Yavuz-Konokman, G. (2020). Integration of media and
critical literacy into curriculum through thinking
education: From teacher training perspective.
International Online Journal of Education and
Teaching (IOJET), 7(4). 1839-1866.
http://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/1011
Received: 30.07.2020
Received in revised form: 10.08.2002
Accepted: 01.09.2020
INTEGRATION OF MEDIA AND CRITICAL LITERACY INTO CURRICULUM
THROUGH THINKING EDUCATION: FROM TEACHER TRAINING
PERSPECTIVE
Research article
Gamze Yavuz-Konokman
Ankara Music and Fine Arts University
gamzekonokman@mgu.edu.tr
Gamze Yavuz-Konokman works as an assistant professor at Educational Sciences
Department at Ankara Music and Fine Arts University. She has made many scientific studies
on teacher education, technology supported instruction, scale development, and curriculum
development.
Copyright by Informascope. Material published and so copyrighted may not be published
elsewhere without the written permission of IOJET.
mailto:gamzekonokman@mgu.edu.tr
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2272-1549
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1839
INTEGRATION OF MEDIA AND CRITICAL LITERACY INTO
CURRICULUM THROUGH THINKING EDUCATION: FROM
TEACHER TRAINING PERSPECTIVE
Gamze Yavuz-Konokman
gamzekonokman@mgu.edu.tr
Abstract
This research has pointed out the effects of thinking education on the prospective teachers’
critical and media literacies. The research, designed as mixed method with sequential
triangulation, has enlightened the efficacy of thinking education on the prospective teachers’
literacies. The study group, selected by the sampling criteria, one of the purposive sampling
methods, composed of 40 social studies prospective teachers, having been trained in terms of
thinking critically on media messages and texts, at Education Faculty, Bartin University
during the 2016‐2017 academic year. It is concluded that post-test media literacy and critical
literacy scores of the trained prospective teachers have increased. Moreover, the positive
effects of thinking education on the prospective teachers’ media and critical literacies are
expressed in detail within the framework of various qualitative data and it is inferred that
thinking education reached the goal of training critical literate and media literate individuals.
Furthermore, how to integrate media literacy and critical literacy into any curriculum in
teacher education has been exemplified through this research. Therefore, these literacies
should be taught independently from any subject or a discipline as the objectives of teacher
education curriculum.
Keywords: thinking education, critical literacy, media literacy
1. Theoretical Information on Thinking Education, Media and Critical Literacies
Thinking is a cognitive activity, everyone has experienced in every part of life as a
student, as a citizen, as a friend, as an adult without realizing how to think. Paul and Elder
(2002) emphasized that much thoughts are biased, distorted, partial or uninformed and
excellence in thought must be provided in a systematic way. Systematically cultivation of
accurate, consistent and logical thoughts with lack of bias, is possible through thinking
education focusing on such questions as what does thinking mean?, how does the brain
process information?, how are thoughts analyzed, evaluated and reconstructed?, how are
thoughts analyzed in terms of standards such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth,
logic, breadth, significance, fairness? What are the elements of thought? How are the
thoughts analyzed in terms of such elements as point of view, purpose, information,
interpretation and inference, concepts, assumptions, implications and consequences? That is
to say, separating the elements of thinking and scrutinizing the use of each part as well as
evaluating thoughts in terms of such standards as clarity, accuracy, etc. can be experienced in
thinking education. Because the analysis and assessment of thinking belong to a clear
understanding of the parts of thinking and applying the standards for thinking to those parts
(Paul and Elder, 2002). Paul and Elder (2002) emphasized that a clear understanding of the
parts of thinking, applying the standards for thinking to those parts, above all thinking with
regard to these factors on a daily basis will improve the quality of human life significantly.
mailto:gamzekonokman@mgu.edu.tr
Yavuz-Konokman
1840
According to Paul and Elder (2002), beginning to learn how to think critically is like the first
step in learning how to play tennis, basketball, etc. in such a way that the first step is to learn
the most fundamental elements for both of them. Assessment of any thought relates to
analyzes of the parts of thinking. The parts of thinking are summarized in just two sentences:
“Whenever you are thinking, you are trying to accomplish some purpose, within a point of
view, using concepts or ideas. You are focused on some issue or question, issue, or problem,
using information to come to conclusions, based on assumptions, all of which have
implications.” (Paul and Elder, 2002).
From Paul and Elder’s points of view, how to analyze someone’s thinking with regard to
elements of thought can be explained in such a way: Capturing the purpose or goal of
someone’s thinking, namely searching for the answer to this question “What is the
fundamental purpose of someone’s thinking?” is the first step. It is followed by capturing
someone’s point of view as a critical thinker, familiar with the fact that thinking has some
comprehensive focus or orientation, and trying to answer the question “what is someone’s
point of view with respect to the issue? Then, “what is the key question in someone’s
thinking?” and “what is the most basic concept in someone’s thinking?” are the questions
tried to be answered in the process of analysis of thinking. Realizing concepts in thinking
means generally thinking within the framework of categories or ideas obtained as a result of
analysis of information in someone’s thinking. The answer to the question such as “What
information is needed to answer the question in someone’s thinking?” makes it clear that
someone’s thinking is based on some set of facts or information. That is to say, the factual
basis for thinking become significant. Not only are conclusions and inferences taken into
account in the process of thinking but also implications are the other elements to be
considered. Fisher (2001) also emphasizes what someone has done upon thinking critically.
These are identifying the elements in a reasoned case, especially reasons and conclusions;
evaluating assumptions; clarifying and interpreting expressions and ideas; questioning the
acceptability, especially the credibility of claims; evaluating arguments of different kinds;
analyzing and producing explanations; making decisions, drawing inferences and generating
arguments. Fisher’s explanation on any critical thinker’s behaviors indicates that the parts of
thought, stated by Elder and Paul (2002) is analyzed upon thinking critically.
Interrelation among the elements of thought are emphasized by Paul and Elder (2002)
making analogy between the elements of thought and the essential parts of the human body.
Their way to explain these interrelationships is that: “Our purpose affects the manner in
which we ask questions; The manner in which we ask questions affects the information we
gather; The information we gather affects the way we interpret it; The way we interpret
information affects the way we conceptualize it; The way we conceptualize information
affects the assumptions we make; The assumptions we make affect the implications that
follow from our thinking; The implications that follow from our thinking affect the way we
see things, our point of view”. That is to say, consideration on the elements of thinking makes
someone be aware of thinking process and think critically on someone’s own thoughts and
others’ thoughts. In this case thinking critically means assessing one’s own thinking or
others’ thinking. In addition to analysis of the parts of thinking, assessment of one’s thinking
also includes applying such logic standards as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth,
breadth, logicalness, and significance to the parts of thinking (Paul and Elder, 2002). This
research is designed with instructional activities in which one’s own thoughts or others’
thoughts are analyzed in terms of the parts of thinking and logic standards. Thinking
education has become indispensable for all of us with the goal to develop the skills of inquiry
and expression required for being critical thinker and media literate. That is to say, students
are enabled to be equipped with these skills through having chance to interpret the media
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messages and texts in terms of the parts of thoughts such as point of view, assumption,
inference, conclusion, etc. and such standards as clarity, accuracy, precision, etc.
The definition of media literacy in a broader scope points out a critical interpretation of
information on media. According to Mizukosi (1999 cited in Shibata, 2002), media literacy
means multiple abilities including an interpretation of media information and an expression
of feelings and opinions on these media information. Suzuki (1997 cited in Shibatai 2002)
also defines media literacy as critical analysis and evaluation of media in a social context.
Similarly, media literacy is defined as intersection of skills, giving people chance to think
critically on information through the media such as the internet, newspaper, etc. and to
express themselves in a creative way (Ichikawa, 1999 cited in Shibata, 2002). Scheibe and
Rogow (2008) also emphasizes that being media literate depends on having skill of
questioning, required to be critical thinker. Indah (2016) explains the importance of critical
thinking in such a way that media texts have values, goals and point of view which belongs to
conceptual framework requiring critical thinking. Worsnop (2004) gives importance to
thinking critically on media text to get the meaning of the text by being aware of not only the
values of the audience but also the values of texts. The most common word, used for the
definition of media literacy is “thinking critically”. It can be inferred that media literacy
includes critical thinking. In this context, thinking critically in each part of life is an
indispensable feature to be media literate. Feuerstein (1999) finds out that primary school
students, having trained in terms of media literacy, became capable of thinking critically on
TV series and newspaper advertisements. Indah (2016) reveals the difference between trained
learners on media literacy and those, lack of media literacy training in terms of the use of
higher order of critical thinking. The similar inference are made by Kubey (2002) stating
students will have higher order critical thinking skills such as critical interpretation, analysis
and evaluation in case they have been trained on media literacy. As identified by Ruggiero
(2015), the students become aware of how to apply their critical thinking skills upon
watching or reading media messages and texts as a result of specific exercises. The
importance of media literacy in support of critical thinking is expressed by Feuerstein (1999)
in such a statement “Media literacy aims to develop metacognitive reflective strategies by
means of study and critical responses towards the content of the media and its messages.”
