Yalap, H. & Biçer, Y. (2022). Phrasal loan translation terms in the master’s theses on teaching Turkish as a foreign language. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 10(1). 162-190. Received : 24.09.2022 Revised version received : 08.11.2022 Accepted : 11.11.2022 PHRASAL LOAN TRANSLATION TERMS IN THE MASTER’S THESES ON TEACHING TURKISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Research Article Hakan Yalap (0000-0003-0300-2741) Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Education Faculty, Nevşehir hakanyalap@hotmail.com Yunus Biçer (0000-0002-5782-4719) Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Nevşehir yunus_emre_bicer@hotmail.com Biodata(s): Hakan Yalap works as Assoc. Prof. Dr. at Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Faculty of Education. Yunus Biçer is a MA student at the department of Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language at Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University. Copyright © 2014 by International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET). ISSN: 2148-225X. Material published and so copyrighted may not be published elsewhere without written permission of IOJET. mailto:hakanyalap@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5782-4719 mailto:yunus_emre_bicer@hotmail.com International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 163 PHRASAL LOAN TRANSLATION TERMS IN THE MASTER’S THESES ON TEACHING TURKISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Hakan Yalap hakanyalap@hotmail.com Yunus Biçer yunus_emre_bicer@hotmail.com Abstract Languages are living creatures. They need to feed on lexical units to survive. To satisfy this biological need, they either utilize their own properties to produce novel lexical units like plants photosynthesize or import foreign words to meet calorie deficit like animals feed. Loan translation is the combination of these two tendencies. During this process, a language benefits from its own words to find an equivalence to a novel concept; however, imitating a foreign source word in lexical, phrasal, or sentential level. This method is also used for special languages of terminological domains. For these realities, phrasal loan translation terminologization method was decided on as the data type. Turkish master’s theses on teaching Turkish as a foreign language were selected as the sample. 25 theses were scanned, and 203 potential phrasal loan translation terms were detected. Related terms were classified under six domains: education, linguistics, sociology, methodology, statistics, and others. Potential source languages and terms were represented for each term. If possible, they were provided with evidential source texts. Problematic terms were handled separately, and the potential reasons for these problems were explained just under the related term in the table. In the conclusion part, potential solution suggestions were presented. Keywords: calque, loan translation, terminologization, teaching Turkish as a foreign language 1. Introduction The Big Bang was not the beginning. There was something before the Big Bang, and that something is what we will have in our future. Penrose, R. (2020) Emerging from the human species’ effort to make sense of the world in which it exists, the phenomenon of language takes on the task of being a tool to provide communication amongst this species’ individuals. While establishing communication, a person needs to utilize the single units of a language, which are words, in the form of either speaking, writing, or signing (Oxford, 2015, p. 1732). To fulfil the requirement of bringing new lexical units to the lexicon of a specific language, individuals benefit from some word formation or semantic change methods such as derivation, compounding, and polysemy using the language’s own lingual properties (cf. Karaman, 2003; Sarı, 2015). On the other hand, it is also possible for a language to import lexical units from other languages either directly or through translation. mailto:e@mail.com mailto:yunus_emre_bicer@hotmail.com Yalap & Biçer 164 Lexical units that are borrowed from other languages are called borrowings or loan words, either preserving their morphological and semantic aspects, or undergoing some orthographical and/or phonological adaptations to fit in the target lexicon (cf. Crystal, 2008). Unlike loan words, during the process of loan translation, a lexical unit in the source language is translated morpheme by morpheme into the target language (Aikhenvald, 2007, p. 24, as cited in Zabawa, 2017, p. 44). For instance, Süpermen1 “Superman” is an example of loan word while Örümcek Adam2 “Spiderman” is an example of loan translation from English to Turkish. Loan translation is also known as calque in the literature. It is a funny coincidence that loan translation is a calque from German Lehnübersetzung while calque is an example of borrowing from French language (interproinc.com). As for Turkish equivalents, the related concept has been handled in the academic studies with the names of öyküntü, ödünçlemeli çeviri, and anlam aktarması (Uysal, 2013a, p. 119). It is possible to talk about different types of loan translation such as lexical, phrasal, or even in sentential level. In this sense, both semantic, morphological, and syntactic perspectives are benefitted from to analyze these creations. Even though interlingual translation is the primarily used method to create calques, it is also possible to see intralingual versions due to some other concerns. The linguistic steps in the following paragraph can be given as an example to this phenomenon. As it influenced many nations, the French Revolution had some significant effects on the Turkish society, too, in terms of many aspects. Originating from the revolution, the French motto “liberté (liberty), egalité (equality), fraternité (fraternity)” was directly translated into Turkish and used by the politicians during the Second Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire as “hürriyet (حرية), müsavat (مساواة), uhuvvet ( أخوة ),” keeping up with the tendency of the era to utilize Arabic roots to create terminological units. Afterwards, each constituent of the motto acquired specific terminological meanings in politics. Following the establishment of the Republic, these terminological units were replaced by newly derived words of Turkic origin, i.e., “özgürlük (hürriyet), eşitlik (müsavat), kardeşlik (uhuvvet).” While the first stage is considered interlingual, the second one is an example of intralingual loan translation. Thanks to translatorial activities, languages acquire new lexical and phrasal properties. Starting from the Turkish language reform to today, it has been a widely utilized method to translate lexical units of source languages for the purpose of closing the gap of lexicalization. Turkish has been under the influence of some powerful languages like primarily Persian, Arabic, French, and English. The examples show themselves from daily language to technical jargons. Turkish slang kafası güzel (olmak) “(to be) drunk; literally (to have) a beautiful head” can be the true epitome of loan translation from Persian sarχʷoş سرخوش “drunk; literally sar (head) and χʷoş (beautiful)” (nisanyansozluk.com) while phrasal expressions like rol oyna- “play a role” and iletişim kur- “establish a communication” have been analogized from French jouer le role and établir la communication respectively (Uysal, 2013b, p. 87). 