Torres, K. M. & Tackett, S. (2016). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs of effectively educating ESOL students in mainstream classrooms. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 3(3). 186-200. http://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/130/135 Received: 05.04.2016 Received in revised form: 14.06.2016 Accepted: 17.06.2016 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ESOL STUDENTS IN MAINSTREAM CLASSROOMS Kelly M. Torres The Chicago School of Professional Psychology ktorres@thechicagoschool.edu Samantha Tackett Florida State University stackett@admin.fsu.edu Kelly Torres, Ph.D. is the Department Chair of the Educational Psychology and Technology program at TCSPP. Her research interests are focused on English language learners, teacher certification programs, and online learning. Send correspondence to: ktorres@thechicagoschool.edu Samantha Tackett, M.S. is an instructor and doctoral candidate in the Learning and Cognition Program at Florida State University. Her research interests are motivation, minority student experiences in education, and online learning. Copyright by Informascope. Material published and so copyrighted may not be published elsewhere without the written permission of IOJET. http://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/130/135 mailto:ktorres@thechicagoschool.edu mailto:stackett@admin.fsu.edu Torres & Tackett 186 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ESOL STUDENTS IN MAINSTREAM CLASSROOMS Kelly M. Torres ktorres@thechicagoschool.edu Samantha Tackett stackett@admin.fsu.edu Abstract During the last several decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of English language learners (ELLs) entering American educational settings. One result in the changing demographics of K-12 settings is the stark contrast between the backgrounds of learners found in the classroom settings and their educators. This has resulted in many pre-service teachers being inadequately prepared to meet the unique learning needs of their future learners (Eisenhardt, Besnoy, & Steel, 2012). Therefore, the purpose of this research was to develop an understanding of pre-service teachers’ beliefs in regards to their abilities to effectively teach ELLs. Analyses of this research revealed significant differences between pre-service teachers who have and have not completed English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) coursework. Pre-service teachers also reported linguistic barriers as the greatest challenge faced when educating ELLs. Keywords: English Language Learner, ELL, Culturally and Linguistically Diverse, CLD, teacher efficacy, teacher education, English for Speakers of Other Languages, ESOL 1. Teacher Education There has been an unprecedented shift in demographics found in American educational settings over the last several decades (Jimenez-Silva, Olson, & Hernandez, 2012). There are now approximately 50% more English language learners (ELLs) enrolled in American schools in comparison to the prior decade (Echevarría, Vogt, & Short, 2013). Moreover, it is estimated that over 5 million children are English learners which results in more than 10% of the K-12 population being classified as such (Cook, Boals, & Lundberg, 2011). Over the last several decades, the growing number of ELLs found in American K-12 classrooms has influenced policymakers to change federal and state policies (e.g., No Child Left Behind, Florida Consent Decree) and for administrators to implement required ELL mandates. Through the development of new policies, educators have been provided training and materials regarding appropriate strategies and accommodations for ELLs. In addition, these policies have added university educational requirements for pre-service educators. In fact, 11 states including highly populated states like California, Florida, and New York now require pre-service teachers to complete coursework focused on teaching ELLs in order to obtain English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) endorsement or certification in Bilingual Education (Jimenez-Silva et al., 2012). mailto:ktorres@thechicagoschool.edu mailto:stackett@admin.fsu.edu International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2016, 3(3), 186-200. 187 Given the changes with student demographics and federal and state educational policies it is becoming of upmost importance for pre-service teachers to complete university level ELL coursework during their teacher certification program. Particularly, since these types of courses can help future educators acquire confidence in their ability to facilitate learning for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) learners. Lucas, Villegas, and Freedson-Gonzalez (2008) stated that “to be successful with ELLs, teachers need to draw on established principles of second language learning” (p. 362). Furthermore, Fitts and Gross (2012) proclaimed that pre-service teaching candidates need to complete coursework focused on topics such as the social and political aspects of language use, and that these students need to have the opportunity to interact with individuals of different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Teacher certification programs should also include at a minimum: (a) a strong background and experiences with second language learning principles and practices, (b) knowledge about the differences between conversational language proficiency and academic language proficiency, (c) the importance of access to comprehensible input and opportunities for producing output for meaningful purposes, (d) the role of social interaction for the development of conversational and academic English, (e) the positive