Moreover, it is aimed to “develop students’ habits of inquiry and skills of expression they
need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world”
(Facione, 1990). In a broader scope it can be concluded that these studies are the indicators of
the relation between the education with the goals to develop media literacy skills and the
development of critical thinking skills. According to Willingham (2019), the means of critical
thinking is that “You are thinking critically if (1) your thinking is novel—that is, you aren’t
simply drawing a conclusion from a memory of a previous situation and (2) your thinking is
self-directed—that is, you are not merely executing instructions given by someone else and
(3) your thinking is effective—that is, you respect certain conventions that make thinking
more likely to yield useful conclusions. These would be conventions like “consider both sides
of an issue,” and “offer evidence for claims made,” and “don’t let emotion interfere with
reason.”
Scheibe and Rogow (2008) explain basic ways to integrate media literacy and critical
thinking into any curriculum. One of the ways is to give chance to students to be experienced
in observing, critical thinking and perspective taking. According to them, this can be possible
through such some instructional practices as (1) asking questions enabling students to think
critically about information on media; (2) pointing out the possibility of different
interpretation of media messages by people with different points of view; (3) discussing both
printed and image or sound based texts on media; (4) enabling students to determine and
Yavuz-Konokman
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make comment on the latent elements of media messages such as the technique used to attract
attention, the properties of individuals producing the media text, etc. (5) being model as a
teacher presenting how to think critically on media texts. Another way for integration of
media literacy and critical thinking into any curriculum is to enable students to search for
information about the topic of any media text. Because searching for various information
and facts are compulsory to think critically on media messages or texts. The other ways are
exemplified as “identifying how students’ prior ideas about a topic have been influenced by
media messages, using media as a pedagogical tool, identifying sources for erroneous beliefs
about a topic, develop an awareness of issues of credibility and perspective, comparing the
ways different media present information about a topic, using media as an assessment tool,
facilitating the use of various media formats for transfer of opinions, etc.” (Scheibe and
Rogow, 2008). In similar, media literacy and critical literacy can be integrated into a
curriculum in teacher education in such a way that the prospective teachers have a chance to
practice thinking critically on media messages, interpreting the latent elements of media
messages, following the process of thinking critically, modelled by their teachers and
searching for information on the topic of media texts, questioning media messages by
regarding such standards as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, logic, breadth,
significance, fairness, comparing the ways different media present information about a topic,
discussing the different points of view of various media texts, analyzing media content in
terms of misleading information on media texts. Therefore, it can be concluded that
integration of media literacy and critical literacy into any curriculum can take place regarding
the instructional points stated above. Moreover, equipped the students with these cognitive
skills has become the educational goals from primary education to higher education.
Therefore, the need for the integration of media literacy and critical literacy into any
curriculum with being linked with any course or without depending on the content of any
course has emerged.
Skolverket (2011 cited in Ekvall, 2013) lists the goals of education as equipping the
students with such properties as being creative, competent and responsible and developing
“their ability to examine facts and relationships critically”. That is to say, Skolverket’s views
on the goals of education point out critical literacy, each individual should have to read and
write critically. Luke (2012) defines the aim of critical literacy as criticizing ideologies,
cultures, institutions and political systems and he adds that “as a practical approach to
curriculum, it melds social, political and cultural debate and discussion with the analysis of
how texts and discourses work, where, with what consequences, and in whose interests”
(Luke, 2012). According to Comber and Simpson (2001), one of the domains in which
critical literacy has been applied to curriculum is media. Moreover, it is offered by Sperry
and Baker (2016) to increase students’ awareness to critical literacy and teach them how to
question media texts and messages critically. They add that questioning, analyzing texts,
identifying points of view, making inferences and drawing conclusions are some learning
outcomes obtained as a results of students’ decoding content-rich texts (Sperry and Baker,
2016) . Media is considered to provide content rich texts written in multiple perspectives.
Media products such as newspapers, reflecting their own political ideologies, need to be read
critically (Wolk, 2003). Because of widespread use of media in our technological modern
society today, Goodman (2005) adds that the ability to analyze, interpret, evaluate, and
produce different forms of communication, such as media should be included in the
definitions of critical literacy. Moreover, he emphasizes that “the students with their critical
literacy skills investigate power relations within the social and historical context of their lived
experience and within the broader frame of their mediated culture” (Goodman, 2005).
Moreover, being literate depends on students’ critical thinking skills and their reading
between the lines to find the latent meanings (Tohidian & Khorsandi Taskoh, 2020). From
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1843
Kunnath and Jackson’s points of view (2019), critical literacy means questioning the purpose
and reliability of information, considering with multiple perspectives and taking action.
Capturing the latent message, reading between the lines, questioning texts and messages,
considering the context in which an information emerges, searching for additional
information are possible for the individuals being critical literate (McLeod & Vasinda, 2008).
As a result, critical literate students will become capable of interpreting media messages and
using different media formats to express themselves.
Despite such an important educational goal, critical literacy is difficult to be integrated
into curriculum (Kunnath and Jackson, 2019). Behrman (2006) explains the reason of the
difficulty in integration as lack of instructional methods and strategies. According to
Goodman (2005), critical literacy can be thought through such instructional practices and
principles as teaching multiple literacies, teaching continuous inquiry and teaching reflection.
It ıs inferred from Goodman’s expressions that learning how to analyze, evaluate, interpret
and generate texts in different forms such as oral, visual or textual is possible with the
practices with the goals to teach multiple literacies. Another practice, suggested by Goodman
(2005), is to have students question about their experiences and the social, cultural and
historical conditions of these experiences and how the media represents these conditions and
experiences. As a reflective activity, the students should have chance to reflect what the have
learned, for example their own media products.
Behar-Horenstein and Niu (2011) emphasize ability to think critically is among higher
education goals to build responsible citizens and add that “a society requires individuals to
base their judgments and decisions on careful evaluation of evidence”. Equipped the
individuals with cognitive skills, including media literacy and critical literacy make their
adaptation to the modern society easier because of learning how to analyze, interpret,
evaluate an information critically based on facts.
Critical thinking and critical literacy are defined as a related concept, including critical
reading and the difference in the meanings of these concepts is expressed as “critical thinking
is a process, critical reading is an application, and critical literacy is an ability” (Jeong, 2012).
To sum up, critical thinking is a process to be followed by both critical and media literate
individuals. Namely, with an analogic point of view, critical thinking is an indispensable way
to critical literacy and media literacy. These skills are the learning outcomes, aimed to be
gained through curriculum in the field of teacher education in Turkey. Both educators and
policy makers have emphasized each one should have life skills such as being media literate
and critical literate. In the teacher education programs, such elective courses as “media
literacy” and “critical and analytical thinking” aim to teach prospective teachers to be media
literate and be critical thinker in each part of life and to be aware of the vital importance of
such skills. Occurrence of media literacy course in teacher education programs is the
evidence of media literacy education in Turkey. Therefore, media literacy becomes a skill,
thought in its’ own curriculum, not needing to be thought in other courses’ curriculum. This
shows the importance of media literacy education with its own curriculum in higher
education in Turkey. Although there is a consensus on which media literacy is a skill that
should be gained through school education, whether it is thought in its’ own curriculum or
other courses’ curriculum is on debate in the world. For example, media literacy is usually
taught in the “English” curriculum by teachers of English in Ontario, Canada (Shibata, 2002).
That is to say, media education, the aim of which is to develop students’ media literacy, is
generally taught within the class hours allotted to other courses’ curriculum, along with these
courses’ contents required to be taught. This means the frequency of media education in class
depends on the teacher’s decision on time allocated to instructional activities on media
literacy. This can cause to move away from standardization. Because it is possible
Yavuz-Konokman
1844
enthusiastic teachers on media literacy separate much more time for teaching media literacy
than less eager ones. Therefore, the component skills such as critical literacy and media
literacy should be acquired independently from the curriculum of any course. Similar debate
has occurred whether critical thinking should be thought in stand-alone subjects or whether it
should be thought within any subject or discipline. The emergence of this debate depends on
how to interpret critical thinking. While ones defining critical thinking as a generic set of
skills associated with reasoning emphasize that critical thinking should be thought
independently from any discipline (De Bono, 1973; Ennis 1987; Feuerstein, et all, 1980;
Robinson, 2011), others relating critical thinking to any subject or discipline, believe that
critical thinking should be thought within any subject or discipline (McPeck, 1981).
Moreover, many studies indicate that critical literacy is thought being integrated in any
course curriculum (Ekwall, 2013; Jeong, 2012; Park, 2012; Tohidian and Khorsandi Taskoh,
2020).
Considering Goodman’s statement “Critical literacy aims to teach students the skills and
capacity to read critically at this most developed level—in between the lines and beyond the
lines—whether those lines are alphabetic, painted, videotaped, or spoken.”, media texts,
including different goals, points of view and values with various formats such as oral, written
and visual, are appropriate to be thought critically on. Therefore, various media texts and
messages were brought to class to be analyzed, evaluated and interpreted critically to develop
prospective teachers’ not only critical literacy but also media literacy through this study.
Within this theoretical framework, the effects of thinking education on the prospective
teachers’ critical literacy and media literacy is purposed to be determined through both
qualitative and quantitative data in this research.
