International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2131 2131 Hasırcı Aksoy, S. (2021). The effect of short films as advance organizer on reading comprehension and self-efficacy perception. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 8(3), 2131-.2149. Received : 24.04.2021 Revised version received : 22.06.2021 Accepted : 24.06.2021 THE EFFECT OF SHORT FILMS AS ADVANCE ORGANIZER ON READING COMPREHENSION AND SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTION Research article Sevil Hasırcı Aksoy : https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1041-7558 Gaziantep University sevilhasirci@gmail.com Biodata: She is an Assistant Prof. Dr. in Gaziantep University, Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education. She has been working on children's literature, reading education, speaking education, and teaching Turkish to foreigners since receiving the title of doctor in the field of Turkish Education in 2015. Copyright © 2014 by International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET). ISSN: 2148-225X. Material published and so copyrighted may not be published elsewhere without written permission of IOJET. mailto:sevilhasirci@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1041-7558 Hasırcı Aksoy 2132 THE EFFECT OF SHORT FILMS AS ADVANCE ORGANIZER ON READING COMPREHENSION AND SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTION Sevil Hasırcı Aksoy sevilhasirci@gmail.com Abstract This article reports the effect of short films as an advance organizer on the development of students’ reading skills. The current study aimed to investigate how short films affect the comprehension and reading self-efficacy perception of students from different socioeconomic levels. The participants included 204 fifth grade students from three schools with different socioeconomic statuses in Gaziantep, Turkey. The experimentation process was planned at three stages determined by Joyce and Weil (2003). The experimentation phase of the study lasted for 10 weeks between October 22nd and December 26th in 2018–2019 Fall Term. After the experimentation, the findings for reading comprehension revealed a significant difference in favor of the students with low and middle socioeconomic status, while no significant difference was found between students in the experimental and control groups from the higher socioeconomic status. In terms of reading self-efficacy, in both groups, only students from the low socioeconomic status showed a significant difference. The results suggest investigating the effect of different advance organizers on the cognitive and affective development of students. Further research should compare short films with other advance organizers as well as examine the effect of short films on students’ development in other linguistic skills. Keywords: Reading achievement, reading self-efficacy perception, advance organizer, short film. 1. Introduction Attempts to the effective learning has raised the importance of the effect of variables in the educational environment on the level of learning. Advance organizers that one of the variables investigated for their effect on the level of learning “are educational tools to help fill the gap between what learners already know and what they need to learn most quickly and effectively” (Ausubel, 1968, p.11). The advance organizers are abstract and general information or thoughts about new information to be used before a new topic or lesson begins (Açıkgöz, 2003). In processing of these thoughts, schemes that form a cognitive synthesis are of great importance. Schemas defined as interlocking mental structures and information networks stored in the brain that act as a filter (Alderson, 2000), are the “building blocks of cognition” (Rumelhart, 1980, p.33). In the process of comprehension, it is important to ensure that students can remember the stored data and interpret it in order to reconstruct the original interpretation (Rumelhart, 1980). For this connection, teachers should conduct teaching activities in such a way as to activate students appropriated schemes (Bayat, 2006, p.165) and to make it easier for students to comprehend what they are reading by using schemes. It is also necessary to describe how effective reading should be by establishing schemas. “Efficient reading is not a result of precise perception and identification of all elements but of the ability to select the fewest and most productive cues required to produce correct guesses the first time.” (Goodman, 1967, p.127). In this sense, advance organizers are one of the methods commonly used to activate prior mailto:sevilhasirci@gmail.com International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2133 knowledge before reading (Rinehart et al., 1991), which makes it a crucial component of efficient reading. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Reading self-efficacy and reading achievement relationship Reading is a complex process that involves sampling the text for graphic clues, predicting grammatical structures and meaning, confirming the validity of the hypotheses advanced and correcting the hypotheses as necessary as text sampling proceeds (Alderson, 2000, p.19). In this process, the emotional state of the reader affects reading success. According to Goetz et al. (1992, p.371), a complete understanding of the reading process awaits a better understanding of the imaginative elements of the experience, namely imagery and emotional response. Reading self-efficacy is one of the effects on the emotional response for reading achievement. The perception of self-efficacy is “one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p.3), and this perception affects the learning process, both positively and negatively (Henk & Melnick, 1995). This influence is mutual, in other words, self-efficacy and performance achievement affect each other reciprocally (Talsma et al., 2018) Self-efficacy belief for reading is confidence in one’s own reading capabilities to