impact of strong native language skills on ELLs’ achievement, (f) the necessity of a welcoming classroom environment for ELLs, and (g) the need for explicit attention to linguistic form and function (de Oliveira, 2011, p. 59). It may also be important for this coursework to include experiences outside the classroom setting that provide pre-service teachers the opportunity to apply the skills, content, strategies, and accommodations they have learned in contexts that contain ELLs. 1.1. ESOL Service Learning Experiences Participants in the Fitts and Gross (2012) study found that pre-service teachers often used words such as “people like that” to describe the bilingual students they were tutoring in an afterschool program. They concluded that the use of these terms signifies the social distance that pre-service teachers feel in regards to their bilingual students. Individuals may experience in-group (individuals who are similar) and out-group (individuals who are different) perceptions during interactions with diverse groups of individuals. Moreover, one’s perception of an in-group preference could depend on group membership and his/her perceptions of his/her in-group as being favorable or not (Chasteen, 2005). If individuals feel discomfort around others who they perceive as different from themselves, they may hold bias or prejudice beliefs toward these groups of individuals. Providing pre-service teachers varied service learning experiences can help to ensure that these individuals are offered the opportunity to work with diverse learners and to apply the ESOL strategies and accommodations learned during their teacher certification studies. These experiences can help to dispel pre-service teachers’ negative beliefs and perceptions toward others who are culturally and/or linguistically different from themselves. The present study addresses these recommendations with particular emphasis on the need for interactions with linguistically diverse individuals. Since many university teacher certification programs typically require at least six hours of ESOL coursework, pre-service teachers are able to develop a basic understanding of second language (L2) learning principles. However, simply requiring pre-service teachers to complete theoretical coursework may not be sufficient to help Torres & Tackett 188 them develop the necessary skills needed to successfully educate ELLs that are enrolled in their future classes. Likewise, Peter, Markham and Fray (2013) stated: Regular classroom teachers are under tremendous pressure to serve their ELL population effectively. However, they are asked to do so with little support and incentives to develop the professional knowledge and skills needed to adequately serve their culturally and linguistically diverse students, (p. 303). Although pre-service teachers may learn L2 principles and theories in their university coursework, they may have a difficult time generating connections between theory and practice. Fundamentally, pre-service teachers may understand the content acquired during their educational studies, but they may lack the experience or skill of how to effectively implement these accommodations when working with ELLs. 2. Social Cognitive Theory The theoretical framework of this study encompasses Social Cognitive Theory. Moreno (2010) stated that “sociocognitive theory focuses on learning that is the result of observing the consequences of the behaviors of others” (p. 282). According to Goddard and Skrla (2006) this theory addresses how individuals employ control over their futures and contend that a fundamental assumption of this theory is that the “exercise of agency is strongly influenced by the strength of efficacy beliefs” (p. 218). Basically, individuals who believe they are capable of attaining a desired goal may be more likely to achieve it since they may put forth more effort and persistence. One profession in which individuals’ self-beliefs may have profound effects on others is in educational settings. Individuals’ beliefs about their ability to produce desired levels of performance are known as self-efficacy (Woolfolk, 2010). Bandura has referenced the construct of one’s self-efficacy beliefs as being based on an individual’s perceptions of prior experiences and are often context specific (Bandura, 1997).These experiences can include one’s emotional and psychological state, mastery of a task, vicarious experiences, and social persuasion within a specific context (Loreman, Sharma, & Forlan, 2013). For example, Lastrapes and Negishi (2012) found that pre-service teachers’ levels of self-efficacy increased after completing diverse field experiences. Through these types of experiential learning experiences, pre-services teachers may be able to gain additional knowledge and skills that help to enhance their beliefs of their ability to educate diverse subgroups of learners. 2.1. Teaching Self-Efficacy We know self-efficacy beliefs are context-specific (Bandura, 1997; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003); therefore, they are likely to change based on “features of the context in which one performs tasks” Kuusinen, Laurermann, McKenzie, & Karabenick, 2013, p. 8). Lauermann and Karabenick (2013) characterized teacher self-efficacy as “teachers’ confidence in their capabilities to produce desired effects in their classrooms” (p. 13). Educators’ beliefs in their ability to effectively influence student learning outcomes may impact their level of teaching effort as well as the types of strategies and accommodations they incorporate into their lessons. A teacher’s beliefs in his/her own teaching abilities to effectively educate ELLs or CLD students may significantly impact these learners’ academic outcomes. A study by Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, and Hoy (1998) proposed a social cognitive model of how teacher self-efficacy beliefs influence teacher and student behaviors: task-specificity, goal- reference, and context-specificity. The focus of our study is the context-specificity when pre- International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2016, 3(3), 186-200. 