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Aydın, S. (2021). A systematic review of research on 

teaching anxiety. International Online Journal of 

Education and Teaching (IOJET), 8(2). 730-761. 

 

Received  : 28.10.2020 

Revised version received : 02.01.2021 

Accepted  : 19.01.2021 

 

 

A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON TEACHING ANXIETY 
Review study 

 

Selami Aydın   
 

İstanbul Medeniyet University  

Selami.aydin@medeniyet.edu.tr  

 
 

 

Selami Aydın (Ph.D.) is a Professor at the ELT Department of Istanbul Medeniyet University, 

Turkey. He researches EFL writing, testing, affective states, technology use, and social media 

effects on the language learning and teaching processes. Currently, he teaches ELT courses for 

pre-service EFL teachers. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Copyright © 2014 by International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET). ISSN: 2148-225X.  

Material published and so copyrighted may not be published elsewhere without written permission of IOJET. 

 

 

 

mailto:Selami.aydin@medeniyet.edu.tr
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1614-874X


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A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON TEACHING ANXIETY 
 

Selami Aydın 

selami.aydin@medeniyet.edu.tr 

 

 

 

Abstract 

Teaching anxiety is a significant affective state that may profoundly affect both the 

learning and teaching processes. However, there is no conclusive evidence regarding the 

sources and effects of teaching anxiety in an educational context. The study adopted a 

research design utilizing a systematic review methodology. This systematic review aims to 

present an overview of the current literature on teaching anxiety and explore the variables 

related to teaching anxiety in terms of its causes and effects. In the study, 108 papers were 

reviewed analyzed by listing the journals, searching the research papers, screening, analyzing, 

and reviewing. The study concluded that teaching anxiety was directly related to affective 

states, while the relationship between teaching anxiety levels and demographic variables was 

not clear. Another conclusion was that teaching experience, content knowledge, and 

instruction effectively decrease the levels of teaching anxiety. The results also showed that 

teachers’ and students’ characteristics, teaching strategies, time and classroom management, 

planning, school climate, and the use of technology had considerable effects on teaching 

anxiety.  

 

Keywords: Teaching anxiety, systematic review, content knowledge, instruction  

 

1. Introduction 
Teaching anxiety is a considerable affective state that may have some adverse effects on 

the learning and teaching processes. First, as Bernstein (1983) points out, it is one of the 

variables that may negatively influence teaching effectiveness. Similarly, it creates an 

unpleasant work environment and career situations; thus, teaching may be an activity that is 

avoided. This results in teaching behaviors that are ineffective and inappropriate (Ameen et 

al., 2002). Moreover, it may adversely affect the preparation and execution of classroom 

activities and seems to be a problem for a significant number of teachers (Gardner & Leak, 

1994), whereas it may reflect real or perceived knowledge deficits in content and teaching 

skills (Levine, 1993). In other words, teaching anxiety as a dynamic process is affected and 

changed by practice and experience (Pekrun, 1992) which results in stress and avoidance. 

Some other issues about teaching anxiety are can be listed as the problems concerning 

planning, time management, and organization of the classroom environment. While it can be 

seen as a normal human emotion, it may cause failure, a decline in academic performance, 

inability to concentrate on lessons, avoidance of personal relationships and social 

surroundings, and being introversion (Eisen & Kearney, 1995; Kunt & Tüm, 2010) Weems et 

al. 2010). Furthermore, as Austin et al. (2001) note, anxious teachers tend to pass anxiety to 

some of their students (Austin et al. 2001). In other words, anxious teachers may cause 

anxiety and poor performance among learners (Koran & Koran, 1981). As a result of teaching 

anxiety, the teacher may prefer acting as a controller (Czerniak & Haney, 1998), avoiding 

new teaching methods and techniques (Thomas, 2006), and experience burnout (Byrne, 1994). 

Below, a theoretical background of teaching and its definition is given before discussing the 

rationale behind the study.  

As Scherer (2009) points out, to define teachers’ emotions, an established 

multicomponential conceptualization, including cognitive, physiological, motivational, and 

mailto:selami.aydin@medeniyet.edu.tr


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732 
 

expressive components, should be understood. Emotions can be characterized by affective 

feelings, specific thoughts, bodily-physiological changes, action tendencies, and expressive 

behaviors. Within this scope, the Appraisal Theory posits that it is the individual’s judgment 

of the event rather than an event that causes an emotion (Moors et al., 2013). Based on 

Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory, anxiety is negatively associated with self-efficacy 

due to fear of failure. In addition, Bandura's Theory of Self-efficacy focuses on the ability to 

control emotional states such as fear, anxiety, and stress (Bandura, 1997). 

From a general point of view, teaching anxiety can be defined as the feelings of tension 

and anxiety that occurs before, during, and after the teaching task (Peker, 2009a; Thomas, 

2006). In other words, it is a momentary situational characteristic of teaching and an 

emotional constitution that may disappear with an increasing experience (Williams, 1991). It 

is also perceived by teachers in various situations that include a complex psychological 

phenomenon that is influenced by certain variables (Aslrasouli & Vahid, 2014; Ekşi & 

Yakışık, 2016).  

From the broadest perspective, it should be noted that teaching anxiety is a significant 

affective state that may have profound effects on both the learning and teaching processes. 

However, there is no conclusive evidence regarding the sources and effects of teaching 

anxiety in an educational context. In other words, how teaching anxiety affects the various 

aspects of the learning and teaching processes and outcomes for teachers and learners should 

be contextualized. With these concerns in mind, this systematic review aims to present an 

overview of the current literature on teaching anxiety. Another purpose of the review is to 

explore the variables related to teaching anxiety regarding its causes and effects. Finally, the 

study aims at presenting a systematic review of research to make practical recommendations 

for teachers, teacher trainers, and researchers to guide further research. To this end, the study 

asks two research questions:  

 Does teaching anxiety affect the learning and teaching processes?  

 What factors relate to teaching anxiety in an educational context?  
 . 

2. Method 
2.1. Research design  

In the current study, the systematic research design was preferred. The systematic review 

included in a specific methodology that locates current studies, selects the relevant ones, 

evaluates contributions, analyses, and syntheses the data collected. Then, it reports the 

conclusions reached (Denyer& Tranfield, 2009). The rationale behind the systematic research 

design is that it explores specified research questions derived from realistic problems. Within 

this scope, it should be stated that it is not a literature review from the traditional perspective. 

Moreover, a systematic review is also different from other review methods due to its 

procedure and principles (Harris et al., 2014).    

In the study, the systematic review was preferred for several reasons. First, as the study 

focused on teaching anxiety in the educational context, a reproducible and comprehensive 

strategy seemed to be necessary. Second, all of the relevant studies needed to be identified. 

Third, all results obtained from the reviewed studies needed to be assessed for the quality in a 

balanced summary.  

 

2.2. Data collection and analysis 

After formulating the research questions, a research protocol was developed before 

retrieving the literature. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were then determined before the 

literature searching, screening, and analysis procedure. For this purpose, the papers were 

saved, listed, and screened. To analyze the studies, authors' names, publication years, 

publication sources, the number of the participants, teaching positions and fields, research 



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designs, data collecting methods, and countries were noted. The storing and analysis 

processes were performed by using SPSS 22. Finally, the studies were analyzed in accordance 

with the problem statements, aims, methods, findings, and recommendations. The research 

process was detailed below.  

As seen in Figure 1, the article selection process included three steps. First, the journals 

listed in the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), Scopus, and Education Resources 

Information Center (ERIC) were taken into account for obtaining research papers to review. 

