, 2013). the use of remote labs also fosters students' lab usage outside the campus, potentially mitigating their fears in the hands-on lab and broadening their skills development (alves et al., 2016). similarly, remote lab also improves the distance-learning potential, which improves the accessibility of disabled people and it increases laboratory safety. (heradio et al., 2016). brinson in viegas et al. (2018) explained that these resources might offer students to observe unobserved phenomena, minimizing distraction, facilitating faster results, and taking less time to organize. in an entirely virtual (simulated) lab, the student can conduct an experiment on web applications, animations, and user inputs to customize the different parameters to observe theoretical results with visual representations on a particular piece of technology, such as a tablet, smartphone, and computer) without coming into contact with actual samples or equipment (tatli and ayas, 2010). another type of virtual laboratory has supplemented virtual lab. virtual lab blends some of the simulation aspects with physical experiments by using take-home laboratory kits. kits consist of various materials and equipment that students use to finish the experiments (flowers, 2011). supplemented virtual lab are also known as hybrid lab. virtual laboratories can also be distinguished based on their forms, namely virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality. virtual reality (vr) is the engineering of a real environment projected on a tool. the sensation of using virtual reality will be felt by the human senses so that users will be able to immerse themselves in a 3d artificial world. novak (2014) presents four basic elements of virtual reality: virtual presence, virtual environment, sensory feedback, and interactivity. the virtual environment is an environment that is simulated by a computer, in the form of an actual environment that is imitated or an environment that only exists in the imagination. virtual presence is defined as a person's feelings while in a virtual environment. users interacting with virtual objects should interact with real objects. therefore, the user represents their feelings in a virtual environment (putro et al., 2015). on the other hand, a virtual environment is an environment simulated by a computer, in the form of an actual environment that is imitated or an environment that only exists in the imagination (novak, 2014). the next basic element is sensory feedback. sensory feedback is a very important component of virtual reality. virtual reality will provide direct sensory feedback through visual information. the system provides direct sensory feedback to users based on their physical location. the use of virtual reality is certainly inseparable from the element of interactivity. interactivity is one of the most talked-about new media features, gaining a special place on the internet. jancowski et al. (1996) define interactivity as the degree of participation in communication that has control and can exchange roles in mutual discourse. by using the concept of mutual discourse, interactivity can be divided into three levels, namely: 1. user-to-user conversations. conversations international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit 32 │ between people with mediums or people with systems where content can be manipulated (e.g., videotex); (user to the system) 3. conversations that occur between users to change the content (e.g., teletext) (user to document). virtual reality has been widely applied in various fields, including as listed in the following table 1. table 1: diverse applications of virtual reality in a variety of fields (mathew, 2014) fields description military application air forces vr research program at wright-patterson afb leads to the development of heads-up displays (huds) for flight simulators. commercial applications virtual tours can be induced for the building, which is still in the process of using the architectural design. virtual sets text-based vr text-based virtual reality construction of virtual worlds with readily available materials-a computer keyboard. medicine it helps in the docking of molecules using auditory and visual displays. marketing it draws people to exhibits and involves them with a product much more than standard displays. entertainment includes video arcades based on a virtual reality system the second form is augmented reality (ar). augmented reality (ar) is a technology that involves the overlay of computer graphics in the real world. the concept of augmented reality was first introduced by thomas p. caudell in 1990 with the term 'augmented reality'. augmented reality is developed on virtual reality’s techniques. it interacts not only with a virtual world but has a degree of interdependence with the real world (mekni, n.d., 2014). there are some aspects of the consideration to design an augmented reality: (1) there must be a combination of virtual and real worlds; (2) there are interactivities in a real-time; (3) registration in 3d (silva et al., 2017). silva (2017) also explained three components of augmented reality such us scene generator, tracking systems, and display. augmented reality has its own advantages. speicher & hall (2019) said that it’s mainly characterized by an expert environmental understanding as well as interactions. both the virtual objects with the user and the environment with the virtual objects. pemanafaatan media pendidikan menggunakan augmented reality (mustaqim, 2016) can stimulate the mindset of students to think critically of problems and events that exist in everyday life because the nature of the educational media is to help learners in the learning process with the presence or absence of educators in the educational process. another form of virtual laboratory is mixed reality. as the term, mixed reality is a combination of augmented reality and virtual reality technology. mixed reality systems are planned to give the illusion for the about the digital objects where is in the same space as physical ones (costanza et al., 2009). a mixed reality system has been aimed to provide navigation guidance. it means that the users can see the virtual signs anchored to the physical world. it has a similar concept to a compass that indicates the right direction regardless of the device’s orientation (costanza et al., 2009) international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) │ 33 urogenital system characteristics in biological practicum the urogenital system is built on two systems, namely the urinary system (excretion) and the genitalia (reproduction) system (figure 1) figure 1. urogenital organs of the frog (dery, bernard, 2016) the urinal system removes unnecessary or harmful waste from the body in the form of a solution by intermediary kidney organs. the genitalia system produces genital cells (gamete) and the proliferation of organisms (haryani et al., 2016). biological practicum related to the topic of the urogenital system is typically implemented in groups through wet laboratories in collaboration with universitas terbuka. however, during the covid-19 pandemic, some students in the are become constrained in practicing this topic, requiring additional teaching materials that can provide an overview of the urogenital system. research method this research is qualitative in a meta-analysis of various works of literature, including journals and articles obtained from various sources. there are about 17 journals and articles used, starting from 2001 to 2021. the journal is related to the use of virtual laboratories in learning. in this study, preliminary data contains the experience of biology education students at universitas terbuka who have followed biology during the covid-19 pandemic, using blended methods and face-toface methods (with some prerequisites). the samples of students in this preliminary data are 33 students. the samples were taken through purposive sampling techniques, with several considerations such as (1) the samples are the biology education student at universitas terbuka; (2) the samples have followed one, two, or three courses of biological practice (biology practicum 1, biology practicum 2, practicum ipa); (3) samples have been registered to follow the biology practicum during the registration period 2020.2 or 2021.1. the instrument used to obtain the preliminary data is a self-reflection questionnaire with open and multiple-choice questions. the data is analyzed descriptively to overview the student experience and how far students know about the virtual lab. findings and discussion 1. an overview of students' experiences in the biology practicum courses since the covid-19 pandemic, biology practicum at universitas terbuka has been implemented through three modes, namely webinar tutorial mode (tuweb), face-to-face mode, and blended mode (combined tuweb mode and face-to-face mode). biology education students at universitas terbuka can choose one of the three mode options according to the consideration of the covid-19 risk zone map. some of these obstacles are contained in figure 1 below. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit 34 │ based on figure 1, there are some students' considerations in following practicum activities. most (53%) of them are constrained by the limited time they have. it is known that students of the faculty of teacher training and education of universitas terbuka are status as teachers. therefore, of course, it has limited time when participating in practicum activities with learning modes other than face-to-face, for face-to-face learning mode is also done simultaneously in several meetings. the second biggest obstacle chosen by students is the risk constraint of the covid-19 spread zone. most students prefer practicum activities directly. student ability and further learning style are mentioned as other obstacles recognized by students who experienced them when following the practicum. brown's learning style (2000) is defined as a way of perceiving and processing information when in a learning situation. one's learning style, in this case, students can be distinguished into several types such as auditory learning style, namely students who are more receptive to lessons through hearing, and visual learning style, namely students who easily understand and capture learning concepts by looking (visual), then there is also the kinesthetic type that is students. it is easier to directly practice what is heard or seen (kinesthetic) (rudihartono, 2013). due to the many learning constraints in the pandemic period, including in practicum activities, universitas terbuka responded by providing three modes of learning for biology practicum courses. the three learning modes are web-based tutorial teaching us mod (tuweb), us mod face-to-face learning, and blended mode (a combined learning model between us tuweb mod and face-to-face u mod). biology education students at universitas terbuka can choose one of three fashion options according to the consideration of the covid-19 risk zone map. figure 2 below illustrates the participation of biology education students in the biology practicum during the covid-19 pandemic. 53% 3% 9% 35% student consideration of biology practicum in pandemic time-appropriate learning style ability risk zone status international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) │ 35 figure 2. students' participation in biology practicum in several modes figure 2 describes the mode of biology practicum chosen by 33 universitas terbuka biology education students during the 2020.2 registration period and the 2021.1 registration period. the sample of students follows one or both or all three types of practical courses held during both registration periods. the three practical courses are biology practicum 1, biology practicum 2, and science practicum. based on the data, most of the students who filled out the questionnaire have chosen tuweb mode for biology practicum learning; there are as many as 17 students (52%), nine students who chose face-toface mode (27%), and other students (21%) choose to use blended mode. some students state if they are given a choice and possible situation, then they will certainly have a face-to-face biological practicum. this is in line with the results of koşar (2021), which explains that in distance teaching practicum, the participants had no idea about how to improve the quality of distance teaching practicum as they did not believe that practicum courses could be conducted through distance education. so that, according to their perspective, it should be done face-to-face than held by tuweb. tuweb mode, introduced by universitas terbuka in 2020, is a biology practicum mode that is widely chosen by students. tuweb is one of the distance learning solutions that can be used safely to reduce the spread of covid-19. tuweb is also used in mixed mode. that is, some practicums are done face-to-face, but others are done through tuweb. in addition, face-to-face practicum mode also remains an option for students in the safe zone. krihti meta (2020) describes the description of a safe zone (green zone) as a zone with no confirmed positive cases or within a certain time range. while in the other two zones, called red zones (redzone), is an areas classified as a hotspot with many confirmed positive cases, and the orange zone is an area with several confirmed positive cases (moderate risk). nonetheless, each mode of biological practicum has constraints for the student. some of these obstacles are contained in figure 3 below. figure 3. biology practicum barriers international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit 36 │ based on figure 3, there are several obstacles to biology practicum learning through the three practicum modes offered (face-to-face, tuweb, and blended mode), including students who choose to use tuweb and blended mode learning modes. , then the obstacle experienced is 55% in the form of difficulty getting equipment and practicum materials. in tuweb mode, students often complain about the stability of the internet network because many of them are located in less stable areas to follow online learning. in addition, they may experience a lack of guidance from tutors and be confused due to the absence of other learning media that can give an idea to perform practicum activities independently. the face-to-face learning mode also has its own obstacles, namely the distance constraints of student residence locations with partner laboratory locations in the area. the other obstacle comes from the student himself, namely motivation. motivation is defined as a conscious effort made to move, disturb and maintain one's behavior in order to be encouraged in achieving certain results or goals (hamdu, 2011). motivation to learn is very influential in determining the success of students in learning. (nashar, 2011) because students who have high motivation will get high learning results as well. thus, realized that the higher the student's learning motivation, the effort efforts made will be the maximum that will increase student learning achievement. some of these obstacles occur in several topics of biology practicum, both in the courses of biology practicum 1, biology 2 practicum, and science practicum. 2. suitable design of virtual lab for urogenital practicum based on the preliminary data analysis from students' experience following a biology practicum during the pandemic period, virtual learning media is needed to support online practicum learning. this is in line with the results of the study. efendi & sartika (2021) that practicum cannot be done directly in the laboratory, so it requires a virtual laboratory to perform practicum activities. virtual reality (vr) has been recognized and proposed as a significant technological advancement that supports lifelong education for individuals along with a flexible workforce. (kfir, 2005). one of the unique characteristics of virtual reality is the successful of abstract concepts translation into visualized events, along with the users' interaction in real life could be limited due to safety, time, and distance factors (alexiou et al., 2004). the virtual lab planned to represent the practicum of the urogenital system is a 3d simulation of a natural laboratory where learners can do the experiment on urogenital organ dissection equipment by carrying out specific learning scenarios. virtual reality is being accessed in study mode. in the study mode, the user can interact with the environment without the presence of other users. intelligent learning modeling makes it easier for users to perform dynamic actions on available virtual space equipment. by using virtual reality, virtual learning in virtual laboratories allows for the creation of virtual tours. a virtual tour is a simulation of a real environment, consisting of a collection of videos or panoramic photographs, a collection of images connected by hyperlinks, or a virtual model of an actual location that, in this case, is the laboratory where the user works. conclusion from the exposure described above, it can be concluded some of the following: 1. a virtual lab provides many benefits as a medium of learning in biological practicum because it can represent the dissection of animal urogenital organs so that students will more easily understand the material. the use of virtual labs will provide a real-life picture that will guide students to perform difficult practicums. 3d simulation in virtual reality should provide an exciting and meaningful learning experience for students. 2. virtual laboratory design that is appropriately used in the biology practicum of the urogenital system is a form of virtual reality (vr) that is a 3d simulation that can represent the dissection of an animal's urogenital system. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 29-38 thoughts of biology virtual lab: a meta-analysis study of urogenital system practicum in universitas terbuka dyah aniza kismiati; udan kusmawan; leonard r. hutasoit issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) │ 37 limitations and further research this research is the initial stage of research on the development of virtual laboratory learning media that can be used as a supporting learning medium for biology practicum courses for open university students. further research is the development of virtual laboratory media as a medium of learning for biology practicum courses. references akimov, a., & malin, m. 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(2020). technical guidelines for organizing open university webinar tutorials in the situation of the covid-19 pandemic semester 2020/21.1 (2020.2). microsoft word 3. ijrse-623 paint a portraitdaphnee s. paco (final).edited by le.docx available online at: https://researchsynergy.org/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 2 (2021): 37-50 corresponding author daphneepaco25@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i2.623 research synergy foundation paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco1, alberto d. yazon2, karen a. manaig3, sherwin b. sapin4, marcial m. bandoy5 1 san isidro elementary school, city schools division of cabuyao, department of education, philippines 2,3,4,5 graduate studies and applied research, laguna state polytechnic university, philippines abstract this study determined the issues and challenges encountered by the parents who facilitated learning at home. this research was a qualitative-phenomenological study that utilized the narrative form using the responses of the parent-participants in the key informant interview conducted by the researcher. creswell method was used in the qualitative analysis of the responses to explore the lived experience of parents who served as learning facilitators in mdl. from the responses of the participants in the key informant interview conducted, the researcher was able to extract the following themes that describe their overall ability in painting the portrait of their children: fb: keeping you informed, education must continue, education cannot wait, mdl finds a way, painting a portrait as consecrated responsibility, race against time, and time works wonders.the researcher was able to draw out issues and implications of the findings on the lived experiences of the parents in painting the portrait of their children as not just a simple task. their ability to paint the portrait and help their children on their studies was perceived as challenging but added colors to make the children's future even more meaningful. keywords: paint a portrait, modular distance learning, learning facilitator this is an open access article under the cc-by-nc license. introduction the proper function of the parent is to provide motivation, guidance, and access to activities that allow the child to master critical development tasks of development. the parents are the first teachers of their child and should remain their best teachers throughout life. parents shall also take the courage of doing all the roles and responsibilities to their children. parents should show the right path and paint a dream for their children to guide their success. one of the rights given among children is their right to education. they should do all their best to provide for the needs of their children: food, shelter, clothing, and education. many people believe that education is considered as one of the basic needs since it usually serves as a ticket for a brighter tomorrow. whatever kind of education, whether public or private, online, or modular, the parents need to look for ways to help their children. the significant change in the education system, particularly in instruction, has brought many challenges to teachers, learners, and parents. the shift from standard face-to-face to modular distance learning (mdl) has been considered as challenging step for the department of education to ensure the continuity of learning despite the covid-19 pandemic. in an article written by lopez (2020) [1], modular distance learning pertains to individualized guidance that enables learners to use print or digital format and an electronic copy of self-learning modules (slms). whatever is applicable in the conditions of the learner, and other learning tools such as materials for international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 38 learners, textbooks, activity sheets, study guides, and other study materials. on a computer, tablet, pc, or smartphone, learners access electronic copies of the learning materials. in the survey, using the learners enrollment and survey form (lesf), conducted among the parents and guardians of the learners before the opening of the school year, it turned out that majority of the parents preferred modular distance learning as the most suitable modality for their children. the school considered that this would suit the interest and the needs of the learners. survey results became the basis for implementing the modular distance learning for the school year 2020-2021, also present in the learning continuity plan of san isidro elementary school. in response to the republic act no. (ra) 11469[2], otherwise known as the bayanihan to heal as one act which took effect on march 24, 2020, the department of education has come up with plans that would ensure the continuous delivery of instruction among school children all over the country-the blended learning. as an appropriate response of the department of education to the current situation of the country. it offered options for the public elementary school to conduct surveys among the parents and the guardians to choose the modality of learning suited for their children. the examination called the lesf would provide a fountain source of ideas for the school to attain the continuity of learning through the preferred and most suitable modality for the learners. paint the portrait was the title crafted by the researcher, which refers to the ability of parents to perform their duties and responsibilities in helping their children to learn. the researcher presents the title in this way which specifically aims to divulge the brighter side of modular distance learning. the parents would realize their worth as the facilitator of learning at home. they are not aware, but they are painting the portrait of their children. they are doing their part to help their children have a better future. however, the study also divulged the challenges encountered by the parents in the modular distance learning- explored through the interview conducted by the researcher. further, this study also disclosed the coping strategies and how the parents paint the portrait just to be able to attend to their children's learning needs. from the study results, the researcher was able to determine the lived experience of the parents through the themes extracted from the participants' responses. this study is anchored in the theory of parental involvement to learning by lev vygotsky, which explains various facets of interest in young education. the main primary role models in the immediate world of their young children are known to be parents. the main goal of the parent is ensuring the academic achievement and success of their children in school. to obtain a better image of it and provide a sound foundation for educational discourse in this regard, this understanding involves an overview of the complete parent involvement process. according to vygotsky, the first teacher is the family, and learning takes place in the community — contact with their family members in the community is crucial for their education and growth. for this purpose, through this interaction children, acquire an awareness of the environment. vygotsky concentrated on information internationalization (knowing how) by discussing the proximal development zone (zpd) as a term to argue that children have problem-solving skill levels. further, he also explained that the level of development is affected by independent problem solving together level of future success is determined by problem-solving under adult supervision or in partnership with more qualified peers. (lines, 2016) [3] international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 39 the proposed study aimed to divulge a clearer understanding of the lived experiences of the parents who serve as the learning facilitators to their children. the phenomenological research provided an avenue for the teachers and schools to look into a strategic plan, which may help the parents to guide the learners in their study. it may unfold the needed support from the school and the teachers to be rendered among parents and to assure continuity of learning despite the pandemic. literature review modular distance learning (mdl) refers to a modality of learning delivery where learning takes place during instruction between the teacher and the students who are geographically distant from each other. modular distance learning, online distance learning (odl), and tv/radio-based instruction are three types of this modality. modular learning is a form of distance learning based on deped's essential learning skills (melcs) that uses self-learning modules (slm). the modules include sections on motivation and evaluation that act as a complete guide to the desired skills of both teachers and students. teachers will monitor the learners' progress through home visits (following protocols of social distancing), and feedback mechanisms then guide those who need special attention. further, according to estrella (2020), [4]. self-learning modules (slms) will be provided by the department of education (deped) with alternative learning delivery modalities to be offered to different types of learners throughout the philippines. he further explained that deped will help ensure that all students have access to quality basic education for sy 2020-2021, with face-to-face classes still prohibited due to the public health situation, by combining slms with alternative learning delivery modalities (modular, tv-based, radio-based teaching, blended, and online). the national government has recognized under article xiv, section 2 of the 1987 philippines constitution[5], that “the state shall (2) establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels. without limiting the natural right of parents to their children…” and that “the state shall (4) encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning systems, as well as selflearning, independent, and out-of-school study programs in the philippines, the department of education (deped) was mandated by president rodrigo duterte to delay, if not cancel, face-to-face teaching as long as the coronavirus vaccine is not yet available to the general public. deped, however, preferring not to postpone schooling, implemented new modalities of learning delivery that incorporate modern technology (malaya, 2020). in response to the republic act no. (ra) 11469, otherwise known as the "bayanihan to heal as one act," which took effect on march 24, 2020, the department of education also came up with the plans to ensure the continuous delivery of instructions in the country, called the blended learning. likewise, according to tindolig (2020)[6], parent and family engagement has always been vital to the learning and development of students. yet, as more students have to learn from home due to school openings, an entirely new significance has been taken on by family participation. suddenly, in the education of their students, many families are expected to take a lot more responsibility, and teachers are searching for ways to better direct and help them. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 40 the study conducted by galang (2020) [7] named the common problems that can be encountered by the parents, teachers, and students in modular distance learning. the most significant problem of distance learning has been the technological aspect. technicality requires the availability of both students and teachers of devices. these are smartphones, computers, laptops, printers, and access to the internet. objectives of the study this study aimed to determine the lived experiences of the parents in implementing the modular distance learning (mdl) of san isidro elementary school. this study sought to determine the parents untie the knots to support the new learning modality by identifying the facilitating and challenging factors in the mdl. further, the study also sought to determine their coping strategies in this new modality of learning. they attained the objectives of the survey by a case study design. materials and methods research design a case study is a methodological approach in which the investigator, through detailed, in-depth data collection, investigates a real-life, contemporary confined structure (a trial) over time (creswell, 2014) [8]. yin (2009) notes that the value of the case study is its capacity to work with a wide range of forms of data, such as records, objects, interviews, and findings beyond what may also be in other types of qualitative methods. he declares that using the case study strategy while being investigated has a distinct advantage when a ‘how’ or ‘why’ question is in a recent event over which that investigator has little or no control. the case study technique allows the researchers to preserve complete and meaningful characteristics of real-life events (yin, 2009). yin said it requires learning or setting a real-life context in case the study. the type of case study the researcher used is an illustrative case study. these are primarily descriptive studies. they typically apply one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is as-is. definitive case studies mainly familiarize the unfamiliar and give readers a popular language on the subject. the study aimed to divulge a more specific and existential grounding in the implementation of modular distance learning to determine the lived experience of the parents. also, identify their coping strategies to problems they encountered and find a solution to the specific situation. to illustrate the connections of the different variables to the lived experiences of the parent who facilitate learning at home, a research paradigm is provided to understand the different perspectives of the respondents. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 41 figure 1: implementation of the learning continuity plan the figure explains the interconnection of the variables involved in this study to determine the lived experiences of the parents in modular distance learning. the arrow pointing to one variable in the box at the center shows their relationship. the lived experiences in mdl may be due to implementing the various activities stipulated in the school learning continuity plan. modular distance learning gives the parents various facilitating factors which enable them to get benefits on its implementation. on the other hand, there may also be challenging factors affecting the parent's ability to perform their duties and responsibilities as part of painting a portrait for the child. another variable connected to the parents is their coping strategies to overcome the said challenges. this study was limited on finding out san isidro elementary school practices in implementing the learning continuity, which involved the parents. the study zeroed in also on the facilitating and challenging factors in the modular distance learning of the school. further, this study also sought to determine the coping strategies employed by the parents in modular distance learning (mdl). the participants of the study are the parents of the learners under the mdl modality. the researcher used a criterion method to determine who among the parents will participate in the study. the strands of questions focused on the experiences related to the practices in the implementation of lcp, the facilitating and challenging factors in the modular distance learning, and the coping strategies they used in the mdl. the study's findings will serve as the basis for the improvement of the implementation of lcp and the enhancement of the practices in modular distance learning. population and sample the participant of the study were the ten selected parents whose children enrolled in modular distance learning and who have almost similar profiles such as full-time mothers of 3-5 children, 30-35 years old, high school graduates, and a working spouse. the respondents were given aliases for this study to keep implementation of learning continuity plan facilitating factors in modular distance learning challenges encountered by the parents in teaching their children at home. coping strategies conducted by the parents lived experiences of parents international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 42 their identity and ensure the confidentiality of the information they divulge in the interview. the researchers chose to involve parents with an almost similar profile to ensure the reliability and validity of the statements relevant to their lived experiences. research instrument in gathering information, the researchers used interview guide questions during the discussion with the participants. the researcher prepared questions for the participants following the objectives of the study. these questions enabled the participants to reflect on the whole lesson and then offer their positions or opinions on the topics to the research. further, the researchers used open-ended questions, which are all aligned with the focus of the study. this study used one central question to help describe the true essence of the experience it is “what is the essence of the lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning of san isidro elementary school?” the questions functioned together to discover the true meaning of the experienced phenomenon. from the central question, interview guide questions (iq) were developed and used in conducting interviews. this study utilized self-made interview guide questions, checked by the learning continuity plan (lcp) members who have complete knowledge concerning the implementation of lcp, the chairman who studied the validity of the selection of the respondents, and the content of the instrument with the guidance of the school head. comments and recommendations for the improvement and the final drafting considered. before conducting the interview proper, the environment was set to a more convenient and friendly place or setting to build confidence and trust among the participants and get valid information for the study. due to the covid-19 pandemic, the researchers followed the suggested safety and health protocols like wearing a facemask and face shield. the researchers also implemented social distancing during the interview. the interview and the focal group discussion set a schedule with the participants. the researchers prepared the guide questions, recording gadgets, and writing materials before the facilitation of the interview. the researcher asked someone to write the discussion. the interview was recorded and written. all the gathered information during the conversation was encoded verbatim, tabulated, and analyzed. the following formal case study protocols were developed to enhance the reliability of this research. after the participants completed the initial videotaped interview, a follow-up interview was conducted for clarifications. a guide for the interview was used with semi-structured interview questions in an emergent design format to get and gain information from the respondents. follow-up questions were designed to clear and analyze the unique responses of the participants. data was collected using interviews, observations, and video recordings. the observation method was used to discern the environment for research. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 43 ethical considerations the researchers followed the ethical guidelines as specified in the research manual of the school. the researchers strictly considered formal stages of communication for ethical consideration throughout this paper. the process of conducting the interview, the objectives, and the significance of the study was explained to the participants. all the information shared by the participants has been treated with the utmost confidentiality. the authors of the literature and studies used throughout the paper were given proper citations. the study also assumed that the participants had completed their consent form. which expressed their willingness to participate in this research. results and discussion this research is guided by the following central question: what is the essence of the lived experience of parents in implementing modular distance learning at san isidro elementary school? corollary question number 1: what practices are implemented in the schools' learning continuity plan that involve the parents? the horizontalization of the study was presented by listing significant statements that were extracted from the verbatim transcription of the participants’ responses. these statements were read and analyzed many times to answer the two central questions with probing questions in the research interview protocol. as a result, the researchers came up with ten (10) significant statements, extracted from the participants' conversations. in theme clustering, the researchers classified six (6) themes for textural descriptions. theme 1: fb: keeping you informed. participants show the ability of parents to access facebook. it also reflects the power of the school to find an alternative way to inform the parents and build an effective communication scheme with the school. as for the participant’s responses, the school has created an fb page to disseminate salient information that would also inform the parents of the activities they have to attend. their responses also show that this contemporary way is practical since the parents have demonstrated their awareness and access to this social media. as to the legalities of creating an fb page for the school, even the division of cabuyao has been encouraging all public schools, it may be of immense help in informing the community and especially the parents about the school activities in modular distance learning. the schools are also free to post various statements and pictures related to their actions and inform the parents of the actions they need to attend. these are well-manifested to the following responses: stated below are the annotated exemplar for this query: maria: they used facebook to disseminate salient information through the help of the stakeholders. teresa: the school has provided an fb page for easy access and determines the changes in this school year. leila: the school has created an fb page that enables easy access to know what to do. merry: the school created a fb page wherein they posted the announcement and other things that we parents need to know. jessy: the school has created the fb page as a way of informing the parents and a chance on how to collaborate with them. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 44 anna: the school created an fb page which serves as the best way of informing the parents about the programs, projects, and activities of the school. belen: they encouraged the parents to visit the fb of the school to get all significant information. agnes: they introduce the school’s fb page to encourage the parents to be informed of the important information and to collaborate with them. bridgette: one way of enthusing the parents to partake actions to the programs and projects of the school is through the fb page. in the article gumalas (2020) [9], most public schools in the country are implementing modular distance learning, which they deem as the most suitable modality for their learners. theme 2: education must continue; education cannot wait. parents believe that choosing modular distance learning is the safest way to ensure the continuity of learning of their children despite the pandemic. the parents' responses affirmed that san isidro elementary school had chosen the most suitable and effective way of informing the parents and involving them in different activities while serving as facilitators of learning at home. in this portion, the parents were asked, “are you in favor of the practices implemented in the school as part of the learning continuity, that you as parents are involved in? why? why not??” listed below are the annotated exemplar was taken from the responses of the parents: teresa: yes, because the school ensured among the parents the continuity of learning despite the pandemic. antonette: i am in favor of these activities because it ensures the continuity of learning among learners. leila: favor of these activities of schools, which ensure the continuity of learning of my child. merry: above all is the possibility of continuous learning of my child anna: yes, it is the easiest and safest way to collaborate with the programs and projects of the school. belen: yes, it is the easiest and most appropriate way to encourage the parents to collaborate with programs and projects of the school. parents care about their children; they give time and support for the future of their children. they think that there is nothing more important than keeping their children safe amidst the pandemic. they also believe that the way of school encouraging the parents to participate in the various activities through fb is just right for the school, the parents, and their family as well. however, there is still a problem with the assurance that all parents to notified because not all can access or have a facebook account. theme 3: mdl finds a way. parents concerning the facilitating factors of the implementation of the modular distance learning (mdl). but they do believe that even though the mdl is challenging since it is the first time for most schools to implement it, the parents still see and perceive its brighter side, which provides them sufficient time to oversee their children on their studies. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 45 it can be noted that the mdl enabled them to have time for their children and assist them in their studies. they were also able to see their worth as the learning facilitators at home. the mdl also gave them the chance to share their knowledge and skills with their children and with offered an avenue for them to show how they care about their children. these realities are shown in the responses of the parents as explained below: maria: it provides opportunities for me as a parent to spend time teaching my child. teresa: it gives ample time for me as a parent to sit with my child and help him in his study. i am also able to find some of my shortcomings as a parent. leila: my child does not need to rush; it gives him sufficient time to think correctly about his study. i am also able to look after him in his research. jessy: mdl is one way of providing a chance for me as a parent to oversee my child on his study. anna: i think one of the most significant effects of mdl is to allow the parent like me to share something on the study of my child. agnes: it is also a way to help the parent realize their worth in teaching their children. bridgette: it offers an opportunity for me as a parent to teach my child at home. parents have seen the positive impact of the implementation in building a harmonious relationship with their children. they also believe that no other person would do it for their children; hence, they need to do their roles and responsibilities as parents and as learning facilitators at home. according to milles (2020) [10], the parents have become more aware of the worth of spending time and guiding their children on their studies due to the immediate change in teaching and learning modality in the time of the pandemic. this quick shift of the learning modality has also enabled the parents to better realize their responsibilities as partners of schools in providing quality education among their children. theme 4: painting a portrait as a consecrated responsibilities. the closest persons to children as learners are the parents. they spend most of their time with the family. thence, the family members perform the vital roles of molding the children to become the best versions of themselves in the future. thus, the parents still hold the brush that could have the most prominent role in painting the portrait of their children. the parents have learned their responsibilities of painting the future of their children. they even realized that there should be time allotted to sit beside their children and ask them how they do in their studies and things that seem vague to them. as parents, it is their prime and consecrated responsibility to mold their children and help them attain their dreams. these are all shown in the following responses: teresa: it is one way of paying attention to the education of my child, especially during this time. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 46 antonette: it helps a lot of providing parental support to their children on their studies at home. it also helps in sustaining the interest of the learners towards their studies. leila: parent who has nothing to give to children but education would do their best to teach them. jessy: i have this big responsibility that i need to perform for the learning of my child and his future. anna: i have learned that i have this huge responsibility that i need to perform to help my child learn and become successful. agnes: mdl opened my eyes to see and understand my responsibilities in molding my child. according to bormeo (2021) [11], the new normal in the modality of teaching and learning has become challenging for the school, teachers, learners, and parents. the old teaching and learning system has shifted into a more challenging modality, whereas parents are expected to serve as the learning facilitators of their children at home. modular distance learning offered an avenue for the parents to perform their responsibilities in helping their children with their studies and help them learn and attain their dreams. the pandemic somewhat helped parents realize their worth as the first people who shall do things that would allow the children to live their dreams and make them happen. theme 5: race against time. in the philippine setting, the parents have been expected to perform these two major roles and responsibilities: raising their children and educating them. the parents in the philippines have been known for their unique way of having a high regard for education. they do believe that education serves as a ticket to a brighter tomorrow. the quick change in teaching and learning modality has encouraged the parents to spend extra time teaching their children. in modular distance learning, the parents serve as learning facilitators. in this case, they must attend to two significant roles: to do their household chores and to spend time teaching their children. these ideas are also reflected in the responses of the participants below: teresa: sometimes, i was not able to help my child on his module due to the household chores that i also needed to know. antonette: as a parent, it is a big problem for me to allow sufficient time to spend with my child on his study. merry: there are times that i was not able to assist my child due to chores i needed to do at home. jessy: there are times that i was not able to do household chores coz i needed to help and assist my child on his module. anna: i guess the hardest part of mdl is to learn how to manage my time to deal with both my responsibility doing the household chores and assisting my child on his study. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 47 belen: i think how to manage my time is the hardest challenge i encountered in modular distance learning. agnes: so often that i fail to do my household chores because my child needs assistance to answer the activities in his modules. bridgette: spending time for the household chores and time for the study of my child, i guess, is the hardest challenge i face in modular distance learning. most of the parents have affirmed that being learning facilitators has somewhat affected their time to do their household chores and vice versa. they felt that both sides were pushing and pulling when it came to the time that they should be giving. they also affirmed that doing both household chores and assisting their children might have an impact on their responsibilities. however, their responses also show that they are much aware of their responsibilities as learning facilitators and in doing their household chores. theme 6: time works wonder. just like any other profession, being parents requires a lot of time to deal with the demands of each responsibility. implementing modular distance learning as the new modality of teaching and learning helps the parents better realize their worth to paint a portrait of their children and attain a better tomorrow. however, this somewhat adds to the burden for those parents who have a lot of household chores to deal with. the parents perceived that assisting their children on their module gives them additional work and responsibilities for which they deemed is the primary work of teachers. the participants in this study have one common answer, which manifested the coping strategies that zeroed on time management. these are all manifested on the following statements: antonette: time management merry: i used to do things at the same time. i do the chores at home while assisting my child with his study. jessy: i learned how to manage my time. anna: i post a timetable, and so i would be able to do things at home while teaching my child on his study. belen: we had agreed with my spouse about proper management of my time in doing the household chores and in teaching my child. agnes: i set the alarm on my mobile phone to ensure that both my work at home and the study of the child will be attended to. bridgette: time management, but believe me, it is still hard. just like any other profession, being parents requires a lot of time to deal with the demands of each responsibility. implementing modular distance learning as the new modality of teaching and learning helps the parents better realize their worth to paint a portrait of their children and attain a better international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 48 tomorrow. however, this somewhat adds to the burden for those parents who have a lot of household chores to deal with. the parents perceived that assisting their children on their module gives them additional work and responsibilities for which they deemed is the primary work of teachers. according to belizon (2019) [12], the parents are the closest partners of teachers in molding the learners to become functional and productive citizens. he also stated in his study that the parents should take responsibility for helping their children with their studies. they are also expected to spend enough time in having the follow-up, ask their children how they do on their studies, and ask about their needs in different aspects of life. in his study, he also suggested that the parents should have the proper time management so that they would be able to attend to the family's needs, such as the household work and in supporting their children in their studies. the parents perceived time management as the most significant way to surpass their challenges in facilitating learning at home. they believe that allocating the proper and sufficient time in doing their household chores and assisting their children in studying are needed to surpass the challenges. this would help the parents to do their responsibilities at home for a certain time and spend sufficient time with their children. they also had different strategies on how to do it. it depends on their status and the ability of the other members of the family who might do either of the responsibilities such as household chores and assisting the children on their studies. it might be perceived as cliché, but it still runs in the blood of filipino families the high regard to the worth or significance of education. filipino parents usually exert time, effort, and find jobs to earn money and sustain their needs, which also includes the budget for the education of their children. they send their children to school because they believe it will give them the ticket towards success. most of the public elementary schools in the country have been encouraging the parents to partake in actions and do their roles and responsibilities as parents to their children and the second teachers in their respective homes. the schools often request for the participation of the parents in the various programs, projects, and activities of the school, which shall also benefit all learners. the schools have also been persistent in taking actions on how to collaborate with the parents and in finding ways to sustain their trust to send children to school. however, it cannot be denied that even during the pre-covid-19 pandemic, parents did not give time to sit beside their children and spend time reading with them, ask the children about school, and teach them their homework. the implementation of modular distance learning somehow adds a burden for the side of the teachers on how to gain the support of parents who shall serve as the learning facilitators of their children at home. however, the results of the survey conducted by the school, the parents have chosen the mdl as the most appropriate modality for teaching and learning. hence, it was perceived by the teachers that the parents would extend their arms in helping their children in their studies, wherein the learning materials are provided by the school and monitored by the teachers. the implementation of modular distance learning has enabled the old but worthy face of the parentschildren partnership to education. the mdl somewhat brings back the old tradition for the parents or guardians and ask for their children to sit with them and talk about their studies, get their notebooks and pen, and do their assignment. hence, the implementation of mdl indirectly leads the parents to better realize their responsibilities and worth of painting the portrait of their children. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 49 this mdl has found an avenue for the parents and guardians in finding time to open the books, read for their children and teach them to understand the lesson. on a broader plane, it enables the parents to help their children step into a higher stage and be part of the scholastic growth and development. the mdl also offers even a bigger brush for the parents in painting the portrait of their children in achieving their goals in life. conclusions based on the salient findings of the study, the following recommendations are offered. 1. the school is encouraged to conduct continuous monitoring of the activities posted on facebook and check its content and details, which may not lead to confusion among parents since they deemed that the fb is the most reliable source of information about the school's activities. 2. not all parents have an account on facebook, and so the school is also recommended to facilitate other ways on how to inform the parents, such as through leaflets, flyers, and tarpaulins. 3. the school is also encouraged to conduct a monthly interface with the parents to determine the challenges they encounter in facilitating their children's learning at home. this would be of big help for the school to easily determine the challenges of the parents, build stronger partnerships with them, and provide them sufficient actions that the learners can also benefit. 4. the school is also recommended to provide a hotline or help desk in school for them to assess the needs of both parents and learners in facilitating learning at home. this may also be a big help for the parents who find difficulty managing their time to guide children on their studies. references [1] lopez, ricardo luis l (2020) readiness of the department of education for the modular distance learning cited from lucio’s article in manila bulletin” deped in the opening of classes 20202021” [2] republic act no. (ra) 11469, otherwise known as the bayanihan to heal as one act [3] lines, k. l (2016) understanding vygotsky’s principle of zone of proximal development from education journal 2016, 12th edition. pp 12-15. bright light publishing house [4]. estrella, f. j. (2020) analyzing the preparedness of the department of education in the modular distance learning to most public elementary school [5]article xiv, section 2 of the 1987 philippines constitution [6] tindolig, g. r (2020) from the article of abad (2020) deped reminds students they may use multiple methods for distance learning.https://www.rappler.com/nation/deped-reminds-students-usemultiple-methods-distance-learning [7] galang, d. b. (2020) student satisfaction, performance, and knowledge construction in online collaborative learning. educational technology & society, 15(1), 127-136. [8] creswell, j.w. (2014). educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.) upper saddle river, nj: pearson education [9] gumalas, r. (2020) researching learning design in the open, distance, and flexible learning: investigating approaches to supporting design processes and practices. distance education. 30(2), 175-17 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 37-50 paint a portrait: lived experience of parents in the implementation of modular distance learning daphnee s. paco, alberto d. yazon, karen a. manaig, sherwin b. sapin, marcial m. bandoy 50 [10] milles, k.p (2020) effectiveness of modular approach in teaching at the university level. journal of education and practice, 5(17), 104. retrieved from http:// www.academia.edu/download/37300040/sadia__dr_ shazia.pdf [11] bormeo, j. r. (2020) a modular approach utilizing decision tree in teaching integration techniques in calculus, department of arts, sciences and teacher education, city college of calamba, calamba city, laguna, philippines. [11] belizon, c. k. (2019) lived experience of solo parents in teaching their children at home: a phenomenological study. emilio aguinaldo college microsoft word 4. ijrse-766-article text-3447-1-2-20211123.edited by le.docx available online at: https://researchsynergy.org/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 3 number 2 (2021): 01-17 corresponding author tcheung@qcc.cuny.edu doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v3i2.766 research synergy foundation learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown sunil dehipawala1, ian schanning2, george tremberger3, tak choi david cheung4 1, 2, 3, 4 city university of new york queensborough community college, united states abstract the teaching of an introductory astronomy course in remote delivery during covid-19 lockdown encountered a unique issue in terms of a mixture of three student groups. they are the science majors, science-interested students, and non-science majors to satisfy science requirements in our two-year community college located in new york city. the learning of how to assess uncertainty would be of universal concern in the three groups. uncertainty examples include shoe size selection experience in daily life for non-science majors, distance measurement uncertainty for science-interested students who are parents, and simulation uncertainty for science majors. reciting or memorizing a narrative in remote learning should be supplemented with a discussion using an alternative perspective with intellectual maturity, and the uncertainty theme would fit well for the learning of any chapters in an astronomy textbook. assessment exercise questions are developed. the strategy to discourage rote learning and plagiarism in the remote asynchronous delivery of introductory astronomy at the college level is discussed. keywords: uncertainty learning; simulation; remote asynchronous this is an open access article under the cc-by-nc license. introduction the covid-19 lockdown presented challenges for instructors to deliver lessons online and students to learn remotely in synchronous, asynchronous, or mixed mode. a harvard astronomy professor, dr. goodman, suggested that the teaching of uncertainty in astronomy could alleviate lockdown anxiety (aggarwal-schifellite et al., 2020). the details are presented in appendix-1 for easy reference. the suggestion makes sense considering our understanding of the theory of transference learning in a setting of the introductory astronomy course being a science course for non-science college students. the present paper shows an example of teaching uncertainty and conducting assessment in a two-year community college in new york city. our introductory astronomy course students can be classified into three groups, namely, the non-science majors, science-interested students, and science majors. the science-interested students include those parents who want a glimpse of science to encourage their children to be majors in stem. during the covid-19 lockdown, the open stax astronomy textbook and other online materials were used (fraknoi et al.; 2016). most introductory astronomy textbook lessons would not use the uncertainty theme. therefore, we developed examples of the logistic narrations to present the uncertainty international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 2 │ subject matter as a theme in several lessons in the teaching of introductory astronomy during the covid-19 lockdown. literature review in the pedagogy of physics education, the method of using newton's laws for finding acceleration is supplemented with the alternative method of using the energy method. the ability to solve problems from the two alternative perspectives of newton’s laws versus energy method would broaden lateral thinking. the transference to the teaching of astronomy uncertainty would include the presentation of the uncertainty theme as review lessons on topics already taught in the perspective of the class textbook (bransford et al., 2000). the uncertainty theme can be viewed as an alternative perspective versus the textbook's perspective and broaden lateral thinking. from bloom's taxonomy application perspective, the first layer in memorization of a narrative in remote learning should be supplemented with a discussion using an alternative perspective with intellectual maturity, and the uncertainty theme would fit well for the learning of any chapters in an astronomy textbook (armstrong, 2020). there are several concepts in physics education pedagogy that are very useful. they are critical thinking, lateral thinking, orthogonal domains, and intellectual maturity. the critical thinking skill should be able to evaluate the statements in a judgment process (https://www.lexico.com/definition/critical_thinking). the cambridge dictionary explains that lateral thinking is a thinking process that uses unexpected methods for problem-solving (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/lateral-thinking). oxford dictionary offers a contrast between the lateral thinking process with unexpected methods and the vertical thinking process with conventional logical steps (https://www.lexico.com/definition/vertical_thinking). a variation of values of a variate in one domain should not affect the values of other variates statistically in an orthogonal domain (https://www.lexico.com/definition/orthogonal). it was reported that the intellectual maturity at the level of “knowing the uncertainties” and the “fixed/growth mindset” would form two orthogonal domains (mandeville et al., 2018). orthogonality exists inside a context. within the domain of cognition, conscious and unconscious processes are orthogonal with zero measurable correlation. within the domain of knowledge, explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge are orthogonal. orthogonal thinker has been discussed by curtis odgen, thomas w. hass professor in sustainable food systems at the university of new hampshire, "as a person with the ability to draw from a variety of, and perhaps seemingly unrelated, perspectives to achieve new insights" (odgen, 2014 year). ordgen cited several examples, including the coding notion of a gene by schrodinger, a foundational figure in quantum mechanics. the use of orthogonal methods with different scientific principles in the study of the unfolding of protein biomolecules is well established (temel et al., 2016). in other words, two or more methods using independent properties to reach a common goal are orthogonal methods. in that regard, newton's method and energy method in problemsolving would be a pair of orthogonal methods. in astronomy, the trigonometry parallax method and brightness inverse-square law method would be two orthogonal methods for the common goal of distance measurement of a cepheid in the hipparcos and gaia data (brainerd, 2020; shanks, 2018). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 3 astronomers usually emphasize the concept of calibration because the cepheid brightness inverse square law distance method is extended to distances beyond the parallax method. in other words, two orthogonal methods would share a calibration relationship when one of the methods is extended to a new range. the textbook narration using critical thinking on the statements as the first learning and the instructor uncertainty narration in the reviews of the chapters could constitute a pair of orthogonal methods to reach the common goal of intellectual maturity in pedagogy. using the learning of uncertainty in a review to calibrate the first learning would be an acceptable pedagogy. knowing a pair of orthogonal methods would be the beginning of lateral thinking and the becoming of an orthogonal thinker familiar with orthogonal methods and pairs with calibration applications. for example, the open stax astronomy textbook has paragraphs describing the uncertainties or chances in the cosmic impact and extinction of dinosaurs, geomagnetic storms triggered by solar eruptions, radioactive half-lives, supermassive black holes, extremely old stars, etc. the open star astronomy textbook also has external links. for instance, the link to the torino impact hazard scale in which the chance of an impact has been tabulated could be used to further discuss a cosmic impact. (center for near earth object study, 2020). the concepts of uncertainty and risk are essentials in economics and were formulated by frank knight when he was at the university of chicago (knight, 1922). the mit explanation of the knightian perspective can be summarized as the following (dizikes, 2010). a known risk can be converted to effective uncertainty, while true uncertainty is not measurable. in the simple words of the business world from the eyes of non-science majors, and uncertainty that can be foreseen and quantified is called risk, whereas a true or genuine uncertainty is unknown in advance (kastelle, 2013). the business perspective simply summarized that true uncertainty must be sought out to increase the opportunities for profit-making. the seeking may very well depend on lateral thinking to merge the unexpected ideas. the open text astronomy textbook paragraph narrations on uncertainties and changes can be classified as risks in using the measurements to support the associated theories. using the knightian perspective, a conversion of risk to effective uncertainty would need numeric steps. a numeracy aspect of chance and uncertainty at four different levels has been published by the scot government as a learning modulus (scot government-a 2020). other professional learning modulus such as data and analysis are also available (scot government-b, 2020). a numeracy description would support the learning at the college level beyond news media reading of how the titanic fate could have been affected by a geomagnetic storm (zinkova, 2020). the introductory courses in stem curricula are also foundational courses for other disciplines. calculus is required for business and economics majors. introductory astronomy offers the fundamental science perspective to all majors when accepting astronomy as a forerunner of physics which also showed that optics was essential for the discovery of cellular structure. the alternative uncertainty theme in the reviews of astronomy chapters would present a holistic approach with an intellectual maturity perspective. lateral thinking with two alternative perspectives in astronomy would be useful in daily life using the transference of learning. the reduction of uncertainty is a prime objective in astronomy research, independent of the calling of prof goodman to use the learning of uncertainty in astronomy to reduce anxiety international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 4 │ in the covid-19 pandemic (aggarwal-schifellite et al., 2020). perhaps prof goodman was influenced by the milky way radcliffe wave discovery in which she and her collaborators were able to reduce the interstellar cloud distance uncertainty to 5% (alves et al., 2020). the radcliffe wave overturned our 150-year old understanding of a ring structure in the star nurseries around the sun and instead presented a sinusoidal structure intersecting the milky way galactic plane with the sun undergoing a 13 million years period. while the deduction details of the sinusoidal stricture would not be suitable for an introductory astronomy course, the interstellar cloud distance uncertainty reduction by using the gaia spacecraft data would be within the syllabus (shanks, 2018). the topic of “life in the universe” with the fermi paradox is covered in the last chapter of the open stax astronomy textbook. a chapter review based on the uncertainty theme could include a discussion on the uncertainty in the scientific publications on the evolution of intelligent life. the recent astrobiology research article reporting that intelligent life is a very rare event could be discussed with the uncertainty theme while bypassing the bayesian calculations in an introductory astronomy course (snyder-beattie et al., 2020) learning of uncertainty uncertainty overview uncertainty in science is how well do we know. we know the history of the atomic bomb and hydrogen bomb, and that knowledge eliminates the uncertainty of what causes the sun to shine. the sun converts mass to energy in nuclear fusion, and there is zero uncertainty that the sun exists. we use spectroscopy data to conclude that all other stars are using nuclear fusion just like our sun without uncertainty. the angular position information of a star on the celestial sphere has minimal directional uncertainty when compared to the distance information. a step in the cosmic distance ladder requires reference to the previous step, and the first step is the distance from earth to venus measured by radar technology. radar technology started during the second world war in the 1940s. today radar distance measurement is accepted as real. therefore, the reality of the stellar distance is calibrated to the reality of the radar distance from earth to venus. however, the uncertainty in the first step of the radar measurement will continue to the second step of stellar parallax measurement with one astronomical unit as the triangulation baseline. the third step of spectroscopic parallax or spectroscopic distance will inherit the uncertainty of the first and second steps. the accumulation of uncertainty as we go along the cosmic distance ladder is a reality that astronomers must solve. in literature, we have words to convey emotions in fiction and movies. in astronomy, we have simulations to determine the uncertainty. therefore, uncertainty can be a productive element with diligence, humility, and aspiration. uncertainty in the understanding of stellar evolution uncertainty is an intrinsic attribute in a measurement of reality. the mere interaction of a reading of status would alter that status in the measuring process. we control the electronic uncertainty at the quantum mechanics level such that we can build smartphones. the forensic evidence from the spectroscopic analysis is a reality in legal proceedings with the usual measurement uncertainty in a forensic lab. therefore, the spectral analysis of star signal for element identification is a reality with the usual measurement uncertainty in a international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 5 telescope dataset when compared to the reality in legal proceedings. the fuzziness of a spectral line is related to the system pressure in laser lab such that the line width of a telescope spectral line would contain surface pressure information, whether it is a mainsequence star or a red giant at the same surface temperature. we understand the nuclear processes of the fundamental particles, including protons, neutrons, electrons, etc., in our lab at the reality level with acceptable uncertainty. in daily life, a right foot shoe size could be slightly different from the left foot shoe size, and the range of half a shoe size would be uncertain, but a pair of shoes is a reality. therefore, the nuclear processes inside a star are a reality when calibrated to the reality of controlled nuclear reactions in a physics lab. chapter 22 of the open stax astronomy textbook has a good narration, which is presented in appendix-2 for easy reference. a star having a contracting core and expanding outer layers is a reality with an analogy to the split personalities in psychology (according to the open stax astronomy textbook). this instability manifests as brightness fluctuation in variable stars and supports the reality of distance measurement, riding on the period-luminosity relationship. on the one hand, the reality of stars and remnants is calibrated to what we can control in physics labs. on the other hand, the reality of distance information is built on the radar echo from venus for the definition of one astronomical unit, the average distance between the earth and sun, and the geometry of parallax measurement of nearby stars independent of physics principles. the next step of spectroscopic parallax or spectroscopic distance needs the knowledge of electron transitions inside an atom in laser lab, plasma interaction in energy lab, nuclear reactions in high energy lab to ascertain the reality of the location of a star. the uncertainty from the physics lab must contribute to the uncertainty in the distance determination, in addition to the uncertainty on the telescope signal. take a daily life example. when the left foot shoe size is drastically different from the right foot shoe size in a specific custom order, the reality of a pair of shoes for a person could be in doubt because the large shoe size uncertainty in that custom order is unexpected. similarly, the reality of distance is built on the expectation of low uncertainty. the simulation technique used in astronomy has two aspects. on the one hand, the elucidation of physics principles can be built in terms of simulations that match observed telescope events, just like literature books have words to convey emotions in fiction and movies. to what extent would a simulation mimic an astronomical event is like to what extent storytelling could convey emotions and mimic a character a question. “the strange case of dr jekyll and mr. hyde” mimicked a doctor with a split-personalities and the author stevenson wrote about the range of variety in behaviors. an author could show a character with some behavioral uncertainty in the beginning chapters to illustrate the developmental nature of a mindset. similarly, a simulation in high-energy physics would mimic an experiment for the determination of the measurement uncertainty. an understanding of the relationship between uncertainty and reality can transcend daily life examples to include examples in astronomy. on the one hand, applications to the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 6 │ classification of objects include the star grouping in the hr diagram, the rr lyrae grouping in a period-luminosity graph, supernova brightness versus time profile, etc. the reality of the objects is used for distance information extraction under the principle of the inverse square law in brightness. the uncertainty in the acceptance of an object designated for distance calculation will be an addition to the uncertainty in the telescope measurement of the brightness of that object. on the other hand, a virtual reality enabled by digital technology can be used for training. a simulation of an object in astronomy based on physics can be used to ascertain the evolution outcome for a given mass and reduce the uncertainty in the acceptance of an observed object with the associated characteristics. in general, the understanding of uncertainty would generate confidence in reality which includes daily life experience, astronomy studies, etc. uncertainty in the understanding of cosmology distance measurement is a necessity in the development of any civilization. the astronomy distance measurement had taken astronomers from the small distance between earth and venus all the way to the vast distance to the edge of the observable universe. the earth to venus distance can be measured using the echo method, which is a daily experience. the time in taking a round trip will give distance information when the speed is known. knowing that light speed is a universal constant in the physics lab, the echo from venus's measurement was on a solid foundation. the uncertainty would not contribute much error when daily life asks for an estimation for practical purposes. on the one hand, using type i supernova as a standard candle allowed astronomers to estimate the distant explosion events at billions of light-years away, in exact analogy when using a standard light bulb to estimate the distance of a house in daily life such that the uncertainty would not matter much for practical purposes. on the other hand, the measurement of the separation between two regions in space across the sky is a challenge, just like a survey of the separation between two houses would cost more effort and money. astronomers know that the density of matter would not be uniform across the sky, just like the density of people population would be higher for regions near subway stations. using correlation technique, astronomers found that the separation between two high matter density regions across the sky is about 0.5 billion light-years nowadays, thanks to the sloan digital sky survey data. kepler surveyed the angular separation across the sky with an astrolabe observatory built by tyco brahe at the cost of a ton of gold. the angular measurement during a solar eclipse also proved that the sun's gravity bends light and that spacetime distortion is created by a massive object from a star to a black hole such that a light path would appear to be bent. the spacetime distortion can be understood using the following scenario. a stellar-travel civilization wants to store the nuclear fuel, but the radioactive decay is a constant, so they put the nuclear fuel near a black hole with strong gravity together with strong time distortion such that the nuclear fuel at high gravity strong time distortion would retain a high number of active nuclei when compared to those stored at the low gravity of a mining site on a planet. of course, the scenario assumes that the spaceship can escape the space distortion imposed by the black hole. anyway, a spacetime international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 7 distortion measurement has uncertainty, just like a radioactive decay measurement has uncertainty, but the spacetime distortion by stellar mass is a fact. using the cosmic microwave background radiation data, astronomers know that the early universe had matter density clumping at about one degree across the sky. the hot early universe had cooled down, so the short radiation wavelength at that time has been cooled to microwave wavelength today. the control of uncertainty in the cosmic microwave radiation measurement was a lesson by itself. recall that uncertainty can be quantified using the number of decimal places. for example, 2.75 has two decimal places would have less uncertainty when compared to 2.7 has one decimal place. those students knowing significant figures understand that more significant figures, less uncertainty. the first cosmic microwave background radiation measurement gave 2.7 kelvin, one decimal place using a ground antenna, then cobe spacecraft data gave two significant figures, then the wilkinson spacecraft data gave three decimal places, then the planck spacecraft data gave 4 decimal places. the 4 decimal place data enable astronomers to determine that the high matter density regions are separated by about one degree across the sky in the early universe. when one degree in the early universe would correspond to 0.5 billion light-years today, the whole sky of 180 degrees would correspond to 90 billion light-years today; that is, the universe is now at 90 billion light-years diameter or 45 billion light-years radius. given that the time since the big bang event is 13.8 billion years, then space must have expanded with an acceleration such that the universe is not at 13.8 light-years radius but at 45 billion light-years. in other words, the study of distance measurement tells us that space is expanding, and astronomers called that as being dark energy driven. astronomy is not just applied physics that matches physics lab data to the astronomy data. astronomy shows that space has structure, just like quantum mechanics shows that vacuum has a structure called vacuum fluctuation. since we know that the knowledge of quantum mechanics enables technology to control the electronics in smartphones, then the knowledge of space structure could enable humans to conquer the final frontier, all because of the understanding of uncertainty and the prospection on exploration to reduce uncertainty. the establishment of 5 percent visible matter, 20 percent dark matter, 75 percent dark energy ensure that astronomy is not just applied physics but a subject to propel human experience to stars and beyond. in other words, without space expansion driven by dark energy, astronomy could be reduced to the refinement of applied physics measurements. even if the uncertainty causes the proportions to change by 100 percent, the requirement of dark energy and dark matter in the data analysis will not go away, and that is how humans could one day take tigers to another star system, the tigers for sure cannot take themselves. a harvard astronomy professor said that the understanding of uncertainty in introductory astronomy would reduce the students' uncertainty and stress during the covid pandemic (aggarwal-schifellite et al., 2020); let us dissect uncertainty and max out the lessons on how to use the understanding of uncertainty to learn astronomy. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 8 │ prospection the concept of prospection includes the capacity to plan. simply remembering an event without doing an analysis may not be enough for planning. differential analysis, under one banner or category like differential calculus of one variable, noun category such as a tool for pencil versus wrench, the 5-w (what, who, where, when, and why) in the information category, then how in the function category, is an important skill. taken from a distance, would an image reveal a pencil or a wrench under the tool category? an examination of the surrounding shown in the image could yield useful clues. would the telescope data reveal a white dwarf pulling matter away from a red giant under the star category? the spectroscopic data of various stellar events would yield clues amid some uncertainty. would an image of a cake reveal who did the baking under the 5-w category? an examination of the layering complexity could give clues with some uncertainty. would an image of a planet reveal which telescope did the imaging under the 5-w category? an examination of the image resolution could give clues with some uncertainty. would an image of a campfire reveal how the fire was generated under the function category? the image of a pile of wood or a can of propane would reveal the mechanism without much uncertainty. would a telescope image of an open cluster reveal how the zero-age main sequence supported the outliers in the function category? an examination of the turn-off point with references to other open cluster data would yield clues with some uncertainty. a list of possibilities under a category can be generated by using the extent of uncertainty as to the criterion for the ranking of the possibilities. the differential analysis includes the generation of such a list and the understanding of uncertainty, which rides on the reduction of the uncertainty percentage in the data collection process. the application of differential analysis to prospection enables realistic planning on future telescope missions and encourages the taking of initiatives in expanding the knowledge of astronomy. the application of “taking initiative” as the intent of learning is also important in pedagogy. on the one hand, the request of providing one example could serve as a simple measure of rote learning, the first layer of memorization in bloom's taxonomy. on the other hand, the open question of providing at least one example could serve as a simple measure of the taking of initiative. the overcoming of any anxiety on the outcome uncertainty while “taking initiative” would positively shape prospection, an important learning tool to continue the pursuit of bloom's taxonomy layers to understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create. assessment assessment level one the assessment exercises can be conducted as fill-in-blanks with the first alphabet already given. the make-corrections method is another assessment exercise. the logistic narration is presented in appendix-3 for interested instructors to select the appropriate materials. here is an example of fill-in-blanks. "star trek described space as the final frontier. the exploration of frontier usually includes the ability to effectively handle u_____ (uncertainty). the challenge of uncertainty in exploration must be considered when deciding what the tools and e_______ (equipment) to bring along. planning or prospection of the possible challenges would require s_______ (simulations) of possible scenarios with uncertainty.” international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 9 make-correction method example is presented as the following. “the star trek prime directive of not interfering with cultural delivery (development) would mean that a spaceship must hide its emissions or mimic its emissions as regular emissions from stars, active catalytic (galactic) nucleus, etc. an emerging civilization with infantile space technology should not be aware of the presence of a prime-directive ship (spaceship). on the one hand, the captain of a prime-directive spaceship would mimic the spaceship emission as the emission of a cepheid, super bowl (supernova), etc. one the other hand, an infantile space technology civilization would study stellar emissions and eliminate untidiness (uncertainty). “ (note that super bowl is a football event in the united states) assessment level two the assessment level two exercises contained deeper questions. the logistic narration as a database to generate related questions is presented in appendix-4. here are two assessment exercise examples. “engineering predated a______ (astronomy) and physics. examination and test in education predated the testing of h______ (hypothesis) formulated by the inductive reasoning in scientific experimentation; and the testing of physics known theories on experiment outcomes using deductive r_____ (reasoning) in phenomenology. it does not matter what predated what, uncertainty is presented in any m_______ (measurements), with useful information in some cases.” “examination and test in education is the evaluations of the performance of the studios (students) in terms of the grade point average. on the hand, the uncertainty of the grade point beverage (average) of a student could be a few percent with forty courses in a typical college curriculum of a typical student with dormitory support. on the other hand, the uncertainty in the distance of an astronomical subject (object) could be more than 100 percent, for instance, the interstellar lust (dust) could have blocked a signal and the distancesquare calculation of the intrinsic luminosity divided by telescope measured brightness would then contain large unexpected (uncertainty). a larger than expected uncertainty in the grade point averages of students in a given glass (class) could mean that the class environment had a diverse student population in terms of pre-requisite grades, study-work ratio, etc. a large uncertainty in an observed spectroscopic lime (line) of a star can be measured as a large width in the spectrometer and could mean a high pleasure (pressure) environment indicative of a zero-age mane (main) sequence star, instead of a super red giant.” assessment of writing our two-year community college students need reading remediation. dictionary references are important tools. for instance, the meaning of knowledge as fact information and would explain the need for critical thinking on uncertainty to separate fact from the information. (https://www.lexico.com/definition/knowledge). the meaning of dimension being an aspect of a situation (https://www.lexico.com/definition/dimension) and the meaning of keyword being a great significant concept (https://www.lexico.com/definition/keyword) would explain the number international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 10 │ of keywords as the number of orthogonal aspects or dimensions. the cambridge dictionary sentence example of “de-correlating their responses to extract orthogonal dimensions requires calculation” should be within the college reading level when students understand” de-correlating” as “separating” without knowing the details of the statistical calculation. (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/orthogonal) the make-correction exercise would serve as a preliminary assessment of writing with the perspective that precise reading skill is important to support writing. the assessment of writing conducted using an essay on a given title would pinpoint a specific context corresponding to some general outcomes. constraints such as asking for writing based on a list of keywords would focus on the selected keyword concepts and their relationships. this kind of essay writing usually would be given a duration of a day or more, with some probability that some students would engage in plagiarism. the distinction of content words and function words such as auxiliary verbs, prepositions, etc., in speech articulation, has been emphasized (baruch; 2020). given a list of keywords, an exercise would ask the students to supply additional function words (not verbs, not nouns, not adjectives, not adverbs) and write a complete sentence with maximum meaning in astronomy. the emphasis is on “do not add nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs” in order to preserve the content words. a daily life example used to demonstrate the supply-function words exercise to the students was a list of the following words, "boy, movie, ice cream, seeing, enjoy, funny". the designed answer was "the boy enjoys ice cream when seeing a funny movie." when a student wrote, "the movie enjoys a boy when seeing a funny ice cream", then an instructor would assess the prerequisite and know that the basic remedial reading skill was missing. normally an instructor would not grade the pre-requisite, but the assessment of pre-requisite is important when a pre-requisite was taken in the spring semester 2020 covid-19 lockdown with a different grading policy from college administration due to the sudden switch to online instruction. our two-year community college is in new york city, and students speak more than 100 mother tongues. an emphasis on the difference of function words versus content words would inform an instructor on the level of the verbal pre-requisite of the students. an astronomy example would be “spiral, star cycles, region, observed, arm, galaxy” the correct answer was “star cycles are observed in the spiral arm of a galaxy”. when a student submitted a wrong answer such as “spiral arm is observed in the star cycles of a galaxy”, an instructor would offer precision correction according to the specific mistakes made by an individual student. when the mistakes are in the function words, the correction from an instructor would be effective in general education beyond the learning of astronomy. the strategy of the replacement of content words with non-words while keeping the function words has been used in brain research based on fmri and meg scans. the data showed that the posterior temporal lobe plays an important role in syntax processing (matchin, et al., 2019). it was reported that the frequency motif of the local distribution of content and function words is related to the principle of minimal cognitive loading (liang, et al., 2019). individual language style in terms of context words and function words has been studied (müller-frommeyer, et al., 2020). given these neuroscience results, the mistakes in the function words would let an instructor to deliver precise education. for these remedial international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 11 reading students, the understanding of uncertainty in astronomy could be achieved more readily when expressed in terms of numeric percentage values using elementary arithmetic steps. writing plagiarism could be reduced when given a short assignment in a short duration. submission of the wrong answers listed above to one of the plagiarism remover websites (https://www.plagiarism-remover.com/) was conducted. the echoed answer was, "the movie delights the boy when he sees the funny ice cream. the burning arm is seen in the orbits of the galaxy” it appears that the supply-function words assessment would not be corrupted by online plagiarism remover software at this moment. a recent paper on deep machine learning showed the use of a diagram consisting of the keywords with arrows suggesting the possible relationships (manning, et al., 2020). the sentence "the chef who ran to the store was out of food" was used. the content words are "chef, ran, store, food" and the function words are "the, who, to, was, out, of " (webb 2020). an alternative sentence, "the chef ran to the store with food", could mean a food delivery to a specific store by a specific chef. when the word "out" is given, the sentence "the chef ran out of the store with food" could mean that the chef took the food and left the store due to non-payment. at this moment, it appears that linguistic software would not offer advantages in plagiarism when students are asked to make a sentence with given words in context to demonstrate astronomy learning. finding and discussion the learning of "how to describe or assess uncertainty" would be of universal concern for all students. a recent dopamine study showed that most people could not use the "very mild stress" as stimulation to increase their executive function capability, in contrary to the common expectation that a small amount of stress for the raising of dopamine could facilitate the executive function in the cognition process (zareyan, et al., 2020). familiarity with the uncertainty in introductory astronomy would be transferred to a deeper understanding of uncertainty in general and could reduce daily life stress due to uncertainty. the assessment exercise questions drawn from our database listed in the appendices are meant to be inclusive. the fill-in-blanks format can be transformed to multiple-choice and true/false formats. the testing of the ability to weed out false information in the multiple-choice and true/false formats could be used in the grading of performance. the true/false format extension to the true/error format with error correction would emphasize the concepts of uncertainty and falsehood. the make-correction format directly reinforces bloom's taxonomy first layer of memorization by using the typo mistakes to draw attention. an important narration on specific concepts for memorization would be delivered as a make-correction method in the remote delivery mode within a short duration; in contrary to the standard reading comprehension method in which students read a narration and do multiple-choice questions in some duration. the short duration is an important strategy to discourage plagiarism. an assessment rubric example is presented in table 1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 12 │ table 1 assessment rubric example of the learning of uncertainty deliverable competent needs improvement fill-in-blanks uncertainty questions (25%) above 75% score below 75% score make-correction uncertainty questions (25%) above 75% score below 75% score supply function-words uncertainty questions (25%) above 75% score below 75% score prospection short essay (25%) above 75% score below 75% score an assessment dataset showed that about 30% of students are at the competent level, 20% at the needimprovement level, with a 50% drop out rate for n = 60 students in the assessment study. the covid-19 lockdown remote class has a high dropout rate when compared to the 15% dropout rate in a regular face-to-face class in previous semesters. whether the inclusion of the uncertainty theme to discourage remote learning plagiarism had increased the dropout rate would need more data in further lockdown situations. conclusion the teaching of introductory astronomy with the theme of uncertainty is presented. the assessment exercises in terms of fill-in-blanks, make-correction, and supply function-words were used to generate deliverable data to support the assessment rubric while discouraging plagiarism. the uncertainty theme with narrations in astronomy topics is listed in the appendices for further development by interested instructors. limitation & further research the limitation of the study included the use of a relatively small database of 60 students, the exclusion of a longitudinal study due to the absence of a second-semester astronomy course, the absence of a doubleblinded project in which the assessment investigators should be different from the course instructors, the effect of covid stress on the studied students, and the assumption of zero plagiarism in remote asynchronous delivery. a strategy to discourage rote learning and plagiarism in the remote asynchronous delivery of introductory astronomy at the college level could include questions from the perspective of uncertainty. the assessment questions would take time to proliferate across the web, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 13 with students uploading questions and sharing plagiarism. the novel pedagogy in the use of uncertainty as one of the teaching themes in introductory astronomy would be useful even in complete reopen after the lockdown. on the one hand, eventually, the learning of uncertainty could become a rote learning exercise, just like the calculator button on standard deviation offers numeric answers in a lab setting without an understanding of the basic bell curve statistics. on the other hand, the proliferation of using the uncertainty theme as a review of astronomy in introductory astronomy would fulfill the suggestion of professor goodman to use the learning of uncertainty to reduce anxiety in the covid-19 pandemic (aggarwal-schifellite et al.; 2020). the uncertainty description narration in the appendices is conceptual writing for easy adaptation to various questioning formats. an application of artificial intelligence writing software by an instructor could also generate different copies for different student groups in each class. microsoft just bought the openai writing software technology (scott 2020). it is expected that other anti-plagiarism software companies and university writing centers would also use artificial intelligence writing software. acknowledgments we thank alexei kisselev for computer support. we thank dr. eric cheung of montefiore mount vernon hospital for the discussion on neuroscience. we thank vazgen shekoyan and david lieberman for the discussion. we thank those 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(2020). a possible role of space weather in the events surrounding the titanic disaster. weather royal meteorological society rmets uk 2020 august 4 https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wea.3817 appendix i harvard gazette excerpt open access start excerpt https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/07/3-takes-on-dealing-with-uncertainty/ for many people, measuring uncertainty seems impossible. for astronomer alyssa a. goodman, the variable is integral to the study of the universe. “in astronomy … estimating uncertainty is just about as important as making the measurement itself. we’re talking calculations where a part in a million makes a completely gigantic difference in the story of the universe, so we have to be very careful about the answers,” said the robert wheeler willson professor of applied astronomy, co-director for science at the radcliffe institute for advanced study, and research associate at the smithsonian institution. being comfortable with uncertainty is essential to astronomers who often can’t conduct experiments in controlled environments like other scientists, goodman said. she even thinks astronomers can teach the rest of us how to understand and accept uncertainty as a necessary and useful part of life. “astronomers have to deal with uncertainty every day in our work. [we] can’t move a star or get a different angle … we have to be very serious about clever ways to estimate uncertainty in the absence of more information,” she said. “in the case of covid-19, right now what we suffer from is a tremendous lack of reliable data, and to make predictions in the absence of reliable data is extraordinarily difficult. [but] it’s not impossible, and i think it’s important that people appreciate that.” (end of excerpt) appendix ii open stax astronomy excerpt open access an excerpt from open stax astronomy textbook chapter 22. (start quotation) “most stars actually generate more energy each second when they are fusing hydrogen in the shell surrounding the helium core than they did when hydrogen fusion was confined to the central part of the star; thus, they increase in luminosity. with all the new energy pouring outward, the outer layers of the star begin to expand, and international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger 16 │ the star eventually grows and grows until it reaches enormous proportions. when you take the lid off a pot of boiling water, the steam can expand, and it cools down. in the same way, the expansion of a star’s outer layers causes the temperature at the surface to decrease. as it cools, the star’s overall color becomes redder. (we saw in radiation and spectra that a red color corresponds to cooler temperature.) so, the star becomes simultaneously more luminous and cooler. on the h–r diagram, the star therefore leaves the main-sequence band and moves upward (brighter) and to the right (cooler surface temperature). over time, massive stars become red super-giants, and lower-mass stars like the sun become red giants. (you might also say that these stars have “split personalities”: their cores are contracting while their outer layers are expanding. (note that red giant stars do not actually look deep red; their colors are more like orange or orangered.)” [end quotation] appendix iii assessment level one used in project star trek described space as the final frontier. the exploration of frontier usually includes the ability to effectively handle uncertainty. the challenge of uncertainty in exploration must be considered when deciding what the tools and equipment to bring along. planning or prospection of the possible challenges would require simulations of possible scenarios with uncertainty. the star trek prime directive of not interfering with cultural development would mean that a spaceship must hide its emissions or mimic its emissions as regular emissions from stars, active galactic nucleus, etc. an emerging civilization with infantile space technology should not be aware of the presence of a prime-directive spaceship. on the one hand, the captain of a prime-directive spaceship would mimic the spaceship emission as the emission of a cepheid, supernova, etc. on the other hand, an infantile space technology civilization would study stellar emissions and eliminate uncertainty. besides the search for advanced civilization, astronomy studies also include the search for life, that is, all kinds of life forms. mars possess local environments with conditions similar to some of earth's extreme environments containing extremophiles. gravity-assisted spacecrafts routinely travel inside the solar system in search of solar wind effect, extremophiles, etc. a spacecraft usually carries at least two two antenna systems due to the uncertainty in signal communication. the astrolabe built by tycho brahe, considered to be exquisite and expensive at the time, had enabled angular position data collection with less uncertainty. the data were used by kepler to show the elliptical orbit of mercury with little uncertainty and provide further support for the copernican revolution of a hello-sphere. fast forward to the 20th century, the 100-inch telescope at mount wilson resolved the details of a galaxy to provide evidence of a galaxy with little uncertainty, although the cepheid variable distance method already showed the mega light-years distance to andromeda galaxy, when measured from the milky way galaxy that the sun-earth resides. the seeing is believing of a galaxy is based on the reduction of uncertainty in seeing when compared to the deductive reasoning on the distance method. the firmly established astronomy fact on the existence of galaxy in the 20th century had enabled astronomers to understand the vast space in terms of 90 billion light-years in diameter and the 13.8 billion years duration since the big bang starting of the universe. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 3 (2), 01-17 learning of uncertainty in an introductory astronomy course in remote asynchronous delivery during covid-19 lockdown tak cheung, sunil dehipawala, ian schanning, george tremberger | 17 appendix iv assessment level two used in project engineering predated astronomy and physics. examination and test in education predated the testing of hypothesis formulated by the inductive reasoning in scientific experimentation and the testing of physics known theories on experiment outcomes using deductive reasoning in phenomenology. it does not matter what predated what, uncertainty is presented in any measurements, with useful information in some cases. examination and test in education is the evaluations of the performance of the students in terms of the grade point average. on the other hand, the uncertainty of the grade point average of a student could be a few percent with forty courses in a typical college curriculum of a typical student with dorm support. on the other hand, the uncertainty in the distance of an astronomical object could be more than 100 percent, for instance, the interstellar dust could have blocked a signal and the distance-square calculation of the intrinsic luminosity divided by telescope measured brightness would then contain large uncertainty. a larger than expected uncertainty in the grade point averages of students in a given class could mean that the class environment had a diverse student population in terms of pre-requisite grades, study-work ratio, etc. a large uncertainty in an observed spectroscopic line of a star can be measured as a large width in the spectrometer and could mean a high pressure environment indicative of a zero-age mainsequence star, instead of a super red giant. the uncertainty in the orbit of uranus led astronomers to examine the data and determine the origin of the uncertainty. when the uncertainty was not random, astronomers studied the possibility of another planet that would gravitationally tucked onto uranus. neptune was found in theory and confirmed by observation using the phenomenology approach. astronomers know that there are 5-percent visible matter, 20-percent dark matter and 75-percent dark energy in the universe that started 13.8 billion years ago with a current diameter at 90 billion night years. the electromagnetic radiation from radio to gamma ray wavelengths reveals the visible matter, the gravitational pulling of dark matter keeps a galaxy together, and the space expansion driven by dark energy are conclusive due to our understanding of the uncertainty in astronomy. the conquering of uncertainty was necessary in the exploration of north pole, south pole, etc. similarly, the understanding of uncertainty in astronomy and the conquering of uncertainty put humans on the moon, and beyond. microsoft word 775-article text-4210-1-4-20220519.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 64-82 corresponding author drokanla@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.775 research synergy foundation research synergy foundation cscscs analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon1 1osun state university, osogbo, nigeria abstract higher-order thinking is as an important skill needed to function effectively in 21st century classrooms. consequently, teacher professional development should be geared towards assisting teachers in acquiring skills needed to plan intellectually demanding classroom activities for their students. engaging teachers in activities such as inquiry-oriented discussion, investigation, experimentation with new classroom practices, expansion of pedagogical knowledge, and acquisition of new teaching skills and development of innovative approaches to teaching is an effective way of promoting higher-order cognitive skills. however, information about the quality of the teacher training manual in terms of its intellectual demands are lacking. hence, the need for this study becomes imperative. existing prescribed learning objectives for mathematics and science components of the manual which served as the data source were analyzed by using qualitative content analysis method. the findings showed that the majority of the learning objectives prescribed in the teacher training manual clustered around lower-order cognitive skills. in addition, reasonable proportion of learning objectives prescribed for the mathematics component emphasized higher-order cognitive skills more than the science component. further results revealed that the subject-matter content is more intellectually demanding than the aspect of the manual focusing on pedagogical knowledge. these have implications for the prescription of learning objectives in teacher training manual and planning of high-quality teacher professional development programme. keywords: learning objectives, intellectual demands, higher-order cognitive skills, teacher training manual, teacher professional development this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction in nigeria, the colleges of education established by the state and federal governments are saddled with the production of teachers for the nursery and primary schools. unarguably, an academic programme offered by these teacher training institutions is not enough to sustain them in the face of changing teachers’ instructional practices (cheng, tang & cheng, 2012; bowman, vongkulluksn, jiang & xie , 2020). therefore, for the newly employed graduates into teaching profession to successfully implement primary school curriculum, there is need to put into place continuous professional development programmes. guskey (2002) and hubers, endedijk and van veen (2020) conceived professional development as opportunities offered to practising teachers to develop new knowledge, skills, approaches and dispositions to improve their effectiveness in the classroom. some professional development programmes available in nigeria for primary school teachers are in form of workshops, conferences, seminars focusing on knowledge of the subject content areas and methodological skills of delivery. according to cheng, lu, xie, & vongkulluksn (2020) quality can be built into such training programmes when they are designed to address teachers’ current pedagogical needs and interest. the decline in primary school pupils’ performance in the state examinations which was directly linked to instructional in effectiveness makes education stakeholders to wonder about the quality of teachers international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 65 in primary schools. as evident from the poor performance of primary school teachers in a statewide examination (based on primary six standard) conducted by a state in northern part of nigeria, it was observed that primary school teachers are a little bit better than their pupils in terms of their knowledge of the subject matter. if pupils are not performing well, then teachers must be partly responsible (weisberg et al. 2009; marshall, 2012) because teachers in their classrooms have the greatest influence on student learning and achievement (darling-hammond, 2010; stronge, ward & grant, 2011). with the strong connection between instructional effectiveness and pupils’ achievement as established by research (haertel & rothstein, 2012; rice, 2012), equipping teachers with pedagogical knowledge and skills becomes the priority of the various subject associations and the ministry of education through its agencies (e.g. state universal basic education board, subeb). to equip nigerian primary school teachers with the skills and competencies needed in their daily classroom practices, subeb (2021) in collaboration with a team of subject-content specialists drawn from the two faculties of education in nigerian universities developed a manual for the retaining of primary school teachers in the state. the developed manual indicates learning objectives to be pursued, defines the nature, scope and sequence of the content, specifies teaching and learning activities that will be used to deliver the content, selects instructional materials and indicates methods that will be used by the facilitator and trainees to determine whether the learning objectives have been met or not. out of all these components of the manual, learning objectives are taken as a unit of analysis in providing information regarding the intellectual demands in the mathematics and science components of the manual as it was done in previous researches (e.g., lee, kim, & yoon, 2015; wei, 2020; elmas et al.,2020) this is because they are essential to the learners, instructors and curriculum planners in describing observable and measurable skills, knowledge and values that learners should be able to demonstrate upon completing a module or lesson (simon & taylor,2009). in addition, it provides a reliable foundation upon which the remaining components are built. for example, learning objectives serve as basis by which content is outlined, teaching activities are planned, learning and instructional materials are selected and assessments are prepared (tyler, 1949). learning objectives are also beneficial to the learners because they provide information about the content to be learnt and assist learners in making appropriate choice of study method (konig, bremenrich-vos, buchholtz, & glutsch, 2020). in recent years, there are numerous studies focusing on examination of the extent of intellectual demands that manifest in examination questions, end-of-chapter/text exercises, games and the learning objectives pursued within officially prescribed curriculum and other curriculum materials (e.g. textbooks). for instance, elmas et al. (2020) compared the cognitive levels of learning outcomes in science curricula in different countries/regions. following the same research terrain, wei (2020) examined the changing tendencies of the cognitive levels of learning objectives prescribed in chinese science curricula over a period of time. in a related study, baghaei et al (2020), compared the cognitive demands manifested in the listening and reading components of two different standardized tests. in addition, following a different research path, hari (2018) examined the degree of intellectual demands embodied in different psychotherapeutic games. as evident from these previous studies, the interest of earlier researchers tends towards intellectual demands of teaching and learning materials (curriculum, textbook, games) designed for student learning and not towards materials for teacher professional development. taking this into consideration, the authors decided to examine the extent of intellectual international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 66 demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for the science and mathematics components of the teacher training manual designed for the improvement of teachers’ professional learning. to achieve the study’s objectives, the following research questions are formulated: (1) what are the cognitive demands of the learning objectives prescribed in the school-based training manual for primary school teachers? (2) what are the differences in the cognitive demands of the learning objectives prescribed for the mathematics and science content areas of the teacher training manual? (3) what are the differences in the cognitive demands of the learning objectives prescribed for the subject-matter content and pedagogical content areas of the of the teacher training manual? it is expected that stakeholders in teachers’ professional development will benefit immensely from this study since to the best of authors’ knowledge there is no existing research in nigeria at the moment that investigates the intellectual demands of the learning objectives prescribed in the manual. as a result, it will be difficult for the state universal basic education board, inspectorate division of the ministry of education and workshop facilitators to ascertain the extent to which the manual is useful to the teacher trainees in building their higher-order thinking skills, an essential ingredient needed to function effectively in 21st century science and mathematics classrooms (hobbins et al, 2020). globally, concerted efforts are being made by teacher training institutions to incorporate training that demands higher-order thinking skills into teacher preparation and professional development bijesterbosch, 2018). the subeb training manual for public primary school teachers the content of the subeb training manual for public primary school teachers is divided into nineteen modules: literacy, reading, mother tongue, teaching-perceived difficult concepts in mathematics, methods/strategies of teaching mathematics, open educational resources and teaching materials, basic science and technology, science and societal development, making science learning easy, innovative teaching and learning of social studies/civic education, reflective teaching, emergency issues in primary social studies curriculum, classroom management, emergency response in school, school safety, understanding how children learn, definition and meaning of special education, specific methodology in teaching special needs pupils in regular schools and inclusive special education. each of these modules is carefully structured along the following sections: objectives, case-study, design/illustration, learning points, exercises and things to remember. only six modules (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) out of these modules focus on science and mathematics. the importance attached to the teaching and learning basic science and technology in the recent time serves as a rationale for focusing on the science and mathematics components of the manual in the study. for citizens to fully participate in the constantly changing society, acquisition of scientific and technological knowledge and skills is essential (brown-acqaye (2001). with the relatively low enrollment of students seeking admission to pursue a career in science and technology, there is urgent need to pay attention to the teaching of science and technology at the elementary level. each module is further organized into distinct units with a view to facilitating its implementation by the facilitators. the modular units outline broad areas of knowledge and understanding, which aim at international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 67 exposing primary school teachers to the subject-content and the methodological skills of delivery. each modular unit includes several relevant topics (on content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge) which form the basic contents to be covered during training which is specifically designed for teachers professional development. using the revised bloom’s taxonomy (rbt) in formulating and assigning cognitive demand to learning objectives to analyse the intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for the teacher training manual, the study’s theoretical framework is built on the revised bloom’s taxonomy (rbt) of educational objectives which bloom et al. (1956) originally classified learning domain into three: cognitive, affective, psychomotor. each of these domains comprised categories which are ordered in degree of complexity. the original bloom’s taxonomy provided six hierarchical levels that described the cognitive domain as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. the bottom level (lower-order cognitive skills), constitutes the first two levels and it includes the most basic cognition and the highest level (higher-order cognitive skills), represents the remaining four levels and it includes the most intellectual and complicated thinking (freeman, haak, wenderoth, 2011). it is this classification scheme that was adopted in analysis learning objectives in this study. the above mentioned two extremes are also labeled as “meaningful” and “rote learning” (anderson et al, 2001) or “deep” and “surface learning” (harlen & james, 1997). the idea behind this theory is that students cannot be successful in applying higher-order thinking to a topic until they have first mastered a ladder of rudimentary tasks. in other words, each category (or ‘level’) must be mastered by the students before progressing to next. in 2001, bloom’s colleagues, lorin anderson and david krathwohl reviewed and modified the original bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives by introducing the following changes: (1) renaming the terms knowledge and comprehension as remembering and understanding respectively (2) changing the names in the six levels from noun to verb forms (for instance analysis to analyze) (3) placing creating at the highest level of the taxonomy and moving evaluating down to the second highest level. with these modifications, the anderson and krathwohl’s (2001) revised bloom’s taxonomy became: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create. in addition to those modifications, rbt advances two taxonomy dimensions: knowledge dimension (table 1) and cognitive dimension (table 2). these two dimensions interact to create a cognitive process dimension and knowledge dimension matrix with which learning objectives can be analysed (table 3). international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 68 table 1: the major divisions and subdivisions of the knowledge dimension of rbt major division sub-division example(s) factual knowledge – the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve characteristics of a test 1.1 knowledge of terminology learning objective, assessment 1.2. knowledge of specific details and elements some desirable problems in it. conceptual knowledge – the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable teaching and learning principles them to function together objectives, learning theories 2.1. knowledge of classifications and categories 2.2 knowledge of principles and generalizations 2.3 knowledge of theories, models, and structures the nature of teaching structure of learning differentiating instruction 3. procedural knowledge – how to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods 3.1 knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms. 3.2 knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods 3.3 knowledge of criteria for determining when appropriate procedures are organized questioning techniques the criteria used to determine appropriate procedures are organized when to utilize a specific instructional strategy the criteria used to determine when to utilize a specific instructional strategy 4. meta-cognitive knowledge – knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognitive 4.1 strategic knowledge 4.2 knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge 4.3 self-knowledge knowledge needed in breaking a complex task into sub-skills to simplify its teaching knowledge of the intellectual demands of different test items awareness of one’s competence level international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 69 table 2: the cognitive process dimension of rbt levels of cognitive ability learning objectives formulated at this level… examples of cognitive processes involved remember covers learners’ ability to recall or remember the information quote, define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, repeat, reproduce, state understand covers learners’ ability to explain ideas or concepts restate, describe, exemplify, extend, explain, identify, recognize, report, select, translate, paraphrase apply covers learners’ ability to use the information in a new way execute, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, manipulate, compute, solve, use, relate analyze covers learners ability to distinguish between the different parts divide, compare, contrast , criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, breakdown, test evaluate covers learners’ ability to justify a stand or decision decide, appraise, justify, defend, judge, select, support, value, assess create covers learners’ ability to create a new product or point of view invent, construct, compose, design, develop, formulate, modify, devise international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 70 method in resolving the research questions, the learning objectives prescribed in the school-based training manual (sbtm) for public primary school teachers in oyo state (nigeria) were subjected to documentary analysis. through this process, the prescribed learning objectives were assigned to appropriate intersecting cells (after being coded) in the interactive bloom’s taxonomy chart (ibtc) which comprised 24 cells (table 3). the coding was carried out by the first two authors based on the pre-existing coding system. the eligibility of the two coders was based on their experiences in similar task when they serviced in the faculty quality assurance committee. the coding procedure involves five distinct stages. the first stage requires reading and rereading of individual learning objective with a view to locating the action verb and noun in each of the learning objectives (table 4). in the second stage, the action verb as expressed in a learning objective was classified into one of the six hierarchical cognitive process dimension divisions. the next stage involves placement of the noun component of each learning objective into one of the four knowledge dimension categories. the fourth stage involves assigning code to individual learning objective using predetermined codes (table 3). the last stage requires putting coded learning objectives into appropriate interacting cells (table 6) table 3: interactive bloom’s taxonomy chart interactive bloom’s taxonomy chart the cognitive process dimension remember m understand n apply o analyze p evaluate q create r t he k now led ge d im ensio n factual 1 m1 n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 conceptual 2 m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 procedural 3 m3 n3 o3 p3 q3 r3 metacognitive 4 m4 n4 o4 p4 q4 r4 table 4: breaking down learning objectives into verb and noun phrase components manual component s/n learning objective verb phrase component noun phrase component code code label mathematics component 1 discuss how to improvise different learning materials for mathematics discuss how to improvise different learning materials for mathematics n3 understanding procedural knowledge 2 explain the properties of both 2dimentional and 3dimentional shapes explain the properties of both 2dimentional and 3dimentional shapes n2 understanding conceptual knowledge international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 71 science component 1 compare a mosss and a fern compare a moss and a fern n1 understanding factual knowledge 2 describe the significance of using improvised materials to teach science and technology describe the significance of using improvised materials to teach science and technology n3 understanding procedural knowledge table 5: description of code code code label description n1 understanding procedural knowledge learning objective in this category demands students’ ability to explain, differentiate, connect a concept learnt previously with incoming knowledge and perform certain activities in accordance with certain guidelines or laydown principles. n2 understanding conceptual knowledge learning objectives categorized in group demand students’ ability to describe, restate, translate, exemplify and incorporate a new idea into an established scheme or reorganize an existing scheme to fit a new idea. n3 understanding factual knowledge learning objectives categorized in this group require students to extend ideas, describe, differentiate, paraphrase and demonstrate possession of knowledge of terminologies and specific facts. table 6: assigning learning objectives into cells of the interactive bloom’s taxonomy chart interactive bloom’s taxonomy chart the cognitive process dimension remember understand apply analyze evaluate create t he k now ledge d im ension factual enumerate the roles of the teacher in the teaching of basic and technology describe the various importance of science build numerals up to 99 with abacus conceptual state the principles of play-way method explain the properties of 2dimensional and 3dimensional shapes teach concept of area of some 2dimensional shape differentiate compound from a mixture international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 72 prior to the actual coding, a segment of the learning objectives in the teacher training manual was independently coded by two researchers following the aforementioned stages. upon the completion of the initial coding, they engaged in an interactive session to determine the frequency at which coding coincided (i.e. how often the two coders assigned the same code to the same learning objective) between coding made at different occasions by a single coder (intra-rater reliability) and between the two coders (inter-rater reliability). thereafter, variations in coding between the two coders were discussed and adjusted to reach a high degree of inter-coder agreement. ahead of the discussion, the learning objectives were independently coded twice by each of the two coders with a two-week time interval and the degree of consistency between the two coding attempts was estimated. the researchers believed that engaging the coders in an inter-coder agreement discussion is a necessary measure to enhance their understanding of the coding process. having acquired the coding skills, the actual coding was carried out in which the coding rubric was then applied to the whole learning objectives (n=76) prescribed in the teacher training manual following the stages earlier highlighted. upon the completion of the actual coding process, inter-coder reliability was calculated to determine if there was an agreement among the two codings. the cohen’s kappa values (.65) and percentage agreement (84%) were obtained which indicated a substantial agreement among the two codings. results in consonance with the previous studies that employed rbt as analytical framework, the results of the analysis conducted using frequency counts and percentages are presented in accordance with the research questions as follows: revealing intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed in the teacher training manual based on rbt data analysis has shown that large proportion of the learning objectives prescribed in the teacher training manual clustered around the lower-order cognitive skills. as shown in table 7, 28.9 % of the learning objectives constituted hocs while 71.1 % constituted locs. the low proportion of hocs is attributed to the fact that there were no learning objectives prescribed at the following learning levels: describe how science clubs aid the learning of basic science and technology procedural metacognitive international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 73 p1 (analysing factual knowledge), q1 (evaluating factual knowledge), q2 (evaluating conceptual knowledge), q3 (evaluating procedural knowledge), r3 (creating procedural knowledge), p4 (analysing metacognitive knowledge), q4 (evaluating metacognitive knowledge) and r4 (creating metacognitive knowledge). however, with the learning objectives being formulated at the learning levels of p2 (analysing conceptual knowledge, 9.2%), p3 (analysing procedural knowledge, 1.3%), r1 (creating factual knowledge, 2.6%) and r2 (creating conceptual knowledge, 2.6%), there was a little effort being made by the manual developers to promote hocs. table 7: distribution of learning objectives (n=76) prescribed in the training manual within the 24cells of the ibtc remember understand apply analyze evaluate create no. of knowledge items factual 19(25.0) 8(10.5) 4(5.3) 0 0 2(2.6) 33(43.4) conceptual 9(11.8) 6(7.9) 6(7.9) 7(9.2) 0 2(2.6) 30(39.5)) procedural 2(2.6) 6(7.9) 0 1(1.3) 0 0 9(11.8) metacognitive 0 4(5.3) 0 0 0 0 4(5.3) number of cognitive items 30(39.5) 24(31.6) 10(13.2) 8(10.5) 0 4(5.3) 76 percentages are shown in parentheses (%): percentage of locs is 71.1% percentage of hocs is 28.9% international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 74 comparing the intellectual demands of mathematics and science content areas of the training manual based on rbt as shown in tables 8, 9 and 10, m1 (remembering factual knowledge), m2 (remembering conceptual knowledge), m3 (remembering procedural knowledge), n1 (understanding factual knowledge), n2 (understanding conceptual knowledge), n3 (understanding procedural knowledge), n4 (understanding metacognitive knowledge) and p2 (analysing conceptual knowledge) are learning levels that featured in both mathematics and science content areas at varying percentages. for instance, when comparing the two content areas in terms of learning level, m1 (remembering factual knowledge), a lower-level learning level, with 46.7% is the dominant learning level in the science component. on the other hand, mathematics content area has p2 – analysing conceptual knowledge (13.0%) as the dominant learning level (table 10). as further revealed by the analysis (table 10 ), the mathematics component also included learning objectives prescribed at the following learning levels: o1 – applying factual knowledge (8.7%), o4 – applying metacognitive knowledge (6.5%), p3 – analysing procedural knowledge (2.2%), r1 – creating factual knowledge (4.3%) and r2 – creating conceptual knowledge (4.3%). these learning levels that are considered as the upper-level categories were absent in the science content area of the teacher training manual. with this result, the mathematics component is more intellectually demanding than the science component of the training manual. as far as the learning objectives are concerned, a significant proportion (50.0%) of learning objectives prescribed for the mathematics component emphasized hocs (table 8) as compared to the science component with only 6.7% of its learning objectives focusing on hocs (table 9). table 8: distribution of learning objectives (n=46) prescribed for the mathematics component of the training manual within the 24 cells of the ibtc remember understand apply analyze evaluate create no. of knowledge items factual 5(10.9) 4(8.7) 4(8.7) 0 0 2(4.3) 15(32.6) conceptual 5(10.9) 3(6.5)) 5(10.9) 6(13.0) 0 2(4.3) 21(45.6) procedural 1(2.2) 5(10.9) 0 1(2.2) 0 0 7(15.3) metacognitive 0 0 3(6.5) 0 0 0 3(6.5) number of cognitive items 11(24.0) 12(26.1) 12(26.1) 7(15.2) 0 4(8.7) 46 percentages are shown in parentheses (%): percentage of locs is 50.1% percentage of hocs is 50% table 9: distribution of learning objectives (n=30) prescribed for the science component of the training manual within the 24 cells of the ibtc international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 75 remember understand apply analyze evaluate create no. of knowledge items factual 14(46.7) 4(13.3) 0 0 0 0 18(60.0) conceptual 4(13.3) 3(10.0) 1(3.3) 1(3.3) 0 0 9(29.9) procedural 1(3.3) 1(3.3) 0 0 0 0 2(6.6) metacognitive 0 1(3.3) 0 0 0 0 1(3.3) number of cognitive items 19(63.3) 9(29.9)) 1(3.3) 1(3.3) 0 0 30 percentages are shown in parentheses (%): percentage of locs is 93.3% percentage of hocs is 6.7% table 10: percentages of learning objectives at various learning levels for mathematics and science components of the manual manual component learning level (interacting cells) m1 m2 m3 n1 n2 n3 n4 o 1 o2 o4 p2 p 3 r1 r 2 mathematics component 10.9 10.9 2.2 8.7 6.5 10. 9 0 8. 7 10.9 6.5 13. 0 2. 2 4.3 4. 3 science component 46.7 13.3 3.3 13. 3 10.0 3.3. 3.0 0 3.3 0 3.3 0 0 0 comparing the intellectual demands of the subject-matter knowledge (smk) and pedagogical knowledge (pk) areas of the training manual based on rbt as shown in table 11,12 and 13 , the following learning levels considered as upper-level categories (p2 – analyzing conceptual knowledge, p3 – analyzing procedural knowledge, r1 – creating factual knowledge and r2 – creating conceptual knowledge) did not appear in the pedagogical content portion of the training manual. yet, these learning levels were featured in the subject-matter content area of the manual but at lower percentages. on the other hand, m3 (remembering procedural knowledge – 5.4%), n3 (understanding procedural knowledge – 10.8%) and n4 (understanding metacognitive knowledge – 10.8%) which were categorized as lower-learning levels featured in the pedagogical content area of the training manual (table 13). these learning levels were not captured when prescribing learning objectives for subjectmatter content area by the manual developers. despite the absence of some categories of learning levels in both content areas, they still commonly featured in the following learning levels at varying proportions: m1 (remembering factual knowledge – 20.5% for smk; 29.7% for pk), m2 (remembering conceptual knowledge – 12.8% for smk; 8.1% for international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 76 pk), n1 (understanding factual knowledge – 5.1% for smk; 21.6% for pk), n2 (understanding conceptual knowledge – 10.3% for smk; 5.4% for pk), o1 (applying factual knowledge – 5.1% for smk; 5.4% for pk) o2 (applying conceptual knowledge – 12.8% for smk; 27.0% for pk). as evidently shown in table 11 , the dominant learning levels in the subject matter content area are m1 (remembering factual knowledge – 20.5%) and p2 (analysing conceptual knowledge – 20.5%). in contrast, the pedagogical content area has m1 (remembering factual knowledge – 29.7%), n1 (understanding factual knowledge – 21.6%) and o2 (applying conceptual knowledge – 27.0%) as the dominant learning levels (table 12). as revealed in tables 11 and 12, the lower-order cognitive skills (locs) were dominant in both content areas. however, the subject-matter content area is more intellectually demanding than the pedagogical content area. this is because the cognitive processes required in learning the subject-matter content area of the teacher training manual are (1) analyzing both conceptual and procedural knowledge (2) creating both factual and conceptual knowledge. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 77 table 11: distribution of learning objectives (n=39) prescribed for the subject matter component of the training manual within the 24 cells of the ibtc remember understand apply analyze evaluate create no. of knowledge items factual 8(20.5) 2(5.1) 2(5.1) 0 0 2(5.1) 14(35.8) conceptual 5(12.8) 4(10.3) 5(12.8)) 8(20.5) 0 2(5.1) 24(61.5) procedural 0 0 0 1(2.6) 0 0 1(2.6) metacognitive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 number of cognitive items 13(33.3) 6(15.4) 7(17.9) 9(23.1) 0 4(10.2) 39 percentages are shown in parentheses (%): percentage of locs is 48.7% percentage of hocs is 51.2% table 12: distribution of learning objectives (n=37) prescribed for the pedagogical component of the training manual within the 24 cells of the ibtc remember understand apply analyze evaluate create no. of knowledge items factual 11(29.7) 8(21.6) 2(5.4) 0 0 0 21(56.7) conceptual 3(8.1) 2((5.4)) 1(2.7) 0 0 0 6(16.2) procedural 2(5.4) 4(10.8) 0 0 0 0 6(16.2) metacognitive 0 4(10.8) 0 0 0 0 4(10.8) number of cognitive items 16(43.2) 18(48.6) 3(8.1) 0 0 0 37 percentages are shown in parentheses (%): percentage of locs is 91.8% percentage of hocs is 8.1% table 13: percentages of learning objectives at various learning levels for subject-matter content area and pedagogical content areas of the manual manual component learning level (interacting cells) m1 m2 m3 n1 n2 n3 n4 o1 o2 p2 p3 r1 r2 subjectmatter knowledge 20.5 12.8 0 5.1 10.3 0 0 5.1 12.8 20.5 2.6 5.1 5.1 international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 78 pedagogical knowledge 29.7 8.1 5.4 21.6 5.4 10.8 10.8 5.4 27 0 0 0 0 discussion and conclusion this study attempts to analyse the intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual. by subjecting the learning objectives to content analysis, the study revealed that the focus is more on cognitive processes requiring lower-order cognitive skills. the comparison of this finding with other similar studies (which reported that current classroom practices do not sufficiently target hot) is not in tandem with the teacher training standards set for the promotion of higher-order thinking skill by the teachers registration council of nigeria (trcn). the standard calls for less emphasis on lower-order learning objectives on the ground that they hinder meaningful learning and development. evidences from the previous studies (e.g., fitzpatrick & henry, 2015; schul and fitzpatrick, 2016) revealed that students who have been deprived of exposure to a demanding, challenging, thinking curriculum do perform poorly in the task requiring of higher-level thinking. another main finding that emerged from this study is the fact that the mathematics component of the training manual is more intellectually challenging than the science component. this finding could be explained in terms of the nature of mathematics contents which involve computations and application of theories. the in-service teachers are subjected to different learning activities (tasks) such as finding the lcm/hcf of two or more numbers, building up numerals up to 99 with abacus, calculating the volume of some 3-d shapes, teaching the concept of area of some 3-d shapes, calculating the volume of some 3-d shapes and constructing 3-d geometrical shapes. on the contrary, the training manual developers prescribed learning objectives at lower cognitive learning level for the science component as against kim, xie and cheng’s (2017) prescription of learning activities for teachers during professional development programme. they suggested that a hierarchy of learning activities gradually progressing from lower learning tasks to higher-order learning tasks should feature during training session. by engaging teachers as learners in higher-order thinking activity, they are better able to make sense of what they learn, link incoming knowledge with previously acquired knowledge and store newly constructed knowledge in their cognitive structures (wijnen, van der molen, & voogt, 2021). a plausible reason that might be responsible for the above finding is connected with the teacher training programme received by the in-service primary school teachers. with the scrapping of teachers training colleges (institutions saddled with the responsibility of awarding teacher grade ii certificate), the new category of teachers now employed in the primary schools in nigeria are national certificate of education (nce) holders who were not trained to teach all primary school subjects. in addition, only few of them are specialists in mathematics and science at nce level. taking these two factors into consideration, the teacher training manual developers, based the contents of the training manual on the primary six basic science curriculum from which lower-cognitive level of learning objectives were prescribed in the teacher training manual. regarding the comparison of the subject-matter content and pedagogical content areas of the training manual in terms of the intellectual demands, the result revealed that the subject-matter content is more intellectually demanding than the pedagogical content areas of the manual. this is due to the fact that international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 79 learning objectives at upper-level categories of learning (e.g. analyzing conceptual knowledge, analyzing procedural knowledge, and creating factual and conceptual knowledge) were prescribed for the subjectmatter content component of the manual. as the subject-matter content area is more cognitive demanding than the pedagogical content component of the teacher training manual, the expected integration of content knowledge into pedagogical components that is needed to generate important knowledge for effective teaching would be negatively affected. with the dissonance between the subject matter and pedagogical knowledge in terms of the intellectual demands, both knowledge types risk being stored with little reference to each other in largely unconnected cognitive structure. in such a situation, applicability of knowledge will be seriously hindered because the cognitive structure which is expected to be a web of associated knowledge pieces is said to be fragmented (snowman & beihler, 2006). the concurrent exposure of the in-service primary school teachers to both content and pedagogical knowledge by the same facilitator is intentionally designed to produce competent teachers. it is observed by harr, eichler and renki (2014) that the methodology courses mounted in teacher training institutions sparingly connected content knowledge with the pedagogical knowledge, thereby leaving individual teachers to build up the necessary connections themselves. the resultant effect is accumulation of inert knowledge which rendered teachers incompetent. regardless of the backgrounds and qualifications of the in-service primary school teachers who were exposed to this manual, the manual developers ought to have formulated learning objectives involving higher-order cognitive processes for the pedagogical content area. such objectives among others include the following: generating a series of learning activities for attaining pre-determined objectives, proposing a set of techniques for diagnosing students’ learning problem, modifying instructional strategies based on students’ level of understanding, demonstrating ability to access quality of instructional materials, and deciding when it is appropriate to use teacher-directed or student-initiated method. learning objectives requiring higher-order cognitive process for their attainment are likely to force the facilitators to embrace student-initiated instruction (toy & ok, 2012). this result could also serve as a motivating factor for initiating the process of teacher training manual review with a view to formulating learning objectives at higher-order level of cognitive domain and thereby improve the quality of learning resources for teachers. failure to develop adequate reasoning skills during the professional development programme of this nature may have a profound and lasting effect on their classroom practices. implications for teacher professional development and teacher learning in researchers’ view, important implications can be drawn for teacher profession development and teacher learning. this is because an understanding of the study’s findings will help all stakeholders that are connected to the teachers’ professional development. the analysis presented in this paper indicates that the proportion of lower-order learning objectives is higher than higher-order learning objectives in the teacher training manuals. three serious problems might arise from this. first, facilitators might be oriented towards adopting teacher-centred instructional strategy during the training session. often connected with lower-order learning objectives are teacher-directed international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 64-82 analysis of intellectual demands embodied in the learning objectives prescribed for mathematics and science components of the teacher training manual ayoade ejiwale okanlawon 80 instructional strategies where learners are passive recipient of knowledge transmitted by the instructor. teachers tend to teach subject-matter contents through lecture method because their efforts to plan learning activities to stimulate students’ higher-order thinking skills are hindered by the level of intellectual demands embodies in the learning objectives prescribed in the teacher learning resources (vanderhook, 2020). second, students’ approaches to learning are strongly influenced by the types of question used by the instructors to measure the degree of students’ mastery of content with the dominance of lower-order learning objectives, lower-order questions will be predominantly featured during the training session. under this condition, students often adopt a surface level approach to learning, which is characterized by memorization of fragmented facts and heavy reliance on rote learning. third, in relation to the second implication, large proportion of lower-order learning objectives prescribed in the teacher training manual may pose difficulty in distinguishing between the lower-order and higher-order achieving students by the facilitators. this is likely to be so because lower-order cognitive skills restricted learner 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(2021). measurement primary school teachers’ attitudes towards stimulating higher-order thinking (shot) in students: development and validations of the shot questionnaire. thinking skills and creativity, 42, 100954. microsoft word ijrse4_rtp_884-article text-4028-2-2-20220404.edited-2.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 01-14 corresponding author anass.bayaga@mandela.ac.za; bayamg2@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.884 research synergy foundation examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga1; p. nzuza2 1nelson mandela university, south africa 2 university of firt hare, south africa abstract the current research aims at examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in the early years of south africa. guided by cognitive learning theory, the current investigation was informed by a continuous quest in south africa. the aim was to respond to unresolved challenges associated with early numerical cognition in terms of numerical cognition through semantics and textual misunderstanding in early numerical problems and concepts. using survey design, a sample of 80 learners was chosen and tested through descriptive statistics. data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires. it was revealed that the challenges associated with numerical cognition in early numerical problems and concepts are counting, reading numbers that contain more than one digit, difficulties with copying numbers, mathematical signs confusion, and challenges associated with manipulatives. by implication, the study highlighted that there is a severe lack of numerical literacy and competency among learners. implying too those teachers need to pay particular attention to both semantics and textual misunderstanding. keywords: numerical cognition, foundation phase, number concepts, south africa this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction over the past decades, research suggested that numerical cognition, with reference to semantics and textual misunderstanding in early childhood, numerical concepts still remain a concern (botha 2011; chernyak et al., 2019; chernyak et al., 2016; cockburn, 1999; cotton, 2010; kadja 2010; pournara et al., 2016). even though a successive number of studies conducted prior to chernyak et al.’s (2019) work have attempted to find solutions to the challenges associated with numerical cognition in the foundation phase, there has not been any clear evidence of solution(s) (botha, 2011; blake et al., 2015; cotton, 2010; kadja, 2010). studies that laid an emphasis on the understanding of the mathematical text also could not provide any demonstrable evidence to resolve the identified challenges (askew, 2018; blake et al., 2015; chernyak et al., 2019; gray & reeve, 2016; mccrink & spelke, 2016; maloney 2011; murray, 2011; pardesi, 2008; pournara et al., 2016; xiao et al., 2019).despite such a lack of solutions, the challenges remain, and pournara et al. (2016, p. 1) highlight that across many countries, there is “…much interest in learners’ [cognition of] mathematics for the past 30 years….” earlier studies had focused more on constructivist perspectives (ben-zeev, 1998; borasi, 1994; olivier, 1989; radatz, 1979). others examined the socio-cultural and discursive stance (e.g., brodie & berger, 2010; ryan & williams, 2007). consequently, the challenges experienced in both foundation and senior phases still linger. this is particularly true in south africa in pursuit of solutions, particularly over the past five to ten years, and consequently, the "…. resurgence in focus on learner…" cognition of mathematical concepts (pournara et al., 2016, p. 2). in response to such persistently occurring challenges regarding numerical cognition, the current study sought to explore early numerical problems and concepts. the investigation partly involved a review of literature based on the relationships underlying mathematical concepts and the research underscoring the findings or identifying gaps thereof. much of the forthcoming analysis was based on the examination of the literature on numerical conceptualisation, with distinctiveness to early number concepts, consequently being underscored by the cognitive leaning learning theory. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 2 theoretical framework – cognitive learning theory the need to know concepts and how one knows the concept has some time now been used in examining mathematics cognition (brodie, 2014; brodie & berger, 2010; herholdt & sapire, 2014; makonye & luneta, 2014; shalem et al., 2014). for instance, herholdt and sapire (2014) explain that knowing how a concept interlinks with other concepts is what cognitive learning theory entails. thus, through cognitive learning theory, the assertion that the semantics of mathematical text play a role in early numerical cognition may not be disputed (chernyak et al., 2019; mccrink & spelke, 2016; moore et al., 2016). these studies included, for instance, research conducted on student learning and collaborative mathematics (webb, 2003); the assessment of quality education in early childhood (weber, 1990); conceptual sources of the verbal counting principles (carrey, 2007); pupils’ cognition of numbers (gelman & gallistel, 2005); influences of the structure and learning process of mathematics (niss, 2006); knowledge and understanding of numbers (jarvin, 2009); and a study on learning to understand arithmetic (kadja, 2010). conclusions reached from examining the aforementioned studies are essential that the challenges include (1) calculation problems, (2) counting objects, and (3) number line comprehension. regarding the calculation problems, for instance, the assertion via cognitive learning theory is based on the need for learners to achieve cognition of the numerical magnitude and its representation. despite such conclusion, the processing of numerical magnitude in learners, which influences the improvement of counting, still lacks conclusive evidence in research (chernyak et al., 2019; mccrink & spelke, 2016; sousa, 2008; van marle & geary, 2016). even though efforts had been made to resolve the inconclusiveness regarding the processing of numerical magnitude in learners, there had only been a suggestive stance taken by radatz (2005) on this topic. consequently, for many learners, the learning of mathematical concepts, symbols, and vocabulary remains a ‘foreign language’ problem (bornman, 2010; chernyak et al., 2019; mccrink & spelke, 2016; moore et al., 2016). as a direct consequence of the findings highlighted in these studies, errors are seen to be a function of other unknown variables in a misunderstanding of the mathematical text and process (bornman, 2010; wörle & paulus, 2018; ziv & sommerville, 2017). on the other hand, too, various positions have been held by cognitive learning theory scholarship regarding what should be recognised as [mis]understanding of the semantics of the mathematical text (bornman, 2010; burrows, 2000; buswell, 1999; flavell, 1999; goswami, 2008; kim, s. & kim, 2016; piping, 2001; shalev, 2004; shunkoff, 2000; wörle & paulus, 2018; ziv & sommerville, 2017). for instance, based on goswami’s (2008) view, challenges associated with understanding of mathematical text may be the result of deficits in basic prerequisites, including unfamiliarity with algorithms/procedures and an unsatisfactory fundamental knowledge of mathematical concepts. in response to buswell (1999), piping (2001) and later ziv and sommerville (2017) offered a categorisation of what should also be used as a gauge in evaluating misunderstanding of the semantics in mathematical text and consequently its cognition. for instance, there could be an error of association – which may involve unfamiliar algorithms/procedures. there could also be the error of interference in which different operations or concepts interfere with each other; for example: ⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧ 845 +372 +1217 +561 − − − 1778 in an attempt to explain various errors associated with the calculation above, the concept of place value has not fully been understood. as such, the learner tends to combine two place values, "7" and "1" for instance, while neglecting the need for and magnitude of other values. such misunderstanding or interference of concepts may lead to various errors, as exemplified. notwithstanding the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 3 assessment offered by flavell (1999), shalev (2004), shunkoff (2000), and skott (2005) opine that when one attempts to go beyond the description of faulty techniques and error patterns and towards the analysis of possible causes in the learners’ cognitions, the various aspects of information processing seem to offer a good basis for classification. this has also been suggested by kim, s., and kim (2016), wörle and paulus (2018), and ziv and sommerville (2017). most significantly, though, was the search for answers regarding the conceptual sources of verbal counting principles as well as how early childhood mathematics learning knowledge construction is formed, first by edwards (2000), later by carrey (2007), and thereafter by a number of authors (ekdahl et al., 2016; liu et al., 2015; shou et al., 2015) as further examined in related work. related work between the years 2000 and 2013, several studies were conducted on this topic (abadzi, 2006; siegler & thompson, 2005; wright, 2000 gray & reeve, 2016; xiao, et al., 2019; yang et al., 2011). for instance, gray and reeve (2016) raised the need for number-specific and general cognitive markers. this is because the authors established an improved performance in pre-schoolers’ math ability profiles (gray & reeve, 2016). additionally, xiao et al. (2019) established that cognition impairment prior to errors could be improved through working memory, which is based on event-related potentials. similarly, yang et al. (2011) concluded that error pattern analysis of elementary schoolaged students improves limited english proficiency. the first general conclusion these authors drew was that educators would be able to support learners by using the vocabulary related to addition and subtraction and working towards recording their addition and subtraction calculations using number sentences. second, educators may introduce the symbols to record their practical activities rather than ask them to calculate from number sentences such as 7 + 5 =? what is meant through the work of xiao et al. (2019), as indicated earlier, is that working memory could be improved via event-related potentials. for instance, educators may develop grouping activities in the foundation stage by asking learners to combine groups of 2, 5, or 10 objects and by sharing them into equal groups. from the findings of these studies, a conclusion was drawn that by the end of school year 1, learners may be able to add or subtract one-digit numbers or multiples of 10 to one-digit or two-digit numbers. they may also use informal written methods to support them in these calculations. during school year 2, educators will be expected to introduce learners to four operations (symbols), +, -, x, and / as well as =. by the end of the year, learners would be expected to be able to find unknown numbers in number sentences such as 20 –? = 12. in conclusion, it can then be expected that learners would be able to add and subtract one-digit numbers or multiples of 10 from two-digit numbers, and they may use practical or informal methods to add and subtract two-digit numbers. if this has been achieved, then learners can understand that addition and subtraction are inverse operations and will be able to represent multiplication as an array; for example, 4 x 3 is the same as figure 1. for instance, considering the lines by columns, this scheme represents 4x3; considering the columns by the lines, this schema represents 3x4. consequently, it might be used to show the commutability of the multiplication. figure 1: multiplication table using objects international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 4 another conclusion that can be drawn from such prior education approaches is that the selected approach can be a practical and informal method to support multiplication and division, including finding remainders. by the end of year 3, for instance, learners will be expected to add or subtract onedigit and two-digit numbers mentally. this also means that learners will have developed the ability to use a range of written methods to record and explain the addition and subtraction of two-digit and three-digit numbers. an important consequence is that educators need to introduce learners to practical and informal approaches to multiplying and dividing two-digit numbers and teach them that multiplication and division are inverse operations, laying the basis for learners in school year 3, starting to find unit fractions. case in point 1: the introduction by using partitioning, for example: 39 + 52 = 30 + 50 + 9 +2 = 80 + 11= 91. in conclusion, it is essential to recognise that the perceptual method divides between educators who cling to the comfort of counting procedures and those who find more effective methods. counting procedures, at best, enable learners to solve simple problems by counting. it also separates those who develop a more flexible form of arithmetic, where at best, the symbols can be used dually as processes or as concepts to be manipulated mentally. thus, perceptual thinking occurs when counting procedures are compressed into number concepts with a rich connection. for example, knowing that "adding 4 and 2 makes 6, so 6 take away 4 must be 2"; and then by using this knowledge to derive new knowledge where "26 take away four is 22 because 26 is just 20 and 6", means that until learners can make the shift from process to the concept, they will not be able to understand that 10 is a concept, and they will not be able to comprehend two-digit numbers and place value. these challenges form the basis of the current research questions. what could be drawn from the cases is that most of the strategies of numerical error analysis in the foundation phase will remain hidden unless teachers make a specific effort to uncover these strategies. this also implies that numerical error analysis strategies are opportunities for the delivery of effective teaching because numerical error analysis is a function of errors or misconceptions. goswami (2008) suggested three types of mathematical concept that correlates with numerical error analysis; (1) based on the perception of objects, (2) based on the processes that are symbolised and conceived dually as process or object, and (3) based on a list of properties that act as a concept.wright (2000) attempted to offer a relative opinion and suggested that during enumeration, while the majority of 10-year-olds could solve problems, some experienced difficulty in the structural understanding of combinatorial problems. the conclusion drawn was that these “grabbers” did not yet understand the counting sequence and regarded it as a meaningless verbal sequence. some authors suggested solutions such as found in the works of alex (2002) and edward (2000), or scholar (2008) and taylor (2006), which led to a conclusion that suggests significantly low numeracy competencies and lack of an adequate foundation for some children in understanding a mathematical text. amidst the gaps identified in previous studies and partially unclear and not yet established findings, the current research sought to pursue the following research question: research questions based on the introduction and related work, the following research question guided the formulation of the rest of the research: what numerical concepts in early childhood numerical cognition remain a concern in the foundation phase? methodology general background in seeking to explore the challenges associated with mathematical concepts in the early years, the researchers collected data by using semi-structured questionnaires with questions related to numerical errors in the foundation phase. a critical procedure considered was that learners had to be assisted by one teacher per school when trying to answer the statements in all 16 schools. recognising the various knowledge gaps and challenges highlighted in the introduction as well as related work, the method for the study was guided by the question of what mathematical concepts in early international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 5 numerical problems and concepts are a challenge and influence numerical cognition in the foundation phase. participants and instrumentation the participants in this study were foundation phase in south africa. sixteen schools were observed. attention was focused on mathematical concepts in early numerical problems and concepts that are a challenge and influence numerical cognition in the foundation phase. for instance, the learners worked through counting concepts. all sixteen schools’ participants were of the same teaching and learning infrastructure, instructed by the same teacher, and had experienced similar learning activities. throughout the investigation, all learners were also from the same schools system and had all taken the same foundation phase programme in previous years. the concepts attempted by each school and thus class is identifiable and assisted by the class teachers and the research team. these concepts generally included but were not limited to; using these overarching themes. the following subthemes were formed; i always make mistakes when counting, i have a problem in reading numbers that contain more than one digit, i have problems when copying the numbers, mathematical signs confuse me, i always finish my tasks, i learn the best when using different kinds of colours, i have problems understanding mathematical language. the method used in this research was a 4-point likert scale, which required that learners either strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or strongly disagreed with a statement in the questionnaire. thus, statements were used to investigate the relationships underlying numerical errors. in each school, a teacher was available to help learners complete the questionnaire as indicated in the general background of methodology. sample selection the sample size of 80 learners of the foundation phase in sixteen schools was based on a survey study. the principle guiding the selection of this sample size was based on strydom's (2005, p. 55) view that a 10% sample may be large enough to control for sampling errors. the questionnaire development was primarily guided by the literature review and subsequently by themes such as (1) remedy to challenges of numerical cognition and (2) developing conceptual understanding and computational fluency by introducing problem-solving skills. data and analysis guided by the teachers and research team and using a task-based interview design, the participants were guided to complete their respective research tasks as described in the participants and instrumentation section. through the process of check-coding (themes), research teams’ initial coding structures were then compared and contrasted, leading to the recognition of similar, different, and missing constructs, and the research team was able to reach a consensus. the codes developed and employed in this study analysis include those regarding; counting, reading numbers containing more than one digit, copying the numbers, mathematical signs, ability to finish tasks, learning with different kinds of objects(colours), and understanding mathematical language. the development of this list of themes extends most of the extant literature and theoretical basis regarding learners’ uses of mathematical concepts in the foundation phase via (1) remedy to challenges of numerical cognition and (2) developing conceptual understanding and computational fluency by introducing problemsolving skills as explained in sample selection section. results due to the main research question: the first section addressed the learner’s responses, while the research team in parallel considered another section which addressed the teachers’ reflections due to the fact that teachers assisted learners in responding to the interview tasks. incongruent to the main research question and characterised in the data analysis section, the reflections of the teachers were based on; mathematical concepts in the foundation phase via (1) remedy to challenges of numerical cognition and (2) developing conceptual understanding and computational fluency by introducing problem-solving skills. as indicated in the method section: the reason for the inclusion of teachers’ international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 6 reflection was because a questionnaire that was posed to the learners gave an idea of the perception learners had about the problems they were encountering. however, a comprehensive analysis is achieved by way of including the judgements of the teachers. learners responses as noted in both the literature and theoretical sections, while there have been ongoing studies on related topics, the study is delineated from the previous research and concurrently contributes to the existing body of work by examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in the early years. with reference is a guide through cognitive learning theory, employed to examine the challenges associated with early numerical cognition. such assessment was achieved via examining semantics and textual misunderstanding in early numerical problems as well as concepts. the problems identified in prior research and which led to the formulation of the question statements in the questionnaire are presented in table 1. these are considered below: mistakes when counting, reading numbers that contain more than one digit and problems when copying numbers, mathematical signs confusion, finishing of tasks, using different kinds of colours, and understanding mathematical language. the results were organised into two sections. table 1. response and associated themes themes response type i always make mistakes when counting agreed strongly agreed disagreed strongly disagreed 50 (63%) 18 (23%) 7(9%) 5 (7%) i have a problem in reading the numbers which contain more than one digit 25 (31%) 32 (40%) 11 (14%) 12 (15%) i have problems when copying the numbers 60 (75%), 15 (19%), 3 (4%), 2 (3%) mathematical signs confuse me 52 (65%) 11 (14%) 8 (10%) 9 (11%) i always finish my tasks 7 (9%) 22 (28%) 15 (19%) 36 (45%) i learn best when using different kinds of colours 45 (56%) 30 (38%) 10 (13%) 5 (7%) i have problems understanding mathematical language. 