189 service teachers perceive limited resources (personal ability, time limits, or fiscal resources for tools) available while incorporating ELLs or CLD students into mainstream classrooms. Researchers have found that novice teachers are more likely to identify resources and personal knowledge as predictors of teaching success (Bursal, 2008; Kuusinen et. al, 2013; M. Tschannen- Moran & Hoy, 2007). The Kuusinen et al., (2013) study identified high student poverty as an influential factor on teachers’ efficacy judgements, “teachers working in high-poverty contexts more frequently felt limited not by the students themselves, but by the larger context surrounding the school” (p. 49). Their study found that this context-specific condition had an influence on efficacy judgements related to instruction, classroom management, and motivation. Essentially, if teachers do not believe they are able to provide successful learning outcomes for ELLs, this group of students may fall behind their peers in acquiring grade-level content. In comparison, a teacher who possesses high levels of teaching self-efficacy may believe that his/her students are capable of achieving academic success (Yilmaz, 2009). Novice educators who possess higher levels of self-efficacy may be more persistent in overcoming challenges and remain in the teaching profession (Jamil, Downer, & Pianta, 2012). Moreover, an individual’s “perceived mastery of skills” can help to build “self-efficacy through confidence of discipline knowledge” (Lummis, Morris, & Paolino, 2014). However, As a result, pre-service teachers’ prior ESOL learning experiences that occur in-class (e.g., content knowledge, tests, and activities) and out-of-class (e.g., service learning and observations) could positively or negatively impact their beliefs regarding their abilities to effectively educate CLD students. As stated earlier, one problem that may exist for many pre-service teachers is their inability to appropriately apply their theoretical understanding when working with CLD students. This same concern was noted by Téllez (2004) when he stated that L2 content is challenging for many pre- service teachers and can be too theoretical for their practical use. Nevertheless, an individual’s past performances (successes or failures) could impact their beliefs about their ability to perform a particular task (Bandura, 1986). As a result, pre-service teachers’ prior ESOL learning experiences that occur in-class (e.g., content knowledge, tests, and activities) and out-of-class (e.g., service learning and observations) could positively or negatively impact their beliefs regarding their abilities to effectively educate CLD students. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a more thorough understanding of pre-service teachers’ beliefs regarding their abilities to effectively educate ELLs they may encounter in their future classes. Additionally, this research was focused on determining pre-service teachers’ beliefs regarding their effectiveness with implementing appropriate accommodations for ELLs. Specifically, this research investigated: 1. Do pre-service teachers who have completed coursework focused on culturally and linguistically diverse learners report significantly different beliefs regarding the appropriateness of ELL accommodations compared to pre-service teachers who have not completed this type of coursework? 2. Do pre-service teachers who are currently working with English language learners in field experience settings report significantly different beliefs regarding their abilities to teach ELLs in comparison to pre-service teachers who are not currently educating ELLs? 3. What do pre-service teachers believe are the greatest challenges in educating their future ELLs? Torres & Tackett 190 3. Methods 3.1 Participants Students completing teacher certification coursework in the College of Education at a university located in the southeastern United States were contacted and provided a survey link to participate in this research. A total of 199 students completed the survey in its entirety. Participants in this study were either completing undergraduate (90%) or graduate (10%) coursework. The majority of participants in this research self-identified as being White (81%), female (84%), and native-English speakers (94%). Additionally, a minority of the participants (38%) had completed prior coursework focused on teaching CLD learners; whereas, the majority of participants (53%) had prior experiences working with CLD students. 3.2. Instrument The instrument used to collect data for this study was the English as Second-Language (ESL) Students in Mainstream Classrooms Teacher Survey (Reeves, 2006). The survey contains three subscales focused on: (a) teachers’ levels of agreement or disagreement of inclusion of ELLs (e.g., The inclusion of ESL students in subject-area classes creates a positive educational atmosphere), (b) the frequency of specific instructional behaviors for teachers with ELLs enrolled in their classrooms (e.g., I provide materials for ESL students in their native languages), (c) anticipated challenges that may be experienced when teaching ELLs (e.g., Please list what you consider to be the greatest benefits of including ESL students in subject-area classes), and (d) demographic and professional teaching experiences (e.g., Have you received training in teaching language-minority/ESL students?). Students responded to survey items based on a 4-point Likert scale (subsection A) ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, a 3-point frequency scale (subsection B) ranging from seldom (or never) to most of the time (or all of the time), and open- ended responses (subsections C and D) with a few forced-choice responses (subsection C). The alpha coefficients obtained in this study included: (a) teachers’ levels of agreement or disagreement of inclusion of ELLs ( = .90) and, (b) frequency of specific instructional behaviors for teachers with ELLs enrolled in their classrooms ( = .85). 