2. Research Method
The study was conducted to determine the effects of thinking education, the course taken
by the prospective teachers being trained at Education Faculty, Bartin University. In
particular the effects of thinking education on the prospective teachers’ such skills as critical
literacy and media literacy were aimed to be presented via mixed method. Preference of
mixed method is related to the purposes of the research, such as triangulation and
complementation. According to Morse, (1991, as cited in Tashakkori & Teddue, 2003)
mixed methods are classified as concurrent triangulation and sequential triangulation in terms
of the sequence of data collection and the dominance of data sets. In this study sequential
triangulation, gathering both qualitative and quantitative data sequentially, is used. Moreover,
quantitative data was firstly gathered to give information on the prospective teachers’ critical
and media literacy skills before and after the research. Then, qualitative data was gathered to
explain the phenomenon deeply. The prospective teachers’ views on the classroom activities
and the results of the activities on their skills were presented with the help of qualitative data.
In contrast to other research methods, superiority of mixed method is emphasized by
Tashakkori and Teddue (2003) stating the advantages of mixed method such as presenting
different views, making strong inferences, answering to research questions not being able to
be answered by other research methods.
The study group was selected by the sampling criteria, one of the purposive sampling
methods. Voluntary participation in the study and doing the homework and worksheets
regularly were the selection criteria of the study group. Therefore, the study was conducted
with the participation of 40 social studies prospective teachers, taking selective course
“Thinking Education” at Education Faculty, Bartin University during the 2016‐2017
academic year. The participants haven’t taken any course before, aiming to train students to
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1845
get thinking skills. The research was continued during 14 weeks. Weekly research design is
presented below:
1st Week: The aim of the course named “Thinking Education” was presented and the
participants were informed on the content and instructional methods. Critical Literacy scale
and media literacy scale were applied to get quantitative data on the prospective teachers’
literacy levels.
2nd and 3rd Weeks: Theoretical information on thinking, thinking process and skills, thinking
obstacles were given. Articles on thinking process and skills were examined. They were
asked to define critical thinking with their own words. Moreover, their opinions on thinking
obstacles and their suggestions on how to overcome these obstacles were taken. The fields in
which they can think critically and not were defined.
4rd and 5th Weeks: What is critical reading and how to read and think as regards logic
elements was explained. The participants had experiences in reading and thinking as regards
logic elements (aims, questions related to subject, assumptions, information, practice and
results, concepts, viewpoint, inferences). The researcher became model on how to think on
“being academician” in terms of logic elements. The participants were asked to define the
effects of this activity on their critical literacy and media literacy.
6th and 7th Weeks: The students were asked to evaluate “thinking education course” in terms
of logic elements. Then, they were asked to select any news, published on the newspaper or
on the internet and evaluate it in terms of logic elements. Moreover, the news were analyzed
in terms of the standards such as accuracy, clearness, logic, importance, relevance, etc.). The
participants were asked to define the effects of this activity on their critical literacy and media
literacy.
8th Week: The news, presenting an event from different point of views were compared. The
students were asked to find such news and compare them in terms of their viewpoint. Then,
they shared the news and their evaluation on the news with other participants. The
participants were asked to define the effects of this activity on their critical literacy and media
literacy through the figure. They chose the figure, symbolizing their critical and media
literacy most correctly and explained the reason of their choices.
9 th Week: What is “disinformation” in media was explained and examples of disinformation
were examined. The students were asked to give an example of disinformation and analyze it.
Then, they shared their examples and their thoughts on the news in terms of disinformation
with other participants. The participants were asked to define the effects of this activity on
their critical literacy and media literacy.
10th-11thWeeks: The participants were asked to find news, written prejudicially. The news
were analyzed in terms of prejudice and perspective. They were asked to write the text again
objectively. The participants were asked to define the effects of this activity on their critical
literacy and media literacy.
12th -13th Weeks: How to think critically on advertisements was studied. Some advertisements
were analyzed. The participants were asked to choose an advertisement to be analyzed. After
having analyzed it, they shared their studies with other participants. Therefore, their criteria
in analyzing advertisements, their views on advertisement before and after the activity, the
effects of the activity on their critical literacy and media literacy were questioned.
14th Week: Thinking education was evaluated by the participants in terms of learning
outcomes, instructional methods and the instructional activities. Then, the effects of thinking
education on their critical literacy and media literacy were questioned. They made
Yavuz-Konokman
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suggestions on thinking education. At the end of the education critical literacy scale and
media literacy scale were applied to get quantitative data on the prospective teachers’ literacy
levels.
2.1. Data Collection Tools
2.1.1. Quantitative Data
The prospective teachers’ media literacy was determined before and after “Thinking
Education” with the help of “media literacy scale” developed by Karaman and Karatas
(2009). The scale was designed as a 5-category Likert-type scale. The scale was scored as
“(1) never”, “(2) rarely”, “(3) sometimes” “(4) frequently” and “(5) always”. Exploratory
factor analysis indicates that the scale has a structure of 3 factors consisting of 17 items. The
first factor that consists of 7 items is named “having knowledge”; the second factor that
consists of 6 items is named “analyzing and giving reaction”; the third factor that consists of
4 items is named “judging and getting an implicit message”. Three factors altogether explain
42,5 of the total variance. Cronbach’s Alpha of reliability for the whole scale is .840 and the
factors’ reliability values are.721, .705 and .680 respectively.
Critical Literacy Scale developed by Yilmaz (2013) was applied to the prospective
teachers before and after education. The scale designed as a 5-category Likert-type scale was
scored as “(1) never”, “(2) rarely”, “(3) sometimes” “(4) frequently” and “(5) always”.
Exploratory factor analysis indicates that the scale has a structure of 2 factors consisting of 14
items. The first factor, consisting of 7 items, is named as “critical reading”; the second factor,
composed of 7 items is named as “critical writing”. Two factors altogether explain 50,937 of
the total variances. Cronbach’s alpha of reliability for the whole scale is .82, and Cronbach’s
alphas for the scale’s factors are .76 and .71 respectively, indicating the scale’s reliability.
2.1.2. Qualitative Data
Journals, including open-ended questions, were collected from the prospective teachers
during 14-week research. Journals, in which the questions were asked to get knowledge on
the prospective teachers’ media and critical literacy, were gathered before and after
“Thinking Education”. Moreover, the data about the effects of each instructional activity on
the prospective teachers’ both critical and media literacy were gathered after each
instructional activity through journals. The prospective teachers also evaluated their critical
literacy and media literacy both at the beginning and at the end. Moreover, the prospective
teachers’ general evaluation on each instructional activity (goals and objectives gained after
an activity, instructional methods, etc.); the effects of an activity on their critical and media
literacy; the problems, encountered in an activity; suggestions on how to overcome the
problems were emphasized through journals. These types of questions were asked at the end
of each instructional activity. Therefore, journals were expected to show the prospective
teachers’ improvement in media literacy and critical literacy from first to last. The questions
in the journals were evaluated by an expert, a professor in the department of curriculum and
instruction studying on critical thinking, in terms of such criteria as understandability,
clearness, content validity, number of question, etc.
2.2. Data Analysis
SPSS 22 program was used to analyze quantitative data. Pre and post-test mean scores
gained from both critical literacy scale and media literacy scale were tested to indicate
whether there is any statistically meaningful difference in the prospective teachers’ critical
and media literacy level before and after thinking education. Paired sample t test was applied
to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in pre-test and post-test
scores gained from critical literacy scale. The same process was followed for analysis of the
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1847
quantitative data obtained from media literacy scale. Paired sample t test was applied to
present whether difference between pre and post-test scores of critical literacy occurred or
not.
The qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis method in seven phases. (i)
Organizing the data, (ii) immersion in the data, (iii) generating categories and themes, (iv)
coding the data, (v) offering interpretations through analytic memos, (vii) searching for
alternative understandings and (viii) writing the report for presenting the study. The data
were reread and notes were taken to organize data. The data were also organized according to
what was gathered and when, where, how, from whom the data were gathered. Then,
Schemas for recording data were used to manage data and guard against losing the findings.
Categories and themes were generated. Then, the data were coded. Generated themes and
codes were interpreted. In other words, interpretation means making sense of the findings,
drawing conclusions and making inferences. Then, all generated codes and themes were
searched for alternative understandings again.
2.3. Reliability and Validity Studies
The prospective teachers’ voluntarily participation in the research and their responsible
behaviors in keeping journals during the research are the factors, providing internal validity
of the study. Moreover, statistical analysis of data collection tools such as Cronbach’s Alpha
Reliability values and exploratory factor analysis findings, supports reliability and validity of
the study. The course syllabus was designed by both researcher and a professor studying on
how to design critical thinking activities and they together instructed the prospective teachers.
The course and the data gathered after each instructional activity were evaluated at each
week. Reformation on the following instructional activities was done regarding these
evaluations.
Strategies to provide internal validity for qualitative side of the research were external
audits, rich explanations, a set of evidence and triangulation. (Creswell, 2003). In this sense,
detailed description of instructional process, presenting findings together with quotations,
gathering both qualitative and quantitative data to explain the findings in detail are the
strategies for the internal validity of the study. In addition, themes, codes and qualitative data
together were reviewed by an expert and the reliability of coding was proved by Miles and
Huberman's reliability formula (1994) [Reliability=Agreement/(Agreement+Disagreement)].
Also, agreement score was found as 94.5 The calculated intercoded reliability are thought to
prove the internal validity of the study.
3. Findings
3.1. Findings of Quantitative Data
The results of paired samples t-test for determining whether pre and post-test mean scores
for media literacy differed statistically or not are presented in Table 1.