1.1. Literature Review 1 While Turkish Süpermen is a loan word from English Superman, English Superman is a loan translation from German Übermensch (Crystal, 2008, p. 64). 2 Turkish Örümcek Adam can also be regarded as an example of localization in translation studies (see Munday, 2008, p. 191). International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 165 Uysal (2013a) handles the concept of calque from Turkish terminological dictionaries such as Bitkibilim Terimleri (Botanical Terms), Dilbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Linguistic Terms), Teknik Terimler I (Technical Terms I), and more. She classifies her findings under the titles of calques one of whose elements are Turkish and the other foreign, and calques both of whose elements are Turkish depending on the classification system by İmer (1998, p. 153-154). In their study titled Transliteration or Loan Translation: Constraints on English Loanwords' Integration into Mandarin Chinese, Tian and Backus (2013) deal with the concept of loan translation from English to Mandarin Chinese collecting data from Chinese newspapers and magazines. They classify the related data into three categories: transliteration, semantic loan, and combination of transliteration and translation. In conclusion, they state that the contact between these languages is very intense. On the other hand, Siaka and Yankey (2007) do similar research on Ghana culture. In their study titled Loan Translation in Cross-English: Ghana as a Case Study, they detect English descriptions for Ghanian culture from books and newspaper articles in English language. They analyze the data in terms of lexical calques, semantic loans, semi-calques, and “Matreshka doll” hybrids. They use the last term for the expressions with an explainer attached to them to clarify the type of the lexical item as in Matreshka doll for English and tarhana çorbası (tarhana soup) for Turkish. Zabawa (2017) analyzes Polish computer users’ informal discourse in terms of semantic loans, loan translations and loan renditions. Semantic loan can simply be explained as borrowing of meaning from a foreign language. For instance, as a dental term, Turkish köprü is a semantic loan from English bridge. As for the difference between loan translation and loan renditions, he distinguishes two terms as follows: the former is an exact translation (translation proper) while for the latter, source lexical item is inspired to translate the novel concept into the language (partial translation). Turkish özçekim3 can be given as an example for loan rendition since it is analogous to source English selfie. 1.2. Term Etymologically followed, coming from Latin terminus4 “end, boundary line (etymonline.com),” the word term is defined in Oxford Dictionary as “a word or phrase used as the name of something, especially one connected with a particular type of language (2015, p. 1560).” As its Turkish equivalent, the word terim was derived and proposed from an Old Turkic root tér- “collect, gather, compile,” adding the nominalizer bound morpheme +Im5 onto it during the language revolution in the 1930s. Zülfikar (1991, p. 20) states that the Turkish word terim was coined pursuing the concerns of imitating the original Latin word terminus. In the sense of diachronic equivalence, before the revolution, Arabic origin word ıstılah6 was in the use of the language. 3 It is a compound word consisting of öz “self” and çekim “taking (a photograph).” 4 Modern English term “word or phrase used in a limited or precise sense,” < Old French terme “limit of time or place, date, appointed time, duration,” < Latin terminus “end, boundary line,” < Medieval Latin terminus “expression, definition,” (etymonline.com). Related semanteme of the headword term refers to its characteristics of being precise and being fixed coming from the Latin word terminus along with the meanings of “end” and “boundary line.” 5 Morphological environment of related nominalizer bound morpheme: [[XVERB]-Im]NOUN ➔ Old Turkic tér- “collect, gather, compile” +Im = *térim > Modern Turkish terim “term.” 6 Turkish ıstılah “term” < Arabic iṣtilāḥ إصتالح “agreeing on, convention, terminology,” < ṣalaḥa ََصلَح “be righteous and correct” (nisanyansozluk.com). Yalap & Biçer 166 Şaş (2020, p. 245-246) states the eleven characteristics of terms as follows: 1. terms do not have any connotations or metaphorical meanings, so they are monosemous words, 2. terms are words which are closed to interpretation, whose meanings are limited, precise and clear, 3. terms do not undergo any semantic shifts or extensions depending on the use, 4. terms do not take place in general language, but there are words that have been made into a term selected from general language, 5. all the meanings other than their terminological meanings of the words that have been selected and made into a term disappear, 6. terms do not occur in the natural course of a language, so they are usually invented by the people who are expert in the field, 7. when the concepts they express are generalized and commonly used in daily language, terms lose their characteristic of being a term; however, these words preserve their characteristic of being a term in the fields of science, sports, art and profession to which they belong, 8. terms are free morphemes, 9. the circulation of terms within the language is realized by the language use of the people in the fields of science, sports, art and profession to which they belong, 10. while the great majority of terms belongs to a specific field, minority of them can be used in different fields at the same time, 11. terms are standard words in terms of phonological, morphological, semantical and pragmatical aspects. 