The rationale behind index selection was to reach research papers in only high-quality 

journals regarding data accuracy, reliability, and validity. Another reason was to limit this 

search to journals publishing papers within the educational context. After the basic search 

which includes the keyword “teaching anxiety” in accordance with their topics and titles, 177 

papers were listed.  Second, after screening the articles, 69 papers were excluded as they 

appeared to be duplicated (n=54) and off-topic (n=15). In addition, six papers were excluded 

as the full-texts were not available, whereas four papers were removed as they included 

reviews. Finally, 108 articles that focused on teaching anxiety and reported research activities 

were included in the study. To be brief, the publications that focused on teaching anxiety in an 

educational context were included in the review process.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Flowchart for the selection process 

All of the studies on the topic were included in the review. The language of the 

publications was English, whereas four papers that had the abstracts in English were written 

in the Turkish language. The papers were published in 93 journals, whereas the publication 

period was between 1973 and 2019. The numbers of participants in the studies were within 

the range of one and 1568 in the process of pre-service- and in-service teaching. The studies 

that were designed to be qualitative, descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, 

experimental, action, and mixed-method focused on 17 teaching fields. In addition, the tools 

used in the studies were questionnaires, surveys, interviews, assignments, reflections, scales, 

self-report questionnaires, observations, inventories, and personal narratives, whereas they 

were performed in 16 different countries.  

 

3. Results 
 

3.1. Analysis of the publications  

As seen in Appendix 1, 108 publications were reviewed. When the publication years were 

considered, it can be seen that the interest in research on teaching anxiety showed an increase 

since 2009, while rare studies appeared between the years of 1973 and 2008, as indicated in 

Figure 2. The number of participants was between 1 and 1568. When the teaching position 

was considered, it can be seen that the researchers mainly preferred to include pre-service 

teachers. In other words, of the participants in the studies, the sample groups of 65 (60.2%) 

ERIC 

(n=84) 
Scopus 

(n=71) 

Web of Science 

(n=22) Searching 

Full text 
unavailable  

(n=6) 

Off-topic 

(n=12) 

Duplicated 
papers 

(n=47) 

 

 
Exclusion 

Screening and 

Eligibility 

Review papers excluded (n=4) 

Reading 

Publications remained for review (n=108) 
Inclusion 



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studies consisted of pre-service teachers, while 43 (39.8%) studies included in-service 

teachers as sample groups.    

 

 

 

Figure 2. Distributions of the publications per year 

Figure 3 shows the teaching fields and their distributions in numbers. According to the 

values, 36 (33.3%) studies focused on teaching Mathematics, whereas 27 (25.0%) studies 

used teachers as participants regardless of their teaching fields. Of the studies, 11 (10.2%) 

were in the field of English as a foreign language, and 11 (10.2%) studies focused on the 

Elementary Education context. In addition, eight studies (7.4%) were on Science Education, 

while three studies (2.8%) were related to Music Education. Two studies (1.9%) on 

Accounting and two (1.9%) on Early Childhood Education appeared. The teaching fields 

included once (0.9%) in the studies were Library, Psychology, English as a first language, 

Agriculture, Sociology, Computer and Instructional Technologies, Physical Education, and 

Nurse Education.  

 

 

Figure 3. The number of studies by teaching fields 

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As seen in Table 1, researchers used a variety of research designs. In 58 studies (53.70%), 

a descriptive research design was preferred by authors, whereas researchers performed 19 

correlational studies (17.59%). Of the studies, 15 (13.89%) were designed to be qualitative, 

whereas 11 studies (10.19%) were experimental. Only three studies (2.78%) used the mixed-

method research design. Finally, one quasi-experimental (0.93%) and one action research 

(0.93%) appeared.  

Table 1. Research designs preferred 

Research designs Frequency Percent 

 

Descriptive 58 53.70 

Correlational 19 17.59 

Qualitative 15 13.89 

Experimental 11 10.19 

Mixed-method 3 2.78 

Quasi-experimental 1 0.93 

Action research 1 0.93 

 

Table 2 indicates the research tools used in the studies. According to the values in the 

table, 67 studies (62.04%) used scales in their research, whereas, in 11 studies (10.19%), 

questionnaires were preferred. In 10 studies (9.26%), surveys were used as data collection 

tools. Six researchers (5.56%) preferred interviews. In addition, four studies (3.70%) used 

inventories, whereas three (2.78%) included reflections. The researchers preferred self-report 

questionnaires in three studies (2.78%), observations in two studies (1.85%), one assignment 

(0.93%), and one personal narrative (0.93%) as data gathering tools.  

 

Table 2. Research tools used 

 
Research Tools Frequency Percent 

 Scale 67 62.04 

 

Questionnaire 11 10.19 

Survey 10 9.26 

Interview 6 5.56 

Inventory 4 3.70 

Reflection 3 2.78 

Self-report 

questionnaire 
3 2.78 

Observation 2 1.85 

Assignment 1 0.93 

Personal narrative 1 0.93 

 

Figure 4 demonstrates the distribution of studies by countries. According to the values, 44 

(40.7%) of the studies were performed in the Turkish educational context, whereas 38 studies 

(35.2%) were carried out in the USA. Of the studies, five (4.6%) were performed in the 

Canadian educational context, whereas four (3.7%) were carried out in Australia. To add, 

three studies (2.8%) in Iran, three studies (2.8%) in Japan, three studies (2.8%) in the UK, and 

two studies (1.9%) in China were performed. Finally, only one study (0.9%) appeared in 

countries such as Germany, Korea, North Cyprus, Oman, and Lebanon.  

 



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Figure 4. The distribution of studies by countries 

3.2. Research results  

 

3.2.1. Beliefs and affective states  
Research indicates that beliefs and teaching anxiety are interrelated. For instance, to 

answer whether anxiety and confidence levels in teaching elementary mathematics and 

science were interrelated, Bursal and Paznokas (2006) used the confidence and anxiety scores 

to collect data. The findings showed that math anxiety might be related to teachers’ beliefs. 

Ertekin et al. (2010) examined the relationship between teaching anxiety among pre-service 

teachers of mathematics and their epistemological beliefs and found a negative correlation 

between them. In their scale development study that focused on the validation of the Math 

Anxiety Scale for Teachers, Ganley et al. (2019) found that higher mathematics anxiety was 

related to traditional beliefs about teaching and learning. In a predictive correlational survey 

study, Peker and Ulu (2018) focused on the effects of beliefs about mathematics teaching and 

learning on the level of teaching anxiety. They concluded that traditional beliefs did not affect 

teaching anxiety, while constructivist beliefs directly affected anxiety regarding content 

knowledge. Finally, Ünlü et al. (2017) investigated the relationships between self-efficacy 

beliefs, mathematics anxiety, and mathematics teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers. 

They found that the most considerable variable affecting mathematics teaching anxiety was 

self-efficacy beliefs towards mathematics teaching. 

Research results show that teaching anxiety and attitudes towards teaching are correlated. 

As an example, Ertekin (2010) concluded that anxiety and attitudes towards teaching were 

significantly correlated.  In another study that hypothesized that teachers’ efficacy beliefs 

were predicted by teaching anxiety and teaching attitudes, Al-Mehrzi et al. (2011) carried out 

a path-analysis on the effects of teaching anxiety and attitudes on efficacy beliefs. The study 

found that attitudes were a predictor of teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers of Arabic 

Language, Science, Mathematics, Instructional Technologies, and Psychical Education. 

Furthermore, Senler (2016) explored the relationships among self-efficacy, locus of control, 

attitudes towards science teaching, and teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers of 

science. In this conceptual model, she found that attitudes were positively related to teaching 

anxiety. Finally, Yavuz (2018) analyzed the levels of teaching anxiety among pre-service 

teachers of mathematics and elementary education.  The study concluded that negative 

attitudes towards teaching were one of the sources of anxiety. 

 Rare studies on motivation and self-esteem showed that motivation and teaching 

anxiety are correlated. Drawing attention to the lack of research on teaching anxiety in the 

context of English as a foreign language teaching, Aydin (2016) focused on the sources of 

anxiety and concluded that pre-service teachers suffered from teaching anxiety due to 

demotivation, amotivation. In another study, Cheung and Hui (2011) aimed to determine the 

levels of teaching anxiety among in-service teachers from various fields. In the study, the trait 

anxiety scale, the self-esteem scale, and the teaching anxiety scale were administered to 333 

44
38

5 4 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
0

10
20
30
40
50



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participants. The study concluded that teaching anxiety was found to be predicted by self-

esteem. 