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1848
Table 1. Comparison of Pre and Post Test Scores for Media Literacy: Paired Samples T-Test
Results
Factors
Test
Time
n
Paired Samples
Correlations Mean sd df t p
Correlation p
M
e
d
ia
L
it
e
r
a
c
y
Having
Knowledge
Pre-test 38 ,244 ,140 29,57 3,19 37 2,835 ,007
Post-test 38 36,46 15,44
Analyzing and
Giving Reaction
Pre-test 38 ,262 ,112 24,76 9,29 37 1,818 .077
Post-test 38 29,06 13,95
Judging an
Implicit
Message
Pre-test 38 ,376 ,020 14,89 2,54 37 4,390 .00
Post-test 38 16,81 2,25
The Whole
Scale
Pre-test 38 ,276 ,094 69,22 11,82 37 3,543 .001
Post-test 38 82,33 23,04
Note. p<.05
The difference between pre-test and post-test mean scores gotten from media literacy scale
was observed statistically (t37 =3,543; p=.001). Pre-test mean score for media literacy was
calculated to be 69,22 with a standard deviation of 11,82; post-test mean score was 82,33
with a standard deviation of 23,04. Moreover, pretest mean scores for such factors of the
scale as “having knowledge” and “judging and getting an implicit message” differs from
post-test mean scores statically (t37 =2,835, p=.007; t37 =2,835, p=.00). For the first factor
named “Having Knowledge”, pre-test mean score was calculated as 29,57 with a standard
deviation of 3,19; post-test mean score was 36,46 with a standard deviation of 15,44. That
pre-test mean score on the factor of “judging and getting an implicit message” was higher
than post-test mean score proves the statistical difference between the test scores. It can be
inferred from these findings that the prospective teachers’ post-test media literacy scores
have increased compared to their pre-test scores. Furthermore, their post-test mean scores
have increased in having knowledge, judging and getting an implicit message. It was also
observed that pre and post-test scores of the second factor, informing how the prospective
teachers can analyze and give reactions, didn’t differ statistically. Compared to second factor
named “Judging and Getting an Implicit Message”, there isn’t any statistically meaningful
correlation between pre and post-test scores.
The findings on the difference of pre and post-test mean scores for critical literacy,
attained through paired samples t test, are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Comparison of Pre and Post-Test Scores for Critical Literacy: Paired Samples T-
Test Results
Factors
Test
Time
n
Paired Samples
Correlations Mean sd df t
p
Correlation p
C
r
it
ic
a
l
L
it
e
r
a
c
y
Critical
Reading
Pre-test 38 ,212 ,202 26,59 2,81 37 2,464 ,019
Post-test 38 31,39 12,29
Critical
Writing
Pre-test 38 -,033 ,846 25,32 5,73 37 2,256 ,030
Post-test 38 25,32 16,40
The Whole
Scale
Pre-test 38 ,036 ,831 51,91 6,87 37 3,275 ,002
Post-test 38 63,14 20,23
Note. p<.05
Upon viewing Table 2, a statistically significant difference is observed between pre and
post-test mean scores for critical literacy (t37 =3,275; p=.002). While pre-test mean score for
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1849
critical literacy was calculated to be 51,91 with a standard deviation of 6,87; post-test mean
score was 63,14 with a standard deviation of 20,23. Pre-test mean score for critical reading
was calculated as 26,59 with a standard deviation of 2,81 and post-test mean score for critical
reading was 31,39 with a standard deviation of 12,29. Thus, it is proven that pre-test mean
scores for critical reading differed from posttest mean scores statistically. The similar
findings were observed for critical writing. In a short, pre-test mean scores for both critical
reading and writing differed from post-test mean scores statistically. Moreover, these
findings are supported with the correlation values between pretest and post-test mean scores
for both critical writing and reading.
3.2. Findings of Qualitative Data
The results of qualitative data analysis on learning outcomes of thinking education are
presented in Table 3.
Table 3. The Results of Qualitative Data Analysis on Learning Outcomes of Thinking
Education
Themes Codes
Frequency
(f)
L
e
a
r
n
in
g
O
u
tc
o
m
e
s
K
n
o
w
le
d
g
e
Realizing that media messages can be biased 3
Realizing that an event or situation may have hidden causes 3
Understanding what thinking means 2
Knowledge of thinking skills 1
Understanding what media literacy means 1
Understanding what critical literacy means 1
A
ff
e
c
ti
v
e
F
e
a
tu
r
e
s
Having positive attitudes towards the course because of an interactive
learning environment
4
Avoiding from making a judgement with lack of knowledge 3
Having positive attitudes towards making research 3
Believing improvable thinking skill through education 1
Accepting the importance of listening 1
Opposing the acceptance of information without being questioned 1
Recognizing the importance of moving away from prejudices 1
Caring about different thoughts 1
S
k
il
ls
Critical thinking 28
Questioning media messages 9
Questioning social media messages 4
Being objective 3
Reseach skills 3
Emphathy 3
Cooperation 2
Creative thinking 2
Awareness of the thinking process 1
When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that the learning outcomes are defined under the
themes which are knowledge, affective features and skills. Under the theme knowledge; the
most frequently expressed codes are “realizing that media messages can be biased” (f=3)
and “realizing that media messages as well as events or situations may have hidden causes’’
(f=3). Some of the opinions of the participants about affective features include ‘’having
positive attitudes towards the course because of an interactive learning environment’’ (f=4);
‘’avoiding from making a judgement with lack of knowledge” (f=3) and ‘’having positive
attitudes towards making research’’ (f=3). In addition, it is clear that ‘’critical thinking
Yavuz-Konokman
1850
skills’’ (f=28) is the most expressed code by the participants under the theme skills. The
following excerpts are related to the themes and codes above.
‘’My ability to evaluate circumstances from a different point of view, empathize, think
critically and distinguish my feelings and logic has increased.’’ (prospective teacher 18)
‘’After class, I really find out that thinking can be taught and I am unprejudiced about
thinking education now.’’ (prospective teacher 8)
‘’I am more critical of the news or advertisement texts I encounter on TV or social
networking sites.’’(prospective teacher 11)
‘’While I was reading a text in this course, I realized that I had to think thoroughly. I
have learned to empathize and think by considering different feelings and thoughts. I
think I have gained critical thinking skills. First of all, I start giving importance to be
knowledgeable.’’ (prospective teacher 7)
‘’I have realized what thinking is. I have learned that purposeful thinking is real
thinking and everything we watch in media is not true. Now, I am able to discover the
message in advertisements of companies branded with advertising analysis. Also, I
question the reliability of the products.’’ (prospective teacher 1)
The qualitative data analysis results related to the positive effects of thinking education on
the prospective teachers’ critical literacy are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. The Effects of Thinking Education on the Prospective Teachers’ Critical Literacy:
Qualitative Data Analysis Results
Themes Codes f
P
o
si
ti
v
e
E
ff
e
c
t
C
r
it
ic
a
l
L
it
e
r
a
c
y
Feature Questioning everytime 13
Being a researcher 6
Doubting the accuracy of the information 5
Examine any text from different perspectives 5
Using different sources of information 1
Transferability Being a critical thinker in all areas of life 3
Affective
Feature
Gaining critical literacy awareness 18
Understanding the importance of critical literacy 3
Media
Literacy
Thinking on media messages critically 12
Analyzing media messages in detail 10
Noticing the implicit media messages 7
When Table 4 is analyzed, it is seen that thinking education has a positive effect on the
prospective teachers' critical literacy. The participants state that thinking education affects
them under the theme feature in terms of “questioning everytime” (f=13); “being a
researcher” (f=6); “doubting the accuracy of the information” (f=5); “examining any text
from different perspectives” (f=5) and ‘’using different sources of information’’ (f=1). In
addition, they are of the opinion that as a critical thinker in all areas of life they have the
ability to transfer the acquired critical thinking skills into daily life under the theme
transferability. It is evident that they acquire positive features related to critical literacy such
as “gaining critical literacy awareness” (f=18) and “understanding the importance of
critical literacy” (f=3) under the theme affective feature. It is found out that the participants
gain some skills under the theme media literacy such as “thinking on media messages
critically” (f=12); “analyzing media messages in detail” (f=10) and “noticing the implicit
media messages” (f =7). It is concluded that thinking education course contributes to the
participants’ media literacy level. Direct quotations on these themes and codes are given
below.