execute certain actions or task about reading (Peura et al., 2021). Besides, self-efficacy is associated with the use of specific reading strategies as well as an individual’s attitude toward reading, choice of reading activities, persistence and involvement with the written text, and overall reading comprehension and achievement (Henk & Melnik, 1995; Schunk & Rice, 1991; Schunk & Swartz, 1993). According to Shell, Colvin and Bruning (1995), self-efficacy belief exerts potentially important motivational influences on children reading. “Self-efficacy beliefs in relationship to reading potentially influences on reading achievement, and this is related to gender and socioeconomic status.” (Smith, et al., 2012, p. 203). Reading performance is affected by socioeconomic differences, with high self-efficacy reading perception and enjoyment reading challenging material (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). Learners may need advance organizers to strengthen the relationship between reading comprehension and self- efficacy. As socioeconomic status affects on reading self-efficacy, advance organizers may be used to eliminating the difference. 2.2. Short films and literature relationship Digital filmmaking has made short films increasingly widespread. Additionally, the importance of the convergence of literacy instruction with digital technologies is increasing day by day because the nature of literacy instruction is fundamentally reshaping (Leu & Kenzer, 2000, p.111). For this reason, short films are one of the tools that can be used for reading instruction. The short film, with its esthetic and core structure, originality, and proximity to literature, offers the audience a cross-section of life reality, and in this respect, it is an indispensable stimulus for the language teaching environment (Sever,2011). “In the literature, there are two opinions about the literature- short film relationship: some researchers accept it because of their applicability and narrative art, while other reject it because they believe it is a constrained relationship.” (as cited in Hasırcı, 2018, p.911). Even if some researchers refuse, both are part of the humanities, oriented toward content and have similar metaphors with narratives such as short stories, poems, photography, one-act play but each of them differs from a perspective side and the dynamic visuality (Cooper ve Dancyger, 2005; Katz, 1969). Although they have some differences, using film as a text in the reading course helps the students to understand how literary devices are used in prose analysis and also them with low motivation are more Hasırcı Aksoy 2134 willing to think, talk, and write in this course (Choo, 2006; Vetrie, 2004). These studies show that the short film can be connected to literature education, especially on teaching of reading skill. 2.3. Advance organizers Advance organizers, which act as a general introduction to the new information to be learned, have three purposes: (1) They direct attention to what is important in the material to be learned, (2) they emphasize the associations between the ideas to be presented, and (3) they evoke prior knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016, p.567). Advance organizers used with these purposes must present the content in a meaningful context, encourage learners to actively make use of this context during learning and present a model for learners; however, they should not contain direct information related to the material to be learned (Mayer, 1979, p.134-135). It is significant to identify the function of advance organizers while presenting this model. Expository advance organizers are used when the material to be learned is new, and learners possess little or no related knowledge. Conversely, comparative advance organizers are used to create awareness as to the difference between existent relevant information in cognitive structures and new ideas and knowledge in the material (Ausubel, 2000). Regardless of their purpose, the most effective organizers are those that provide learners with familiar concepts, terms, and propositions and also use appropriate illustrations and analogies (Joyce & Weil, 2003, p.271-272). Therefore, regardless of their type, advance organizers are expected to help students bridge the gap between what they already know and what they are trying to learn (Kulhavy, Schwartz, & Peterson, 1986). Considering the literature on advance organizers, many types of studies can be found on the effect of several types of advance organizers on learners’ comprehension skills: on reading comprehension in a foreign language (Altunay, 2000; Çakıcı & Altunay, 2006; Davaei, & Talebinezhad, 2012; Hanley, 1993); on text types (poems, see- Bayat, 2006); on reading comprehension and retention of conceptual information, basic story elements and achievement in reading (Ausubel, 1960; Beydoğan, 2010; Borer, 1981; Denner, 1986; Hughes, 2004; Knaster, 1994; Loman & Mayer, 1983; Smyth, 1983); and on attitudes to toward reading and motivation (Beydoğan, 2010; Çakıcı, 2007). It has been observed that these studies have made use of different types of organizers -particularly verbal and graphic ones. 2.3.1. Advance organizers as visual aids Advance organizers are classified as verbal, visual, and action (Altunay,2000). Short films, as a type of visual advance organizers, are important in language teaching because they both create narratives in fiction and have a close relationship with literature. The inclusion of visual aids in teaching of literature plays an effective role in clarifying its meaning and context and adding a new dimension to learning by deepening students’ understanding of literature as an independent art form. Visual aids have three aspects according to their relationship with literary texts: textual, contextual, and intertextual. One of the most important features of short films included in the intertextual category (Bellver, 1989) is that they have similar figures of speech with short