1.3. Terminologization Since terminological unites act like lexical items, it is required to handle the issue of word formation first. Lexicalization is the process in speech production whereby turning the thoughts underlying words into sounds, translating a semantic representation – which is the meaning –of a content word into its phonological representation of form – which is its sound. For a concept to lexicalize, its image in mind needs to grow in cognitive maturity. The cognitively mature form is called lemma. There might be more than one lemma for a concept in the pre-lexicalization process; however, human brain naturally delimits it with connotations and denotations, and assigns its grammatical category. The process is called lemma selections. Then, the concept is concretized through phonological encoding, creating the lexemes which are phonological forms. In other words, the concept evolves from semantic existence into phonological entity. This process is known as two-stage model of lexicalization (Figure 1) (Harley, 2005, p. 385-386). Phonological realization follows orthographical representation. Two-Stage Model of Lexicalisation Conceptual Representation | Lemma | Phonological Word-Form Figure 1. Two-stage model of lexicalization (Harley, 2005, p. 386) Considered as special lexemes, terminological units, too, are subject to the same process to stand alone within the language. To be distinguishable from lexicalization, the term terminologization will be used within the frame of this study. Terminological units are not different from lexical items in the sense of phonetic and written forms. The only difference that they create is in having sole and specific meanings. They consist of separate elements, i.e., bound and free morphemes, and they can be broken into their morphemes to create new terminological units through the process of terminologization (Cabré, 1992/1999, p. 84). International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 167 Language is a dynamic creature like its creators. It is born, lives, and eventually dies. During this life span, it evolves into different stages. It is possible to see a language in the position of high variety one day, low variety the other day. Same for a terminological unit, it may also lose its terminological characteristics, leading it to be a property of the general language. This phenomenon is called determinologization. For instance, Akerson (2019, p. 27) states in her book that she will prioritize dizge (system) as a terminological unit instead of sistem since the former has been used in academic studies to calque novel concepts such as çoğul dizge kuramı (polysystem theory); on the other hand, one can hear the latter even from the mouth of an uneducated person walking in the street. General Language Special Language General Language sistem sistem sistem --->--->--->--->--- terminologization --->--->--->--- determinologization --->--->--->--->--- Figure 2. Terminologization and determinologization processes for “sistem” 1.4. Term Formation There are multiple ways to form a new word such as derivation, compounding, and blending. As a result of these processes, new lexical items are born, and thereby, lexicalization occurs. As special lexical items, terminological units, too, require such processes for terminologization to be actualized in the terminological lexicon of a language. Sometimes, term formation happens when an already existing lexical unit acquires a terminological meaning within an area of specialization; and sometimes, a new word is intentionally created using the potentials of the natural language to lexicalize – or in other words, terminologize – a novel entity for the purpose of fulfilling the need of naming a new concept in human beings’ lives. To satisfy the latter form of terminologization, languages may utilize another language – or languages – to which great importance is attributed by their speakers in the sense of being a scientific language. Those languages are Greek and Latin for the Western civilization. It is very common even for today’s world to benefit from Greek and Latin words to create either bound or free morphemes on the purpose of creating a new terminological unit (Cabré, 1992/1999, p. 89). Considering the Eastern civilization, it is predominantly Arabic due to some religious effects. It is known that during Tanzimat Era, Turks utilized Arabic language to create equivalents for new terminological units coming from the West. Along with the Republican Era, pure Turkic words were in the use due to the dominant nationalism ideology (Kahraman, 2017, p. 1290). Karaman (2017, p. 112-133) divides term formation methods into intralingual (monolingual terminology formation) and interlingual (translation-oriented terminology formation) perspectives. The first category has been handled under three titles: the use of existing resources, the modification of existing resources, and the use of new resources. The first subtitle deals with semantic changes so as to create new terminological units such as polysemy and homonymy. The second subtitle is dedicated to creation of new forms under the processes like derivation, compounding, abbreviation, etc. The third subtitle covers borrowing and neologism issues. As for the second category, it encompasses explanation/paraphrase, loan word/borrowing, and new term formation instead of loan term. The last subtitle branches into the similar methods that have been covered in the first category. It is worth mentioning that loan translation is classified under this branch. 2. A Novel Linguistic Perspective To Terminology 2.1. Termineme Versus Allotermin Yalap & Biçer 168 Subbranches of microlinguistics draw a straight line between abstract units and their concrete realizations within some specific environments. Morphology distinguishes the concepts of morpheme and allomorph. The former element describes the smallest abstract units in a language while the latter one depicts their real utterances when exposed to some predictable situations. For instance, Turkish [+LAR]SING>PLU suffix is a morphemic property used to express plurality in the language. It is an abstract and pure representation of the suffix; however, it possesses two allomorphic realizations depending on whether it is attached to a word whose final syllable has back vowel (kadın +lar > kadınlar) or front vowel (erkek +ler > erkekler) due to the fundamental rule of vowel harmony in the language. Inspired by the same logic behind this classification, this study suggests two concepts for terminology: termineme and allotermin. Termineme is the smallest unbreakable element of the study of terminology. It is not real and cannot be attributed to any arts or sciences. [MORPHOLOGY]TERM is an umbrella concept with the meaning of “the study of the forms of something”. Under various domains (i.e., environments) such as biology, linguistics, philosophy, chemistry, and others, it comes to real use evolving from termineme to allotermin. Figure 3. Representation of termineme “morphology