https://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/thoroughly
https://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/be%20knowledgeable%20about
https://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/be%20knowledgeable%20about
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1851
‘’Although I used to get the information without questioning and thinking enough, now, I
think more critically thanks to the activities in this course.’’ (prospective teacher 23)
‘’The ad analysis, activities and assignments we have done in the course have improved
my critical perspective by enabling me to be more inquisitive to events, situations and
advertisements, to learn the actual reasons of events, and to find out positive and
negative aspects of ads and events.’’ (prospective teacher 26)
‘’I used to read the news superficially and unquestioningly, but now I evaluate the news,
events and texts in terms of some criteria. I make comments and inferences by examining
the accuracy, importance and reliability of the news within the framework of logic
components.’’ (prospective teacher 3)
‘’I care about accessing different sources. Questioning information presented from
different perspectives from different sources has increased my critical
literacy.’’(prospective teacher 7)
‘’I learned what critical literacy is and why it is necessary. I can easily use these skills in
my life.’’ (prospective teacher 18)
‘’I have realized that critical literacy is important in my life. I constantly encounter
news and new information in my daily life. I accepted new information without
questioning before taking this course. After this course, I have started thinking
systematically. I have learned how to become a critical literate.’’ (prospective teacher
21)
The qualitative data analysis results related to the positive effects of thinking education on
the prospective teachers’ media literacy are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. The Effects of Thinking Education on the Prospective Teachers’ Media Literacy:
Qualitative Data Analysis Results
Themes Codes f
P
o
si
ti
v
e
E
ff
e
c
t
M
e
d
ia
L
it
e
r
a
c
y
Critical
thinking
Questioning media messages 17
Noticing the implicit media messages 2
Examining media messages from different perspectives 2
Affective
Feature
Awareness of being a media literate
13
Objectivity Discovering bias of media messages (ideology, etc.) 7
Reading media messages objectively 3
Access to
Information
Sources
Evaluating media messages using different sources of information 5
Being a researcher 1
Theoretical
Knowledge
Having theoretical knowledge about media messages analysis
3
According to Table 5, it is understood that the effects of thinking education on the
prospective teachers’ media literacy are positive. The participants state their opinions related
to their improvement in media literacy under the theme critical thinking and affective feature
as follows respectively; ‘’questioning media messages’’ (f=17); ‘’noticing the implicit media
messages’’ (f=2); ‘’examining media messages from different perspectives’’ (f=2) and
‘’awareness of being a media literate’’ (f=13). The codes under the theme objectivity are
‘’discovering bias of media messages’’ (f=7) and ‘’reading media messages objectively’’
(f=3). The participants’ opinions under the theme access to information sources and
theoretical knowledge include ‘’evaluating media messages using different sources of
information’’ (f=5); ‘’being a researcher’’ (f=1) and ‘’having theoretical knowledge about
https://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/unquestioningly
Yavuz-Konokman
1852
media messages analysis’’ (f=3). Below are some responses of the participants regarding the
themes and codes above.
‘’I had a superficial perspective while following media. After the course, I’m more concerned
with the authenticity of the text in media. While I was at the stage of conducting ideas from a
single source, now I have learned that evaluation of opinions from different sources is
necessary.’’ (prospective teacher 2)
‘’Thinking education course has enabled us to evaluate news, ads etc. from a more in-depth
and questioning perspective.’’ (prospective teacher 23)
‘’I realize that I can not read, watch, and understand media and I can not notice the implicit
media messages.’’ (prospective teacher 24)
‘’I find out that I should not believe ads blindly. I learn to question the accuracy of them.’’
(prospective teacher 26)
‘’I hardly knew the systematic conceptual and theoretical information I needed for media
literacy. Thanks to this course, I learn how to become a conscious media literate and I can use
it in my life.’’ (prospective teacher 5)
‘’I do not believe in every news in media, I do a deep research and evaluate it within the
context of logic components.’’ (prospective teacher 9)
The results of quantitative data analysis on why thinking education is recommended by the
prospective teachers is presented in Table 6.
Table 6. The Results of Quantitative Data Analysis on Why Thinking Education is
Recommended
According to Table 6, it is clear that all of the prospective teachers make
recommendations for taking the thinking education course. ‘’Learning and teaching
process’’, ‘knowledge’’, ’’skill’’, ‘’affective features’’ and ‘’transferability’’ are the themes
that emerged regarding the recommendations of thinking education. Under the theme
learning and teaching process, the reasons of the participants to recommend thinking
education course include ‘’use of instructional methods and techniques’’ (f=5); ‘’interactive
participation’’ (f=2); ‘’analysis of case studies’’ (f=2) and ‘’homeworks facilitating
learning’’ (f=1). The most frequently produced codes under the themes knowledge and skill
are as follows respectively; ‘’discovering thinking skills’’ (f=2); ‘’being a critical literate’’
Themes Codes f
R
e
a
so
n
s
fo
r
R
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
a
ti
o
n
Learning and
Teaching Process
Use of instructional methods and Techniques (discussion,
brainstroming, case study, etc.)
5
Interactive participation 2
Analysis of case studies 2
Homeworks facilitating learning 1
L
e
a
r
n
in
g
O
u
tc
o
m
e
s
Knowledge Discovering thinking skills 2
Skill Being a critical literate 9
Considering different perspectives 7
To obtain questioning skills 6
Being a media literate 3
Affective
Feature
Positive attitude towards thinking education ( usefulness,
necessity, motivation, etc.)
14
Awareness 3
Objectivitiy 2
Research awareness 2
Being curious 1
Transferability Transfering to daily life 4
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1853
(f=9) and ‘’considering different perspectives’’ (f=7). Contributions of thinking education
are expressed by the codes under the theme affective features such as ‘’positive attitude
towards thinking education’’ (f=14) and ’’awareness’’ (f=3).‘’Transferring to daily life’’
(f=4) is the only code under the theme transferability. The opinions of the participants in this
regard are as following:
‘’I suggest that all of my friends should take the thinking education course as it allows
me to think more, think consciously, question, and evaluate critically.’’ (prospective
teacher 26)
‘’This course positively adds value to my worldview and increase my awareness level in
response to events.’’ (prospective teacher 11)
‘’It is a necessary course to develop thinking skills. In addition, it is a course that allows
to gain thinking skills by getting rid of stereotypes and routine perspectives.’’
(prospective teacher 5)
‘’It was interesting to do critical thinking studies on news and ad texts. I think everyone
should experience this.’’ (prospective teacher 7)
It is observed that the prospective teachers define their critical literacy levels by using
negative adjectives before thinking education. The produced adjectives provide information
regarding the prospective teachers' thinking actions, ways of thinking and competency levels.
Before thinking education, the prospective teachers produce adjectives which emphasize that
they are not competent in critical thinking and questioning. Some of these adjectives are “not
thinking”, “not questioning”, “not researching”, “not criticizing” and “superficial”. It is
seen that the prospective teachers produce adjectives that describe their critical literacy levels
as beginner, weak, inadequate, limited, few, etc. These adjectives mean that they are not
competent to be critical literate. In addition, the prospective teachers define their critical
literacy levels by using some adjectives such as stereotype, narrow-minded, simple, biased
and non-objective. After thinking education, it is observed that they define their critical
literacy levels by using positive adjectives. They define critical thinking processes by using
some adjectives such as criticizing, questioning, researching, thinking, examining, etc. In
addition, it is understood from the adjectives used by the prospective teachers that their
critical literacy competency perceptions have increased. Some of these adjectives are
adequate, active, skillful, very, strong, advanced, etc. Also, it is clear that the prospective
teachers define their critical literacy as neutral, deep thinking, different perspectives,
objective, realistic and detailed. These adjectives emphasize the depth and neutrality of the
prospective teachers related to thinking education.
It is observed that the prospective teachers define their media literacy levels by using
negative adjectives that symbolize their thinking actions, thinking types, competency levels
and attitudes before thinking education. It is seen that adjectives used show that they do not
have thinking skills before thinking education. For instance, not questioning, not researching,
not examining, not thinking, etc. among these adjectives. It is seen that the prospective
teachers produce adjectives that describe their media literacy levels as beginner, weak,
inadequate, limited, few, etc. These adjectives mean that they are not competent to be media
literate. Adjectives produced in this context are biased, subjective, narrow-minded and
superficial. It is understood from the adjectives produced before thinking education that the
importance of media literacy is questioned. These adjectives are unplanned, aimless, random,
unnecessary, careless, etc. After thinking education, it is clear that some thinking skills such
as criticism, scrutiny, inference, comparison, etc. are acquired. The adjectives produced by
the prospective teachers are researching, questioning, criticizing, deducing, comparing,
discussing, etc. It is understood from these adjectives that they develop positive competence
Yavuz-Konokman
1854
perceptions regarding media literacy after education. The prospective teachers define their
media literacy as objective and in-depth, which means that media literacy contributes them to
be objective and adopt a deep-thinking approach. It is concluded that, after thinking
education, adjectives emphasizing the importance of media literacy and the desire to be
media literate are produced by the prospective teachers. These are necessary, important,
purposeful, caring, willing to think, etc.
The qualitative data analysis results related to figures symbolizing the prospective
teachers’ self-efficacy on critical literacy after thinking education are presented in Table 7.
Table 7. Qualitative Data Analysis Results of Figures: Symbolizing the Prospective
Teachers’ Self-efficacy on Critical Literacy
Theme Codes
Frequency
(f)
F
ig
u
r
e
A
(
f=
1
)
you critical literacy
Not needing 1
F
ig
u
r
e
B
(f
=
8
)
you critical literacy
Need for different experiences 4
First experience 2
Need for specialization 1
Not being knowledgeable enough 1
Habits 1
F
ig
u
r
e
C
(
f=
9
) you critical literacy Being critical 2
Concept knowledge 1
Being able to solve problem 1
Evidence search 1
F
ig
u
r
e
D
(
f=
2
0
)
you
critical literacy
Obtaining critical literate identity 10
Learning how to read critically 7
Content knowledge 2
Getting experience 2
Reinforcement of Information 1
Gaining self-confidence 1
Independence from prejudices 1
Having a positive attitude 1
When Table 7 is analyzed, most of the prospective teachers (f =20) stated that the figure
that symbolizes their critical literacy level is “D” after the course. Figure ’D’ emphasizes the
intersection of the participants’ competencies and critical literacy. It is understood that the
participants who chooses this figure consider themselves completely competent in terms of
critical thinking. The reasons for choosing this figure include “obtaining critical literate
identity” (f = 10); “learning how to read critically’’ (f=7); “content knowledge” (f=2);
“getting experience” (f=2); “reinforcement of information” (f=1); “gaining self-confidence”
(f=1); “independence from prejudices” (f=1) and ‘’having a positive attitude” (f=1).