stories, poetry, photography, and one-act plays, but they are different from them due to their narrative language and dynamic visuals (Cooper & Dancyger, 2005, p.17). Additionally, the use of visual aids such as pictures, videos and projectors encourages students to read texts with interest, which makes it easier for them to comprehend abstract ideas and concepts (Bowen, 1982; Pillai & Vengadasamy, 2010). In the related literature, it has been seen that a limited number of studies exist on the function of visual advance organizers in listening comprehension, vocabulary learning, and retention (Akdemir, 2010; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Chung & Huang, 1998; Miller, 1995; Teng, 2020) and on the effect of short films-videos as advance organizers on reading skills (Hanley, 1993; Hasanah, 2014; Vetrie, 2004). International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2135 Moreover, some studies are limited to lower socioeconomic level students (Hughes, 2004). Using short films as advance organizers on students from different socioeconomic statuses can enhance their reading skill -especially reading comprehension and self-efficacy. The current study aims to investigate participants’ reading achievement and self-efficacy using short films as an advance organizer. In this context, the research problem is the question “Do short films make a significant difference on achievement in reading comprehension and self-efficacy perception in the groups with different socioeconomic backgrounds?” The following sub-questions were asked: 1. Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of their reading comprehension achievement? 2. Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of reading comprehension self-efficacy perception means? 3. Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups from each socioeconomic status in terms of their pre-test and post-test means? 3. Method 3.1. Research model A quasi-experimental study with pretest-posttest control group design was used. There were three experimental groups and three control groups. Short films were used as an advance organizer for the experimental groups, while there was no intervention for the control group. The experimentation phase of the study lasted for 10 weeks between October 22nd and December 26th in 2018–2019 Fall Term. The attainments of Turkish language teaching curriculum were started and ended at the same time for all groups during the experimentation phase. 3.2. Research sample The research group of the study consists of students at 5th grade from three schools with different socioeconomic statuses in Gaziantep, Turkey (N = 204). Socioeconomic status was determined by the Minimum Wage Determination Commission and data released by the Turkish Statistical Institute on February 2018, income between 0 and 3200 ₺ was classified as low socioeconomic status, between 3201 and 8900₺ as middle socioeconomic status, and 8901₺ and above as high socioeconomic status (tuik.gov.tr, 2018). The family income status of the students was obtained through the personal information form and the average family income of the students with low economic status was 2880₺; with middle economic status was 6450₺ and with high economic status was 16650₺. Related information as to the research group is given in Table 1. Table 1 shows that 52.46% of the participants were female, and 47.54% were male. In terms of socioeconomic status, 42.2% of the participants had a lower socioeconomic status, 34.8% a high socioeconomic status, and 23% a middle socioeconomic status. Hasırcı Aksoy 2136 Table 1. Distribution of the participants by gender and schools’ socioeconomic status School Total Low socioeconomic status Middle socioeconomic status High socioeconomic status Gender Female Frequency 45 28 34 107 Percentage 42.1% 26.2% 31.7% 100.0% Male Frequency 41 19 37 97 Percentage 42.3% 19.6% 38.1% 100.0% Total Frequency 86 47 71 204 Percentage 42.2% 23.0% 34.8% 100.0% 3.3. Research instrument and procedure The research data were obtained through the “Reading Comprehension Achievement Test” and the “Reading Comprehension Self-Efficacy Perception Scale”. Reading comprehension achievement test: It was developed by Yıldız (2010) and consists of two texts, narrative and informative, and 28 multiple choice questions. The reliability coefficient of questions in the narrative text (α) was 0.72, and in the informative text was 0.80. This test, which has a total reliability coefficient (α) of 0.81, was prepared based on the learning outcomes in the Turkish language teaching curriculum. It was preferred due to the match between the objectives targeted to be measured in the test and the achievements targeted in the activities for the research process. In this study, the reliability coefficient was 0.81. Reading Comprehension Self-Efficacy Perception Scale: The scale, developed by Epçaçan and Demirel (2011), consists of 27 items. It includes aspects of “Textual and Visual Comprehension”, “Self-regulation in Reading”, and “High Self-Efficacy of Reading” with items rated on Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). The reliability coefficient of the scale is 0.88, and the obtained reliability coefficient in this study is 0.95. 3.4. Implementation process 1. The equivalence of experimental and control groups in each socioeconomic status was tested. In this vein, no significant difference was found among pre-achievement tests (t = 0.641; p = 0.52 > 0.05; t = 0.502; p = 0.61 > 0.05; U = 515.00; p = 0.18 > 0.05) and self-efficacy perception of reading comprehension pre-test (t = 1.65; p = 0.10 > 0.05; t = 0.72; p = 0.47 > 0.05; t = 1.22; p = 0.22 > 0.05) for all three socioeconomic statuses. 2. After ensuring the equivalence of the groups, three stages framework proposed by Joyce and Weil (2003) regarding the use of advance organizers was used. The steps followed in the 10-week experimental process are shown in Figure 1. 