and its allotermins 2.2. Free Termineme Versus Bound Termineme The purpose of such classifications is to free terminology and terminography from the yoke of lexicology and lexicography. Thus, theoretical terminology and its applied version, terminography will be able to be independent study fields under the auspices of linguistics. Free termineme behaves like a free morpheme in morphology. It is an independent constituent, and it can stand alone as a terminological unit. On the other hand, bound International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 169 termineme is the counterpart of a bound morpheme. It cannot stand alone, and it always needs a free morpheme to be attached to be actualized. Linguistic terms of phoneme, morpheme, and termineme have been respectively shown below in tree diagram branching into their free and bound terminemes. [PHONE]TERM and [MORPH]TERM are examples of free terminemes while [-EME]TERM>TERM and [TERMINO-]TERM+TERM 7 are considered bound terminemes: Figure 4. Tree diagrams for “phoneme,” “morpheme,” and “termineme” 2.3. Term Phrase Following morphological classifications, it is also possible to present a syntactic representation for terminological units. A term phrase can be monoterminal (consisting of a single term) or polyterminal (consisting of more than one single term). In either case, the head of a term phrase is always a term. It can take over infinite number of complements, and complements precede the head for both English and Turkish. Potential syntactic rules have been demonstrated below: Term Phrase ⟶ (Determiner) + (Adjective Phrase) + Term [IMPLANT]TERM is an umbrella term used in various specialties of medicine from dental medicine to brain surgery. It is alloterminalised as /dental+implant/ in the first and /brain+implant/ in the second. It has a place even in plastic surgery with the allotermin of /breast+implant/. Breast implant is a polyterminal unit in its related domain, and it occupies the position of the head in a term phrase as a complete constituent. It is possible to talk about two different types of breast implant: saline and silicone (Gardner, 2021). In this perspective, [SALINE]ADJ and [SILICONE]ADJ are two different complements of the head [BREAST+IMPLANT]TERM. Two potential syntax trees for this head-complement relation have been demonstrated below: Figure 5. Tree diagrams for “a saline breast implant” and “a silicone breast implant” 3. Turkish Language 7 It cannot stand alone within the related terminological domain. It needs to be attached to another termineme to be made free (see terminology, terminography; as in the last part of the following lexical items: re-ceive, per- ceive, and de-ceive). Yalap & Biçer 170 Referred to with some alternative names within the context of geographical and cultural spheres of influence in the historical process such as Turkish language, Turkey Turkish, and Istanbul Turkish, Turkish is the official language of the Republic of Turkey as clearly stated in the third article and guaranteed in the fourth article of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey (art. 3 & 4). Having a powerful sphere of influence from Balkans to the Middle East, Turkish language is one of the Turkic languages spreading from inner Europe to Siberia and containing nearly 40 languages. There have been various classification studies on Turkic languages in terms of origin. The largest of these classifications is beyond doubt the theory of Ural-Altaic Language Family whose founding father is accepted as Matthias Castrén (Demir, 2021, p. 131). Studies on the theory carried out before and after Castrén did not yield any tangible results. In the course of time, researchers have started to treat Uralic and Altaic languages separately, and the name of Ural-Altaic Language Group has been used as a geographical classification rather than genetic association in the groves of academe (Korkmaz, 2009, p. LXVII). Considering the position of Turkish language in Altaic languages, there have been some theories which claim that Turkish constitutes a language family along with Mongolian and Tungusic languages. Some researchers8 include Korean and Japanese in this group. Apart from some morphological relationships such as existence of phonological assimilation, inexistence of grammatical gender and article, utilizing suffixes instead of prefixes, any other similarities cannot be detected in the most basic lexical equivalences for the names of numbers, days, organs, and kinship, which is thought to prove the association in terms of origin. When going back to the past conducting cross-linguistic and diachronic studies amongst cognate languages, these languages are expected to be more similar to each other; however, it is the opposite for Altaic languages (Öz Açık, 2017, p. 125). This conclusion shows that the similarities amongst Altaic languages stem from the interaction as a result of living in a shared geography rather than sharing a cognateness coming from a common protolanguage. In short, as for an over-all linguistic classification for Turkish, it is a Turkic language which has predominantly agglutinative features amongst natural languages, whose closest cognate languages are Azerbaijani and Gagauz language with a mutual intelligibility rate of 75 or 80 percent (Lindsay, 2015), and has 88 million speakers in total as a first and second language (ethnologue.com). 4. Method Teaching Turkish as a foreign language encompasses various study fields such as education, linguistics, and literature. Therefore, academic studies on TFL are fruitful habitats to study terminology referring multiple domains. As the terminologization type, loan translation has been decided on to detect in these works. “Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe” keyword have been searched on Ulusal Tez Merkezi (National Thesis Centre), and 25 master’s theses have been selected as the sample of this study. Master’s theses composing the corpus of the study belong to the years from 2017 to 2021. The study has been limited to phrasal loan translation terms. Potential phrasal loan translation data have been provided with witnesses from related source texts such as CEFR for interlingual loan translations, and Turkish terminological glossaries for intralingual ones. In the event that there is no reliable source found to represent, “unknown” input has been used. 8 Ramstedt, Poppe, Németh, Gombocz, Aalto, Miller, Street, etc. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 171 Data outputs have been classified under six main domains: education, linguistics, sociology, methodology, statistics, and others. Afterwards, if possible, subdomains have represented: foreign language teaching, general education, language acquisition, and logic for education; general linguistics, grammar, language acquisition, literature, morphology, pragmatics, semantics, phonology, sociolinguistics, and syntax for linguistics; cultural studies, general sociology, and media studies for sociology; and astronomy, politics, and psychology for others. On the condition that the source and target terms do not overlap in the sense of constituent number in a term phrase, related terminological data have been excluded from the sample of the study even if they are problematic. For instance, source term ruhiyat (psychology) is monoterminal while scanned target terms ruh bilimi and ruhbilim are polyterminal. 5. Findings In the framework of the study, 203 potential loan translation terms have been detected. From this part on, the related data will be presented under the titles of education, linguistics, sociology, methodology, statistics, and other. Abbreviations: astr. (astronomy), BTS [Budunbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Ethnological Terms)], CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for languages), CS (cultural studies), CTS [Coğrafya Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Geographical Terms)], DTS [Dilbilgisi Terimleri Sözlüğü [Glossary of Grammatical Terms)], Eng. (English), ETS [Eğitim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Educational Terms)], FLT (foreign language teaching), Fr. (French), GE (general education), Ger. (German), GL (general linguistics), gram. (grammar), GraTS [Gramer Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Grammatical Terms)], GS (general sociology), GünTS [Güncel Türkçe Sözlük (Modern Turkish Dictionary)], HTS [Halkbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Folkloric Terms)], LA (language acquisition), lit. (literature), morph. (morphology), MS (media studies), pol. (politics), prag. (pragmatics), psy. (psychology), RTS [Ruhbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Psychological Terms)], sem. (semantics), TBT [Toplumbilim Terimleri (Sociological Terms)], TD (term domain), TL (target language), Tr. (Turkish), TR (term reference), TT (target term), phon. (phonology), PSL (possible source language), PST (possible source term), SL (sociolinguistics), syn. (syntax), OT (Ottoman Turkish), YTS [Yöntembilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (Glossary of Methodological Terms)]. 5.1. Education For the domain of education, 86 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: Table 1. Potential loan translation terms for education PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. action-oriented approach unknown FLT Tr. eylem odaklı yaklaşım Eng. active learning unknown GE Tr. aktif öğrenme Eng. affective domain Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. duyuşsal alan Eng. answer key unknown GE Tr. cevap anahtarı Eng. assessment and evaluation unknown GE Tr. ölçme ve değerlendirme (yöntemleri) Yalap & Biçer 172 (methods) Eng. audio-lingual method unknown FLT Tr. işitsel-dilsel yöntem kulak-dil alışkanlığı yöntemi Here, the second form (i.e., kulak-dil alışkanlığı yöntemi) can be considered loan rendition; however, it is difficult to put strict spectral limitations between loan translation and rendition. Still, the current situation violates the single formedness of a specific termineme. Eng. audio material unknown GE Tr. işitsel materyal Eng. audio-visual aids unknown GE Tr. görme ve işitmeye dayalı araçlar görsel ve işitsel aygıtlar işitsel ve görsel kaynaklar Variable and inconsistent proto-terminemes in Turkish is a sign that the related concept has not completed the terminologization process yet compared to its mother form English “audio- visual aids.” Eng. audio-visual method unknown FLT Tr. görsel-işitsel yöntem Eng. autonomous level CEFR FLT Tr. özerk düzey Eng. background knowledge unknown GE Tr. arka plan bilgisi Eng. cognitive approach unknown FLT Tr. bilişsel yaklaşım Eng. cognitive domain Bloom, B. (1956) FLT Tr. bilişsel alan Eng. Common European Framework of Reference for languages CEFR FLT Tr. [Avrupa Dilleri (Öğretimi)] Ortak Çerçeve Metni/Programı Avrupa Konseyi Ortak Dil Kriterleri Metni (Avrupa) Ortak Başvuru Metni [(Diller İçin) Avrupa] Ortak (Öneriler) Çerçeve(si) (Metni) CEFR initialism is firmly attached to the mother domain; however, variable loan translation forms in Turkish aggravate this process. Proposed initialisms like ADOÇM, AOBM, and AOÖÇM are neither economic nor ergonomic. Eng. communicative approach unknown FLT Tr. iletişimsel yaklaşım Eng. community language teaching unknown FLT Tr. toplulukta dil öğretimi Eng. constructivist approach unknown GE Tr. yapılandırıcı yaklaşım Eng. creative thinking unknown GE Tr. yaratıcı düşünme International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 173 Eng. critical thinking unknown logic Tr. eleştirel düşünme Eng. culture-based language teaching unknown FLT Tr. kültür tabanlı dil öğretimi Eng. cultural achievement CEFR FLT Tr. kültürel kazanım Eng. cyclical method unknown FLT Tr. sarmal yöntem Eng. digital story unknown GE Tr. dijital hikâye/öykü There is duality in the forms of hikâye and öykü. Eng. direct/natural method unknown FLT Tr. doğal/doğrudan/dolaysız/düz varım/düzvarım yöntem(i) Duality in the source term encourages the same tendency for the target term variations. Separate and adjacent orthographic tendency for düz varım and düzvarım violates the principle of single formedness. Eng. discovery level CEFR FLT Tr. keşif düzeyi Eng. eclectic method unknown FLT Tr. seçmeci yöntem Eng. educational domain CEFR FLT Tr. eğitim alanı Fr. éducation fondamentale (Eng. fundamental education) GraTS GE Tr. temel eğitim Eng. entry level CEFR FLT Tr. giriş düzeyi Eng. expository learning strategy unknown GE Tr. sunuş yoluyla öğrenme stratejisi Eng. extrinsic motivation unknown psy. Tr. dışsal güdülenme/motivasyon There is duality in the forms of güdülenme and motivasyon. Eng. (foreign) language learner unknown FLT Tr. (yabancı) dil öğrenen/öğrenicisi There is duality in the forms of öğrenen and öğrenici. Eng. (foreign) language learning unknown FLT Tr. (yabancı) dil öğrenimi/öğrenme There is duality in the forms of öğrenim and öğrenme. Eng. (foreign) language teaching unknown FLT Tr. (yabancı) dil öğretimi/öğretme There is duality in the forms of öğretim and öğretme. Eng. foreshowing method unknown FLT Tr. sezdirme yöntemi Yalap & Biçer 174 Eng. four basic language skills CEFR FLT Tr. dört [(ana/temel) (dil)] beceri(si/leri)/yeti(si/leri) There is duality in the form of ana and temel; and beceri and yeti. Eng. from concrete to abstract CEFR FLT Tr. somuttan soyuta Eng. from simple to complex CEFR FLT Tr. basitten karmaşığa Eng. grammar translation method unknown