According to research results, teaching anxiety is correlated with other types of anxiety. In 

a broader sense, Wilson (2013) noted that mathematics anxiety among pre-service teachers 

affected their future teaching of mathematics. In a study that explored experiences of 

mathematics anxiety and mathematics teaching anxiety, and the relationship between the 

types of anxiety, Olson and Stoehr (2019) found that anxiety and teaching anxiety might be 

similar. In terms of the level of teaching anxiety, Amen et al. (2002), in their descriptive 

research, explored the level of teaching anxiety among accounting educators and the 

relationship between the anxiety levels and several demographic variables such as academic 

rank, age, and teaching experience in years and training received. They found that 78% of the 

participants suffered from teaching anxiety, whereas 70% had it regularly. Furthermore, in a 

study mentioned above, Cheung and Hui (2011) stated that teaching anxiety was predicted by 

trait anxiety. Aydin (2016) also noted that pre-service teachers of English as a foreign 

language suffered from teaching anxiety and that fear of negative evaluation was one of the 

strong sources of teaching anxiety. In another study, Peker and Ertekin (2011) investigated 

gender differences regarding teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers of mathematics. 

They concluded that teaching anxiety and mathematics anxiety were positively correlated. In 

terms of anxiety provoked by public speaking, Amen et al. (2002) found that public speaking 

was not associated with teaching anxiety. Similarly, in his correlational study that aimed to 

examine the levels of speech anxiety among pre-service teachers of English as a foreign 

language, Turkish as a native language, and pre-school, Kana (2015) who used a relational 

screening model found that pre-service teachers had speech anxiety problems when they had 

to speak during teaching activities. In terms of test anxiety, considering that anxiety was one 

of the major predictors of academic performance, Yadav and Sharma (2013) examined the 

relationship between anxiety levels and teacher trainees' academic achievement. They found a 

significant relationship between anxiety and academic achievement, whereas Vitale (2012) 

noted that fear of failure was a source of anxiety after writing and analyzing a rich collection 

of journal entries through autobiographical and phenomenological perspectives. Ümmet 

(2016) examined anxiety among prospective teachers regarding their perceptions of a public 

staff selection examination used to select teachers to be appointed to public schools. The 

study found a correlation between the levels of anxiety and the scores obtained from the 

mentioned examination. In another study, Özdemir and Seker (2017) aimed to investigate 

mathematics anxiety among prospective primary school teachers and noted that examinations 

provoked anxiety. Finally, considering teaching anxiety about an academic domain can 

influence the students’ learning, Gunderson et al. (2013) investigated the relationship between 

them. After measuring spatial anxiety among teachers and students’ spatial skills, they found 

that spatial anxiety among teachers predicted teachers’ mathematics anxiety.  

Research demonstrates that teaching anxiety also relates to efficacy. First, Gresham (2009) 

administered the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale and the Mathematics Teaching Efficacy 

Beliefs Instruments to pre-service teachers of mathematics to explore the relationship between 

efficacy and teachers' mathematics and found that the ones with the highest levels of efficacy 

had the lowest degree of anxiety. Similarly, Yürük (2011) examined the relationship between 

teaching anxiety and self-efficacy beliefs among prospective teachers of science and found 

that teaching efficacy was one of the predictors of teaching anxiety. In addition, Kılıç (2015) 

examined computer anxiety and self-efficacy among music teachers and found a negative 

correlation between computer anxiety and self-efficacy. In a study mentioned above, Ünlü et 

al. (2017) found that the most considerable variable affecting mathematics teaching anxiety 

was self-efficacy beliefs towards mathematics teaching. Finally, Peker (2016) investigated the 

relationship between teaching anxiety and self-efficacy beliefs toward mathematics teaching 



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among mathematics teachers through path analysis. He found that the lack of content 

knowledge regarding teaching anxiety had negative influences on self-efficacy.  

Some more variables such as stress, burnout, aggressiveness, self-deception, locus of 

control, and confidence among teachers seem related to teaching anxiety. For instance, Capel 

(1992) aimed at determining the causes of stress and burnout among middle, high school, and 

college teachers.  She found that a high level of anxiety predicted stress and burnout. 

Considering that one explanation for attrition might be the emotional nature of the profession, 

Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki (2017) explored the intervening effect of anxiety among English as 

a foreign language teachers on the correlation between burnout and perfectionism levels. 

After analyzing data through structural equation modeling, the study concluded that direct 

associations between perfectionism and emotional exhaustion were significant because of the 

intervening impact of anxiety. Furthermore, Cankaya (2011) investigated the effects of 

anxiety on aggressiveness among pre-service teachers and concluded that the effects of 

anxiety on aggressiveness were reduced when mediated through anger. Given that teachers’ 

emotions were relevant for the functioning of classrooms and that research was lacking 

regarding the scale development, Frenzel et al. (2016) aimed at developing a scale that 

measured enjoyment, anger, and anxiety among teachers. They tested the Teaching Emotions 

Scale and reached a high level of reliability and validity, whereas they found that teaching 

anxiety showed a weak negative correlation with self-deception. In a study mentioned above, 

Senler (2016) found that teachers’ locus of control was positively related to teaching anxiety. 

Bursal and Paznokas (2006) also stated that pre-service teachers who experienced a low level 

of anxiety felt more confident. Finally, in an earlier study, Sinclair and Ryan (1987) examined 

teaching anxiety among nurse educators and found that anxiety was related to teacher 

confidence.  

 

3.2.2. Age, gender, grade, teaching field, rank, and status differences  
Research shows that age difference regarding teaching anxiety is at conflict. For instance, 

in a study mentioned above, Amen et al. (2002) noted that age was not associated with 

anxiety. Karataş et al. (2014), in a study that examined trait and state anxiety and cursive 

handwriting anxiety among teachers in relation to several factors, found that age was 

correlated with anxiety levels. Given that academic librarians had active teaching roles in 

higher education and that teaching anxiety studies mainly focused on classroom teachers only, 

Davis (2007) aimed to determine whether teacher anxiety causes and symptoms were 

consistent within academic librarianship. After administering a 35-item questionnaire to 382 

academic librarians, the study concluded that experiencing physical and mental or emotional 

anxiety symptoms was not related to age. On the other hand, in a study that focused on 

English as a foreign language teachers’ opinions and perceptions, Kralova and Tirpakova 

(2019) investigated the link between anxiety and age and found a negative correlation 

between teaching anxiety and age.  

Studies also showed that there is no consensus on the relationship between gender and 

teaching anxiety levels. In one of the earlier studies, Preece (1979) measured the teaching 

anxiety levels at the beginning and end of a teaching course and found that gender was not a 

considerable variable. Kayan Fadlelmula (2012) who focused on the relationships between 

anxiety levels among pre-service mathematics teachers, and several variables, noted that 

anxiety levels did not change regarding gender. Similarly, Karataş et al. (2014) examined trait 

and state anxiety and cursive handwriting anxiety among several factors and found that 

gender was not a factor related to anxiety. In contrast, Aslrasouli and Vahid (2014) aimed to 

identify the sources of teaching anxiety among English as a foreign language teacher in terms 

of gender and found no correlation between anxiety levels and gender. Similar to the 

mentioned results, Ümmet (2016) examined anxiety among prospective teachers in terms of 



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their perceptions of a public staff selection examination that was used to select teachers to be 

appointed to public schools and concluded that their gender and departments were not related 

to anxiety. Similarly, Shirvani (2018) carried out a survey study to examine mathematics 

teaching anxiety and mathematics anxiety among pre-service teachers from the fields of 

elementary education, engineering and science, and art and humanities and found that there 

was no significant difference regarding gender. Next, Özcan (2019) investigated anxiety 

stemmed from not being appointed as teachers among student teachers from various fields and 

found that their gender was not related to anxiety levels. Last, Durdukoca and Atalay (2019) 

explored the relationship between self-efficacy and occupational anxiety levels among 

prospective teachers in a teacher training certificate program. The participants were candidate 

teachers in the fields of arts and sciences, physical education and sports, and fine arts. They 

found that gender was not correlated with the levels of anxiety. On the other hand, the results 

of some studies show that female teachers are more anxious than males. For example, given 

that anxiety might constitute an essential factor in teaching for classroom success, Morton et 

al. (1997) aimed to explore the nature of anxiety among student teachers. They concluded that 

female participants showed a higher level of anxiety than males. Yazıcı and Ertekin (2010) 

also found that females were more anxious than males in content knowledge of mathematics. 