4. Results 4.1. ELL Inclusion We used t-tests to analyze if specific differences occurred across pre-service teachers’ ratings of their beliefs regarding the appropriateness of ELL accommodations. The t-tests revealed a statistical difference between participants who had completed prior coursework that focused on CLD learners M = 1.78 (SD = .27) and participants who had not M = 1.49 (SD = .33), t(1,199), p <.05. Specifically, participants who had completed coursework focused on CLD learners were more likely to provide higher ratings of support for including ELL accommodations in mainstream classrooms. 4.2. Pre-service Teacher Beliefs We performed t-tests to determine if pre-service teachers who are currently working with ELLs in their field experience settings had significantly different beliefs in their abilities to educate ELLs in comparison to pre-service teachers that were currently not working with this subgroup of learners. This analysis resulted in a statistically significant difference between these two groups of participants. Specifically, participants who were currently working with an ELL in their university International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2016, 3(3), 186-200. 191 field experience reported significantly different ratings in their perceived abilities to effectively educate ELLs M = 1.84 (SD = .27) than participants who had not completed university field experience requirements M = 1.69 (SD = .33), t(1,199), p <.01. In essence, participants who had completed university field experiences were more likely to provide higher ratings in their abilities to effectively educate ELLs. 4.3. Pre-service Teachers’ Beliefs of ELL Challenges Our third research question investigated participants’ beliefs regarding the greatest challenges they may face in educating their future ELLs. For this survey item, participants selected the three greatest challenges that teachers face when working with ELLs. Table 1 outlines the percentages of participants who selected each possible item. Specifically, this table illustrates participants’ perceptions of the most difficult challenges they may face when working with ELLs. Although a percentage of participants selected each challenge presented, the majority (78.4%) of participants perceived the greatest challenge to be language barriers that may exist between the teacher and the individual ELL student. According to this sample of pre-service teachers, the second greatest challenge was the lack of available time and resources teachers have to devote to ELLs. This item was selected by a majority of participants (55.8%). Thus, the two primary concerns were language barriers and time to work with ELL students within a mainstream classroom context. Table 1. Participant percentages of teaching challenges Survey item % of Students Language barriers between you and your ELLs 78.4% Cultural differences between you and your ELLs 38.7% ELLs lack of background knowledge of content area 48.7% ELL lack of motivation 27.1% Lack of guidelines and or support system at school levels 28.6% Lack of time and resources to devote to ELLs 55.8% Assessment and grading of ELL 24.1% 5. Conclusions The number of ELLs entering classroom settings is continuously increasing each year. In 2006, there were 55 million ELLs who were enrolled in public and private schools in the United States, and researchers expect an 8% increase in this number by the year 2018 (Hussar & Bailey, 2009). As a result, teacher certification programs incorporate coursework and field learning experiences in order to better prepare pre-service teachers to enter a workforce that may be very diverse in regards to student enrollment. However, Gándara and Santibañez contended that a teaching quality gap normally occurs for ELLs because educators who are considered to be “highly qualified” for ELLs need to possess special skills and abilities (e.g., incorporating cultural knowledge into instruction). By helping pre-service teachers gain these types of skills and abilities during their college/university coursework and field learning experiences, they may feel better prepared to work with their future ELLs. Torres & Tackett 192 5.1. Teacher Preparation Coursework and Field Experiences The purpose of this study was to explore relationships among pre-service teachers’ ratings of the appropriateness of ELL accommodations and pre-service teachers’ beliefs regarding their ability to effectively educate ELL students especially within a mainstream classroom context. Our analyses conducted in this study found significant differences between pre-service teachers who had completed coursework focused on CLD learners and those who had not. Although CLD coursework may be considered beneficial in helping pre-service teachers gain insight into effectively educating ELLs, Jimenez-Silva et al. (2012) cautioned that this is only the first step in improving instructional techniques. However, Jimenez-Silva et al. (2012) found that