Secondly, the participants (f=9) choose the figure ‘C’ that symbolizes their critical literacy
level. Figure ‘C’ symbolizes the intersection of the participants’ competencies and critical
literacy. It is understood that the participants who chooses this figure consider themselves
competent in terms of critical thinking. The reasons for choosing this figure include “being
critical” (f=4); “concept knowledge” (f =1); “being able to solve problem” (f =1) and
‘’evidence search’’ (f=1).
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1855
The participants (f=8) choose figure ‘B’ that symbolizes their partial critical literacy.
Figure ‘B’ symbolizes the partial intersection of the participants’ competencies and critical
literacy. The reasons for choosing this figure include ‘’need for different experiences’’ (f=4);
“first experience’’ (f=2); ‘’need for specialization’’ (f=1); ‘’not being knowledgeable
enough’’ (f=1) and ‘’habits’’ (f=1). Below are some responses from different participants.
‘’While figure A symbolizes me before the course, figure C symbolizes me better after
the course. Now, I question what I read by getting rid of prejudices.’’ (prospective
teacher 16)
‘’Figure B symbolizes me, because I'm just learning and experiencing critical literacy. I
believe I will improve myself in time.’’ (prospective teacher 27)
‘’Figure B is suitable for me, because I think that I am a critical thinker thanks to the
activities in thinking education course. However, there are still situations where we are
affected by our environment. We cannot be sufficiently a critical literate because of our
upbringing.’’ (prospective teacher 24)
‘’Figure D symbolizes me. Critical literacy has became a part of my life after this
course. I can be a critical literate in every area of my life with the concepts I have
learned.’’ (prospective teacher 21)
‘’Figure D symbolizes me. I was interested in this subject and tried to improve myself in
the past. I have gained necessary systematic information on this subject thanks to this
course and I have learned critical thinking to the full. This skill is reinforced by different
activities during the course.’’ (prospective teacher 5)
‘’Figure C symbolizes me. I think that I have learned to be a critical literate after this
course. Now, I examine what I read in more detail. I care about making inferences by
accessing different sources.’’ (prospective teacher 7)
‘’Figure D has become a phenomenon that constitutes my critical thinking self after taking
the course.’’ (prospective teacher 3)
The qualitative data analysis results related to figures symbolizing the prospective
teachers’ self-efficacy on media literacy after thinking education are presented in Table 8.
Yavuz-Konokman
1856
Table 8. Qualitative data Analysis Results of Figures: Symbolizing the Prospective Teachers’
self-efficacy on Media Literacy After Thinking Education
Theme Codes
Frequency
(f)
F
ig
u
re
A
(f
=
1
)
you media literacy
Not needing 1
F
ig
u
re
B
(f
=
3
)
you media literacy
Need for specialization 1
Need for experience 1
Carefully review media messages 1
F
ig
u
re
C
(f
=
1
3
)
you media literacy
Questioning 5
Discovering the bias of the media 3
Being curious 1
Media literacy awareness 3
F
ig
u
re
D
(
f=
1
7
)
you
media literacy
Obtaining media literacy identity 6
Gaining self-confidence 1
Researching for media resources 3
Questioning 3
Observing different perspectives 1
Following media 1
Having experiences 1
Need 1
Noticing media meassages 1
Being critical 1
Continuous interaction with the media 1
According to Table 8, it is seen that the prospective teachers express their media literacy
levels with figure ‘’C’’ (f=13) and figure ‘’D’’ (f =17) after the course. Figure ‘’D’’
emphasizes the complete intersection of the participants’ competencies and media literacy.
Figure ‘’C’’ symbolizes this intersection to a great extent. In this context, it can be thought
that media literacy competency perceptions of the participants who choose figure ‘C’ and ‘D’
are high. The reasons for choosing figure ‘’D’’ include ‘’obtaining media literacy identity’’
(f=6); ‘’researching for media resources’’ (f=3); ‘’questioning’’ (f=3); ‘’gaining self-
confidence’’ (f=1); ‘’observing different perspectives’’ (f=1); ‘’following media’’ (f=1);
‘’having experiences’’ (f=1); ‘’need’’ (f=1); ‘’noticing media messages’’ (f=1); ‘’being
critical’’ (f=1) and ‘’continuous interaction with the media’’ (f=1). The reasons for choosing
figure ‘’C’’ include ‘’questioning’’ (f=5); ‘’discovering the bias of the media’’ (f=3); ‘’media
literacy awareness’’ (f=3) and ‘’being curious’’ (f=1). The participants (f=?) choose figure
‘B’ that symbolizes their partial critical literacy. Figure ‘B’ emphasizes the partial
intersection of the participants’ competencies and media literacy. The reasons for choosing
figure ‘’B’’ include ‘’need for specialization’’ (f=1); ‘’need for experience’’ (f=1) and
‘’carefully review media messages’’ (f=1). In this regard, the opinions of the participants are
reflected by the following comments:
‘’Figure B symbolizes me. I try to examine the news in media by accessing information
sources from now on.’’ (prospective teacher 26)
‘’I choose Figure D. I can notice the implicit media messages.’’ (prospective teacher
30)
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1857
‘’Figure B symbolizes me. I cannot see myself fully enough. However, my perspective
has changed positively compared to before I took the course.’’ (prospective teacher 7)
‘’Figure D symbolizes me. I review media from a questioning perspective. I access
different sources before believing in news.’’ (prospective teacher 10)
‘’Figure D symbolizes me. I evaluate news in media in a critical approach.’’
(prospective teacher 35)
‘’Figure C symbolizes me. I think I am a better media literate than before.’’ (prospective
teacher 25)
‘’Figure D symbolizes me. I read a lot of news and try to follow media. I do not accept
every new information without questioning. Thanks to this course, I actually discover
how this questioning process works. I also learn to think within the framework of logic
components and standards.’’ (prospective teacher 21)
Critical and media literacy self-evaluation results of the prospective teachers after media
message reading and evaluation activity are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Critical and Media Literacy Self Evaluation Results After Media Message Reading
and Evaluation Activity
Themes Codes
Frequency
(f)
C
o
m
p
e
te
n
c
y
P
e
rc
e
p
ti
o
n
o
n
M
e
d
ia
a
n
d
C
ri
ti
c
a
l
L
it
e
ra
c
y
V
e
ry
c
o
m
p
e
te
n
t
o
r
c
o
m
p
e
te
n
t
(
1
8
)
Following different media sources 7
Learning how to question media messages 7
Discovering the bias of media messages 5
Making inferences 3
Evaluating as regards logic components 3
Being objective 2
Getting rid of prejudices 1
Being curious 1
Being researcher 1
P
a
rt
ia
ll
y
c
o
m
p
e
te
n
t
(6
)
Influence of belief / value / ideologies 2
Media bias 2
Lack of knowledge 1
Striking media messages 1
N
o
t
c
o
m
p
e
te
n
t
(6
)
Biased media mesaages 2
Not following media 1
Ideological commitment 1
Education system as an obstacle 1
Lack of knowledge/not researching 1
When Table 9 is examined, it is clear that the participants generally find themselves
competent in terms of critical and media literacy in the process of examining and analyzing
media messages. Indicators of their competences are defined by the codes under the theme
very competent or competent which include “following different media sources’’ (f=7);
‘’learning how to question media messages’’ (f=7); ‘’discovering the bias of media
messages’’ (f=5); ‘’making inferences’’ (f=3); ‘’evaluating as regards logic components’’
(f=3); ‘’being objective’’ (f=2); ‘’getting rid of prejudices’’ (f=1); ‘’being curious’’ (f=1) and
‘’being researcher’’ (f=1). The participants consider themselves partially competent in terms
of critical and media literacy because of some factors such as ‘’influence of belief/value/
ideologies’’ (f=2); ‘’media bias’’ (f=2); ‘’lack of knowledge’’ (f=1) and ‘’striking media
messages’’ (f=1) which are the codes expressed under the theme partially competent. In
addition, the reasons why they do not consider themselves competent are explained by the
Yavuz-Konokman
1858
codes under the theme not competent which are “biased media messages” (f=2); “not
following media” (f=1); “ideological commitment” (f=1); “education system as an obstacle”
(f=1) and “lack of knowledge/not researching” (f =1). Direct quotations of the participants
are as follows:
‘’…While watching or listening to media, I try to question events from different
perspectives as much as possible.’’(prospective teacher 33)
‘’I follow written and visual media. I access and evaluate different sources to understand
the accuracy of information.’’ (prospective teacher 19)
Qualitative data analysis results on the effect of ad analysis on media and critical literacy
are presented in Table 10.