Similarly, Malinsky et al. (2006) examined mathematics anxiety among pre-service teachers 

and found a significant correlation between anxiety levels and gender. Ertekin (2010) also 

reported that female participants felt more anxious when compared to males. In another study, 

Paker (2011) aimed to examine the possible sources of anxiety and found that female student 

teachers were more anxious than males. Similar to the findings of the studies above, Özen and 

Öztürk (2016) examined the relationships between teaching profession anxiety levels and 

lifelong learning among pre-service teachers concerning their gender. They found that female 

participants were more anxious when compared to males. Considering that the use of Tablet 

PCs, in particular, played an essential role in increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of the 

learning and teaching processes, Öztürk (2018) aimed to explore the level of anxiety about 

using tablet PCs and concluded that female teachers seemed more anxious than males. 

Furthermore, Ramazanoğlu and Toytok (2018) investigated the anxiety levels of teacher 

candidates in terms of the use of Facebook in education through a descriptive survey model 

and found that female candidate teachers were more anxious than males.   

A limited number of studies show that there is also no consensus on grade difference 

regarding teaching anxiety. First, Kayan Fadlelmula (2012) found that senior students were 

more anxious than sophomores and juniors. On the other hand, Sağlam (2014) stated that 

anxiety in the context of mathematics teaching decreased in their upper grades. Second, the 

results of several studies show no correlation between grade and teaching anxiety. For 

example, Özcan (2019) noted that grade was not related to anxiety levels. Similarly, 

Ramazanoğlu and Toytok (2018) reached no correlation between anxiety levels and grades.  

Studies show conflicting results in terms of teachers’ fields and teaching anxiety levels. In 

an earlier study, Westerback et al. (1985) compared two groups of pre-service elementary 

teachers and students in geology courses about teaching anxiety. They found that pre-service 

elementary teachers were more anxious about identifying minerals and rocks when compared 

to geology students. On the other hand, while Öztürk (2018) found that Turkish as a native 

language teachers were more anxious than primary school teachers, some other studies 

concluded that teaching fields were not related to anxiety levels. Ümmet (2016), for instance, 

noted that departments were not related to anxiety. Shirvani (2018) carried out a survey study 

to examine mathematics teaching anxiety and mathematics anxiety among pre-service 

teachers from the fields of elementary education, engineering and science, and art and 

humanities. It was found that education fields had no effects on both types of anxiety. Yavuz 

(2018) also stated that pre-service teachers of elementary education experienced more anxiety 



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than the ones from the field of mathematics. Finally, Durdukoca and Atalay (2019) also found 

that the departments studied were not correlated with anxiety levels.  

Research also shows that there is a relation between rank and teaching anxiety.  For 

instance, Gardner and Leak (1994) focused on the characteristics and correlations of teaching 

anxiety among college psychology teachers and found that academic rank was correlated with 

anxiety. Similarly, Amen et al. (2002) noted that their rank and tenure status were not 

associated with anxiety. In a recent study, Song and Park (2019) aimed to illuminate an 

ideological understanding of teachers’ anxiety in foreign language teaching context and a 

deep sense of insecurity. They noted that teachers’ emotions were shaped by dominant 

ideologies that constituted the social structures in their teaching position. In another study, 

Engin (2019) aimed to explore pre-service teachers’ anxiety levels regarding their 

appointment to the teaching profession and concluded that difficulties in finding a job caused 

anxiety, whereas Ihtiyaroglu (2019) found that occupational exam and the socio-economic 

situation resulted in anxiety.  

 

3.2.3. Teaching experience, content knowledge, and instruction   
Research shows that there is a strong relationship between the levels of teaching 

experience and teaching anxiety. In an earlier study, Chavez and Widmer (1982) noted that 

while mathematics teachers’ unpleasant experiences were the source of anxiety, Gardner and 

Leak (1994) found that teaching experience was correlated with anxiety. After noting that 

culture and classroom atmosphere might affect the level of teaching anxiety among pre-

service mathematics teachers in a Turkish educational context, Bekdemir (2010) investigated 

how negative experiences affected anxiety and found that problematic classroom experiences 

provoked anxiety. In their qualitative study, Brown et al. (2011) concluded that negative prior 

experiences resulted in mathematics teaching anxiety. In a similar study focusing on teaching 

anxiety among pre-service mathematics teachers due to less attention paid to teaching anxiety 

in classroom settings, Brown et al. (2012) analyzed the reflections at the end of a mathematics 

practice-teaching process. They found that previous experiences with mathematics caused 

anxiety. Next, Aslrasouli and Vahid (2014) noted that novice teachers experienced a high 

level of anxiety, whereas Karataş et al. (2014) stated that teaching experience was correlated 

with anxiety levels. Drawing attention to the lack of research on teaching anxiety in the 

English as a foreign language teaching context, Aydin (2016) focused on the sources of 

anxiety and concluded that pre-service teachers who had a lack of teaching experience 

suffered teaching anxiety. Moreover, Kralova and Tirpakova (2019) found a negative 

correlation between teaching anxiety and teaching experience. Given that Japanese teachers of 

English as a foreign language might feel anxiety due to several factors, Machida (2016) 

examined their anxiety levels and the relationship between anxiety and variables. After 

administering the Teacher Foreign Language Anxiety Scale to 133 teachers, it was noted that 

teaching inexperience was among the sources of anxiety among teachers. Last, in a study that 

explored experiences of mathematics anxiety and mathematics teaching anxiety, and the 

relationship between the types of anxiety, Olson and Stoehr (2019) found that teachers 

perceived a logical continuity of their experiences in terms of mathematics anxiety as 

learners.  

On the other hand, few studies concluded that teaching anxiety is not related to teaching 

experience. For example, Amen et al. (2002) noted that teaching experience was not 

associated with anxiety. Similarly, Davis (2007) stated that physical and mental or emotional 

symptoms of anxiety were not related to career length.  

Research results indicate that content knowledge and teaching anxiety are closely and 

directly related. As reviewed above, Westerback et al. (1985) found that pre-service 

elementary teachers were more anxious about identifying minerals and rocks when compared 



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to geology students. In another study, Signer (1986) investigated the possible effects of in-

service instruction of computer programming on teaching anxiety among mathematics 

teachers and found that teachers enrolled in the BASIC programming program experienced 

more anxiety than those enrolled in the LOGO/PILOT course. Considering that the nature of 

mathematics induced anxiety, Deniz and Üldaş (2008) aimed to develop a tool to measure 

mathematics anxiety among teachers and prospective teachers. While the study focused on 

scale development in the broadest sense, mathematics teaching anxiety was one of the sub-

factors stemmed from complex structures, including multiple operations and intensive 

symbols. In another study, Yazıcı et al. (2011) examined the relationship between 

mathematical values and teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers of mathematics. In this 

correlational study, they found a low level of correlation between mathematical values and 

teaching anxiety, while the results showed that constructivist values might be a predictor of 

teaching anxiety. In a study, as mentioned earlier, Brown et al. (2012) found that teaching 

anxiety was connected to content knowledge. Sağlam (2014) also found that anxiety in the 

mathematics teaching context decreased in their upper grades. In contrast, Seckin and Yilmaz 

(2014) who aimed to examine the effects of the case study method in chemistry laboratory 

classes on anxiety among pre-service teachers of science concluded that the use of case study 

and traditional methods had different effects on decreasing the levels of anxiety. Furthermore, 

Aydin (2016) stated that a low level of target language proficiency was a strong source of 

teaching anxiety. Similarly, Machida (2016) noted that negative perceptions of English 

proficiency provoked anxiety among teachers. Kralova and Tirpakova (2019) also stated that 

staying in an English-speaking country and the intensity of communication with native 

speakers of English were related to teaching anxiety. In a mixed-method study, Vinson (2001) 

examined the changes among future mathematics teachers in different mathematics materials 

and methods classes and found a significant difference in anxiety levels and the classes. 