FLT Tr. dil bilgisi çeviri/dil bilgisi-çeviri yöntemi There is duality in terms of dash (-) use. Eng. grammatical accuracy CEFR FLT Tr. dil bilgisel doğruluk Eng. grammatical competence CEFR FLT Tr. dil bilgisel/dilbilgisel edinç/yeterlik/yeterlilik/yeti dil bilgisi/gramer yeterliği There is quintile in the forms of edinç, yeterlik, yetkinlik, yeterlilik, and yeti along with duality in the forms of dil bilgisi/dilbilgisi and gramer. There is also orthographic inconsistency in terms of adjacent and separate written forms like dilbilgisel and dil bilgisel. Sometimes adjectival, sometimes nominal complements have been opted. OT hususî mektep (Eng. private school) ETS GE Tr. özel okul OT ilk tedrisat (Eng. primary education) ETS GE Tr. ilköğretim Eng. in-service course unknown GE Tr. hizmet içi kurs Eng. intrinsic motivation unknown psy. Tr. içsel motivasyon Eng. inquiry-based learning strategy unknown GE Tr. araştırma yoluyla öğrenme stratejisi Eng. (language) learning needs unknown FLT Tr. (language) öğrenme ihtiyaçları Eng. language level CEFR FLT Tr. dil düzeyi/seviyesi There is duality in the forms of düzey and seviye. Eng. language needs (analysis) unknown FLT Tr. dil ihtiyaçları (analizi) International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 175 Eng. learning-by-doing Freire, P. (1982) GE Tr. yaparak öğrenme Eng. lesson material unknown GE Tr. ders materyali Eng. level A1 CEFR FLT Tr. A1 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level A2 CEFR FLT Tr. A2 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level B1 CEFR FLT Tr. B1 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level B2 CEFR FLT Tr. B2 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level C1 CEFR FLT Tr. C1 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level C2 CEFR FLT Tr. C2 düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. level of analysis Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. analiz etme basamağı Eng. level of application Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. uygulama basamağı Eng. level of creation Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. yaratma basamağı Eng. level of evaluation Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. değerlendirme basamağı Eng. level of remembering Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. hatırla(t)ma basamağı Eng. level of understanding Bloom, B. (1956) GE Tr. anlama basamağı Eng. lexical competence CEFR FLT Tr. sözlüksel yeterlilik Eng. linguistic competence CEFR FLT Tr. dilbilimsel yetenek/yeterlilik dil(sel) edinç/yetisi Eng. listening skills CEFR FLT Tr. dinleme becerisi Eng. occupational domain CEFR FLT Tr. mesleki alan Eng. oral interaction CEFR FLT Tr. sözlü etkileşim Eng. personal domain CEFR FLT Tr. kişisel alan Eng. phonological competence CEFR FLT Tr. ses bilimsel yeterlilik Eng. proficiency exam unknown FLT Tr. yeterlik sınavı Eng. proficiency level unknown FLT Tr. yeterlik düzeyi/seviyesi Eng. public domain CEFR FLT Tr. kamusal alan Eng. reading skills CEFR FLT Tr. okuma becerisi Yalap & Biçer 176 Eng. second language learner unknown LA Tr. ikinci dil öğrenicisi Eng. semantic competence CEFR FLT Tr. anlam bilimsel/anlambilimsel yetenek/yeterlilik Eng. silent reading unknown GE Tr. sessiz okuma Eng. simple-to-complex principle unknown FLT Tr. kolaydan zora Eng. source language unknown FLT Tr. çıkış/kaynak dil(i) There is duality in the forms of çıkış and kaynak. Eng. speaking skills CEFR FLT Tr. konuşma becerisi Eng. speed reading unknown GE Tr. hızlı okuma Eng. target language unknown FLT Tr. erek/hedef dil There is duality in the forms of erek and hedef. Eng. task-based learning unknown FLT Tr. göreve dayalı öğrenme Eng. teaching material CEFR FLT Tr. öğretim materyali Eng. threshold level CEFR FLT Tr. eşik düzeyi Eng. writing skills CEFR FLT Tr. yazma becerisi 5.2. Linguistics For the domain of linguistics, 56 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: Table 2. Potential loan translation terms for linguistics PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. act taxonymy unknown prag. Tr. söz taksonomisi Fr. adjective verbal (Eng. verbal adjective) unknown gram. Tr. sıfat-fiil Fr. adverbe verbal (Eng. verbal adverb) unknown gram. Tr. zarf-fiil OT aidiyet eki (Eng. possession affix) GraTS gram. Tr. iyelik eki Eng. anthropological linguistics unknown GL Tr. antropolojik dilbilim Eng. apology act unknown prag. Tr. özür edimi International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 177 OT büyük ahenk kaidesi (Eng. big harmony rule) DTS, GraTS phon. Tr. büyük ünlü uyumu OT cemi lâhikası (Eng. plural affix) GraTS gram. Tr. çoğul/çokluk eki There is duality in the forms of çoğul and çokluk. Eng. code-switching unknown LA Tr. düzenek değiştirimi Eng. communicative act unknown prag. Tr. iletişim edimi Eng. communicative competence Hymes, D. (1972) SL Tr. iletişim(sel) edinç(/ci) / yerelik(/ği) / yeti(si) Eng. comparative analysis unknown GL Tr. karşıtsal çözümleme Eng. complaint act unknown prag. Tr. şikayet edimi Eng. complete equivalence unknown sem. Tr. tam denklik/eşdeğerlik There is duality in the forms of denklik and eşdeğerlik. Eng. conventional meaning unknown sem. Tr. uzlaşımsal anlam Eng. conversational maxims Grice, H. P. (1989) prag. Tr. konuşma kuralları Eng. cooperative principle Grice, H. P. (1989) prag. Tr. işbirliği ilkesi Eng. critical period Penfield, W., Roberts, L. (1959), and Lenneberg, E. 1967) LA Tr. kritik dönem OT cümlenin unsurları (Eng. elements of the sentence) GraTS syn. Tr. cümlenin ögeleri Eng. discourse-completion test Levenston, E. & Blum-Bulka, S. (1978) prag. Tr. söylem tamamlama testi Fr. discourse indirect GraTS GL Tr. dolaylı anlatım Tr. edebî metin (Eng. literary text) GünTS lit. Tr. yazınsal metin OT elsine-i iltisâkiyye (Eng. agglutinative languages) GraTS morph. Tr. eklemeli dil Yalap & Biçer 178 OT emir sıygası (Eng. imperative mood) GraTS gram. Tr. emir kipi Eng. false equivalence unknown sem. Tr. yalancı eşdeğerlik Eng. illocutionary act unknown prag. Tr. edimsel eylem edimsöz edimi/fiili There is trinity in the forms of edim, eylem, and fiil. Eng. illocutionary force unknown prag. Tr. edimsöz gücü OT isim hal eki (Eng. grammatical case affix; lit. nominal case affix) DTS gram. Tr. ad durum eki OT izafet terkibi (Eng. noun phrase) DTS, GraTS gram. Tr. ad/isim tamlaması There is duality in the forms of ad and isim. Fr. langue écrite (Eng. written language) DTS, GraTS GL Tr. yazı(lı) dil(i) There is duality in the sense of nominal complement yazı and adjectival complement yazılı. Fr. langue maternelle (Eng. mother tongue; lit. maternal language) DTS, GraTS GL Tr. ana dil(i)/anadil(i) There is a complete misconception amongst researchers. They are confused about