3. Following the control group’s pre-test, the activities in the coursebook were conducted in the traditional way. A post-test was administered during 10th week. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2137 2137 Figure 1. Syntax of advance organizer model International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2138 2138 3.5. Data analysis Data analysis was conducted through SPSS 22.0 software. First, a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was run to determine whether student scores obtained from the responses in the reading comprehension achievement test and self-efficacy perception scale were normally distributed. Second, an independent samples t-test was conducted to determine whether there was a significant difference between the experimental group, which was administered short films as advance organizers, and the control group, which went through a traditional learning and teaching process, in terms of their scores on the reading comprehension achievement test and self-efficacy perception scale. As the test statistics of an independent samples t-test vary depending on whether variance between-groups is equal (Sipahi, Yurtkoru & Çinko, 2006, p. 118), equality of variances was tested before a t-test was performed. Third, to identify any changes in measured values before and after the administration of short films, a dependent samples t-test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test were conducted. The same statistical analysis was also conducted to determine whether there was a significant difference between pre-test and post-test values of the control group. 4. Results 4.1. Reading comprehension achievement The first sub-question is “Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of their reading comprehension achievement?” Table 2 shows the results obtained. Table 2. Post-test means of reading comprehension achievement Groups N x̄ sd t df p Low socioeconomic status Experimental 42 15.5476 4.66017 5.146 84 .000 Control 44 10.6818 4.10203 Middle socioeconomic status Experimental 27 17.0370 5.35998 4.500 45 .000 Control 20 10.4500 4.35860 N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks U Z p High socioeconomic status Experimental 35 35.78 1288.00 622.000 -.092 .926 Control 36 36.23 1268.00 As can be seen in Table 2, in the analysis of the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups, a significant difference was found in favor of the experimental group from students with low and middle socioeconomic status (tloweconomicstatus = 5.146; tmiddleeconomicstatus = 4.500; p<.05) while no significant difference was determined between experimental and control groups from higher socioeconomic status (U = 622.000; p = -.092> .05). 4.2. Development of reading self-efficacy perception International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2139 The second sub-question was “Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of reading comprehension self-efficacy perception means?” To assess this, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Table 3 shows the results obtained. Table 3. Post-test means of reading self-efficacy perception Groups N x̄ sd t df p Low socioeconomic status Experimental 42 3.6819 .54447 2.595 84 .011 Control 44 3.3680 .57586 Middle socioeconomic status Experimental 27 3.5432 .66060 .425 45 .673 Control 20 3.4598 .67201 High socioeconomic status Experimental 35 3.8748 .67542 -.746 69 .458 Control 36 3.9902 .62631 As shown in Table 3, while there was a significant difference among students in experimental and control groups with low socioeconomic status in terms of their post-test means (tloweconomicstatus = 2.595; p<.05), no significant difference was found among students with middle and high socioeconomic status (tmiddleeconomicstatus = .425; thigheconomicstatus = -.746; p>.05). It was found that short films had a significant effect on textual and visual comprehension, and self-efficacy on students with low socioeconomic status (ttextualandvisualcomprehension = 2.301; p = .027; tselfefficacy = 2.540; p = .015); however, no significant difference was observed in terms of self-regulation in reading (tselfregulationinreading = 1.654; p = .106). 4.3. Comparison of the groups’ mean scores of pre-test and post-test The third sub-question was “Is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups from each economic status in terms of their pre-test and post-test means?” A within-group comparison was made, the results of which are given in Table 4. Table 4. The pre-test and post-test means of experimental and control groups Low Socioeconomic Status x̄ sd t df p E x p e ri m e n ta l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 11.2619 4.07287 -8.360 41 .000 Post-test 15.5476 4.66017 Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Pre-test 3.4613 .69813 -2.682 41 .011 Post-test 3.6819 .54447 C o n tr o l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 10.7045 3.99173 .048 43 .075 Post-test 10.6818 4.10203 Pre-test 3.2365 .56007 -1.823 43 .075 Hasırcı Aksoy 2140 Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Post-test 3.3680 .57586 Table 4. (Continued) Middle Socioeconomic Status x̄ sd t df p E x p e ri m e n ta l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 9.3333 3.12558 -9.964 26 .000 Post-test 17.0370 5.35998 Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Pre-test 3.8943 .62027 3.738 26 .001 Post-test 3.5432 .66060 C o n tr o l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 9.8000 3.18880 -.810 19 .428 Post-test 10.4500 4.35860 Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Pre-test 3.7519 .72817 2.220 19 .039 Post-test 3.4598 .67201 High Socioeconomic Status x̄ sd t df p E x p e ri m e n ta l Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Pre-test 3.8873 .55022 .153 34 .879 Post-test 3.8748 .67542 C o n tr o l Reading Self- Efficacy Perception Pre-test 4.0645 .66338 .788 35 .436 Post-test 3.9902 .62631 Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Z p E x p e ri m e n ta l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 15.63 250.00 -.705 .481 Post-test 14.23 185.00 C o n tr o l Reading Comprehension Achievement Pre-test 18.15 236.00 -1.055 .291 Post-test 17.10 359.00 Table 4 shows a significant difference between pre-test and post-test means of the students in the experimental group with low socioeconomic status in terms of their reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perception (treadingcomprehensionachievement = -8.360; International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2141 tselfefficacyperception = -2.682; p<.05) while there was no significant difference in the pre-test and post-test means of the control group from both aspects. As in the group with low socioeconomic status, the pre-test and post-test means of the students in the experimental group with middle socioeconomic status also differed significantly in terms of reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perception (treadingcomprehensionachievement =-9.964; tselfefficacyperception = 3.738; p<.05). Regarding the control group, there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test means in terms of self-efficacy perception (tselfefficacyperception = 2.220; p<.05) while no significant difference was determined in terms of reading comprehension achievement. For the students with high socioeconomic status, it was that they did not differ significantly in terms of their pre-test and post-test means pertaining to reading comprehension achievement (Zexperimental = -.705; Zcontrol = -1.055; p>.05) and self-efficacy perception (texperimental = .153; tcontrol = .788; p>.05). 5. Discussion and Conclusion 5.1. Discussion This study attempted to investigate the effect of short films on reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions of students with different socioeconomic statuses. For this purpose, a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest control group design was used. In light of the data obtained, the groups were compared in terms of reading comprehension achievement, and a significant difference was found in favor of the experimental group students from low and middle socioeconomic status. Similarly, Hughes (2004) conducted a study with sixth-grade students from a low socioeconomic status about the effect of graphic organizer. Graphic organizers are “a type of advance organizers that activates a reader’s prior knowledge and depicts the organizational pattern of a reading selection by schematically representing key vocabulary terms” (Alvermann, 1981, p.4), and Hughes (2004) concluded that graphic organizers had an impact on reading comprehension, retention, and making connections with other texts. Bransford and Johnson (1972) reported that seeing context-related visual materials as advance organizers before listening to the text is as influential as the achievement in reading comprehension and retention. Similarly, Hanley (1993) investigated the effect of watching videos related to the theme of the reading text on reading comprehension skills and concluded that the experimental group improved to a greater extent in terms of reading comprehension, and that videos are effective advance organizers in recalling what has been read. Besides, in the studies by Vetrie (2004) and Hasanah (2014), using film increased students’ reading achievement and critical-thinking skills. This study is similar in that it administers short films as advance organizers before the text and finds a significant difference in terms of reading comprehension achievement - particularly in favor of students from a low socioeconomic background. From this aspect, it can be stated that visual advance organizers are more effective for students from a low socioeconomic background in terms of reading comprehension and retention. Mayer (1984) noted three aids for text comprehension: (a) tools to help pick information, (b) aids for establishing in-text connections, and (c) aids for establishing inter-textual connections. Short films are used as advance organizers to discover the inner structure of a text and help students with problems in reading comprehension to make connections between the content of the short film and the text that they read, thus making it easier for them to make sense of texts. Davaei and Talebinezhad (2012) stated that activating students’ background knowledge on the topic that they read makes it easier for them to understand it. Therefore, it can be stated that short films are effective in terms of activating background information. Hasırcı Aksoy 2142 Another finding of this study is that the reading comprehension pre-test scores of the students with high socioeconomic status are higher than those from the other statuses. The pre- test mean of the experimental group is 11.2619 for the students with low socioeconomic status and 9.333 for the students with middle socioeconomic status, and the difference is not statistically significant (p= 0.071; p>0.05). However, there seems to be a significant difference between pre-test means of the students with low and middle socioeconomic statuses and those with high socioeconomic status (U = 15.63; p= 0.00; p< 0.05). Additionally, there was no significant difference between the students of the experimental and control groups with high socioeconomic status in terms of reading comprehension achievement. This indicates that the differences in the learning environment lead to a decrease in the effect of the advance organizers as the socioeconomic status increases. In the studies conducted by Çakıcı (2005) and Çakıcı and Altunay (2006), no significant difference was found in terms of experimental and control groups’ reading comprehension achievement, and it was concluded that providing an advance organizer is not effective on its own in increasing students’ performance. Therefore, it can be concluded that short films, as advance organizers, can influence on the performance of students with a low level of achievement in reading comprehension; however, they may not be effective alone for high achieving students