participants believed that content and activities focused on CLD learners helped to provide them increased confidence in their abilities to teach their future ELLs. Their findings are similar to this current research in that CLD coursework can be beneficial for enhancing students’ self-beliefs in their ability to help students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds gain positive academic success. These findings are also reflective of Bandura’s work on self-efficacy since pre-service teachers who received these types of learning experiences felt more prepared to apply appropriate ELL strategies and accommodations into their future teaching experiences (Jimenez-Silva et al., 2012). Significant findings were found between pre-services teachers who had completed university field experience requirements with ELL students and those who had not. Coady, Harper, and Jong (2011) suggested that characteristics of teachers who performed well with ELLs included (a) teacher background and experiences, (b) teacher knowledge of teaching and learning processes of ELLs, and (c) teacher knowledge of ELLs as learners. Our findings are consistent with the characteristics of high performing teachers with ELLs (Coady, Harper, & Jong, 2011) in that pre- service teachers with exposure to field experiences had significantly higher efficacy with ELL students in a mainstream context. Specifically, pre-service teachers who have knowledge of how to educate ELLs but lack experiences working with this subgroup of learners may feel less confident in their abilities to educate their future ELLs. Furthermore, a study by Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) focused on pre-service teachers and their early occupational socialization processes found that teacher education “can influence beginning teachers’ professional performance and competence development … by shaping the opportunities for student teachers to relate practical experience and theoretical study” (p.213). Study participants believed that alternating between practice in the schools and then reflection and revision of their work within college courses was the foundation of their perceived competence. Providing pre-service teachers multiple opportunities to complete field experiences during their educational studies is paramount. These experiences can help pre-service teachers become more comfortable in developing different perspectives of how to enhance their teaching abilities. In a study conducted by Wyss, Siebert, and Dowling (2012), they found that pre-service teachers comfort levels in teaching increased throughout the course of their practicum experiences. This study illustrates the need for teacher education programs to provide pre-service teachers with hands-on experiences in classroom settings that will help them practice implementing course content with diverse students. Particularly, given that these types of experiences are essential in helping students make valuable connections between theory and practice (Freeman, 2010). Indeed, Eisenhardt, Besnoy, and Steele (2012) discovered that field experiences helped pre-service teachers to challenge their beliefs based on theoretical knowledge in which they expanded their views to become justified teaching beliefs. Furthermore, participants in Eisenhardt, Besnoy, and International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2016, 3(3), 186-200. 193 Steele’s 2012 study shared that their field experiences helped them to “justify their knowledge of the importance of the relationship between knowledge of diverse students and effective instruction” (p. 7). By incorporating multiple opportunities for field experiences into CLD coursework, pre-service teachers may feel better equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to meet ELLs’ unique academic needs which may increase their levels of teaching self-efficacy. 5.2. Perceived Educational Barriers Analysis of our results also revealed that pre-service teachers believed the two greatest obstacles to educating ELLs were due to language barriers and lack of time and resources to devote to ELLs. Interestingly, Polat and Mahalingappa (2013) found that in-service teachers in comparison to pre-service teachers were more likely to perceive lack of time and resources as an issue when working with ELLs. Specifically, they found that in-service teachers believed that “content area teachers do not have enough time to deal with the needs of ELLs in mainstream classes, that ELLs should be assigned less coursework, and that ELLs should not be expected to do much in regular classes until they have learned to speak English” (Polat & Mahalingappa, 2013, p. 73). These beliefs could be detrimental to pre-service teachers who are working in educational settings with in-service teachers who possess this mindset. Particularly, teachers’ levels of self- efficacy could be decreased in working with this subgroup of learners if they do not feel they are able to effectively serve CLD learners enrolled in their classes. This could result in teachers putting forth less effort and commitment when educating these students since they do not feel they have the knowledge or skills to help ELLs achieve successful learning gains. Participants in this current study also perceived potential educational barriers being related to ELLs’ lack of background knowledge (48.7% of participants) and cultural differences (38.7% of participants). These findings are similar to a prior study conducted by Sato and Hodge (2016) who found that teachers perceived barriers in teaching ELLs stemming from pedagogical challenges and cultural dissonance. They concluded that teachers believe that teaching ELLs is a complex and