Yamaguchi et al. (2016) aimed to explore anxiety among Japanese teachers of psychical 

education. They found that anxiety was related to the lack of knowledge. In another study, 

Peker (2016) found that content knowledge regarding teaching anxiety negatively influenced 

self-efficacy, whereas Yorulmaz et al. (2017) found a negative correlation between 

mathematical thinking and anxiety levels. In another study, Zahal (2016) investigated the 

relationship among solo singing, instrument type, learning styles, and musical performance 

anxiety among pre-service music teachers and concluded that musical performance anxiety 

was at a medium level.  In addition, a significant correlation was found regarding anxiety and 

the above-mentioned variables. Peker and Ulu (2018) also concluded that constructivist 

beliefs directly affected anxiety regarding content knowledge, whereas Ganley et al. (2019) 

found that higher mathematics anxiety was related to low-level mathematical knowledge. As a 

final study, Aksu and Kul (2019) examined the mediating role of mathematics teaching 

efficacy in the relationship between pedagogical content knowledge and mathematics 

teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers. The findings showed that a high level of 

pedagogical content knowledge decreased teaching anxiety.  

Research results demonstrate that instruction is a considerable variable that decreases the 

level of anxiety among teachers. In an earlier study, Preece (1979) measured the teaching 

anxiety levels at the beginning and end of a teaching course and found a considerable 

decrease in anxiety. In another earlier research, Guzicki et al. (1980) examined the efficacy of 

three 2-hour cue-controlled relaxation workshops in reducing the anxiety levels of two 

elementary school teachers by using self-report of internal states and direct observation of 

external behavior. They stated that training in the self-management of stress and tension could 

affect anxiety levels. Similarly, Sinclair and Nicoll (1981) used questionnaires and interviews 

to explore student teachers' anxiety. They found that their anxiety level decreased after a 

three-week practice session, whereas Sharp and Forman (1985) compared stress inoculation 



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training and classroom management training on teacher anxiety and found that stress 

inoculation training improved teachers' affect. In another study that focused on diminishing 

the negative emotions such as threat, tension, worry, fear, and anxiety related to the student 

teaching field experience, Payne and Manning (1990) used experimental and assessment 

control groups and found that the training program was effective for decreasing self-reported 

anxiety about teaching. In an experimental study, Williams (1991) examined the effects of a 

comprehensive teaching assistant training program on teaching anxiety. The results indicated 

that the training program reduced teaching anxiety. By using parent-teacher conferences 

through role-plays, Johns (1992) aimed to lower teaching anxiety among elementary teachers 

and concluded that dealing with unexpected parent-teacher conferences caused anxiety, 

whereas role-plays effectively decreased the level of anxiety. Pigge and Marso (1994) also 

found that teacher candidates felt a lower level of anxiety as they progressed in a teacher 

preparation program, whereas Morton et al. (1997) noted that instructional preparation 

reduced anxiety. In an experimental study, Czerniak and Haney (1998) aimed to examine the 

effects of the use of concept mapping on teaching anxiety among 118 pre-service teachers of 

elementary education. After the pre-and post-test administration of the Physical Anxiety 

Scale, they reported that concept mapping reduced teaching anxiety. Roach (2003) examined 

anxiety among new graduate teaching assistants from various disciplines and coping strategies 

with anxiety. Results showed that the use of visualization and help from mentors decreased 

communication apprehension. Peker (2009b; 2009c) also found that the ones who used 

problem-solving strategies and the microteaching process used in teaching practicum felt less 

anxious than those who used traditional instruction. Gresham (2010) also stated that the level 

of anxiety significantly decreased after the mathematics methods course, including 

manipulatives and other activities that changed anxiety levels among pre-service teachers of 

mathematics by measuring. Similarly, Yürük (2011) found that teaching efficacy and the 

number of science courses were the predictors of teaching anxiety. In their descriptive and 

correlational study, Daniels et al. (2011) tested how classroom dynamics, including 

curriculum, instruction, assessment, intrapersonal reflection, ethics of teaching, and 

professional learning community predicted teaching anxiety. They found that the instruction 

process reduced teaching anxiety. Hypothesizing that using and modeling concrete materials 

and emphasizing conceptual understanding would diminish anxiety, Lake and Kelly (2014) 

examined pre-service teachers’ mathematics anxiety. In this qualitative study, it was found 

that mathematics anxiety among pre-service teachers slightly decreased. Given that testing the 

effectiveness of teacher assistant training programs was typically limited to measures of 

satisfaction from students’ perspective, Pelton (2014) measured the levels of teaching anxiety 

and teacher efficacy to investigate the effects of a newly established teaching seminar among 

sociology graduate students, and found that the seminar lowered their anxiety levels and 

increased the levels of confidence. In their experimental study, Hawley and Sinatra (2019) 

examined the outcomes of a professional development workshop in terms of motivational and 

identity features of science teachers who taught evolution. The findings indicated that, after 

the workshop, teachers’ negative emotions were reduced. Finally, Hughes et al. (2019), in 

their quantitative study, investigated the relationships among and the instructional practices in 

mathematics, mathematics anxiety, and beliefs about mathematics and its teaching and 

learning. They found that teachers who experienced higher levels of mathematics anxiety 

were the ones who used less standards‐based instruction and teaching. While the results 

presented above show a significant correlation between instruction and teaching anxiety, only 

one study claims contradictory results. In their research, Amen et al. (2002) noted that formal 

training in teaching was not associated with anxiety.   

 

 



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3.2.4. Teachers’ and students’ characteristics  
The results of the studies demonstrate that teachers’ characteristics are one of the 

significant variables that may affect the level of teaching anxiety. As an example, Pigge and 

Marso (1994) found that introverted candidates were more anxious than extroverts. Gresham 

(2007) investigated the relationship between learning styles in elementary pre-service teachers 

and mathematics anxiety in a descriptive study. After administering the Mathematics Anxiety 

Rating Scale and Style Analysis Survey to 264 participants,  it was found that global learners 

have higher levels of mathematics anxiety when compared to visual, auditory, tactile, 

extroverted, introverted, intuitive-random, concrete sequential, closure-oriented and open 

learners. Peker (2009a) investigated the relationship between teaching anxiety among 

mathematics teachers and their learning styles. This descriptive study concluded that 

convergent learners had a lower level of teaching anxiety than divergent, accommodator, and 

assimilator learners. Among them, divergent learners experienced the highest level of anxiety. 

Similarly, hypothesizing that teaching anxiety is prevalent among professors, Houlihan et al. 

(2009) examined the different types of in-class behavior in relation to teaching anxiety and 

personality among university professors. They found that lower extraversion and neuroticism 

were the sources of higher levels of teaching anxiety.  In a study that reported on interviews 

with English teachers who discussed the strategies they used regarding the responsibility of 

A-level English language teaching for the first time, Giovanelli (2015) found that when 

anxiety and self-doubt decreased, they felt the experience marked clearly in their identity 

development. Özen and Öztürk (2016) also found a low relationship between lifelong learning 

tendencies and anxiety levels.  