since their effect decreases as the level of achievement increases. In terms of self-efficacy perception, a significant difference was found in the pre-test and post-test means of students from the experimental group with low and middle socioeconomic status, but there was no significant difference in the pre-test and post-test means of students in high socioeconomic experimental group. Eyüp and Yurt (2016) reported a relationship between reading comprehension self-efficacy and the economic status of middle school students and found that students' self-efficacy perception decreases as their economic conditions weaken. Because of reading self-efficacy perception is related to socio-economic status, in this study the self-efficacy of the groups were compared and it was concluded that self-efficacy perceptions of the students in the experimental group increased as the socioeconomic status increased. (lower economic status x̄ = 3.4613; high economic status x̄ = 3.8873). However, while short films made a difference in the self-efficacy perceptions of reading comprehension in students with low socioeconomic status, they did not make a significant difference in students with high socioeconomic status. Ausubel (1960) argued that unfamiliarity is important with regard to the effect of the advance organizers on the new verbal material to be learned. The fact that it was a novel experience for the students from a low socioeconomic background to be involved in an educational context with short films increased the efficiency of advance organizers. Moreover, according to Chung and Huang (1998), when advance organizers are detailed and long, they negatively influence the attention of students with low motivation. There is also a significant positive relationship between academic motivation and self-efficacy (Aktaş, 2017); therefore, the lack of motivation negatively affects academic self-efficacy. A study by Thibodeau (1998) reported that advance organizers did not make a difference in the perceptions about communication skills. In this study, the short films used can be considered illustrations of events, messages, and characters in a holistic way as a part of a particular theme due to their nature. Therefore, the detailed integrity of content of the short films and text may not have affected the reading comprehension self-efficacy perceptions of the students with middle and high socioeconomic status. 5.2. Conclusion In conclusion, short films was used to improve the reading comprehension skill to the students prior to reading, and short films influenced reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions; however, this effect decreased as socioeconomic status increased. Because in the beginning of the study, it was seen that the students with high socioeconomic International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2143 have a high average on reading achievement test and reading self-efficacy perception. Hence, the group with high average were not affected by short films as much as others. As a reason of this result, it can be seen the learning environment difference among the groups. Therefore shorts films which are visual-verbal advance organizers for especially students with high socioeconomic status would be advised to associate with other advance organizers so that meaningful learning occurs, and students develop affectively. This is because each advance organizer is functional on the condition that it is meaningful, and students can establish associations and see the differences. It is therefore significant to investigate the effect of different advance organizers on the cognitive and effective development of students. For this purpose, further research should focus on comparing short films with other advance organizers or relating short films with listening skill activities before reading to see its usefulness as an external aid for reading comprehension. The another suggest is to examine short films effect as advance organizers on speaking and writing skills, especially affective side. And the final suggest is to study with longitudinal designs and person-centered approaches to see the effect on reading comprehension and self-efficacy development. Hasırcı Aksoy 2144 References Açıkgöz, Ü. K. (2003). Etkili öğrenme ve öğretme [An effective learning and teaching]. İzmir: Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları. Akdemir, A.S. (2010). Videonun dinleme becerisine ön örgütleyici olarak uygulanması [Video as an advance organizer to listening skill]. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Atatürk University Institute of Social Sciences, Erzurum. Aktaş, H. (2017). Akademik güdülenme ile akademik özyeterlik arasındaki ilişki: ilahiyat fakültesi öğrencileri üzerine ampirik bir araştırma [The relationship between academic motivation and academic self-efficacy: an empirical research on the students of the faculty of teology]. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(3), 1376-1398. Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Altunay, U. (2000). Ön örgütleyicilerin ve öğrenci tutumlarının İngilizce ironic metinlerin anlaşılması üzerine etkileri [The effects of attitudes and advence orgenizers on the comprehension of ironical texts in English]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Educational Sciences, İzmir. Alvermann, D. E. (1981). The compensatory effect of graphic organizers on text structure. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 208 019. Retrieved May 24, 2019 from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED208019.pdf Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(5), 267-272. Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology. A cognitive view. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Ausubel, D. P. (2000). The acquisition and retention of knowledge: A cognitive view. Berlin: Springer-Science+Business Media. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Bayat, N. (2006). Şiire yönelik tutumlarin ve ön örgütleyicilerin şiirsel imgelerin anlamlandirilmasi üstündeki etkililiği [The effectiveness of attitudes towards poetry and advance organizers on signification of poetic image]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Educational Sciences, İzmir. Bellver, C.G. (1989). Literature and visual aids: textual, contextual, and intertextual applications. Hispania, 72 (4), 1078-1082. Beydoğan, H.Ö. (2010). Grafiksel düzenlemelerin öğrencilerin okuma-anlama düzeylerine etkisi [The effects of graphical regulations on students’ levels of reading- comprehension]. Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 188, 202-217. Borer, G. (1981). Effect of advance organizers and behavioral objectives on reading of sixth graders with selective attention deficits. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 8119760) Bowen, B. M. (1982). Look here! visual aids in language teaching. London: Macmillan Publishers. Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 717-726. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2145 Choo, S. (2006). Incorporating film in the literature curriculum. Retrieved May 1, 2020 from http://singteach.nie.edu.sg/issue04-voices03/ . Chung, J. M., & Huang, S. C. (1998). The effects of three aural advance organizers for video viewing in foreign language classroom. System, 26, 553-565. Cooper, P. & Dancyger, K. (2005). Kısa film yazmak [Writing the short film] (S.Gündeş, Trans.). İstanbul: Es Yayınları. Çakıcı, D. (2005). Ön örgütleyicilerin okumaya yönelik tutum ve okuduğunu anlama üzerindeki etkileri [The effects of advance organizers on attitudes towards reading and reading comprehension]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Educational Sciences, İzmir. Çakıcı, D., & Altunay, U. (2006). Ön örgütleyiciler ve öğretimde kullanımları [Advance organizers and employment in teaching]. Kastamonu Education Journal, 14(1), 11-20. Çakıcı, D. (2007). Ön örgütleyicilerin okumaya yönelik tutum üzerindeki etkileri [The effects of advance organizers on attitudes towards reading]. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(14), 65–82. Davaei, R., & Talebinezhad, M.R. (2012). The effect of advance organizers on enhancing the reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2 (10), 2045-2052. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.10.2045-2052 Denner, P. (1986, June 4). Comparison of the effects of episodic organizers and traditional notetaking on story recall. U.S. Department of Education. (Grant No. 538). Epçaçan, C., & Demirel, Ö. (2011). Okuduğunu anlama öz yeterlik algisi ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [Validity and reliability study on the scale of belief self- efficiency reading comprehension]. The Journal of International Social Research, 4(16), 120-128. Eyüp, B., & Uzuner Yurt, S. (2016). Ortaokul öğrencilerinin okuma tutumları ve okuduğunu anlama öz yeterlikleri arasındaki ilişki [The relationship between reading attitudes and self-efficacy reading comprehension of secondary school students]. Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 67, 201-216. Goetz, E. T., Sadoski, M., Olivarez, A., Calero-Breckheimer, A., Garner, P., & Fatemi, Z. (1992). The structure of emotional response in reading a literary text: Quantitative and qualitative analyses. Reading Research Quarterly, 27(4), 360–372. doi: 10.2307/747675 Goodman, K. S. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6, 126-135. Hanley, J. E. B. (1993). The use of video as an advance organizer to introduce children to reading in a foreign language. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9323165) Hanley, J. E. B., Herron, C. A., & Cole, S. P. (1995). Using video as an advance organizer to a written passage in the FLES Classroom. The Modern Language Journal. 79 (1), 57-65. Hasanah, A. (2014, October). Using films as media to teach literature. Paper presented at the 61 TEFLIN International Conference (pp.911-914)., Orta Cava, Indonesia: Sebelas Maret University Press. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43024755.pdf Hasırcı, S. (2018). Anadili öğretiminde çok uyaranlı eğitim ortamı ve bu ortamın bileşenlerinin önemi [Multi stimuli educational environment for mother tongue teaching and the https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43024755.pdf Hasırcı Aksoy 2146 importance of this environment’s components]. Turkish Studies- Educational Sciences, 13 (19), 895-922. doi: 10.7827/TurkishStudies. Henk, W., & Melnick, S. (1995). The reader self-perception scale (RSPS): A new tool for measuring how children feel about themselves as readers. The Reading Teacher, 48(6), 470–482. Herron, C., York, H., Cole, S. P., & Linden, P. (1998). A comparison study of student retention of foreign language video: Declarative versus interrogative advance organizer. The Modern Language Journal, 82(2), 237-247. Hughes, F.N. (2004). The effects of utilizing graphic organizers with traditional basal reading instruction on sixth-grade reading comprehension achievement scores. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No: 3161312). Joyce, B. & Weil, M. (2003). Models of teaching (5th Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Limited Editon. Katz, J.S. (1969). An integrated approach to the teaching of film and literature. The Canadian Council of Teachers of English, 2(1), 25-29. Knaster, D. (1994). The effect of an advance organizer, attention, and reading ability on reading comprehension. (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No: EP11402). Kulhavy, R.W., Schwartz, N.H., & Peterson, S.E. (1986). Working memory: the instructional encoding process. In G.D. Phye & T. Andre (Eds.), Cognitive classroom learning: understanding, thinking, and problem solving (pp. 83-113). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Lenz, B. K„ Alley, G., & Schumaker, J. (1987). Activating the inactive learner: advance organizers in the secondary content classroom. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 53- 67. Leu, D.J., & Kinzer, C.K. (2000). The convergence of literacyinstruction with networked technologies for informationand communication. Reading Research Quarterly, 35,108– 127. Loman, N. L., & Mayer, R. E. (1983). Signaling techniques that increase the understanding of expository prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 402-412. Mayer, R. E. (1979). Twenty years of research on advance organizers: assimilation theory is still the best predictor of results. Instructional Science, 8, 133-167. Mayer, R. E. (1984). Aids to text comprehension. Educational Psychologist, 19 (1), 30-42. doi: 10.1080/00461528409529279 Miller, N. (1995). The effect of working memory, an advance organizer and modeled notetaking on listening comprehension of inner city fifth graders (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9633546) Mucherah, W. & Yoder, A. (2008). Motivation for reading and middle school students’ performance on standardized testing in reading. Reading Psychology, 29, 214–235. doi: 10.1080/02702710801982159 Peura, P., Aro, T., Räikkönen, E., Viholainen, H., Koponen, T., L. Usher, E., & Aro, M. (2021). Trajectories of change in reading self-efficacy: A longitudinal analysis of self-efficacy International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2147 and its sources. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 64, 1-15. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101947 Pillai, S. & Vengadasamy, R. (2010). Developing understanding and appreciation of literature and critical reading concepts through multimodal approaches. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, 6, 133-166. Rinehart, S. D., Barksdale-Ladd, M. A., & Welker, W. A. (1991). Effects of advance organizers on text recall by poor readers. Journal of Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities, 7, 321-335. doi:10.1080/0748763910070405 Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R.Spiro, B., Bruce & W. Brever (Eds), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence and education (pp.33-58). Hillsdale N.J.: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates. Schunk, D. H., & Rice, J. M. (1991). Learning goals and progress feedback during reading comprehension instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 23, 351-364. Schunk, D. H., & Swartz, C. W. (1993). Goals and progress feedback: Effects on self-efficacy and writing achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337-354. Sever, S. (2011). Dil ve edebiyat öğretiminde kısa film ve karikatür. In S. Sever (Ed.), Prof.Dr.Cahit Kavcar Türkçe Eğitimi Çalıştayı [Prof.Dr.Cahit Kavcar Turkish Language Education Workshop] on 13- 15 May 2010 (pp.169-192). Ankara: Ankara University Press. Shell, D., Colvin, C., & Bruning, R. (1995). Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement: grade-level and achievement-level differences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 386-398. Sipahi, B. E, Yurtkoru. E.S., & Çinko, M.(2006) Sosyal bilimlerde SPSS’le veri analizi, [Data analysis with SPSS in social sciences]. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Smith, J.K., Smith, L.F., Gilmore, A., & Jameson, M. (2012). Students' self-perception of reading ability, enjoyment of reading and reading achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 202-206. Smyth, T. J. C. (1983). The effects of two types of pre-reading instructional activities on the reading performance of middle school students. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 8409329) Talsma, K., Schüz, B., Schwarzer, R., & Norris, K. (2018). I believe, therefore I achieve (and vice versa): A meta-analytic cross-lagged panel analysis of self-efficacy and academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 61, 136–150. doi: j.lindif.2017.11.015. Teng, M.F. (2020). Vocabulary learning through videos: captions, advance-organizer strategy, and their combination. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 0(0), 1-33. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2020.1720253 Thibodeau, M. E. (1998). The effects of advance organizer on student perception of teacher communication competence. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9841458) Turkish Statistic Institute (2018). Prelstatik tablo, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018 from http://tuik.gov.tr/PreIstatistikTablo.do?istab_id=653 Hasırcı Aksoy 2148 Underhill, P. A. (2001). A test of the effect of advance organizers and reading ability on seventh-grade science achievement. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3013461) Vetrie, M. (2004). Using film to increase literacy skill. English Journal, 93(3), 39-45. Woolfolk, A. (2016). Educational psychology (13th edition). London: Pearson Education. Yıldız, M. (2010). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin okuduğunu anlama, okuma motivasyonu ve okuma alışkanlıkları arasındaki ilişki [The relationship between 5th graders’ reading comprehension, reading motivation and reading habits]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2021, 8(3), 2131-.2149. 2149 Appendix Short films used in the study First, the main idea of each text in the course book was determined and second, the short films were examined according to the text’s main idea and suitability for child development. Finally, opinions on suitability were collected from experts working on short films, child development and reading teaching. After obtaining consensus, we selected the following short films: Lost Fish Nemo- Disnep/ Pixar Films- The minutes between 1:22:29- 1:25:25 For the Birds- Pixar Snack Attack- Eduardo Verastegui/ Metanoia Films A Cloudy Lesson- Disnep/ Ringling College of Art and Design The Coat- Mormon Channel/ President Heber J. Grant’s Story One Small Step- TAIKO Studios Coconul- Afrikatoon Production 1001 Inventions and the Library of Secrets- The Edge Picture Company in association with Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation The Egyptian Pyramids- Supinfocom Arles (MOPA)