Table 10. Qualitative Data Analysis Results on The Effect of Ad Analysis on Media and
Critical Literacy
P
o
si
ti
v
e
E
ff
e
c
t
Themes Codes Frequency
(f)
C
ri
ti
c
a
l
L
it
e
ra
c
y
Questioning 15
Critical thinking 10
Reviewing ads with different perspectives 2
Researcher identity 1
Understanding hidden message of advertisements 5
Questioning the purpose of the advertising elements 1
Accessing information sources 1
Incident, situation, etc. analysis with logic components 1
M
e
d
ia
L
it
e
ra
c
y
Understanding hidden message of advertisements 10
Questioning messages of advertisements 9
Being a media literate 8
Change in ads perception 5
Paying attention to ads messages 5
Having experience in ads analysis 4
Analyzing ads regarding criteria 4
Exploring the purpose of advertising elements 2
Reviewing ads with different perspectives 2
The qualitative analysis results in Table 10 show that the participants’ ad analysis
experiences positively affect their critical and media literacy. The positive contribution of ad
analysis to critical literacy of the participants is explained by some codes. These codes show
the participants’ competences in terms of critical literacy after ad analysis. The most
frequently expressed codes under the theme critical literacy include ‘’questioning’’ (f=15);
‘’critical thinking’’ (f=10); ‘’understanding hidden message of advertisements’’ (f=5) and ‘’
reviewing ads with different perspectives’’ (f=2). Other codes are as follows; ‘’researcher
identity’ (f=1); ‘’questioning the purpose of the advertising elements’’ (f=1); ‘’accessing
information sources’’ (f=1) and ‘’incident, situation, etc. analysis with logic components’’
(f=1). The codes under the theme media literacy showing positive contribution of ad analysis
to the media literacy of the participants include ‘’understanding hidden message of
advertisements’’ (f=10); ‘’questioning messages of advertisements’’(f=9); ‘’being a media
literate’’ (f=8); ‘’change in ads perception’’ (f=5); ‘’paying attention to ads messages’’
(f=5); ‘’having experience in ads analysis’’ (f=4); ‘’analyzing ads regarding criteria’’ (f=4);
‘’exploring the purpose of advertising elements’’ (f=2) and ‘’reviewing ads with different
perspectives’’ (f=2). The following excerpts are related to these themes and codes.
‘’From now on, I can evaluate the ads from a critical perspective. I am aware of the fact
that each ad has a purpose and includes hidden messages for this purpose. I realize that
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1859
the use of the features such as color, light etc. is related to the purpose of
ad.’’(prospective teacher 18)
‘’Advertising is the most important message tool for the promotion of a product.
Experiencing ad analysis has had a positive impact on media and critical literacy. I have
gained different perspectives. I realize that I need to review information more critically
and have knowledge about subject thanks to ad analysis. Thus, I have become a real
researcher.’’ (prospective teacher 2)
‘’Ads that have not caught my attention interest me now. I think my media literacy has
improved as I make ad analysis.’’ (prospective teacher 27)
‘’I have gained the ability to think consciously and I often practice what I have learned
during thinking education course.’’ (prospective teacher 16)
‘’I have started thinking more comprehensively and systematically. I am more conscious
while thinking.’’ (prospective teacher 25)
‘’After education, I evaluate by using different thoughts and resources and taking into
account different points of view within the criteria such as accuracy, consistency, etc..’’
(prospective teacher 22)
Qualitative data analysis results on evaluation of thinking education regarding logic
elements are presented in Table 11.
Table 11. Qualitative Data Analysis Results on Evaluation of Thinking Education Regarding
Logic Elements
Logic
Elements
Themes Codes Frequency
(f)
V
ie
w
s
o
n
t
h
e
p
u
rp
o
se
o
f
th
in
k
in
g
e
d
u
c
a
ti
o
n
Awareness Awareness of thinking ways 5
Understanding what thinking means 4
Needing to think 3
Awareness of learning ability of critical thinking 2
Skill Gaining critical thinking skill 13
Questioning the knowledge 2
Focusing on research 2
Thinking skills with logic components 2
Caring for different perspectives 2
Personal
Development
Providing personal development in thinking skills 4
A
ss
u
m
p
ti
o
n
s
a
b
o
u
t
T
h
in
k
in
g
E
d
u
c
a
ti
o
n
Developing a positive attitude towards the course 6
Learning to think 4
Acquiring thinking skills 2
Providing personel development 1
Learning environment encouraging thinking 1
Getting different perspectives 1
Self evaluation on thinking skills 1
Transfering thinking skills to life 1
P
ro
c
e
ss
a
n
d
R
e
su
lt
s
Learning and
Teaching
Process
Question and answer 4
Brainstorming 4
Six thinking hats 1
Snowball technique 1
Concept map 1
Technology assisted instruction 1
Case study 1
Results Encouraging critical thinking 8
Encouraging to question 4
Observing different perspectives 4
Associating 1
Yavuz-Konokman
1860
According to Table 11, it is evident that the participants evaluate the thinking education
course within the logic components which are views on the purpose of thinking education,
assumptions about thinking education, process and results, possible perspectives on thinking
education and inferences. Views on the purpose of thinking education is defined by the
themes which are awareness, skill and personal development. ‘’Awareness of thinking ways’’
(f=5); ‘’understanding what thinking means’’ (f=4); ‘’needing to think’’ (f=3); ‘’awareness
of learning ability of critical thinking’’ (f=2) are the codes defined under the theme
awareness. The most frequently expressed code under the theme skill is ‘’gaining critical
thinking skill’’ (f=13) “Providing personal development in thinking skills’’ (f=4) as the only
code under the theme personal development. The most frequently expressed codes related to
assumptions about thinking education are ‘’developing a positive attitude towards the
course’’ (f=6); ‘’learning to think’’ (f=4) and ‘’acquiring thinking skills’’ (f=2). Process and
results is defined by the themes which are learning and teaching process and results.
‘’Question and answer’’ (f=4) and ‘’brainstorming’’(f=4) are the most frequently expressed
codes under the theme learning and teaching process. ‘’Encouraging critical thinking’’ (f=8);
‘’encouraging to question’’ (f=4) and ‘’observing different perspectives’’ (f=4) are the most
frequently expressed codes under the theme results. The most frequently expressed codes
related to possible perspectives on thinking education are ‘’being necessary’’ (f=4); ‘’being
useful’’ (f=4) and ‘’development of thinking skills’’ (f=3). ‘’Positive attitude towards
thinking education’’ (f=7) and ‘’acquiring critical thinking skills’’ (f=6) are the most
frequently expressed codes related to inferences. Direct quotations from the participants on
these themes and codes are given below.
‘’…Thinking education is a necessary and useful course…’’(prospective teacher 1)
‘’This course has contributed to my personal development. Also, it has made me gain a
different point of view.’’ (prospective teacher 6)
‘’My purpose of taking the course is the same with the purpose of the thinking education
course. The aim of the course is to raise individuals who think critically and create
awareness. My aim is to gain different perspectives and develop myself intellectually.’’
(prospective teacher 8)
Making a synthesis 1
Evaluation 1
Making inference based on research 1
Transfering critical thinking to life 1
Analyzing with logic components 1
Understanding what thinking means 1
P
o
ss
ib
le
P
e
rs
p
e
c
ti
v
e
s
o
n
th
in
k
in
g
e
d
u
c
a
ti
o
n
Being necessary 4
Being useful 4
Development of thinking skills 3
Being effective 2
Transferability to life 1
Personel Development 1
Being unnecessary 1
In
fe
re
n
c
e
s
Positive attitude towards thinking education 7
Acquiring critical thinking skills 6
Acquiring creative thinking skills 3
Awareness of what thinking is and how it happens 3
Experiencing thinking 2
Acquiring reflective thinking skills 1
Transferring thinking skills to life 1
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1861
‘’Thinking education leads one to think deeply and in detail. I believe in the importance
of thinking education.’’ (prospective teacher 9)
‘’Thinking education has contributed to the development of my thinking skills. It helps
me to think purposefully and to make in depth analysis by questioning.’’ (prospective
teacher 16)
‘’Experiencing critical thinking constantly and making evaluations based on our
experiences have contributed to our ability to gain critical thinking. I think that thinking
from different perspectives broadens our horizons.’’ (prospective teacher 17)
4. Conclusion and Discussion
What is concluded in the research is expressed below and the findings are discussed in the
context of the literature. It can be inferred from the findings on media literacy that the
prospective teachers’ post-test media literacy scores have increased after thinking education.
While the difference between the pre and post-test scores in such factors as having
knowledge and judging and getting an implicit message is observed, the increase in their
post-test scores in analyzing and giving reactions isn’t meaningful. These findings indicates
the efficacy on thinking education on the prospective teachers’ media literacy. This indicates
the success in thinking education, the goals of which are to train the prospective teachers in
analyzing, interpreting and evaluating media messages and texts. The prospective teachers,
having participated in thinking education are equipped with such media literacy skills. Media
literate prospective teachers also think critically. Feuerstein (1999) finds out that primary
school students, having trained in terms of media literacy, became capable of thinking
critically on TV series and newspaper advertisements. Indah (2016) reveals the difference
between trained learners on media literacy and those, lack of media literacy training in terms
of the use of higher order of critical thinking. The similar inference are made by Kubey
(2002) stating students will have higher order critical thinking skills such as critical
interpretation, analysis and evaluation in case they have been trained on media literacy. As
identified by Ruggiero (2015), the students become aware of how to apply their critical
thinking skills upon watching or reading media messages and texts as a result of specific
exercises. The importance of media literacy in support of critical thinking is expressed by
Feuerstein (1999) in such a statement “Media literacy aims to develop metacognitive
reflective strategies by means of study and critical responses towards the content of the media
and its messages.” Moreover, it is aimed to “develop students’ habits of inquiry and skills of
expression they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in
today’s world” (Facione, 1990). Therefore, being trained in analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating media messages and texts is a way for the prospective teachers to be both media
literate and critical thinker.