Research results show that the relationship between students’ characteristics and the levels 

of anxiety are conflicting. For example, in an earlier study, Doyal and Forsyth (1973) 

examined the relationship between the levels of teaching among teachers and anxiety 

experienced by 3rd-grade students at an elementary school. They found that there was a 

significant relationship between the anxiety levels among teachers and students. To add, 

Robinson and Clay (2005) examined the relationship between teaching and student violence.  

They found that teachers with higher anxiety levels identified low-severity warning signs 

more frequently. On the other hand, Brown et al. (2011) also noted that teaching children was 

not related to anxiety levels. In another study, Brown et al. (2012) found that children’s 

understandings caused anxiety.  

 

3.2.5. Teaching strategies, time and classroom management, and planning   
Only one study appeared on the effects of teaching strategies on teaching anxiety. In their 

qualitative multiple case study, Gresham and Burleigh (2019) explored whether the reform-

based constructivist methods used in a mathematics method course affected self-efficacy, 

beliefs, and anxiety.  Findings showed that the use of various reform-based strategies was 

effective in decreasing the level of mathematics anxiety.  

According to the research results, time and classroom management are correlated to 

teaching anxiety. For instance, Sharp and Forman (1985) noted that classroom management 

training improved teachers' affect. Similarly, Morton et al. (1997) noted that problems 

concerning classroom management provoked anxiety. Furthermore, Paker (2011) noted that 

problems related to classroom management were anxiety-provoking factors. In another study, 

Oral (2012) investigated anxiety about classroom management among pre-service teachers 

from various disciplines. He found a positive correlation between behaviors regarding 

communication in the classroom and behavior management, and teaching management 

anxiety. Finally, in a qualitative study, Han and Tulgar (2019) examined the construct of 

English as a foreign language teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers. For them, 

problems related to classroom management were one of the major teaching anxiety sources.  



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Last, research shows that problems in terms of planning and unpreparedness for the classes 

were the sources of teaching anxiety. Sinclair and Ryan (1987) found that anxiety was related 

to perceptions about lesson organization. Brown et al. (2012) also stated that unpreparedness 

for the classes was a source of anxiety. Daniels et al. (2011) noted that feelings of 

preparedness in the curriculum, instruction, and assessment reduced teaching anxiety, whereas 

the ethics of teaching dimension decreased anxiety. 

3.2.6. School climate and technology  
Research on school climate and the levels of teaching anxiety seem to be interrelated. For 

example, as Chavez and Widmer (1982) found, mathematics teachers who were positive 

about learning climate experience had a low anxiety level.  In another earlier study, Cotterell 

(1984) noted that teachers working in open-plan schools experienced more anxiety and 

tension than those in conventional schools. In a study, Kotrlik and Smith (1989) measured the 

level of computer anxiety among agriculture teachers and found that the principal's support 

predicted anxiety. Morton et al. (1997) also found that staff relations provoked anxiety. 

Similarly, Savas et al. (2013) aimed to find the moderation effect of anxiety competencies 

among in-service teachers regarding primary empowerment and organizational commitment 

and concluded that empowerment competencies and anxiety predicted the levels of 

organizational commitment. Finally, in a grounded theory qualitative study, Yorimitsu et al. 

(2014) examined 14 Japanese high school teachers' teaching experiences and found that 

teachers referred to stress and anxiety that negative work pressures placed on them as having 

‘no space in the heart.’  

According to the results of the studies, the use of technology is one of the predictors of 

teaching anxiety. As mentioned above, Signer (1986) noted that teachers who enrolled in the 

BASIC programming program experienced more anxiety when compared to the ones who 

were enrolled in the LOGO/PILOT course. Kotrlik and Smith (1989) also found that 

computer skills predicted anxiety. In another study, Savenye (1992) examined pre-service 

teachers’ computer experience and whether their attitudes and feelings were influenced by 

participation in a computer course. The study concluded that participation in a semester-long 

computer literacy course produced positive attitudes toward computers and reduced computer 

anxiety among pre-service teachers. To understand whether anxiety levels were related to 

educators’ use of networked resources, Harris and Grandgenett (1996) examined the 

correlations among writing apprehension, oral communication apprehension, computer 

anxiety, age, teaching experience, and telecomputing experience. They concluded that writing 

apprehension among teachers was negatively correlated with network use. Yaghi and Abu-

Saba (1998) also examined computer anxiety among teachers from various fields and found 

that computing experience played an essential role in reducing anxiety toward computers. 

Similarly, Liu (2008) examined the effects of online discussion of anxiety towards teaching 

mathematics among elementary teacher candidates. It was found that online discussions 

reduced anxiety caused by the perception in which mathematics was difficult. In their 

experimental study, Peker and Halat (2009) aimed to explore the effects of mathematical 

representations developed via WebQuest and spreadsheet activities on the levels of teaching 

anxiety among pre-service teachers of mathematics. After administering the Mathematics 

Teaching Anxiety Scale to the participants in the control and experimental groups, they 

concluded that the use of WebQuest decreased the level of teaching anxiety when compared 

to the use of spreadsheet activities. Kılıç (2015) also found that there was a negative 

correlation between computer anxiety and self-efficacy among music teachers.  In their non-

experimental correlational research, Tatar et al. (2015) focused on the relationship between 

pre-service teachers’ perceptions of technology and mathematics teaching anxiety.  In the 

study, it was found that there was a low level of relationship between the levels of teaching 

anxiety and computer literacy. For understanding cultural differences regarding technology-



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related anxiety among pre-service teachers, Efe and Efe (2016) compared the anxiety levels 

between Swiss and Turkish pre-service science teachers. They found that teachers in both 

groups suffered from anxiety while using technology. Aydin (2016) also noted that pre-

service teachers suffered from teaching anxiety due to technical concerns. Given that anxiety 

among teachers is one of the factors that may influence the acceptance, adaptation, and 

integration of mobile devices in teaching, Chiu and Churchill (2016) examined how anxiety 

could change regarding the use of the mentioned devices. In this quasi-experimental study, 62 

teachers were used to collect data via a self-report questionnaire. They found that teachers had 

a low level of anxiety after using mobile devices in teaching.  In another research, Dove and 

Dove (2017) investigated how in-class lectures, flipped learning with teacher-created videos, 

and flipped classrooms improved mathematics anxiety and anxiety about teaching 

mathematics. They suggested that flipped learning with teacher-created videos decreased 

mathematics anxiety and anxiety about teaching mathematics. Last, noting that research on 

the integration of 3D printing technology in formal educational contexts was fairly limited, 

Novak and Wisdom (2018) explored the effects of collaborative 3D printing inquiry-based 

learning experiences on anxiety toward teaching science, self-efficacy beliefs, science content 

knowledge, perceived competence in K-3 technology, and interest in science among pre-

service science teachers.  Results showed that the 3D printing project intervention decreased 

anxiety levels.  

 

4. Conclusions and Discussion 
In the broadest perspective, the study concludes that teaching anxiety, defined as the 

feelings of tension before, during, and after the teaching process, is an affective state that 

results in adverse effects on the learning and teaching processes. It can be stated that teaching 

anxiety has adverse effects on teaching effectiveness, work environment, teaching behaviors, 

the preparation and execution of classroom activities, and real or perceived knowledge 

deficits in content and teaching skills. It also results in stress, avoidance, problems concerning 

planning, time management, and organization of the classroom environment. Moreover, 

teaching anxiety causes failure, a decline in academic performance, inability to concentrate on 

lessons, avoidance of personal relationships and social surroundings. In addition, due to 

teaching anxiety, teachers tend to pass anxiety to their students, avoid new teaching methods 

and techniques, and experience burnout. 