complicated process and that pre-service teachers need to receive professional preparation in how to effectively implement culturally relevant pedagogies. Helfrich and Bosh (2011) also propounded that “the role of the teacher in language acquisition for ELLs is an integral one” (p. 261). Furthermore, Helfrich and Bosh (2011) contended that teachers may face the challenge of trying to provide differentiated instructional methods to ELLs without taking instructional time away from other learners (e.g., native-English speakers). Particularly, educators may find it to be a difficult and complex process in trying to ascertain all students met mandated standards and gain academic success in grade-level content. As such, educators may need to be mindful that there may be barriers to effectively educating all learners regardless of their language background. By educators understanding that learners may have diverse backgrounds and differences in academic performances, they may be able to focus on the individual needs of each learner. 5.3. Disparity between Teachers and Students Villegas, Strom, and Lucas (2012) suggested that a national survey of minority teachers found that they are more underrepresented in K-12 settings in comparison to prior decades. These findings are also exemplified in our research in which the large majority of participants were White, female, and native-English speakers. The stark contrast between the in-service and pre- service teachers and their students can create educational burdens on learners since educators may not have the skills needed to effectively educate all students enrolled in their classes. For instance, http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?action=runSearch&type=advanced&searchType=journal&result=true&prevSearch=%2Bauthorsfield%3A(Mahalingappa%2C+L) http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?action=runSearch&type=advanced&searchType=journal&result=true&prevSearch=%2Bauthorsfield%3A(Mahalingappa%2C+L) Torres & Tackett 194 Fitts and Gross (2012) concluded that prior research conducted with ELLs and pre-service teachers has suggested that future educators often have “negative, simplistic, and often erroneous views of linguistic diversity” (p. 76). Unfortunately, this view may also be held by in-service teachers since they may feel unprepared or ill equipped to work with this subpopulation of learners. Furthermore, Hite and Evans (2006) stated that “in this time of high stakes testing, teachers’ work with ELLs becomes itself a high-stakes teaching act” (p. 89). Another issue that may exist in schools that contain a large number of language minority students is the high turnover rate of teaching staff. Teachers tend to avoid securing employment in schools that contain a significant percentage of students who are classified as low socioeconomic status, minority, and/or low performers (Horng, 2009). This results in teachers avoiding employment in or transferring out of schools that contain high numbers of students who meet these criteria. Unfortunately, this may have negative implications on ELLs who need to receive educational services from effective teachers since they may be beginning their academic careers already a grade-level behind their peers (e.g., may lack content knowledge, low levels of English proficiency skills). 5.4. Benefits of Educating ELLs ELLs bring a wide array of knowledge and experiences to their classroom settings. Although educators may feel initially anxious about working with this subgroup of learners, they may quickly realize how much insight they are able to gain from them. Particularly, educators may be able to learn about various linguistic and cultural differences as well as how to implement effective teaching practices into their classes. For example, prior researchers have found that ELLs perceive their teachers’ attitudes, strategies, support and motivation as all impacting their ability to succeed in their content area classes (Flores & Smith, 2013). Essentially, Flores and Smith, (2013) concluded that ELLs were more likely to ask clarifying questions to teachers who were understanding and approachable in comparison to teachers who showed their frustration when students needed additional assistance. While Flores and Smith’s 2013 study was focused on ELLs, the results are compelling in that all students may feel more comfortable seeking help from educators who appear willing to provide extra assistance. In another study conducted by de Oliveira (2011), she demonstrated through lesson simulations (one lesson lacking appropriate ESOL accommodations and one lesson that incorporated ESOL accommodations) appropriate ELL teaching strategies. Through these simulations, participants were able to notice ELL teaching strategies such as modeling, providing directions in steps, repeating key concepts, paraphrasing of information, and checking for understanding. The strategies that these participants noticed could be considered good teaching practices for educators to use with all students. Specifically, many accommodations such as collaborative group work, visuals, and building on background knowledge are strategies that educators may already use (Keenan, 2004). Hite and Evans (2006) further expressed that: the research on effective teaching of ELL students, although usually situated within ESOL or bilingual classrooms rather than in mainstream classrooms, reveals features appropriate for all learners; maintaining high expectations, scaffolding learning, building vocabulary and background, using active learning strategies, and providing opportunities for student interaction. (p. 93-494) International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2016, 3(3), 186-200. 