35 (43%) 5 (6%) 20 (25%) 20 (25%) in response to statement 1, which stated that learners always make mistakes when counting, 50 (63%) learners agreed, 18 (23%) learners strongly agreed, 7 (9%) learners disagreed, and 5 (7%) learners strongly disagreed that they make mistakes when counting. this means that most of the participating learners (86%) agreed that they made mistakes when counting, and using numbers. in response to statement 2, which stated that learners had a problem in reading numbers that contained more than one digit, a total of 25 (31%) learners agreed, 32 (40%) learners strongly agreed, 11 (14%) learners disagreed, and 12 (15%) learners strongly disagreed that they had a problem with international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 7 numbers that contained more than one digit. therefore, most of the learners (71%) agreed that they had problems in reading the numbers that contained more than one digit. the learners were expected to respond to statement 3 whether they had a problem when copying numbers. about 60 (75%), 15 (19%), 3 (4%), and 2 (3%) learners agreed, strongly agreed, disagreed, and strongly disagreed, respectively that they had a problem copying the numbers. most of the participating learners (94%) agreed that they had such a problem. learners were expected to state in statement 4 whether they were confusing mathematical signs. about 52 (65%) learners agreed, 11 (14%) learners strongly agreed, 8 (10%) learners disagreed, and 9 (11%) learners strongly disagreed that they had a problem with mathematical signs. thus, again most of the learners (79%) agreed that they confused mathematical signs. for example, they reversed the numbers so that a 12 becomes a 21; 31 becomes 13; 15 becomes 51; and so on. in response to statement 5, learners were expected to state whether they always finished their tasks. about 7 (9%) learners agreed, 22 (28%) learners strongly agreed, 15 (19%) learners disagreed, and 36 (45%) learners strongly disagreed that they always finish their tasks. this highlights that most learners (64%), of whom 45% strongly believed this to be true, normally did not finish their tasks. in response to statement 6, learners were expected to state whether they learn best using different kinds of colours. about 45 (56%) learners agreed, 30 (38%) learners strongly agreed, 10 (13%) learners disagreed, and 5 (7%) learners strongly disagreed. most of the learners (94%) thus agreed that the use of different colours helped them in the learning process. in statement 7, learners were expected to state whether they had a problem with understanding mathematical language. about 35 (43%) learners agreed, 5 (6%) learners strongly agreed, 20 (25%) learners disagreed, and 20 (25%) learners strongly disagreed. overall, the results showed the severity of the problems experienced by these learners as reflected in table 2. table 2: key numerical concepts in early childhood numerical cognition and their severity severity numerical concept a total of 86% agreed that they made mistakes when counting and using numbers a total of 71% agreed that they had problems in reading the numbers that contain more than one digit about 64% (45% strongly believed this to be true) normally did not finish their tasks a total of 94% agreed that they had a problem copying the numbers a total of 79% of learners confused mathematical signs, for example, by reversing the numbers about 94% agreed that the use of different colours helped them in the learning process as reflected in table 2: it was interesting to note that despite the previously elicited problems learners were experiencing, only about half of these learners agreed that they needed help because they did not understand the mathematical language, whereby they were given symbols to write. they also experienced problems with word sums as they were unable to read or spell. however, 50% international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 8 stated that they understood mathematical language and did not need help regularly. given spatial structures in early numerical problems and concepts, one conclusion can be drawn based on the frequency of mistakes when counting, the problem in reading numbers that contain more than one digit, problems associated when copying numbers, mathematical signs being confused, the time needed to finish mathematical tasks, manipulatives such as using different kinds of colours, and the challenges associated with understanding mathematical language as the major influencers. regarding mathematical language, learners seemed to make mistakes and confuse the mathematical signs, but they tended to learn better when using different colours. however, they seldom finished their tasks within the given time, mainly because they had problems with reading the numbers that contained more than one digit, and furthermore, they found it difficult to copy numbers. teachers responses from the teachers’ perspectives, in response to the numerical cognition in the foundation phase. several reasons were identified. for instance, teacher 1 cited that "…the extent to which numerical error analysis is becoming difficult to manage and be understood in schools…” is indeed becoming a difficulty. so far received little to no attention have been., wherein there added that this far, no formal training has been given as a continuous professional development (cpd) component of their training as educators. similarly, teacher 5 maintained that “…extent to which concepts need to be changed to promote and sustain learners’ interest in mathematics…” has not been the focus of their cpd. as such, matters related to promotion and steadily re-addressing errors tend to receive little to no attention. while teachers 1 and 2 lament on little to no cpd to redress ongoing challenges, teacher 6 "…the main characteristics reflecting the teachers’ knowledge should entail that learners’ levels of understanding…” such characterisation could “…contribute to an awareness of the process of learning mathematics…” maintained the teacher 6. in support, there was the need to address the knowledge of the mathematical concepts that learners struggle to grasp. the excerpts from the sampled teachers are important to respond to the currently experienced gaps in educational theory and the knowledge among teachers in response to the theoretical demands. thus, the consensus is that arithmetic cognition is not a question of whether one needs to activate numerical magnitude representation. this is because evidence from both learners and teachers suggests that it was clear enough to solve calculation problems. this question is important, especially when dealing with and managing numerical error analysis and the extent to which concepts need to be changed to promote and sustain learners’ interest in mathematics. nevertheless, other issues, as suggested by teacher 9, which “…needed to be addressed were error patterns in computation as exemplified….” the unanswered question led to the teacher 6 “… placing a renewed emphasis on the curriculum and assessment renewal…” however, this (curriculum and assessment renewal) still lacks clarity regarding the extent to which error patterns can be used to improve cognition. subsequently, and as reflected in the current research through the responses of the learners and teachers, the current research examined whether tasks such as number comparison could be used as educational measurements to characterise both large cohorts of learners and also provide a deeper understanding of the performance of individual learners. discussion several ideas have been established in response to the question of; what numerical concepts in numerical cognition remain a concern in the foundation phase as guided by cognitive learning theory. numerical concept severity when counting and using numbers. for instance, a total of 86% agreed that they made mistakes when counting and using numbers. as reflected in the responses of learners in table 2 regarding when counting and using numbers and consistent with cognitive learning theory, scholar (2008) argued that by the time learners leave primary school, they will not have confidently grasped counting and numbers. consistent with teacher international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 9 6's response, who invariably placed renewed effort on the curriculum and assessment. it could be argued that such a lack of standard of competency provides a poor platform for learners to engage with algebra and other aspects of the school mathematics curriculum when learners reach secondary school. however, if most of the learners do not achieve this competency during the early primary school years, such as reflected in table 2, wherein a total of 71% agreed that they had problems in reading the numbers that contain more than one digit, as well as about 64% (45% strongly believed this to be true) normally, did not finish their tasks, then such deficit grows wider during the latter part of primary school, and becomes a serious problem when learners reach high school. this is consistent with teacher 5's assertion that "…concepts need to be changed to promote and sustain learners’ interest in mathematics….” even though not an exhaustive explanation, while adding to work abadzi (2006) suggested that there are three principles interlinked with mastering foundation phase numeracy. the first principle is the progress made in acquiring the number concept. the second principle refers to the shift from concrete to abstract reasoning. the third principle addresses the move from counting to calculating. building on the work by abadzi (2006), gray and reeve (2016) suggested that a significant leap in numerical literacy and understanding can be achieved when a learner moves away from regarding numbers as reflecting numerosity to objects, which can be manipulated according to certain rules. this implies changing an abstract concept to a visual one, a consequence of the current study. for instance, in primary school year 1; learners start to formalise ideas of addition by being introduced to the idea of counting on. this will require them to realise that addiction can be carried out in either order. similarly, they will be able to carry out the subtraction by finding the difference between two numbers by counting up. numerical concept severity: problems in reading the numbers that contain more than one digit and normally did not finish their tasks however, in contrast, the current study revealed that a total of 71% agreed that they had problems reading the numbers that contain more than one digit, while a total of 79% of learners confused mathematical signs, for example, by reversing the numbers. what is meant and inconsistent with zuj et al. (2017) is that this reflects why about 64% (45% strongly believed this to be true) normally did not finish their tasks. regarding the statement related to the problem of reading the numbers that contain more than one digit, most of the learners confirmed that they had a problem. this referred to problems with the place value after interaction with some learners because for learners to succeed in differentiating the place of numbers (values), they must be able to know the place value, that is, hundreds, tens and units, and this is a crucial stage or level in mathematics. thus, for the learners to be able to count, in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, they must know the place value. numerical concept severity: problem copying the numbers and confusing mathematical signs, for example, by reversing the numbers as reflected in table 2, an inherent part of the study was to explore which errors (numerical concepts) exist when learners calculate and use numbers in mathematics in the foundation phase. pipping (2005) suggested that errors of interference, in which different operations or concepts interfere with each other, will be of great value in exposing numerical errors. the majority of the learners agreed that they had problems when copying numbers, and this statement should inform teachers that they need to supervise learners to avoid them making many potential errors while doing their work in class, and even the parents need to monitor the learners' homework thoroughly. several assessments could be made from [mis]understanding of the semantics of the mathematical text. for instance, besides goswami’s (2008) view, buswell (1999, p. 19) cautioned that "errors in the learning of mathematics are simply the absence of correct answers or the result of unfortunate accidents." according to buswell’s (1999, p. 19) submission, misunderstanding of mathematical text is the consequence of specific processes whose nature could be discovered. another form of error is one of assimilation, in which incorrect hearing causes mistakes in counting. such errors result from a lack of attention and concentration (random or careless errors) (yuan et al., 2016; zuj et al., 2017). lastly, the error of negative transfer from a previous task may occur, in which one could identify the effect of an erroneous impression obtained from a set of exercises. for instance, flavell (1999) suggested that international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 10 learners who have been diagnosed as hyperkinetic are unable to focus or do cognitive tasks. many years later, findings are still mixed on conceptual mathematical development (cranfield, 2006; pillay, 2010; pournara et al., 2016; schroder, stewart, et al., 2014). numerical concept severity: the use of different colours helped them in the learning process considering that about 94% agreed that the use of different colours helped them in the learning process and consistent with bornman’s (2010) findings, particular difficulties are seen when learners have to read numbers that contain more than one-digit numbers and numbers that contain a zero, for example, 1007 or 1087. furthermore, they may be confused when reading some numbers and reverse numbers; for example, where a 12 may become a 21, although, at other times, they might experience no difficulty with this. thus, as recommended by bornman (2010), the importance of the use of different colours thus helps learners in the learning process. the summary thus far is that errors of interference arise when a previously learned skill or algorithm, because of its similar processes, makes the learning of a new skill or algorithm difficult. additionally, having opportunities to make errors gives an opportunity for new ideas to be learnt by learners having to simulate or attempt hands-on problems, which gives learners the opportunity to make mistakes and then learn from them. regarding the problems experienced by learners when copying numbers, this fact informs teachers that they need to supervise learners to avoid any such errors. taking into account error analysis in the foundation phase of mathematics and thus a misunderstanding of the mathematical text, spatial structures in early numerical problems and concepts, various assessments have been made (cranefield, 2006; fleish, 2008; gate, 2011; halberda, 2008; pausigere, 2011; richards, 2005). drawn from the study results as well as the earlier work by richards (2005), for instance, error analysis in the foundation phase may be carried out as an aid for teaching to find out how well the learners learned and how a learner learns to count mathematically. contrary to the insights gained from pausigere (2011, p. 2), the suggestion is that "for mathematics classroom activities, teachers can let learners choose any number and allow them to investigate various ways of representing that number.” conclusion and implication in conclusion, understanding numerical cognition, while crucial, needs to account for various concepts that lead to such errors. the implication from the current study is that concepts such as counting and using numbers, reading the numbers that contain more than one digit, problem copying the numbers, confusion associated mathematical signs, finishing tasks and the use of different colours helped them in the learning process in teaching methods can be powerful. this is because the simultaneous application of different sources can create a better learning experience and help to minimise some of the identified problems in a more realistic manner for young learners. another implication was that combinations of methods such as discussion, co-operative learning presentation, demonstration discovery, drilling, problem-solving, simulation, using tutorials and games, could also result in the educator reaching more learners in the classroom in an effective manner. the variation brought about by applying mixed teaching methods can thus support foundation learners to achieve the learning objectives further research based on the data and the small sample size, claiming that the views shared by the participating teachers where a representative notion would unmistakably fall short of certainty and cast further doubt. thus, it is essential to note that the objective of this study was not to generalise, but to provide an indication of the extent to which numerical cognition becomes more challenging to manage to promote and sustain mathematical interest in learners. accordingly, the study also highlights the need for further research with a robust inferential standpoint as compared to the qualitative approaches that dominate the literature thus far. references international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 01-14 examining challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years challenges associated with numerical cognition in early years anass bayaga issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) 11 abdzi, h. 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(2017). neural activity and emotional processing following military deployment: effects of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder. brain cogn. 118, 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1159/000503584 microsoft word ijrse5_rtp_930-article text-4219-1-4-20220521.edited-2.doc available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 39-54 corresponding author pakenp@ecampus.ut.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.930 research synergy foundation the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan1 1universitas terbuka, indonesia abstract a pepsa teaching model consists of five steps has been developed through an innovative research and development activity. the five steps are purpose, explanation, problem solving, summary, and advance drills. every step of the five syntaxes of the pepsa teaching model is supported both theoretically and empirically by modern education experts and observers. the aim of this research was to analyse the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model in distance education which is expected to improve the critical thinking skills of physics education students, especially in learning quantum physics courses. this research was conducted using focus group discussion (fgd) by inviting three experts and practitioners of the teaching model to have a focused discussion on analysing the validity of the pepsa teaching model while analysing the practicality of the pepsa teaching model; a limited trial was conducted in three meetings with four groups of students, each group consists of five students. while using the pepsa teaching model, the following materials are given: the basics of quantum physics to groups of students who are considered to have the same level of ability. the data collected from fgd is then further analysed by means of validity coefficient using a single measure interrater coefficient correlation (rα) and cronbach's alpha (a). the results showed ra = 0.813 and 0.917 for content validity; ra = 0.827 and 0.962 for construct validity, so the pepsa teaching model is included in the very valid and reliable category. in addition, the pepsa teaching model is categorized as very practical to use. this is shown from the results of implementing each step in the pepsa teaching model syntax that is easy to implement, very high student activity, and there are no significant obstacles during the learning process for all groups of students. keywords: pepsa teaching model, validity of pepsa teaching model, practicality of pepsa teaching model, critical thinking skills, distance learning, basics of quantum physics. this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction the covid-19 outbreak that hit china, especially the wuhan province, in november 2019 quickly became an epidemic in all provinces in china and throughout the world, including indonesia. the covid-19 outbreak was first discovered in two indonesian citizens who have been domiciled in depok city since march 2020 and spread so quickly to all provinces in indonesia. the rapid transmission of covid-19 has forced the government to organize education, which was previously carried out through face-to-face learning, but finally carried out online learning. in 21st century learning, the demands of the curriculum in the era of globalization and the covid19 pandemic require all educational institutions to carry out ict-based innovations (qian & clark, 2016). regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia no. 73 of 2013 concerning the indonesian national qualifications framework (nqf) requires universities to develop an appropriate curriculum so that students have the competence and critical thinking skills and mastery of information and communication technology (ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia, 2013; o'sullivan, & dallas, 2017). based on these international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 40 │ competencies, universitas terbuka (ut) has a very important role in pursuing the quality of learning processes and outcomes through the development of practical and effective online learning models, especially in open and distance education (ode). literature review critical thinking skills can be possessed by students if a validity, practicality, and effective learning model are designed so that the teaching model can be used as a guide in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning either through online tutorials or face-to-face tutorials (pandiangan, sanjaya, & jatmiko, 2017). as a material for operationalizing the teaching model, a learning device must be designed in the form of a syllabus, teaching materials, student worksheets, and evaluation instruments so that it is expected to be used in improving students' critical thinking skills in ode. pithers & soden (2000) stated that to train students' critical thinking skills, a suitable and appropriate teaching model must be developed so that students are expected to have a high enthusiasm for learning and contribute to improving student learning outcomes. the low critical thinking skills of students have something to do with the learning process that occurs. the teaching model used is the conventional teaching model, which does not facilitate students in developing critical thinking skills, which results in low student learning outcomes (darling-hammond et al., 2015). therefore, to improve the learning of physics, especially in quantum physics concepts, it is necessary to find alternative solutions to developing the pepsa teaching model (purpose, explanation, problem-solving, summary, advance drills). the pepsa teaching model is an explanation-based teaching model through the easy java simulation (ejs) approach based on multiple intelligence theory, constructivist theory, cognitive theory, and andragogy theory that are practical and effective in teaching physics especially quantum physics problems. the pepsa teaching model, as the name suggests, has five syntaxes; those are (1) purpose, (2) explanation, (3) problem-solving, (4) summary, and (5) advance drills. the pepsa teaching model is believed to inspire students to find and solve problems in real life and to inspire students to create products to improve critical thinking skills. authentic problembased learning can develop critical thinking and analytical skills and direct students to exercises so that they are able to solve problems (klegeris & hurren, 2011). pandiangan, sanjaya, & jatmiko (2017) reported that the pepsa teaching model could significantly improve students' physics problem-solving skills and self-directed learning skills with normalized gain in the medium category in the small trial and high category in the wide trial. ut, as a higher education institution that organizes distance education, has facilitated students with various learning materials and teaching models that can be integrated with appropriate ict. however, almost all existing textbooks do not mention a teaching model to provide a learning experience for students of in-service teachers. almost all learning materials provided by ut are only used as teaching tools and have not been used as teaching models. teaching models obtained through research have not been maximal and effective because they are not used optimally. the pepsa teaching model is very useful for improving the competence of tutors and students' skills in designing, implementing, and evaluating learning in open and distance learning. the learning process becomes more interesting, more challenging, and more suitable to students' needs when using the pepsa teaching model, which is assumed to be valid, practical, and effective in improving students' critical thinking skills. referring to existing learning needs and novelty, it is necessary to develop other teaching models to improve students' critical thinking skills in open and distance education through online learning. this research is very important in the context of developing new learning models and theories to be able to answer the skills needs of the 21st century. the low critical thinking skills of students are theoretically caused by low motivation (kim, sharma, land, & furlong, 2013), lack of responsibility (brookfield, 2017), and low analytical skills (paans, sermeus, nieweg, & van der international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 41 schans, 2010), and lack of discipline in learning (nilson, 2016). therefore, the purpose of this research is to develop a valid and practical pepsa learning model, and it is hoped that it can be used to improve students' critical thinking skills through online learning in open and distance education. the problem in this research is how to analyse the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model on the basics of quantum physics to improve students' critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education? the pepsa teaching model is categorized as good when the content validity and construct validity are valid and reliable. the validity of the pepsa teaching model is determined based on the validity formula ra = [(mean square people mean square residual)/ (mean square people + (k-1) mean square residual)] and cronbach's alpha a = k ra/ [1+(k1) ra]. the criteria for validity and reliability of the pepsa teaching model refer to leech, barret, & morgan (2005) and malhotra, & birks (2010), as shown in table 1. table1 criteria for validity and reliability of the pepsa teaching model and pepsa learning tools no. check scale statistics criteria category 1 pepsa teaching model validity (ra) single measures icc ra ≤ r table invalid ra > r table valid 2 pepsa teaching model tool validity (ra) single measures icc ra ≤ r table invalid ra > r table valid 3 pepsa teaching model reliability (a) cronbach’s alpha/average measures icc a < 0.6 unreliable 0.6 ≤ a ≤ 1.0 reliable 4 pepsa teaching model tool reliability (a) cronbach’s alpha/average measures icc a < 0.6 unreliable 0.6 ≤ a ≤ 1.0 reliable the pepsa teaching model is practical if it meets the following requirements: (1) every step of the pepsa teaching model syntax can be used and is easy to apply in every learning process; (2) every student has a good activity during the learning process; and (3) there are alternative solutions if there are obstacles obtained during the learning process. the focus of this research is to analyse the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model so that it can be used as a quantum physics teaching model that can improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education. the problems include: (1) is the pepsa teaching model developed valid both in content validity and construct validity? (2) is the syntax of the pepsa teaching model usable and easy to apply at every step of learning quantum physics? (3) are students active during the quantum physics learning process using the pepsa teaching model? and (4) are there any obstacles and difficulties in implementing the pepsa teaching model? research method general research background this research focused on analysing the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model. the pepsa teaching model is specifically designed to improve students' critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education before and after using the pepsa teaching model. the validity of the pepsa teaching model is determined based on the difference between the mean square people score and the mean square residual score, while the reliability of the pepsa teaching model is determined based on cronbach's alpha. likewise, the practicality of the pepsa international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 42 │ teaching model is determined based on significant scores for the three practicality indicators of the pepsa teaching model. research sample this research uses a focus group discussion (fgd) by presenting experts and practitioners of teaching models. fgds were conducted for discussions that focused on analysing the validity of the pepsa teaching model, while to analyse the practicality of the pepsa teaching model, a limited trial was conducted on sixty students participating in an online tutorial for an introductory quantum physics course from all over indonesia in three meetings with four groups of students, each the group consists of five students with the same level of critical thinking skills in understanding the basics of quantum physics. research instruments and procedures this research is classified as quasi-experimental research using one group pre-test and post-test design, namely: o1 x o2 (frankel, wallen, & hyun, 2012). the pepsa teaching model (x) was first validated by three physics education experts until the model was declared valid and reliable. furthermore, the pepsa teaching model that is already valid and reliable based on the expert is used in physics learning for the basics of quantum physics. the research was conducted by giving a pre-test (o1) to a group of students with material on the basics of quantum physics-based on indicators of critical thinking skills, then giving learning using the pepsa teaching model (x) to a group of students. the validation process of the pepsa teaching model was carried out through fgds by presenting three experts. prior to the implementation of the fgd, the researcher sent materials to be validated by experts in the form of a learning process design, a prototype of the pepsa teaching model, a prototype of learning materials for the basics of quantum physics based on the pepsa teaching model, student activity sheets, observation instrument sheets, response and interview instrument sheets, pre-test and post-test of critical thinking skills, as well as model validation instrument sheets and pepsa teaching model tools to be studied before the fgd. the fgd aims to validate the pepsa teaching model with learning experts. the result of this fgd is to obtain validity pepsa teaching model validation results and some very useful inputs. the limited trial process was carried out using the pepsa teaching model, including syllabus, lesson plans, modules for students, and student worksheets. based on the experts, the pepsa teaching model and the pepsa teaching model tools have been validated in terms of content validity, construct validity, and determining reliability. the learning process applied in the limited trial research is using the pepsa teaching model with the following steps: (1) purpose, (2) explanation, (3) problem-solving, (4) summary, and (5) advance-drill. finally, after the learning process, the four groups were asked to do a post-test with the same material as the pre-test. research data analysis. the pepsa teaching model was validated by experts based on content validity and construct validity. content validity is a description of the need and novelty, while construct validity is a description of the consistency between the pepsa teaching model with theory, empirical, and consistency between model components (plomp, & nieveen, 2007). to analyse the validity and reliability of the pepsa teaching model, each uses the single measures interrater coefficient correlation (icc) and cronbach's alpha. meanwhile, to analyse the practicality of the model, both the implementation of the syntax, student activities, and alternative barrier solutions were carried out using triangulation, inferential statistical tests, cronbach alpha, and qualitative international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 43 descriptive. the method of analysing research data for the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model is shown in table 2. table 2 research methods and data analysis for the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model variable data data analysis methods the validity of the pepsa teaching model expert validation results on the pepsa teaching model § triangulation § inferential statistical test (interrater correlation coefficient and cronbach alpha) § qualitative descriptive expert validation results on the pepsa learning model instrument § triangulation § inferential statistical test (interrater correlation coefficient and cronbach alpha) § qualitative descriptive the practicality of the pepsa teaching model the results of observations on the implementation of syntax, reaction principles, and social systems § triangulation § inferential statistical test (interrater correlation coefficient and cronbach alpha) § qualitative descriptive student activity observations § triangulation § inferential statistical test (interrater correlation coefficient and cronbach alpha) § qualitative descriptive observation results on existing obstacles § triangulation § inferential statistical test (interrater correlation coefficient and cronbach alpha) § qualitative descriptive findings and discussion characteristics of the pepsa teaching model pepsa teaching model is a physics teaching model designed based on explanation and problemsolving. pepsa teaching model is based on the results of studies and preliminary studies so that it can train students' critical thinking skills in open and distance education (ode). according to arends (2014), there are four characteristics of the teaching model that must be developed so that it is effectively used; those are (1) logical theoretical rationale from its design, (2) components and activities of students/tutors in teaching so that learning can be carried out well, and (3) a supportive learning environment to achieve learning objectives. furthermore, the characteristics of the developed pepsa teaching model can be explained as follows. 1. rationalization of the pepsa teaching model the physics teaching model developed in this research was specifically to train students’ critical thinking skills in ode (marin & halpern, 2011). students’ critical thinking skills in learning physics are based on the characteristics of abstract physics material and are considered relatively difficult and complex (ersoy & güner, 2015), and although students show reasonable abilities in problem-solving skills, there is evidence that conceptual understanding and critical thinking skills international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 44 │ most students are still very weak (jennifer, strand, mestre, & ross, 2015; pandiangan, jatmiko, & sanjaya, 2015). the pepsa teaching model, which was developed to train critical thinking skills, is based on the flow of critical thinking skills, according to ennis (2011). ennis suggests that critical thinking is a process consisting of (1) analysis, (2) assessing, and (3) improving. through the pepsa teaching model developed, it is hoped that students can build initiative and persistence in the learning process to think critically, independently, and actively build their independence in learning physics from their personal experiences with other people, as well as with the surrounding environment. the pepsa teaching model is expected to be able to develop students' critical thinking processes and skills in applying the view of cognitive constructivism, namely the disequilibrium condition of student thinking to foster learning motivation, the importance of the availability of a learning environment, and the availability of materials and tasks that stimulate the development of creativity in the learning process (moreno, 2010). the developed pepsa teaching model is specifically designed to improve students' critical thinking skills in ode, which is supported by the latest learning theories, which are: (1) motivational learning theory; (2) behavioural learning theory; (3) constructivism learning theory; (4) cognitive psychology learning theory; (5) learning theory of information processing; and (6) learning theory of andragogy. the rationale for the sequence of each syntax in the pepsa teaching model developed is based on theoretical studies and empirical studies, as described in figure 1. phase 1: purpose phase 2: explanation phase 3: problem-solving phase 4: summary phase 5: advance-drill figure 1. the syntax of the pepsa teaching model 2. components and activities of students/tutors in the pepsa teaching model the factors that influence the success of the teaching model consist of five components; those are: (a) syntax of the teaching model, (b) social system, (3) reaction principle, (4) support system, (5) instructional and accompaniment impact (joyce & weil, 2003). the teaching components developed are contained in the components of the pepsa teaching model, which can be described as follows. a) syntax the syntax, tutor activities, and student activities in the pepsa teaching model consist of five phases, as described in table 3. table 3 the syntax, tutor activities, and student activities in the pepsa teaching model syntax student activities tutor activities 1. purpose 1. students independently listen, pay attention, observe, predict, 1. tutor generating student initiation by facilitating and presenting authentic international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 45 syntax student activities tutor activities and try what will happen so that they are expected to generate initiation in themselves. 2. students independently develop general learning outcomes. 3. students independently develop specific learning outcomes. problems so that they are expected to be able to independently observe, predict, and try what will happen. 2. tutor motivates students to be able to independently develop general learning outcomes. 3. tutor facilitates students to be able to independently develop specific learning outcomes. 2. explanation 1. students with tutor direction form groups consisting of 5 members. 2. receive student worksheets and necessary equipment from tutors/instructors. 3. students independently take responsibility for studying the description of the material provided. 1. the tutor facilitates students to form groups of 5 members per group. 2. the tutor distributes the lkm and the necessary equipment to each group. 3. the tutor motivates students to be able to take responsibility for studying the description of the material given. 3. problemsolving 1. students independently try to practice the given exercise. 2. students match the answers made by students with the answer signs provided. 