When the analysis of the publications reviewed in the study is considered, several 

conclusions can be listed. First, it is seen that the interest in research on teaching anxiety 

showed an increase since 2009, while rare studies appeared between the years of 1973 and 

2008. Second, in terms of the teaching position, researchers mainly prefer to use pre-service 

teachers as sample groups in their studies. Third, research on teaching anxiety mainly focuses 

on the teaching contexts of Mathematics, English as a foreign language, Elementary 

Education, and Science. At the same time, rare studies appeared on Music Education, 

Accounting, Early Childhood Education, Library, Psychology, English as a first language, 

Agriculture, Sociology, Computer and Instructional Technologies, Physical Education, and 

Nurse Education. Fourth, the studies are mainly designed to be descriptive. At a moderate 

level, correlational, qualitative, and experimental research designs are preferred, while rare 

studies use mixed-method, quasi-experimental, and action research designs. Fifth, in terms of 

measurement tools, scales are mostly used by researchers, while some use questionnaires and 

surveys. Interviews, inventories, reflections, self-report questionnaires, observations, 

assignments, and personal narratives are also preferred. Last, studies on teaching anxiety are 

mostly performed in the educational contexts of Turkey and the USA. Several studies also 

focus on teaching anxiety in the educational contexts of Canada, Australia, Iran, Japan, the 



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UK, and China. Germany, Korea, North Cyprus, Oman, and Lebanon are the countries where 

studies are carried out.  

When the findings of the studies reviewed are taken into account, the following 

conclusions regarding teachers’ affective states can be presented. The first conclusion is that 

teaching anxiety relates to teachers’ beliefs. More specifically, there is a negative relationship 

between teaching anxiety and traditional beliefs about teaching and learning, their 

epistemological beliefs, constructivist beliefs about content knowledge, and self-efficacy 

beliefs. Second, teaching anxiety is concerning attitudes towards teaching. In other words, 

negative attitudes are a source and predictor of teaching anxiety. Third, pre-service teachers 

suffer from teaching anxiety due to demotivation, amotivation, and lack of self-esteem. The 

fourth conclusion obtained from the study is that teaching anxiety stems from other types of 

anxiety. Within this scope, anxiety in the teaching context is similar to anxiety in the learning 

context, whereas teaching anxiety is predicted by trait anxiety. In addition, fear of negative 

evaluation, communication apprehension, fear of public speaking, speech anxiety, fear of 

failure, test anxiety provoked by staff selection examinations and tests during the pre-service 

training process, and spatial anxiety are the sources that trigger teaching anxiety. Fifth, self-

efficacy levels are directly related to teaching anxiety. In other words, the ones with the 

highest levels of self-efficacy have the lowest degree of anxiety. Sixth and last, teaching 

anxiety is also correlated with stress, burnout, aggressiveness, self-deception, locus of control, 

and self-confidence. The causes of stress, burnout, emotional exhaustion, aggressiveness, and 

the lack of self-confidence among teachers are the predictors of teaching anxiety, while locus 

of control is positively related to teaching anxiety.  

The study also concludes that the relationship between teaching anxiety levels and 

demographic variables is not clear. First, age differences regarding teaching anxiety are 

conflicting. In other words, while some studies conclude that age is not associated with 

anxiety, there is evidence that older teachers experience less anxiety. Second, there is also no 

consensus on the relationship between gender and teaching anxiety levels. While it was 

concluded that gender does not constitute a considerable variable regarding teaching anxiety, 

research results point out that female teachers feel more anxious than males. Third, the 

relationship between anxiety levels among pre-service teachers and their grades is not also 

clear. For instance, there is evidence that shows higher levels of teaching anxiety among ones 

at higher grades. However, some studies conclude that grade and anxiety levels are not 

correlated. Fourth, the conclusions reached on the relationship between teachers’ fields and 

anxiety levels are also conflicting. Within this scope, it can be stated that language teachers 

seem more anxious than the ones teaching at elementary level schools, while it should be 

noted that teaching fields do not differ regarding teaching anxiety. On the other hand, when 

the number of studies that focus on certain fields is taken into account, it can be pointed out 

that teaching anxiety is a serious issue among Mathematics, English as a foreign language, 

Elementary Education, and Science teachers. Fifth and last, it can be concluded that academic 

rank, teaching position, and socioeconomic situation predict teaching anxiety, while career 

length does not seem to relate to anxiety levels.  

Another conclusion reached in the study is that teaching experience, content knowledge, 

and instruction are considerably related to teaching anxiety.  First of all, there is a strong 

relationship between the levels of teaching experience and teaching anxiety. For instance, 

unpleasant experiences, teaching inexperience, and problematic classroom experiences 

provoke teaching anxiety. In addition, novice and pre-service teachers seem more anxious 

when compared to experienced teachers. Second, content knowledge and teaching anxiety are 

closely and directly related. In other words, the lack of content knowledge, pedagogical 

knowledge, proficiency, perceived difficulty, and negative perceptions towards teaching 

content are the strong predictors of teaching anxiety. Last, the instruction process is a 



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considerable variable that decreases the level of anxiety among teachers. Within this scope, 

teaching courses, training in the self-management of stress and tension, stress inoculation 

training, and formal and informal training programs decrease anxiety levels. Moreover, 

teachers experience lower anxiety levels when they have training on classroom management, 

role-play, concept mapping, visualization, problem-solving, ethics of teaching, conceptual 

understanding, concrete materials, and microteaching. The instructions on curriculum 

development, assessment, and intrapersonal reflection reduce teaching anxiety. Nevertheless, 

only the result of one study claims that formal training in teaching is not associated with 

anxiety.  

 This review concludes that more variables such as teachers’ and students’ characteristics, 

teaching strategies, time and classroom management, planning, and school climate may affect 

teaching anxiety levels.  First, teachers’ characteristics are one of the significant variables that 

may affect the level of teaching anxiety. For example, the ones who perceive themselves as 

introverted, global, and lifelong learners are more anxious than extroverts, visual, auditory, 

tactile, convergent, intuitive-random, concrete sequential, closure-oriented, divergent, 

accommodator, assimilator, open, and neurotic ones. Second, research is not conclusive 

regarding the relationship between teaching anxiety and students’ characteristics. For 

example, questions asked by students, anxiety among students, and student violence trigger 

teaching anxiety, while the results of one study claim that age groups of students and their 

understandings do not affect anxiety among teachers. Third, in terms of teaching strategies, 

the use of various reform-based strategies effectively decreases teaching anxiety. Fourth, time 

and classroom management are correlated with teaching anxiety. For example, problems 

concerning whole-class instruction time, classroom management, communication in the 

classroom, behavior management, teaching management, perceptions of lesson organization, 

and unpreparedness provoke anxiety among teachers. Fourth and last, school climate and the 

levels of teaching anxiety seem to be interrelated. For example, teachers who are positive 

about the learning climate experience a low level of anxiety, while teachers working in open-

plan schools and experiencing work pressures feel more anxious. Moreover, the principal's 

support, good staff relations, and organizational commitment are the factors that decrease the 

level of teaching anxiety.  

The last conclusion obtained from the study is that the use of technology is one of the 

predictors of teaching anxiety. First, teachers who have computer skills, computer literacy, 

experience, and positive attitudes toward computers and network use are less anxious. 

Moreover, online discussions, the use of WebQuest, the utilization of mobile devices, the 

formative use of videotaped micro-teaching, flipped learning with teacher-created videos, and 

collaborative 3D printing inquiry-based learning experiences are also effective for lowering 

anxiety. However, it should be stated that teachers also suffer from teaching anxiety due to 

technical concerns and the use of spreadsheet activities.  

 

4.1.Practical Recommendations 

Some practical recommendations regarding the conclusions of this review can be noted. 