In addition to media literacy, increase in post-test mean scores in both critical reading and
critical writing has been observed. The prospective teachers, having been trained to not only
read but also write media messages and texts critically, become critical literate is concluded.
The basic strategies for the integration of media literacy and critical thinking into curriculum,
offered by Scheibe and Rogow (2008) are implemented through thinking education. As a
result, thinking education has achieved the goal of training the prospective teachers with
critical literacy and media literacy skills.
From the prospective teachers’ points of view, learning outcomes of thinking education
are stated as realizing the bias of media messages and implicit meaning of media messages,
having positive attitudes towards thinking education, judging based on facts and information,
having positive attitudes towards searching for information, questioning media messages and
having critical thinking skills. These findings show that the prospective teachers have gained
Yavuz-Konokman
1862
not only reading and writing critically but also affective features after thinking education.
Because the prospective teachers are enabled to be equipped with these skills through having
chance to interpret the media messages and texts in terms of the parts of thoughts such as
point of view, assumption, inference, conclusion, etc. and such logic standards as clarity,
accuracy, precision, etc. According to Paul and Elder (2002), a clear understanding of the
parts of thinking, applying the logic standards for thinking to those parts, above all thinking
with regard to these factors will improve critical thinking skills and the quality of human life
will be significantly improved.
The effects of thinking education on the prospective teachers’ critical literacy are
expressed as questioning everytime, being a researcher, doubting the accuracy of the
information, examining any text from different perspectives, using different sources of
information, transferring critical thinking skills into daily life, gaining critical literacy
awareness, understanding the importance of critical literacy. Moreover, thinking on media
messages critically, analyzing media messages in detail and noticing the implicit media
messages are the other views focusing on the positive effect of thinking education on the
prospective teachers’ reading media messages and text critically. In addition to its’ positive
effect on their critical literacy, another positive effect is stated to be on the prospective
teachers’ media literacy. These positive effects are explained as gaining critical thinking
skills, questioning media messages, noticing the implicit media messages, examining media
messages from different perspective, having awareness of being a media literate, discovering
bias of media messages, reading media messages objectively, evaluating media messages
using different sources of information, being a researcher, having theoretical knowledge
about media messages analysis. The occurrence of the positive effects of thinking education
on the prospective teachers’ both critical literacy and media literacy indicates that how to
think critically has been experienced in thinking education at the classroom and these
experiences make them equipped with critical thinking skills. According to many researchers
(Indah, 2006; Scheibe and Rogow, 2008; Worsnop, 2004) media literacy also includes critical
thinking, required to be critical literate. Critical thinking is an indispensable way to critical
literacy and media literacy. Therefore, it is expected that the effects of thinking education on
the prospective teachers’ literacies are similar in terms of critical thinking skills.
It is observed that before thinking education the prospective teachers define their critical
literacy levels by using negative adjectives, pointing out their thinking action, ways of
thinking and their competency in thinking critically. In general produced adjectives before
thinking education symbolize the prospective teachers’ incompetency in critical thinking and
questioning. In contrast, at the end of the thinking education the adjectives point out the
prospective teachers’ awareness of how to read and write critically and their competency in
critical literacy. In addition, adjectives generated to delineate the prospective teachers’ media
literacy before thinking education have negative meanings, including incompetency, negative
attitudes and unawareness of the act of thinking. Furthermore, the adjectives produced after
thinking education show that some thinking skills such as criticism, scrutiny, inference,
comparison, etc. are acquired after thinking education. Moreover, adjectives emphasizing the
importance of media literacy and the desire to be media literate are produced by the
prospective teachers having been trained in media literacy. As opposed to the beginning of
thinking education when the prospective teachers are incompetent in thinking on media
messages critically, they gain media literacy skills and become aware of the ways and actions
of media literacy. To sum up, it can be stated that the prospective teachers' awareness to both
critical and media literacy and their competencies in these field have increased through
thinking education.
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1863
The prospective teachers’ mostly choice in Figure D, symbolizing the complete
intersection of the prospective teachers’ competencies and critical literacy indicates their high
level of critical literacy after thinking education. The reasons for their high critical literacy
are stated as obtaining critical literate identity, learning how to read critically, getting
experience, reinforcement of information, gaining self-confidence, independence from
prejudices and having a positive attitude. Similarly, that the prospective teachers have mostly
chosen Figure C and D, symbolizing their high level of competency in media literacy proves
the efficacy of thinking education. The reasons for their high level of competency in media
literacy are stated as obtaining media literacy identity, researching for media resources,
questioning media messages, gaining self-confidence, observing different perspectives,
following media, having experiences in interpreting media messages, being critical, having
continuous interaction with the media, discovering the bias of the media, being curious and
aware of media literacy. As a result, the prospective teachers has acquired such skills as
analyzing, interpreting and evaluating media messages and media texts through thinking
education. Moreover, in addition to media literacy skills, they feel confidence in analyzing
and criticizing media messages.
It is concluded that the prospective teachers generally find themselves competent in
critical and media literacy after media message reading and evaluation activity. Following
different media sources, learning how to question media messages, discovering the bias of
media messages, making inferences, evaluating messages as regards logic components, being
objective and curious, getting rid of prejudices, searching for facts and information are the
prospective teachers’ behaviors, leading to their self confidence in critical and media
literacy. In addition, ad analysis activity contributes the prospective teachers’ literacies. The
prospective teachers are experienced in questioning, thinking critically, capturing hidden
message of advertisements, reviewing ads with different perspectives, accessing information
sources and analyzing ads with logic components through ad analysis activity.
The results of their evaluation of thinking education within the logic components such
as views on the purpose of thinking education, assumptions about thinking education, process
and results, possible perspectives on thinking education and inferences also prove the
efficacy of thinking education on their critical and media literacies. From the prospective
teachers’ points of view, the purposes of thinking education are listed as being aware of
thinking ways, understanding what thinking means, being aware of learnability of critical
thinking, gaining critical thinking skills, developing personally in thinking skills. Upon
reviewing their views on the purposes of thinking education, it can be concluded that thinking
education has reached the goals of making the prospective teachers develop their critical
thinking skills. According to the prospective teachers, assumptions about thinking education
are developing a positive attitude towards thinking education, learning to think and acquiring
thinking skills. This indicates the efficacy of thinking education on the prospective teachers’
not only cognitive skills but also their affective features. Considering their evaluation on
thinking education in terms of the process and the results, question and answer as well as
brainstorming are the instructional techniques used in thinking education to analyze,
interpret, criticize and evaluate media messages. When thinking education is evaluated in
terms of possible perspectives, it is seen as a necessary training. Moreover, it is inferred by
the prospective teachers that they have acquired critical thinking skills and a positive attitude
towards thinking education.
Skolverket (2011 cited in Ekvall, 2013) lists the goals of education as equipping the
students with such properties as being creative, competent and responsible and developing
“their ability to examine facts and relationships critically”. That is to say, Skolverket’s views
on the goals of education and the results of this research point out the necessity to be equiped
Yavuz-Konokman
1864
with media and critical literacy. Therefore, such courses dealing with media literacy
education and critical literacy education can be integrated into teacher education programs
independent from any subject or a discipline. Despite such an important educational goals,
critical literacy is difficult to be integrated into curriculum (Kunnath and Jackson, 2019).
Behrman (2006) explains the reason of the difficulty in integration as lack of instructional
methods and strategies. However, Scheibe and Rogow (2008) explain basic ways to integrate
media literacy and critical thinking into any curriculum. These can be exemplified as
enabling students to think critically about information on media; (2) pointing out the
possibility of different interpretation of media messages by people with different points of
view; (3) discussing both printed and image or sound based texts on media; (4) enabling
students to determine and make comment on the latent elements of media messages (5) being
model as a teacher presenting how to think critically on media texts (6) developing an
awareness of issues of credibility and perspective, comparing the ways different media
present information about a topic, etc. In similar, media literacy and critical literacy can be
integrated into a curriculum in teacher education in such a way that the prospective teachers
have a chance to practice thinking critically on media messages, interpreting the latent
elements of media messages, following the process of thinking critically, modelled by their
teachers and searching for information on the topic of media texts, questioning media
messages by regarding such standards as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, logic,
breadth, significance, fairness, comparing the ways different media present information
about a topic, discussing the different points of view of various media texts, analyzing media
content in terms of misleading information on media texts. Therefore, it can be concluded
that integration of media literacy and critical literacy into any curriculum can take place
regarding the instructional points stated above. Moreover, Equipped the students with these
cognitive skills has become the educational goals from primary education to higher
education. Therefore, thinking education or others, named differently but having the goals of
training critical and media literate individuals, have become indispensable for all of us and
should be integrated into teacher education programs as a separate lesson. Moreover, critical
thinking skills, necessary for individuals not only for their daily life but also their working
place should be learning outcomes of all lessons in teacher education programs. Subject or
discipline specific content should be studied with critical thinking activities simultaneously
for each lesson.
5. Conflict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
6. Ethics Committee Approval
The author confirms that the study does not need ethics committee approval according to
the research integrity rules in their country.
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2020, 7(4), 1839-1866.
1865
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