3. students reflect and review concepts that are not well understood. 1. the tutor motivates students to try to practice the given exercises. 2. the tutor facilitates students to match the answers made by students with the answer signs provided. 3. tutors facilitate students to reflect and review concepts that have not been well understood. 6. summary 1. students independently make reinforcement in the form of summaries and conclusions. 2. students collect individual work in the form of student worksheets. 3. students receive and record further evaluation assignments from tutors. 1. tutors facilitate students independently to make reinforcement in the form of summaries and conclusions. 2. the tutor receives and collects the results of individual student work on the student worksheet. 3. tutors give further evaluation tasks to students. 5. advancedrill 1. students independently work on the formative tests given. 2. students match the answers made by students with the answer signs provided. 1. the tutor motivates students to take the given formative test. 2. the tutor facilitates students to match the answers made by students with the answer signs provided. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 46 │ syntax student activities tutor activities 3. students reflect and review concepts that have not been well understood. 3. tutors facilitate students to reflect and review concepts that have not been well understood. b) social system the social system states that the role of tutors and students in the pepsa teaching model must be reflected in the learning syntax in the form of student and tutor activities, namely: 1. students take the initiative and responsibility in learning activities by contributing to the critical thinking process both individually and in groups in their work teams. 2. tutors act as facilitators, motivators, and mediators in the learning process to improve student's critical thinking skills, both individually and in groups. c) reaction principle the principle of reaction relates to how the tutor pays attention and responds to students; the tutor responds to questions, answers, and responses to what students do. in this pepsa teaching model, the way that tutors should pay attention and respond to students is as follows. 1. tutors motivate students so that students can take the initiative and gradually take responsibility for the learning process independently. 2. tutors can facilitate students in the learning process and become mediators for students when students need help. 3. tutors provide feedback, appreciation, and opportunities for students to express opinions, ask questions, and provide criticism and suggestions to improve critical thinking skills. d) support system the support system for a learning model is all the tools, materials, and tools needed to implement the pepsa learning model. learning resources and tools needed to implement the pepsa learning model consist of syllabus and tutorial activity design (rat), tutorial activity unit (sat), student worksheets (lkm), student textbooks, learning media in the form of phet simulations, computers, or laptops, and evaluation instruments. e) the instructional and the accompaniment impact of the pepsa teaching model the instructional impact is a learning outcome that is achieved directly by directing students to the expected goals, which are: students can improve critical thinking skills. while the impact of the accompaniment is the learning result produced through a learning process as a result of creating a learning atmosphere experienced directly by students without tutor guidance, namely: 1) students can generate learning motivation which is indicated by a positive response to the implementation of learning. 2) students can develop social interaction by developing social skills in the problem-solving process. 3) students can develop independent learning skills, problem-solving, creative thinking, communication, collaboration, and metacognition. 4) students can develop and build mental models through multiple representations. 3. supportive learning environment international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 47 one of the important factors that can maximize learning is the existence of a supportive and conducive learning environment. the learning environment, in this case, is everything related to the place of the learning process and a conducive situation that is in accordance with the pepsa teaching model. the learning environment is created in such a way with a student grouping system and proper seating arrangements to facilitate students in the learning process. the student grouping system is based on heterogeneity, with 5 students in each group, respectively. student seating arrangements are made in a circle and face each other. the learning environment in each pepsa teaching model syntax was developed in order to improve students' critical thinking skills in ode. management of the learning environment pepsa teaching model focuses on improving social skills, effective cooperation, and mutual respect, using all resources that can improve critical thinking skills of open and distance education students, problem-solving, creative thinking, communication skills, multi-representation abilities, and metacognition abilities. pepsa teaching model and device validity the validation of the pepsa teaching model and pepsa teaching device was carried out through a series of fgd activities by presenting three physics education experts as validators. the details of the validity and reliability scores for each component item of the pepsa teaching model and the pepsa teaching devices are shown in table 4. table 4 validity and reliability of pepsa teaching models and pepsa teaching devices no. items content validity construct validity validity (ra) cronbach's alpha (a) validity (ra) cronbach's alpha (a) 1 pepsa teaching model 0.979 valid 0.986 reliable 0.972 valid 0.982 reliable 2 pepsa teaching device 0.980 valid 0.986 reliable 0.969 valid 0.979 reliable figure 2. validity and reliability of the pepsa teaching model and pepsa teaching device international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 48 │ based on table 4 and figure 2 shows that the validity, both content validity and construct validity, and the reliability of the pepsa teaching model are included in the valid and reliable categories. likewise, the validity and reliability of pepsa teaching devices consisting of the syllabus, tutorial activity units, books for students, student worksheets, critical thinking skills tests, tutor activity observation sheets, student activity observation sheets, and student responses are included in the validity and reliable categories. based on this, the pepsa teaching model and pepsa teaching devices meet the criteria for a good teaching model, which are: (1) pepsa teaching models and tools according to needs, (2) there is a novelty in model development, (3) model development is supported by the foundation strong theory and empirical, (4) has a consistency between the components that make up the model, (5) has good readability. the results of this study indicate that the pepsa learning model developed is feasible to be used as a learning model for the basics of quantum physics to improve critical thinking skills in open and distance education. the validation of the pepsa teaching model and the pepsa teaching device is in line with the research results of armenteros, ruiz, & zamora (2012), which state that the validation of a product can be done through fgd activities by experts; both face to face and online. based on the consideration of the availability of available facilities and infrastructure, the validation of the pepsa teaching model and the pepsa teaching device was carried out online through a zoom meeting involving three ode experts. the results of the fgd activities showed that the pepsa teaching model and the pepsa teaching device consisted of rational models, theoretical and empirical support, model syntax, social systems, reaction principles, support systems, and instructional impacts & accompaniment impacts were all included in the validity and reliable categories. malhotra & birks (2010) state that a product is said to be valid if it has a single measure inter-correlation coefficient of ra = 0.754 > rtable. in this research, the following results were obtained. (1) the pepsa teaching model obtained ra = 0.979 > rtable for content validity and ra = 0.972 > rtable for construct validity, meaning that the pepsa teaching model developed has high content and construct validity. (2) the pepsa teaching device is obtained ra = 0.980 > rtable for content validity and ra = 0.969 > rtable for construct validity, meaning that the pepsa teaching devices developed are all valid and reliable. this is in line with the research result of plomp & nieveen (2007) and plomp (2013), which state that a product has good quality if it is based on valid content validity and construct validity and can describe needs, novelty, consistency between model components, and supported by theory and empirical. the pepsa teaching model is already valid; both content validity and construct validity must be tested for consistency so that the model is stable and can be used consistently. according to sarstedt & mooi (2014), the reliability of a product can be stable if it meets the requirements, which are: stability of the measurement, internal consistency reliability, and inter-rater reliability. the pepsa teaching model is said to be reliable if cronbach's alpha coefficient (a) and cronbach's alpha if the item deleted≥ 0.60 (leech, barret, & morga, 2005; malhotra & birks, 2010). based on the fgd results, it was found that the reliability of internal consistency and reliability between pepsa teaching model assessors are all reliable, as shown in table 2 with cronbach's alpha of 0.986 for content validity and 0.982 for construct validity. internal consistency reliability is indicated by cronbach's alpha if the item deleted each component starts from 0.981-0.989 for content validity and 0.979-0.999 for construct validity; this indicates that the pepsa teaching model developed has high reliability. likewise, the pepsa teaching devices developed to consist of: "syllabus, tutorial activity units, student books, student worksheets, critical thinking skills tests, tutor activity observation sheets, international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 49 student activity observation sheets, and student responses" are pepsa teaching devices that are suitable for use to implement the pepsa teaching model so that it fits the needs, has novelty, is supported by a strong theoretical and empirical basis, has a consistency between components, has good readability, and is suitable for use as a learning plan for the pepsa teaching model to improve students' critical thinking skills in ode (nieveen & plomp, 2007; gugliolmino & gugliolmino, 2011). the results of this research are in line with the research of seechaliao, natakutoong, & wannasuphoprasit (2012), which states that a valid teaching model is very helpful for researchers and practitioners in designing teaching based on understood learning principles. a valid teaching model can be used as a guide for academics and practitioners in planning a learning program (kimbell & stables (2007). a valid teaching model is suitable for use in physics learning that involves science processes and products so that it can be used to improve critical thinking skills, physics problem-solving skills, and self-directed learning skills (pandiangan, jatmiko, sanjaya, 2017); teal, vess, & ambrose, 2015). pepsa learning model practicality the practicality test of the pepsa teaching model was carried out in a limited trial four times in cycles in four test groups of twenty students, each group consisting of five students, respectively. the results of the practical trial of the pepsa teaching model are shown in table 5. table 5 the practicality of pepsa learning model in limited trial syntax results of observations and interviews tutor activity student activities 1. purpose tutors have facilitated students well to initiate students, conduct and try simulations to generate student persistence, and motivate students to determine experimental goals. students pay attention and listen to the tutor's explanation enthusiastically about the basics of quantum physics, pay attention and try to simulate physical phenomena to generate motivation and self-initiative, students listen to the tutor's explanation and try to understand the learning objectives well. 2. explanation tutors have facilitated students well to arouse students' curiosity so that they can formulate problems, identify variables, and create hypotheses. students can formulate problems, identify variables, and make hypotheses. 3. problemsolving tutors have facilitated students to try to practice solving some important problems, matching the answers they did with the answer signs provided, reflecting and reviewing concepts that were not well understood. students can try to practice solving some important problems, be able to match the answers that are done with the answer signs provided, reflect, and review concepts that are not well understood. 6. summary tutors have facilitated students to make reinforcement in the form of summaries and conclusions, receive and collect individual work results on student activity sheets, and provide further evaluation tasks to students. students can make reinforcement in the form of summaries and conclusions, receive and collect the results of individual student work on student worksheets, and receive further evaluation assignments from tutors. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 50 │ syntax results of observations and interviews tutor activity student activities 5. advance drill tutors have motivated students to take formative tests, match answers made by students with the answer signs provided, reflect, and review concepts that have not been well understood. students can take formative tests, can match answers made by students with the answer signs provided, reflect, and review concepts that have not been well understood. table 5 shows that the implementation of the pepsa teaching model can be done well, student activities that are relevant to the learning material are very high, and some of the existing obstacles can be overcome so that the pepsa teaching model is practically used in the learning process. figure 3. implementation of the pepsa teaching model figure 4. student activities using the pepsa teaching model based on figure 3 and figure 4, shows that the implementation of syntax, social systems, and reaction principles for each aspect of learning in all meetings is included in the very good category international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan │ 51 with an achievement percentage of 90.02 – 98.38, and student activities for each aspect in the entire class are included in a very high category with the achievement of the percentage of the frequency of relevant student activities reached 88.09% 98.77%. at the same time, the obstacles that exist in the pepsa teaching model during the implementation of learning can be overcome properly. based on the results and descriptions, it can be concluded that the pepsa teaching model is practically used and implemented very well. based on the data on the implementation of the syntax of the pepsa teaching model, it shows that the implementation of the syntax of each phase of the pepsa teaching model at meeting 1 is categorized as good. however, at the 2nd to 4th meetings, the implementation of the syntax for each phase of the pepsa teaching model was categorized as very good, and the students' ability to do the assigned tasks was categorized as very good. these findings are in accordance with the results of observations and interviews conducted with tutors in the learning process using the pepsa teaching model. these findings are also in accordance with empirical data, which states that: providing problem orientation can significantly increase student motivation, and students gain satisfaction in participating in the learning process in the classroom (kim, 2014; brookfield, 2017); tutors who are able to encourage students to be involved in identifying problems can increase students' internal motivation and enthusiasm for learning so that they have a high initiative to learn (yilmaz, 2017). the results of this research are also supported by several learning theories, including arcs motivation theory (attention, relevance, confidence, satisfaction) which states that a person will be motivated if what he does attracts students’ attention (arends, 2012; pandiangan, 2019); advance organizer theory which states that the initial statement about a material to be studied provides a structure for new information and relates it to previously owned information (moreno, 2010); giving responsibility roles to students can increase participation, active involvement, cooperation, respect for others, helping friends, and leadership in carrying out tasks (escarti, wright, pascual, & gutiérrez, 2015). the results of this study are also supported by several learning theories, including assisted learning theory which states that tutors guide learning in such a way that students can learn thoroughly and transmit skills that can function higher cognitive (moreno, 2010); zone of proximal development states that students learn concepts best when the concepts are in their closest developmental zone (slavin & davis, 2006); scaffolding theory which states that students should be given complex, difficult, and realistic tasks and then given sufficient assistance gradually to solve problems (slavin & davis, 2006); cognitive apprenticeship states that a student's learning process can be carried out step by step until he reaches expertise in his interaction with an expert, whether an adult or a peer with higher knowledge (moreno, 2010). the high student activity as described above shows that the pepsa teaching model is designed with a certain scenario so that it can provide a learning environment that requires students to be more actively involved in the learning process. this pepsa teaching model fulfills one of the characteristics of learning that views the student-cantered constructivist (arends, 2014) which states that the student cantered constructivist requires students to play an active role in the tutorial process, interact with fellow students, and participate actively in research and problemsolving activities. based on the cognitive constructivist view, students can construct knowledge through knowing problems and reflecting on answers to existing problems (moreno, 2010). student activities during the learning process are in accordance with the demands of the indonesian national qualifications framework (inqf) and the national higher education standards (nshe) in indonesia, which can direct students to play an active role and be able to learn independently in carrying out learning activities. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 39-54 the validity and practicality of the pepsa teaching model to improve critical thinking skills through online tutorials in open and distance education paken pandiangan 52 │ according to the view of constructivist theory, student-cantered learning can generate student activity in learning (slavin & davis 2006; moreno, 2010). the very high achievement of student activities illustrates that the pepsa teaching model is very practical and can be implemented well. this is in accordance with the social constructivist theory, which states that students should be able to build their own knowledge through social interactions and develop deeper meanings based on their previous experiences (greenspan, 2016). the constructivist learning approach can improve conceptual understanding, self-directed learning skills, and critical thinking skills to solve various problems (akpan & beard, 2016). conclusion based on the background, problem formulation, and research objectives, the conclusions from the results of this study are as follows. 1. the pepsa teaching model developed is included in the very validity and reliable category, both content validity and construct validity so that it can meet the learning needs that are used to improve students' critical thinking skills in open and distance education. 2. the pepsa teaching model is categorized as very practical to use. this is shown from the results of implementing each step in the pepsa teaching model syntax that is easy to implement, very high student activity, and there are no significant obstacles during the learning process for all groups of students. limitations & further research this research has not been applied to a wider trial and is only used on the basics of quantum physics. this research has also been 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(2017). exploring the role of e-learning readiness on student satisfaction and motivation in flipped classroom. computers in human behaviour, 70, 251-260. microsoft word ijrse1_rtp_907-article text-4086-1-2-20220422.edited.docx available online at: https://journals.researchsynergypress.com/index.php/ijrse international journal of research in stem education (ijrse) issn 2721-2904 (online) | 2721-3242 (print) volume 4 number 1 (2022): 15 corresponding author gorky@ecampus.ut.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.31098/ijrse.v4i1.907 research synergy foundation the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring1 1universitas terbuka, indonesia abstract this study investigates the implications and complications of collective disruptive consequences on education, especially on the learning process. the driver of disruptions includes globalization and the industrial revolution 4.0 (including society 5.0), demands for the sustainable development goals, and the onslaught of the covid-19 pandemic. the results of the study are intended to broaden the horizons of virtual teachers in the digital era so that they are not hampered in carrying out their mandate due to the shift from offline to online learning. this study also aims to provide a basic overview for students and parents so as not to stutter suddenly as an implication of the shift in learning modes. methodologically, this study uses a qualitative approach, specifically an integrative review. after going through four phases of the procedural process (design, implementation, analysis, and writing of results and review), this study succeeds in formulating four basic ideas for virtual teachers in the digital era. one: ten characteristics of the virtual teacher of the digital age. two: self-transformation into a true virtual teacher according to the demands of 21st-century learning (cultural, functional, and digital transformation). three: proficient in three technical skills of virtual teachers to build indonesia's golden generation (skills in developing interactive digital learning modules, packaging virtual-digital learning delivery, and compiling online learning assessments). four: mastering practical tips for becoming a virtual teacher (developing a golden generation, applying a growth mindset perspective) so that it is continuously adaptive to any kind of shift. keywords: virtual teacher; digital era; 21st-century skills; golden generation; growth mindset; integrative review. this is an open access article under the cc–by-nc license. introduction no one denies that indonesia as a country is an extraordinary divine blessing from the almighty. not many nation-states in this universe have natural conditions as perfect as indonesia. many words describe the admiration and gratitude expressed about and to the motherland of indonesia. the phrase describing the completeness of the archipelago is often referred to as 'the pearl of the equator.’ there is even a phrase that describes great indonesia as a stretch of fertile land, peace, and prosperity. this describes the existence of beautiful indonesia. everything that is needed is available in the nature that we inhabit is more than enough. it is difficult to make the equivalent of the said expression into indonesian with relatively similar meaning. in a free sense, we can say that the summary of these expressions would like to describe indonesia as an archipelago that is truly prosperous and peaceful. the culture is based on the principle of cooperation, deliberation, and consensus. it has been qualified since a long time ago. in short, indonesia is one of the many nations in this universe that has a superior culture (sembiring. 2017). the above expression still contrasts with the real and actual situation. not to dramatize, there is irony. indonesia, to a certain extent, still encounters irony with various essences and variations. one of the things that surfaced was that many residents had problems accessing economic resources to have a decent life. most people still do not have decent jobs. this is a consequence of the uneven distribution of development outcomes as a reflection of the quality of education, which is assumed as one of the dominant factors. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 16 │ many people do not have access to quality education, yet education is an essential need. as a result, the phenomenon of poverty and unemployment becomes symptomatic. at the same time, the problem of injustice can also arise. resulting in wide-open economic disparities. what's more, in a pandemic like what has happened from early 2020 until now, another common implication is that there is widespread environmental damage due to the uncontrolled exploitation of nature. we often witness the phenomenon of coercion of will in society, which can be horizontal and vertical. disharmony in society is a logical consequence of this factual phenomenon. it is not surprising that systemic and deep-rooted negative influences permeate and disrupt social, cultural, and especially economic problems. underlining the above description, it is urgent to seek a solution to reduce the spread of turmoil that could destroy resilience as a nation that has great natural resources. without intending to simplify, we should look at the portrait of the implementation of education. especially what is the role of the teacher at this time and in the future? what we want to achieve through this study is to strive for the provision of quality education that is accessible to all levels of citizens with a strong and deeply rooted indonesian character. education is intended so that citizens have qualified abilities so that they can manage the resources of the archipelago to become a buffer for welfare for all (sembiring, 2016). associated with this factual condition, a careful study of the conception and implementation of education and operational technicalities is increasingly relevant. even without the chaos of the global covid-19 pandemic, a thorough study of the implementation of education, specifically in terms of learning, must be reviewed. the implications of globalization are followed by the industrial revolution 4.0 and society 5.0 (and to fulfill the demands of the sustainable development goals), there are critical things that must be cautiously noticed related to learning processes (scwhab, 2016). as a result of this simultaneous disruption, learning that was previously face-to-face (offline) has turned into virtual (online). this shift has many implications, consequences, and complications that, if not responded to adequately, will trouble education stakeholders. at least teachers, students, parents, and schools will face and experience sudden and collective stuttering when faced with shifts in learning. it was reflected from march 2020 to the end of october 2021 (belawati & nizam, 2020). in other words, we want to share experiences on how to reduce the current turmoil through the provision of adequate education so that it can be adapted to the most precise rules. the final goal is to smartly educate indonesia’s golden generations (belawati, 2020). various important factors regarding the resilience of the education system are determined by various elements. important factors that must be considered in such a way that education can be well organized and can be utilized by all students with optimal results. education is superior if the policy and regulatory aspects become a solid foundation. its derivatives, such as the curriculum and learning resources, must be completed. for smooth operations, funds and learning facilities are available. at the same time, support in terms of strengthening the implementation of the government together with the community must be real. the reflection of the support referred to technical aspects comes from the contributions of parents and students. above all, the existence of qualified educators is the foundation for determining the outcome of educational effectiveness. in this context, we absolutely must have reliable teachers according to the demands of 21st-century learning skills. in particular, we give the term virtual teacher of the digital era. as mentioned earlier, many great shocks have come simultaneously without being able to predict. technological advances that make random change become a common phenomenon. we are surprised by the implications of globalization which makes competition sharp. the industrial revolution 4.0 just came. before we had international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 17 time to sit back and plan anticipatory efforts so as not to be crushed by this revolution, the demands of society 5.0 came as well. in this context, between globalization, the industrial revolution 4.0, and society 5.0, ideas and demands for the sustainable development goals have emerged as a continuous agenda of the millennium development goals. at the end of 2019, we and the world were shocked by the outbreak of a global pandemic known as the covid-19 pandemic (sembiring, 2021b). once again, without this collective, sudden and insistent shock, how do we prepare qualified human resources for 100 years of indonesia (towards 2045) through quality education is already limping. many aspects must be considered and harmonized to ensure the implementation of quality education. of course, with quality results and output. seeing the accumulative shocks since the covid-19 pandemic in early 2020 has disrupted many sectors and aspects of life. what else in the field of education. without quality education, abundant natural resources, and qualified human resources will certainly not benefit the nation's resilience. this means that the level of welfare of a nation is not determined solely by the abundance of natural resources. economic resilience and the welfare of the nation are determined by the ability to develop innovation (45%), utilize technology (25%), and strengthen networks (20%). lastly, followed by the availability of natural resources (10%). many believe that having only natural resources without seeking added value (due to innovation, technology, and networks) will not provide maximum benefits in building the nation's resilience and welfare (sembiring, 2008). talking about innovation, technology, and networks is talking about human resources (not natural resources). qualified human resources (golden generation) are spiritually, emotionally, intellectually, and physically intelligent. plus, character. having intelligent and character human resources can only be obtained from quality education and educational processes. quality education is determined by one of the determinants, teachers! without qualified teachers, there is an imbalance in seeking human resources which are reliable and have strong indonesian values and roots. the dynamics and challenges arise when the current learning orientation (due to the covid-19 pandemic) suddenly changes from offline learning to online learning. offline learning (face-to-face) and online learning (face-to-face) are conceptually no different. the results of offline and online learning are no different in terms of the conception of results and outputs. they are different in terms of mode and supporting elements. in short, in offline learning, learners (people who learn) are actively looking for learners (people who teach, learning resources). in online learning, learning resources 'visit' students. in terms of results and outputs, offline and online learning essentially makes no difference as long as 'learning' is present (sembiring, 2020a). in reality, many complain that online learning has a bad effect if it is done in the long term. what is more, some scholars do not believe that an academic atmosphere can be obtained through online learning (sembiring, in press). this study then examines the concept and implementation of online learning that has been running in the last three semesters (march to december 2020 and march to june 2021) with a qualitative approach. the approach used in this study is an integrative study to get basic ideas and understanding for the benefit of teachers. the point is so that teachers can carry out their mandate according to their functions and roles as virtual teachers in the digital era. this is important so that teachers remain optimal and functional even though they turn into virtual teachers. we hope that the teacher will exactly master what to play, in what way, and to achieve what goal. furthermore, this study will open new horizons both to students and parents as well as stakeholders. the hope is that there will be a common view of how digital-based virtual learning is implemented so as not to give complications to stakeholders. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 18 │ literature review in this study, related to how education and learning are disrupted can be viewed from several perspectives. beginning with globalization and its consequences. then followed by a description of the industrial revolution 4.0, including society 5.0 (schwab, 2016; deguchi et al., 2020). along with these three aspects, the demands for 21st century skills (12 new skills for the 21st century) are also born, which are inseparable from the demands of the sustainable development goals. the synthesis of these driving factors, coupled with the outbreak of the global covid-19 pandemic, has put pressure on the education sector to harmonize. in a narrower context, learning changes significantly (dhawan, 2020), including for indonesia in terms of preparing for indonesia’s golden generations. what's more, since the beginning of 2020, after the first three months, indonesia has experienced a pandemic situation. all sectors are adjusting because they must cope with the consequences of covid-19. we are used to hearing names not only working and studying from home but even praying from home. when it comes to learning from home, there is no other choice but to do distance learning. this means that there is a shift in the learning system from face-to-face to virtual classrooms. as a result of this shift, because it was carried out in a state of urgency, many aspects of implementation were far from what they should have been (sembiring, 2020a; sembiring (2020c). as a result, many complaints reappeared regarding the implementation and the results (outputs) of online learning over two years. what is happening? what is happening is not distance learning (online); but emergency remote teaching (milman, 2020; whittle et al., 2020). it is just because of globalization, that our education must make adjustments. as reported by the international monetary fund (imf, https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2008/053008.htm – may 2008), economic globalization is a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. it refers to the increased integration of economies around the world, primarily through the cross-border movement of goods, services, and capital. the term also often refers to the movement of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international boundaries. there are also cultural, political, and environmental dimensions that are broader than the context of globalization itself. the term globalization began to be more commonly used in the 1980s. reflecting technological advances that facilitate and speed up the settlement of international transactions. trading and financial flows. it refers to the expansion of the same market power beyond national borders. it has been going on for centuries at all levels of human economic activity (rural markets, urban industries, financial centers). many indicators describe how goods, capital, and people are becoming globalized. for example, the value of trade (goods and services) as a percentage of world gdp increased from 42.1% (1980) to 62.1% (2007). foreign direct investment increased from 6.5% of world gdp (1980) to 31.8% (2006). the stock of international claims (bank loans), as a percentage of world gdp, increased from about 10% (1980) to 48% (2006). the number of minutes spent on cross-border telephone calls per capita increased from 7.3% (1991) to 28.8 (2006). foreign workers increased from 78 million people (2.4% of the world's population, 1965) to 191 million people (3.0% of the world's population, 2005). growth in global markets helps drive efficiency through competition and division of labor. it is a specialization that allows people and the economy to focus on what they do well. global markets also offer greater opportunities to enter more diverse and larger markets. this means they can access more capital, technology, cheaper imports, and bigger exports. but the market does not necessarily ensure that the benefits of increased efficiency are shared by everyone. each country must be ready to accept the international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 19 necessary policies. in the case of underdeveloped countries, the support of the international community is needed when doing so. what if education is not ready to develop reliable resources to face the turmoil due to competition? the reach of globalization easily extends to everyday choices in personal, economic, and political life. for example, greater access to modern technology. in healthcare, it can make the difference between life and death. in the world of communications, it facilitates commerce and education and allows access to independent media. globalization also creates a framework for cooperation between countries on various non-economic issues with cross-border implications. examples: immigration, environment, and law. when the entry of foreign goods, services, and capital into a country creates incentives and demands to strengthen the education system because it is obliged to recognize the competitive challenges in front of the eyes. globalization implies information and knowledge are dispersed and shared. innovators in business and government can take ideas that have been successfully implemented in a particular area and adapt them to their region. they can avoid ideas that have a track record of failure. stiglitz stated that globalization has reduced the sense of alienation felt in most developing countries and has given many people in developing countries access to a wider range of knowledge beyond the reach of even the richest people in any country on earth (https://www. britannica.com/biography/joseph-stiglitz). in essence, globalization (economy) changes many sides and the order of life. the life that had left certainty suddenly changed. fundamentally, these changes create shocks for countries that are not ready to adopt the shifting impact of globalization. in simple language, globalization gives birth to turbulence and open competition. at this stage, it is common for the big to prey on the small. the implication, what remains, or is certain, is uncertainty. not having had time to harmonize the world of education due to globalization, there also came a more powerful disruptive driver, the industrial revolution 4.0 (followed by society 5.0). as a result, the order caused by globalization has not been able to be adopted, and there is also a disruption that makes all orders turn upside down. marr (2018; https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/09/02/what-is-industry-4-0-heres-a-super-easyexplanation-for-anyone/?sh=6ec6c87f9788) says we are amid a real transformation in the way we produce products thanks to the digitization of manufacturing. this transition is so powerful that it is called industry 4.0 to represent the fourth revolution in manufacturing. from the first industrial revolution (mechanization via hydropower and steam) to mass production and assembly lines using electricity in the second revolution, the fourth industrial revolution took what began in the third revolution, the adoption of computers and automation; what's more, the rise of intelligent autonomous systems and machine learning. although some consider industry 4.0 as a marketing tool, the shifts that occur in the manufacturing sector deserve attention. industry 4.0 optimizes the computerization of industry 3.0. when computers were introduced in industry 3.0, it was disruptive because of the addition of completely new technologies. now, and going forward, as industry 4.0 evolves, computers connect and communicate with each other, eventually making decisions without human involvement. the combination of cyber-physical systems, the internet of things, and the internet of systems make industry 4.0 possible. smart factory comes true. as a result of the support of smart machines that keep getting smarter as they gain access to more data, factories are becoming more efficient and productive. the network of machines is digitally connected. in the end, creating information sharing generates the real power of industry 4.0. how is education (learning) responding to this progress? how do teachers function and play a role in this kind of era? industry 4.0 applications today international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 20 │ many organizations are still in denial about how industry 4.0 is impacting their business. others struggle to find the knowledge of how to best adapt their unique use case. others are implementing today's changes and preparing for the future intelligently. of course, through proper education. here are some that exist and are possible. opportunity identification: the connected machine collects a large amount of data that can inform maintenance, performance, and other issues. then it can also analyze the data to identify patterns and insights that are impossible for humans to do in a short period. industry 4.0 offers the opportunity for manufacturers to optimize operations quickly and efficiently. how to pinpoint the focus on what needs attention. using data from sensors in its equipment, in an african gold mine, for example, was able to identify oxygen level problems during leaching. once fixed, the increased yields by 3.7%, saving $20 million per year. optimize logistics and supply chain: connected supply chains can adapt and accommodate as new information is presented. if weather delays tie up shipments, connected systems proactively adapt to reality and shift manufacturing priorities. robots: it used to be only possible for big companies with big budgets. robotics is now more affordable and available to organizations of all sizes. from selecting products in the warehouse to preparing them for shipping, autonomous robots can quickly and securely support manufacturers. robots move goods around amazon's warehouses and reduce costs and enable better use of floor space for online retailers. 3d printing: this technology has improved tremendously in the last decade, having grown from primarily prototyping to actual production. advances in the use of metal additive manufacturing have opened many possibilities for production. internet of things and cloud: a key component of industry 4.0 is the internet of things, characterized by connected devices. this not only helps internal operations but using a cloud where data is stored, equipment, and operations can be optimized, leveraging the insights of others using the same tools enabling small companies to access technology they cannot use independently. while industry 4.0 is still developing, and we may not have the complete picture until we can see the situation 30 years into the future, technology-laden companies realize the potential of industry 4.0. the company is also grappling with improving workforce skills when planning a new workforce and recruiting the right skilled employees. how do education, learning, and teachers respond to such needs? in line with all of this, the demands for sustainable development goals and 12 new 21st century customs have also become imperative. this means, once again, even without the covid-19 wave, education must adjust. the twelve new skills in the 21st-century demand three groups of skills and abilities, namely: (1) learning skills, literacy skills, and (iii) life skills. overall, 21st-century people in the digital era cannot survive without having critical, creative, collaborative, and communicative thinking skills (learning skills section). literacy skills include literacy of information, media, and technology. the most resilient part is life skills that include flexibility, leadership, initiative, productivity, and social skills (stauffer, 2020) on balance, the demands of 21st-century skills, of course, require appropriate learning (with 21st-century style). what's that? digital-based virtual learning. this digital-based virtual learning is increasingly relevant to be pursued and realized. since late 2019 and early 2020, the global covid-19 pandemic has spread, and all activities from home and learning have shifted from offline to online. this breakthrough effort is in line with the demands of the sustainable development goals. one of the core sustainable goals international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 21 is that every child must receive good educational services (https://www.who.int/healthtopics/sustainable-development-goals#tab=tab_1). then, what is the focus of attention? simply put, this study looks at the existence (function and role) of teachers amid disruptive change conditions. although not the only determinant of educational success, teachers are the main actors in organizing the learning process. based on some of the literature reviews above, integrated thinking is needed to find the teacher's character that fits the current conditions. exactly what is the determinant so that teachers remain functional and optimal in the shift due to this multi-faceted disruption? then it is important to find a transformation that must be formulated for teachers so that amid this storm of uncertainty, teachers continue to contribute. given the tremendous changes that have occurred in the last 18 months, tips on how teachers carry out their mandates are optimal, able to develop themselves sustainably. no less important, technically, what skills a teacher must have to remain functional and optimal even though they have to turn into a virtual teacher by the demands of the digital era. with this formulation and framework to be built, the learning process does not lose its meaning and momentum. research method the orientation used in this study is library research, to be precise, integrative review. this approach is closely related to a semi-structured review that aims to assess, conduct critical reviews, and synthesize the literature on research topics related to possible ways so that new theoretical frameworks and perspectives can be found for later ideas (snyder, 2019; whittemore; knafll, 2005). in the process, procedurally, the implementation of the study follows four phases as suggested, including the following phases: (i) design, (ii) implementation, (iii) analysis, and (iv) arrangement and writing of study results; in the form of a report as the final result of the study; after re-checking. in phase 1: design, focus on why this review is necessary and considered important and what its potential contribution is. in phase 2: implementation, the focus is on practical plans for selecting related documents (articles, books, and other formal documents) and how the search and selection process reaches the stage of the documentation process. in phase 3: analysis, focus on what type of information needs to be abstracted to meet the specific objectives of the review, including what type of information is needed to carry out the analysis; how this process is documented and reported. finally, in phase 4: review structuring and writing, the focus is on the reporting standards that will be created so that according to the specific review, what information needs to be included in the review, and the results should be presented and explained in what format. this methodological step chosen is a simplified version of the seven phases of the comprehensive literature review introduced by williams (2019). findings and discussion 1. main characteristics of virtual teacher in his search related to the characteristics of virtual teachers in the digital era, ally (2019) emphasizes 10 important elements. the ten elements can be grouped into five parts, namely, the need for virtual teachers to be responsive, interactive, caring, calm, and futuristic. these five essential elements, although initially not directly related to online learning due to covid-19, are still relevant to digital-based virtual learning. sembiring (2021) breaks down the practical elements of each of these essential elements into 10 operational characteristics. this is relevant to the spread of online learning due to the need to study from home. the ten characteristics referred to become relevant. due to the pandemic that has changed the order and aspects of life, including the learning process, many adjustments must be made by teachers. the implications of changes due to the collective disruption may international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 22 │ change the shape and implementation of future learning. to prepare themselves as teachers, whether learning will turn completely online or return to the way it was before (offline) or mixed, teachers need to instill the following ten characteristics. the ten characters respond to anticipatory efforts so that even if there is a change in a completely new and unfamiliar direction or a return to previous conditions, teachers have an adequate and reliable level and adaptability. these characters are related to interactivity as a virtual teacher, so they must be capable and have sensitivity in communicating (communicative) and at the same time have the patience to listen (a good listener). the next character relates to being responsive as a virtual teacher to always be able to develop networks and partnerships (collaborative) and at the same time can adapt to a rapidly changing and unpredictable environment (adaptive). another character is caring, so as a virtual teacher, he always presents himself appropriately (attractively) and has partiality toward other people, students in this (empathy). the character that is also important is related to the attitude of calm in anticipating all possibilities so that in addition to not being too fast in giving feedback (patient), it is also rational in everyday life (realistic). the other two characters are related to the ability to see far ahead, futuristic. in this case, considering the mandate as a teacher to package the future of a golden generation, virtual teachers in the digital era do not love to give input (likes to share) and always learn at every opportunity (lifelong learners). with these ten characters (which are the elaboration of the five essential elements), virtual teachers always could adapt quickly. the only thing that can keep us going in turbulence is a high level of adaptability. not only because of intelligence. intelligence and strength are needed to survive. above all, survival of the fittest is determined by the ability to adapt to the environment in a short time. adaptability is much more appropriate in terms of a strategic environment characterized by erratic change and filled with uncertainty. 2. digital age virtual teacher transformation is having these ten characters enough? the answer can be yes, enough, but maybe not yet. in conditions that are not too dynamic, these ten characters are sufficient to survive. is it possible to survive by growing? not necessarily! to develop, to grow from one state to a better state (increase), in uncertainty, the keyword is transformation (in stricter language revolution). transformation can be revolutionary as long as it is formulated in an integrated and synergistic manner. regarding the transformation that is relevant for virtual teachers, especially when forced by a pandemic, it covers three domains. the three domains are related to cultural transformation, functional transformation, and digital transformation, partly as initiated by sembiring (2020c). what happens to cultural transformation, and why does cultural transformation? simple reason. in every change, the beginning of the change must be intrinsic. if the change is responded to by making extrinsic anticipatory efforts, it is generally not comprehensive. it is certain to experience obstacles or resistance. cultural transformation is forcing oneself not to be reluctant and stuttering about change. so, firstly, cultural transformation is carried out, the transformation of perspective, mindset, or cultural paradigm. this means that successfully responding to each change does not only require knowledge and skillsbased ones, even with attitude. the success of responding to change is determined by the attitude of seeing and dealing with change. mental determination, an unyielding attitude, and being able to see threats as opportunities are some of the intrinsic approaches that are closely related to individual cultural behavior. therefore, it is necessary to ensure that if we are culturally prepared, the transformation (hijrah) from one condition to another is not difficult. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 23 the next transformation is related to the function and role of a person, in this context, the teacher. initially, in offline learning, the function and role of the teacher seemed 'limited' to transferring knowledge, skills, and attitudes to students. that's right. the process is carried out with a face-to-face approach. the teacher prepares the material and determines the strategy and learning orientation. then assess according to the demands of the material being taught. aligned with student competencies and required outputs. with the shift in the learning approach, the teacher was face-to-face and then became face-to-face, cannot just stop as a teacher. in this context, virtual teachers are required to play a role and function more than before. at this stage, the virtual teacher has three 'new' functions and roles planners, implementers, and assessors (sembiring, 2020c). that is, the virtual teacher, in the planning stage, must be able to play a role and function as a programmer, designer, animator, mediator, and selector. this role is, of course, related to the preparation of learning materials as a virtual teacher. in the implementation stage, virtual teachers are required to function and act as counselors, facilitators, mentors, motivators, and inspirations. as a virtual teacher, the challenges of carrying out an online learning process are different from offline learning. in offline learning, building a learning atmosphere can be seen and felt directly with the naked eye. we meet in the same dimension, space, and time without intermediaries. in online learning, even though we are in the same space and dimension, we are bridged by media (technology). the difficulty of building a learning atmosphere and presenting a learning experience is not enough if it is done with the usual approach. that is why the ability to motivate and inspire is needed in such a way that there is no open gap between teachers and students, even though it is mediated through media and technology. under normal conditions, it is common for teachers to assess learning outcomes. apart from meeting face-to-face, teachers can also closely follow the behavior and responses of students in receiving learning from time to time. learning through the media and doing an assessment, there must be an extra effort. this means that virtual teachers cannot only act and function as assessors. teachers must be able to act as auditors, adjudicators, reviewers, and also breakers. breaker means being able to make a breakthrough in overcoming learning if, in the implementation, there is a deadlock in completing the learning process as required. the third transformation that is no less important is digital transformation. absolute digital transformation! as a virtual teacher in the digital era, you cannot be separated from media and technology. only by mastering these two things does information becomes meaningful (learning material in this era is considered information). at the very least, although limping, virtual teachers must be familiar with smelly and digital-based knick-knacks. virtual learning only works well and is effective when it is digital-based. so, there is no other way but to adapt to this situation. teachers are obliged to transform themselves so that they are not crushed by the onslaught of technology and the direct result of the digitization process. for this reason, virtual teachers, so as not to be too unfamiliar with digitalization in learning according to the demands of the 21st century, are adaptive. quickly adapt to environmental changes. then, likes to learn new things. do not shy away from challenges and obstacles. always positive in responding to changes. at the end of it all, the teacher must move on. the method? keep thinking big, but act small from now on until you succeed and never give up. 3. virtual teacher basic skills international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 24 │ by having ten characters and being able to carry out self-transformation, the prerequisites for conception are possessed. is it enough? it's enough. but times continue to change, technology continues to develop, and the demands for learning continue to increase. so, skills and technical skills are needed to be optimal in carrying out the role of a virtual teacher. there are at least three technical skills that must be mastered so that the function and role of a virtual teacher are included in the professional category. the three skills are related to abilities or skills: (i) developing interactive digital modules, (ii) packaging virtual-digital learning delivery, and (iii) developing online learning assessments. first basic skill: developing an interactive digital module. referring to the 12 new customs of the 21st century requires special learning skills. the first basic skill is the competence to develop interactive digital learning modules. illustratively, what is meant by interactive digital learning modules are learning materials that are prepared in a modular manner, containing three main elements. the three elements consist of the prelude, the body, and the remark. if needed, you can add other sections for improvement to fit and answer the specified and expected learning objectives. what distinguishes interactive digital modules in terms of format and appearance lies in the way they are arranged. in terms of format, it still consists of at least an introduction, a body, and a closing. in terms of appearance, enough in one screen (sheet) only. one screen contains all the information needed. interactive digital modules only contain keywords. then, further elaboration provides the necessary links. for example, in the introduction, there are three keywords, in the body five keywords, and in the closing two keywords. in this module, it is enough to present these keywords and then provide a link that, if clicked, will take the reader (student) to the source of the required information. for illustration, to get an overview of the components as inspiration and comparison in developing interactive learning modules, it is also good to see the ideas of apostolopoulos (2020). the link can be a file in pfd, ms-office (word, excel, powerpoint), or other forms that are narrative, descriptive, and illustrative. if needed, the link can also be in the form of video, audio, animation, or image. whatever form or format is created via the link, it doesn't matter if it fits the demands of learning. no less important, there is a dialogue rubric. in the dialogue rubric, the demands for learning outcomes that must be met by students are included so that when they take the assessment, they can go through it well. this element of dialogue is important in building the atmosphere and presence of the learning experience (garrison, 2009). this dialogue also includes tasks that students must complete. second basic skill: packaging virtual-digital learning delivery. just like the first basic skill, packaging the delivery of digital-based virtual learning consists of three main parts as well. the three sections include the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. what should be in the introduction? at least what material will be studied, why should study the material, and what are the benefits of the learning. in conveying it, it must be arranged in such a way that the preliminary time portion is around 10-15% of the total available time. in the torso, the time ranges from 70-to 80%. in closing, the time portion is around 10-15%. this illustrates that each part of the delivery package must be arranged so that it meets the proportions of time harmoniously. in the body, if there are three subjects, it must be arranged so that the time is also harmonious. but what should be prioritized at this stage are various approaches and ways of packaging and delivering. for example, the material that is packaged with several presentations is illustrative and animative. this is important to move students so that they are inspired to be participative and contributive. in the closing section, a common thread and reinforcement are needed that make students understand the material with a high retention rate. referring to the importance of seeking student international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 25 retention, you can seek inspiration from gaytan (2013). that is, by following the virtual learning package, students understand and can remember what they have learned for a relatively long time. in terms of material delivery orientation, after packaging materials virtually digitally, we can use several approaches. for example, using an authoritarian style when we act as experts, to be precise in lectures. when we have to show something, we use the demonstrator style. it is used when the delivery is needed to enable students to imitate again in time. if you want to do learning in small groups, you can also use a facilitator approach. at the end of this delivery, we must be able to combine all these orientations according to real conditions and situations. at this stage, all experiences, knowledge, and skills previously acquired by the teacher are worth showing. third basic skill: developing online learning assessment. in the end, even though learning is done online, virtual and digital, assessment must still exist. that is, we need to check the extent of the learning outcomes that have been carried out. in reality, mostly in face-to-face classes, assessments are carried out with a minimalist approach. for example, the assessment is carried out in the form of multiple-choice and also always revolves around the formative/summative form. in virtual learning, the assessment approach must be different. given that students must have higher-order thinking skills. to achieve that, it is impossible to achieve if only using the assessment approach that has been used so far. there are at least eight orientations or approaches to building a reliable assessment. to find out portraits of students before doing the learning, using an approach known as pre-assessment. this is useful if you want to know the strengths, skills, or knowledge of students before learning; sort of mapping, diagnostics. the form also does not always have to be multiple choice. to find out the gaps that have not been mastered by students to be followed up in the next session, formative assessment is used. to assess the final skills achieved by students in the form of learning effectiveness, instructional reactions, and long-term benefits using a summative assessment. to ensure that the benefits of learning are still effective and useful for the next year, for example, a confirmative assessment is used. there are times when it is necessary to compare student performance with the average norm. in this context, we want to compare the average score of students with the value of all students in a particular school. use a formative assessment. in special circumstances, it is often necessary to measure student performance or a predetermined set of learning performances. use benchmark-based assessment (assessing knowledge pools and specific skills, including evaluating curriculum). in the case of wanting to compare student performance now with the previous one, ipsative assessment is suitable. if you want to check the overall tendency of a learning process that has been carried out, you can use an integrated assessment approach. in this case, it is related to the process of determining educational goals through data collection and analysis of information related to learning outcomes and making subsequent programs as a way of demonstrating accountability to students and the general public. again, these approaches do not always have to be in the form of multiple choice. note: for illustration and inspiration, developing an assessment of shape and orientation can be explored further by exploring the ideas put forward by colman (2021). conclusion tips for building a characterized smart gold generation so far, it can be described that to build a golden generation in indonesia; there is no other choice but to prepare transformative teachers. operationally, transformative teachers will not experience obstacles in carrying out their mandate as virtual teachers in the digital era and in accordance with the demands of the 21st century. at this stage, virtual teachers are expected to be able to carry out their international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring 26 │ profession well and always grow. virtual teachers, in building a golden generation of intelligent and characterized indonesia, can cultivate the aesthetics, taste, creativity, and initiative of the students. in building aesthetics, the teacher focuses on cultivating the heart so that students are aware of the importance of piety as human beings. refining the taste, the teacher focuses on cultivating the heart so that he understands what it means to be friendly. to build student creativity, teachers must focus on processing thought or reason to have qualified intellectuals. to fulfill the intention, the teacher focuses on cultivating the students' bodies so that they truly live the meaning of being healthy and disciplined. tips for developing a sustainable growth mindset paying attention to what happened until the beginning and throughout the 2020s (collective disruption came simultaneously and randomly, and repeatedly) resulted in all parties in all sectors having to adapt (the survival of the fittest). what else in the field of education, learning to be precise. very significant changes must be adopted. in this context, the teacher is at the forefront of adopting first. at the same time, while adapting, you must also survive and grow. this is not easy, but there is still a possibility to get around it. it is appropriate if we refer to and apply the idea of dweck’s (2016) growth mindset! as a comparison or the opposite of the growth mindset is called a fixed mindset (fixed mindset). in a growth mindset, at least some of the fundamental elements, if addressed and applied correctly and appropriately, produce the expected results. that is, the result of implementing the mindset grows more optimally. those who adopt a growth mindset always could realize success to be higher, deeper, and wider (more meaningful). on the other hand, in a fixed mindset, even though in the early stages you can get what you want, it will stop there. in other words, even if you get what you want at a relatively early time but will not reach the optimal level, what is more up to the ideal stage; is still far. to get optimal results, the prerequisite for implementing a growth mindset is to pay attention to the following points of view: (1) the growth mindset argues that intelligence can be developed, while the mindset still considers intelligence to be static. (2) the growth mindset tends to always and continue to learn, while the mindset still tends to want to look fast even if it just looks smart. (3) in very challenging circumstances (such as current conditions), those who fall into the category of growth mindset are prepared to face and even invite challenges with courage. at the same time, they have a mindset that they tend to avoid challenges even though the challenges are not significant. (4) in the face of obstacles, a growth mindset persists in the face of all challenges and shocks without thinking of giving up. while in a fixed mindset, even though the obstacles are not at an alarming level, they are already showing signs of retreating and finally giving up. (5) in terms of preparing effort, a growth mindset sees the effort as the basic capital to achieve excellence. meanwhile, in a fixed mindset, providing effort is considered a waste and a loss. (6). those who fall into the category of growth mindset consider criticism as a medium of learning for goodness and further progress. while in a fixed mindset, criticism is considered an obstacle to progress, even though criticism is positive and constructive. (7) the success and success of anyone, in the view of people who think growing is an inspiration to create higher, more advanced, and more powerful. meanwhile, for them with a fixed mindset, the success and success of others is a threat to their existence. finally, the characteristics, self-transformation, and three basic skills of virtual teachers in the digital era will be successful if followed by a growth mindset. based on a growth mindset, trust as a virtual teacher will optimally package the golden generation towards 100 years of indonesia's independence. precisely as virtual teachers, the approach presented in full in this study will enable them to build and shape the aesthetics, taste, creativity, and initiative of indonesian students in an integrated manner. international journal of research in stem education (ijrse), vol. 4 (1), 15-28 the role of virtual teacher in the digital age: engraver the future of indonesian golden generations maximus gorky sembiring │ 27 to close, the efforts initiated through this study aim to create education that forms human beings who are knowledgeable and do scientific deeds! to achieve that, education must manifest as a medium for humanizing humans humanely, liberating humans in a dowry, and nobly glorifying humans! keep going, indonesian teacher! limitations & further research this study uses one approach, namely the qualitative approach (integrative review). in the future, ideally, use a mixed-methods approach. namely qualitative and quantitative approaches. it is recommended to use an exploratory design, after obtaining qualitative results, re-tested with a quantitative approach. this will result in more integrated and meaningful results. references ally, m. 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