two different terms – i.e., ana dil “protolanguage” and ana dili “mother tongue,” and they have used them interchangeably in the academic studies. Fr. langue mère (Eng. protolanguage; lit. mother language) DTS, GraTS GL Tr. ana dil Fr. langue parlée (Eng. spoken language) DTS, GraTS GL Tr. konuşma/sözlü dil(i) Eng. lexical equivalence unknown sem. Tr. sözcüksel eş değerlik OT lisan-ı ecnebi unknown GL Tr. yabancı dil International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 179 (Eng. foreign language) OT lisân-ı resmî (Eng. formal language) GraTS GL Tr resmi/resmî dil There is duality in the orthographic representation due to abolishment of (^) accent mark. Eng. locutionary act unknown prag. Tr. düzsöz edimi OT mânâ-ı aslî (Eng. denotation; lit. primary meaning) GraTS sem. Tr. temel anlam OT mânâ-ı tâlî (Eng. connocation; lit. secondary meaning) GraTS sem. Tr. yan anlam OT menfi fiil (Eng. negative verb) DTS gram. Tr. olumsuz fiil OT mürekkep fiil (Eng. compound verb) GraTS gram. Tr. birleşik fiil Fr. nom deverbal (Eng. deverbal noun) GraTS gram. Tr. ad eylem/fiil eylem/fiil adı/ismi isim fiil/isim-fiil Eng. one-to-one equivalence unknown sem. Tr. birebir denklik Eng. partial equivalence unknown sem. Tr. kısmi denklik kısmi eşdeğerlik Eng. perlocutionary act unknown prag. Tr. etkisöz edimi Eng. request act unknown prag. Tr. rica edimi Eng. second language (acquisition) unknown LA Tr. ikinci dil (edinimi) Eng. semantic equivalence unknown sem. Tr. anlam(sal) denklik(/ği) There is duality in the sense of nominal complement anlam and adjectival complement anlamsal. Tr. sosyolengüistik (Eng. sociolinguistics) GünTS GL Tr. sosyo-dilbilimsel Yalap & Biçer 180 Eng. speech-act Austin, J. L. (1962) prag. Tr. söz edimi/sözeylem Eng. speech-act theory Austin, J. L. (1962) prag. Tr. söz edimleri kuramı OT tasrif lâhikası (Eng. inflectional affix) DTS gram. Tr. çekim eki OT teşkil lâhikası (Eng. derivational affix) DTS gram. Tr. yapım eki Eng. transformational- generative grammar Chomsky, N. (1957) LA Tr. üretici dönüşümsel dil bilgisi Ger. Wortschatz (Eng. vocabulary; lit. word treasure) GraTS sem. Tr. kelime hazinesi Eng. zero equivalence unknown sem. Tr. sıfır denklik/eşdeğerlik 5.3. Sociology For the domain of sociology, 20 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: Table 3. Potential loan translation terms for sociology PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. ancestor cult BTS CS Tr. ata(lar) kültü Tr. batıl inanç (Eng. superstitious belief) GünTS CS Tr. boş inanç/inanış There is duality in the forms of inanç and inanış. Eng. cultural code unknown CS Tr. kültür(el) kod(u) There is duality in the sense of nominal complement kültür and adjectival complement kültürel. Eng. cultural elements BTS CS Tr. kültür(el) ögeler(i) / öğeler(i) / unsurlar(ı) There is trinity in the forms of öge, öğe, and unsur. Eng. cultural environment unknown CS Tr. kültürel çevre/ortam There is duality in the forms of çevre and ortam. Eng. cultural heritage unknown CS Tr. kültür(el) miras(ı)/kalıt(ı) International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 181 There is duality in the forms of miras and kalıt. Eng. cultural transmission unknown CS Tr. kültür(el) aktarım(ı) Eng. cultural values unknown CS Tr. kültürel değerler Eng. global village McLuhan, H. M. (1962) MS Tr. küresel köy OT içtimaî inkişaf (Eng. social development) ETS, RTS GS Tr. toplumsal gelişim/gelişme There is duality in the forms of gelişim and gelişme. OT içtimaî miras (Eng. social heritage) TBT GS Tr. toplumsal kalıt OT içtimaî muhit (Eng. social environment) ETS GS Tr. sosyal çevre OT iptidaî cemiyet (Eng. primitive community) HTS, TBT GS Tr. ilkel toplum OT kültür dejenerasyonu (Eng. cultural degeneration) BTS CS Tr. kültür bozulması “kültür yozlaşması” can be a better termineme since it has already an entry in a terminological dictionary instead of “kültür bozulması.” Eng. latent function Merton, R. M. (1968) GS Tr. gizli işlev Eng. manifest function Merton, R. M. (1968) GS Tr. açık işlev Tr. millî hüviyet (Eng. national identity) GünTS GS Tr. milli/millî kimlik OT millî kültür (Eng. national culture) HBT GS Tr. ulusal kültür Eng. social structure unknown GS Tr. sosyal/toplumsal yapı There is duality in the forms of sosyal and toplumsal. Yalap & Biçer 182 Eng. target culture unknown GS Tr. hedef kültür 5.4. Methodology For the domain of methodology, 17 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: Table 4. Potential loan translation terms for methodology PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. conceptual framework unknown – Tr. kuramsal çerçeve Eng. content analysis (technique) unknown – Tr. içerik analizi (tekniği) Eng. data analysis unknown – Tr. veri(lerin) analizi/çözümlenmesi There are dualities in the forms of analiz and çözümleme along with tendencies of definite and indefinite noun phrase preferences – i.e., veri analizi versus verilerin analizi. Eng. data collection (process) unknown – Tr. veri toplama (süreci) verilerin toplanması Eng. data collection tool unknown – Tr. veri toplama aracı Eng. document analysis unknown – Tr. doküman analizi/incelemesi There is duality in the forms of analiz and inceleme. Eng. literature review unknown – Tr. alanyazın taraması Eng. problem sentence unknown – Tr. problem cümlesi Eng. problem status unknown – Tr. problem durumu Eng. relational screening model unknown – Tr. ilişkisel tarama modeli Eng. research hypothesis unknown – Tr. araştırmanın denencesi Eng. research method unknown – Tr. araştırmanın yöntemi Eng. research model unknown – Tr. araştırma(nın) modeli Eng. research objective unknown – Tr. araştırmanın amacı Eng. self-assessment (form) unknown – Tr. öz değerlendirme (formu) Eng. situation analysis unknown – Tr. durum analizi Eng. theoretical framework unknown – Tr. kuramsal çerçeve 5.5. Statistics For the domain of statistics, 12 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 183 Table 5. Potential loan translation terms for statistics PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. content validity unknown – Tr. kapsam geçerliği Eng. dependent variable unknown – Tr. bağımlı değişken Eng. experimental group unknown – Tr. deney grubu Eng. independent variable unknown – Tr. bağımsız değişken Eng. normal distribution test unknown – Tr. normal dağılım testi Eng. post-test unknown – Tr. son test/sontest Eng. pre-test unknown – Tr. öntest Eng. random assignment unknown – Tr. seçkisiz atama Eng. significance level unknown – Tr. anlamlılık düzeyi Eng. significant difference unknown – Tr. anlamlı farklılık Eng. sphericity test unknown – Tr. küresellik testi Eng. standard deviation unknown – Tr. standart sapma 5.6. Others For the other domains, 12 potential loan translation terms