First and in the broadest perspective, teachers should be aware that teaching anxiety is one of 

the most considerable concerns in the teaching and learning processes that directly and 

negatively affect teaching effectiveness and behaviors, work environment, and classroom 

activities. With this recognition, they can cope with the problems with planning, time 

management, and organization of the classroom environment, and improve their academic 

performance, personal and social surroundings. To achieve these, they should find ways to 

develop strong beliefs of teaching and learning, have positive attitudes towards the mentioned 

processes, and strengthen their teaching and learning motivation. Next, since teaching anxiety 

is not independent of anxiety in the learning context, and the elements of anxiety such as trait 



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anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, communication apprehension, and test anxiety, teachers 

should have a deeper understanding of the mentioned anxiety types. Moreover, they should 

find ways to improve their self-efficacy and self-confidence and how to cope with stress and 

burnout. Second, teachers should know that gaining experience in teaching decreases anxiety, 

whereas they should improve their content and pedagogical knowledge of coping with 

anxiety. For this, they should have training and instructions by participating in courses and 

training programs. Third, they should act as learners such as extroverts, visual, auditory, 

tactile, convergent, intuitive-random, concrete sequential, closure-oriented, divergent, 

accommodator, assimilator, and open learners to cope with teaching anxiety. Moreover, they 

should use reform-based strategies and develop classroom management, communication 

skills, and lesson organization, whereas they should pay attention to planning activities and 

preparedness. Teachers should also contribute to creating a positive school climate. As a final 

note, it can be recommended that teachers should develop techno-pedagogical knowledge and 

skills, computer and network literacy, and use them in classroom settings.  

A few recommendations for pre- and in-service teaching program developers can be noted. 

First of all, issues about teaching anxiety should be integrated into the content of the 

mentioned programs. For this purpose, issues such as theoretical information on teaching 

anxiety, its sources and effects should be implemented in the programs to raise teachers’ 

awareness of anxiety. Within this scope, it should be considered that Mathematics, English as 

a foreign language, Elementary Education, and Science require special attention, whereas how 

demographic variables relate to teaching anxiety should also be considered. Second, one of 

the main focuses of the programs should be on developing strategies to deepen teachers’ 

content knowledge. In addition, as there is a strong relationship between teaching anxiety and 

experience, pre-service teacher training programs should include teaching practice at a high 

level. More specifically, pre- and in-service teacher training programs should help them have 

positive perceptions of course content and include various content such as classroom 

management, role-play, concept mapping, visualization, problem-solving, ethics of teaching, 

microteaching, curriculum development, and assessment. Students’ and teachers’ 

characteristics, teaching strategies, time and classroom management, communication 

strategies, lesson planning and organization, computer, and network literacy are some other 

contents that should be implemented into teacher training programs.  

A final recommendation is for school administrators. Considering that a negative school 

climate is a source of teaching anxiety, school administrators should create a positive learning 

environment. In this way, teachers who experience high anxiety levels will decrease anxiety 

and contribute to creating positive teaching and learning environments in school settings. 

Thus, school administrators should spread an effort to act as leader, guide, and organizer to 

decrease the level of anxiety among teachers and create positive teaching and learning 

atmospheres with all stakeholders.    

 

4.2.  Recommendations for Further Researches   
Some recommendations for further researches in terms of the conclusions of the study can 

be listed. First of all, studies are mainly directed towards problems within the scope of 

practical research. Thus, basic and applied research is necessary to improve the theories for a 

more in-depth and better understanding of teaching anxiety, draw a theoretical framework and 

use the theoretical framework to develop techniques, tactics, and strategies. Second, as 

research mainly focuses on teaching anxiety in the pre-service teaching process, studies 

should concentrate on teaching anxiety in the in-service teaching process. Third, as studies are 

mostly performed in the teaching contexts of Mathematics, English as a foreign language, 

Elementary Education, and Science, researchers should be interested in some other 

educational contexts. Fourth, as studies are mainly designed to be descriptive and 



Aydin, S. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(2), 730-761 

 

749 
 

correlational, researchers should prefer qualitative and experimental research designs to 

obtain findings in realistic settings rather than participants’ perceptions of test anxiety. Action 

research, for instance, can be preferred to present solutions with regard to teaching anxiety. 

Within this scope, data collection tools should also be used in a variety of ranges. As a final 

note, since the studies are mainly performed in the educational context of Turkey and the 

USA, researchers should widen their perspectives in terms of various educational settings.  

More researches are warranted, as it is evident that current research lacks data on some 

specific issues. Firstly and most importantly, research should clarify the relationship between 

teaching anxiety and affective states. Next, how teaching anxiety relates to demographic 

variables should be researched, as the relationships between teaching anxiety and certain 

variables such as age, gender, grade, teaching fields, academic rank, teaching position, and 

socioeconomic situations are not conclusive. Experience and instruction effect on teaching 

anxiety should also be reexamined in various educational contexts using qualitative, 

experimental, mixed-method, and action research designs. Another recommendation for 

further research is that more research is warranted on how teachers’ and students' 

characteristics affect teaching anxiety. Moreover, problems in classroom management, 

communication skills, behavior management, teaching management, planning, and school 

climate should be investigated within the scope of action research. Finally, given that 

information and communication technologies bring new horizons to the learning and teaching 

contexts, technology effects on teaching anxiety should be investigated using various 

technological tools and environments.  

 

5. Conflict of interest  

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.  

 

6. Ethics Committee Approval  

The authors confirm that the study does not need ethics committee approval according to 

the research integrity rules in their country. 

 



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750 
 

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Appendix 

 

Appendix 1. Distribution of the publications by authors, journals, participants, teaching 

levels, fields, research designs, tools, and countries  

 
     

 

Authors Journals 

P
a

r
ti

c
ip

a
n

ts
 

Levels Fields 
Research 

Designs 
Tools Countries 

 1.  
Aksu & Kul 

(2019) 
SAGE Open 463 Pre-service Mathematics Descriptive Scale Turkey 

 

2.  
Al-Mehrzi et al. 

(2011) 

World Applied 

Sciences Journal 
329 Pre-service Various Descriptive Questionnaire Oman 

3.  
Ameen at al.  

(2002) 

Journal of 

Education for 
Business 

333 In-service Accounting Descriptive Questionnaire USA 

4.  
Aslrasouli & 

Vahid (2014) 

Procedia - Social 

and Behavioral 
Sciences 

114 In-service 
English as a foreign 

language 
Descriptive Questionnaire Iran 

5.  Aydin (2016) 
The Qualitative 

Report 
60 Pre-service 

English as a foreign 

language 
Qualitative Interview Turkey 

6.  Bekdemir (2010) 
Educational Studies 

in Mathematics 
167 Pre-service Mathematics Descriptive Questionnaire Turkey 

7.  
Brown et al. 

(2011) 

Issues in the 

Undergraduate 
Mathematics 

Preparation of 

School Teachers 

53 Pre-service Mathematics Qualitative Assignment USA 

8.  
Brown et al. 

(2012) 

Teaching 

Education 
55 Pre-service Mathematics Qualitative Reflection USA 

9.  
Bursal & 

Paznokas (2006) 
School Science and 

Mathematics 
65 Pre-service Mathematics Descriptive Survey USA 

10.  
Peker & Halat 

(2009) 

Journal of Applied 

Sciences 
73 Pre-service Mathematics Experimental Scale Turkey 

11.  Capel (1992) 
European Journal 

of Teacher 

Education 

405 In-service Various Descriptive Scale UK 

12.  Cankaya (2011) 

Social Behavior 
and Personality: An 

International 

Journal 

251 In-service Various Descriptive Scale Turkey 

13.  
Chavez & 

Widmer (1982) 

Educational 

Leadership 
203 In-service Mathematics Descriptive Scale USA 

14.  
Cheung & Hui  

(2011) 

Asia-Pacific 
Education 

Researcher 

333 In-service Various Descriptive Scale China 

15.  
Chiu & Churchill 

(2016). 

Interactive 

Learning 
Environments 

62 In-service Various 
Quasi-

experimental 

Self-report 

questionnaire 
China 

16.  Cotterell (1984) 
Environment and 

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