195 As such, many educators may already possess the tools needed to provide help their ELLs succeed in their classrooms. By educators implementing these accommodations into their classes, they could help to improve the academic performance of all students. 5.5. Limitations One limitation of this study is that the area in which this study was conducted has a relatively low percentage of ELLs enrolled in their schools in comparison to other school districts in the state. However, pre-service teachers who completed their field experiences are able to work with ELLs in this school district and often travel to surrounding countries which contain a high percentage of ELLs. Therefore, students are able to complete field experiences with ELLs, but pre- service teachers may be placed in a school that includes only a few ELLs, which can limit their ability to provide a large number of services to these learners. A second limitation of this study is that students who completed the survey were in various teacher certification cohorts. As a result, first year student cohorts may not have been afforded the opportunity to complete CLD coursework or ELL field experiences since they had not progressed far enough in their programs to enroll in this coursework. This may have resulted in students who had been enrolled in teacher certification programs for two to four years having a different perspective of ELLs due to having a more thorough understanding of CLD content knowledge and more varied experiences working with ELLs. 5. 6. Future Research To develop a more comprehensive understanding of how field experiences can impact pre- service teachers’ abilities to effectively educate ELLs, researchers can focus on the context of these experiences. Particularly, researchers can investigate the different types of field placements available to pre-service teachers (e.g., school, community) to determine how these contexts effectively prepare future educators to educate diverse subgroups of learners. Moreover, researchers could study the impacts of in-service teacher training focused on ELLs. Essentially, does this training provide sufficient support to current educators? Are mentor teachers of pre- service teachers able to effectively use the resources obtained during these trainings to help prepare pre-service teachers and interns they are supervising? 5.7. Implications for Teaching and Learning Through the combination of CLD coursework within teacher certification curriculum and ELL-oriented field experiences, pre-service teachers may become better equipped in their knowledge and abilities to provide strategies and accommodations that will help ELLs learn the content being taught. This is particularly important due to the demographics of K-12 institutions in the United States becoming more culturally and linguistically diverse (NCELA, 2011). This creates an additional need for university/college teacher certification degree programs to make certain that they are developing the skills and knowledge needed for pre-service teachers to educate the diverse range of learners they may encounter in their future classes. One way to accomplish this undertaking is to provide pre-service teachers a wide range of experiences working with ELLs. In fact, researchers have found that pre-service teachers who have the opportunity to complete field experience requirements with ELLs in addition to their ESOL coursework had developed a more thorough understanding of second language acquisition concepts (Bollin, 2007; Pappamihiel, 2007; Zainuddin & Moore, 2004). Torres & Tackett 196 6. Significance The result of this study are important since pre-service teachers may enter teacher preparation programs with preconceived notions about teaching (Eisenhardt, Besnoy, & Steel, 2012). Additionally, pre-service teachers may lack experience needed for them to make connections between course content and practical application. As such, providing pre-service teachers the valuable learning experiences in which they are able to make connections between the content they are acquiring in their CLD coursework and their field experience requirements is becoming increasingly more important. Specifically, pre-service teachers need the opportunity to implement the theories and accommodations they learn in their CLD coursework into actual educational settings that have ELLs enrolled. This will become increasingly more important as the percentage of ELLs increases each year in American public educational settings. Furthermore, in 2012, Samson and Collins estimated that one in four children in America live in homes in which a language other than English is spoken. The current and projected increase in ELL enrollment can have significant impacts on schools and especially the quality of teaching that is provided by educators. Therefore, the coursework and field experiences should prepare pre-service teachers to ensure that all students have the prospect of obtaining academic success. Samson and Collins (2012) proclaimed that: The fact that [our] nation’s teachers are and will increasingly encounter a diverse range of learners requires that every teacher has sufficient breadth and depth of knowledge and range of skills to be able to meet the unique needs of all students, including those who struggle with English. While it is true that there are educational specialists for example, English as a second language and bilingual teachers, who have expertise in supporting ELLs, many teachers do not. (p. 1) It is imperative that teacher education programs determine how to best prepare future teachers to effectively educate all of their students. 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