have been detected and represented in the table below: Table 6. Potential loan translation terms for others PSL PST TR TD TL TT Eng. affective behaviour unknown psy. Tr. duyuşsal davranış Tr. beşerî ilimler (Eng. human sciences) unknown – Tr. beşeri bilimler Eng. body language unknown – Tr. beden dili Eng. central administration unknown pol. Tr. merkezi idare Tr. dâhilî harp (Eng. civil war; lit. internal war) GünTS pol. Tr. iç savaş OT ilm-i nücûm (Eng. islamansiklopedisi.org.tr astr. Tr. yıldız bilgisi Yalap & Biçer 184 astronomy; lit. the science of stars) Tr. kanunuesasi (Eng. constitution; lit. fundamental law) GünTS pol. Tr. anayasa OT kendine itimat (Eng. confidence; lit. trust in oneself) YTS psy. Tr. öz güven/özgüven OT nüfus mübadelesi (Eng. population exchange) CTS pol. Tr. nüfus değişimi Tr. peşin hüküm (Eng. prejudice; lit. prior judgement) GünTS – Tr. önyargı Eng. six thinking hats de Bono, E. (1985) psy. Tr. altı şapkalı düşünme Eng. statesperson unknown pol. Tr. devlet insanı A typical example for gender-neutral linguistic tendency due to feministic concerns, additionally iş insanı “businessperson.” 6. Conclusion Language is like an empire. It emerges, progresses, sees the golden age, regresses, and falls in the end. During the progressive period, it creates novel lexical units and invades loan words. To the extent that it commandeers these loan words, it sees the golden age. Otherwise, the regressive period has already begun for that language, and fall is inevitable under the International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 185 overwhelming power of other significant languages. To catch the golden age, languages benefit some word formation methods to enlarge their vocabulary. Loan translation is one of them. This method is very productive for not only lexicalization, but also terminologization. Due to this fact, loan translation as a terminologization method has been decided on for the sake of this study. Amongst different loan translation types, phrasal loan translation has been selected over. As the sample of the study, Turkish master’s theses on Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language has decided on. 25 theses have selected from Ulusal Tez Merkezi (National Thesis Centre) searching the keyword of “Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe.” The theses have been scanned for the potential phrasal loan translation terms. Collected data consists of 203 outputs. Related terms have been classified under six domains: education, linguistics, sociology, methodology, statistics, and others. Potential source languages and terms have represented for each term. If possible, they have been provided with evidential source texts. Problematic and multiple formed terminemes have been handled separately, and the problem reasons have been explained just under the related termineme in the table. 6.1. Problems And Suggestions 1) It is not acceptable to utilize two or more different forms for a single termineme such as dijital hikâye and dijital öykü. These phenomena result from the following realities: a. Turkish and foreign origin lexemes simultaneously exist in the language such as öykü versus hikâye, düzey versus seviye, and erek versus hedef. The form which is less used in general language should be prioritized and terminologized. For instance, seviye can be replaced by düzey solely for terminological environments. b. Sometimes, it is also likely to see two different Turkish lexemes with close meanings being utilized for a single concept such as eşdeğerlik and denklik. Further research on frequency should be conducted to decide on the potential terminological version. c. For some terminemes, one can encounter both nominal and adjectival complement variations such as iletişim yetisi versus iletişimsel yeti, and yazı dili versus yazılı dil. Adjectival forms should be preferred for terminologization. d. Orthographic alterations in written language may cause problems for single formedness. Independent from the changes in the written environment, the initial forms that have appeared in the terminographic dictionaries should be terminologized. i. One of them is the abolishment of (^) accent mark for some lexemes in the dictionary. For instance, one can see two forms like resmi dil and resmî dil. ii. Another one could be the alteration in the orthographic representation of a lexeme in the dictionary such as öge and öğe. Consequently, kültürel ögeler versus kültürel öğeler from the obtained data again violates the principles of single formedness. e. Turkish has two different noun phrase types: belirtili (definite) ad tamlaması and belirtisiz (indefinite) ad tamlaması. For both lexicalization and terminologization, the latter should be utilized. Hence, veri analizi and veri toplama should be terminologized instead of verilerin analizi and verilerin toplanması respectively. f. English benefits from prefixation to neologize new terminemes such as post- and pre- prefixes. However, it is not possible for Turkish. Accordingly, Turkish utilizes independent lexemes to calque those terminemes such as son and ön. This creates a Yalap & Biçer 186 problem like separated and compound orthographic tendencies in the written language such as son test and sontest. Considering grammaticalization process of source units9, compound varieties can be prioritized for Turkish, too, to accelerate inevitable grammaticalization process for son and ön lexemes. g. Independent from prefixation process, it is also possible to see dualities for separate and adjacent orthographic tendencies like dil bilgisel and dilbilgisel. Turkish terminological glossaries priorities adjacent forms for such terminemes. Therefore, compound terminemes should be preferred for the sake of terminologization. 2) There are some misconceptions about the terminemes like ana dil and ana dili. The differentiative lines between them should be drawn strictly. Otherwise, it violates the fundamentals of terminologization causing incomprehensibility, ambiguity, and eventually disagreement amongst researchers. 3) Under the influence of Western sources, dash (-) is used to combine two different lexemes for the purpose of creating a novel termineme such as görsel-işitsel and işitsel- dilsel. However, such creations violate word formation rules of Turkish language. Therefore, dash should be avoided and related terminemes should be written separately. 9 Latin [POST]FREE MORPHEME “behind, after” > [POST-]BOUND MORPHEME “after,” and [PRAE]FM “before in time or place” > [PRE-]BM “before” (etymonline.com). International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET) 2022, 10(1), 162-190. 187 References Akerson, F. E. 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