Iraqi Journal of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering 

 Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016) 61- 70 

ISSN: 1997-4884 

 
 
 
 

 

Synergistic Effect of Potassium Iodide on Inhibitive Performance of 

Propyl Alcohol during Corrosion of Mild Steel in 1.0M HCl 
 

Aprael. S.Yaro, Basma A. Abdul Majeed, and Elaf Q. Atiyah 

Chemical Engineering Department-College of Engineering-University of Baghdad-Iraq 

 

Abstract 

   The inhibition of mild steel corrosion in 1.0M HCl by 1-propanol and the 

synergistic effect of potassium iodide (KI) was investigated using weight loss and 

polarization techniques in  he  e  e     e    ge  3    5          matrix of Doelhert to 

three factors was used as the experimental design, adopting weight loss results as it 

permits the use of the response surface methodology which exploited in determination 

of the synergistic effect as inhibition on the mild steel. The results were confirmed 

using electrochemical polarization measurements. Experimental results showed that 

the inhibition efficiency (IE%) increases with increase in concentration of inhibitor 

and with increasing of temperature. The addition iodide ions to alcohol (inhibitor) 

enhanced the inhibition efficiency due to synergistic effect. Potentiodynamic 
polarization studies showed that the studied compound is mixed-type inhibitor 

causing blocking of active sites on the mild steel surface .The adsorption of  the 

inhibitor and its combination with iodide ions on mild steel surface followed     

   Langmuir adsorption isotherm via physisorption mechanism, which was proposed 

based on values of adsorption Gibbs free energy difference ΔGads. Statistically, the 

multi-variable regression equation describes the behavior of the corrosion inhibition 

process with high accuracy (correlation coefficient R
2
 between 0.974 and 1). 

 

Key Words: Acid Corrosion, Synergistic Effect, Mild Steel, Potentiodynamic 

Polarization, Weight loss Method, Doelhert Design 
  

Introduction 

   Despite mild steel has a relatively 

high cost; it is widely used in 

collective amounts in chemical 

processing, petroleum production and 

 efi i g, co s   c io    d  etal 

processing equipment, and marine 

applications. These applications 

usually stimulate corrosion attack on 

metallic equipment, pipelines and 

tubes made of iron and its alloys, 

especially in acidic environments [1].    

   The study of corrosion inhibition of 

mild steel in acid solutions have 

practical importance because that acid 

solutions are widely used in many 

industrial processes such as acid 

pickling of metals , acid cleaning of 

boilers, scale removal in metallurgy 

and oil well acidizing. To minimize the 
metal loss during this process different 

corrosion inhibitors are used in 

corrosive solutions. Some organic 

compounds are found to be effective 

corrosion inhibitors for many metals 

Iraqi Journal of Chemical and 
Petroleum Engineering 

 

University of Baghdad 
College of Engineering 



Synergistic Effect of Potassium Iodide on Inhibitive Performance of Propyl Alcohol during Corrosion 

of Mild Steel in 1.0M HCl 

 

62                                       IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)             -Available online at: www.iasj.net 
 

and alloys in acidic media. These act 

as corrosion inhibitors according to 

their functional groups (effective 

groups), which are adsorbed on the 

metal surface. The adsorption of these 

organic molecules depends mainly on 

some physic-chemical properties of the 

inhibitor such as the functional group, 

steric factor, aromaticity, electron 

density at the donor atoms and p-

orbital character of donating electrons 

[2 4], and the electronic structure of 

the molecules [5]. The adsorption 

ability of organic cations is increased 

by the addition of halide ions to the 

corrosive media. Interconnecting 

bridges between the negatively 

charged metal surface and the cations 

of inhibitor are formed. Synergism is 

an effective approach to enhance the 

inhibition efficiency of the inhibitors to 

decrease the dosage of organic 

compounds and to diversify the 

application of the inhibitors in acidic 

media [6]. The order of synergism of 

halide ions is I
-
˃ Br

-
˃Cl

-
[7] because it 

has larger size and easy polarizability, 

I
-
 ions are chemisorbed on the metal 

surface and provide better synergistic 

effect [8]. 

 

Experimental Method 

   A mild steel sheet was used as 

working electrode of 2cm (width), 3cm 

(length), and 0.1cm (thickness) in 

weight loss method. Area bout 

(4.97cm²) was used for polarization 

method. The following composition 

(Wt %) Si – 0.01, Al – 0.004, Cu – 

0.055, Mn – 0.346, Mo – 0.002, Cr – 

0.035, Ni – 0.056, Co – 0.007, P – 

    2, S     21,      67,   d  he 

balance Fe. The aggressive medium 

(1.0M HCl) was prepared by dilution 

of analytical grade 37% HCl, and 

appropriate concentrations of inhibitor 

were obtained using distilled water. 

 

 

 

Weight Loss Method 

   The specimens were smoothened by 

emery papers and then cleaned with 

tap water, distilled water, benzene and 

acetone. After that they were dried and 

weighed on a digital scale. Each of the 

specimens is designated and its initial 

weight is noted. After each test, the 

specimen was washed with running tap 

water, scrubbed with a brush to remove 

corrosion products, then washed with 

tap water followed by distilled water 

and dried on clean tissue, immersed in 

benzene, dried, immersed in acetone, 

dried and left in a desiccators over 

silica gel until use. The time of 

immersion in HCl solutions was four 

hours. 

 

Polarization Technique 

   The electrochemical cell was 

composed of graphite counter 

electrode, prepared mild steel 

specimen as working electrode and 

saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as a 

reference electrode.  The corrosion 

potential (Ecorr) was measured against 

SCE. The corrosion cell parts were 

joined to each other, and then 

connected to potentiostat (TACUSSEL 

type PRT 10-05, France), ammeter and 

voltmeter. Starting with cathodic 

polarization until it reaches the 

corrosion potentials, then continuing 

with anodic polarization.  The potential 

was changed (20-25mV) for each step 

after one minute period the current was 

recorded.  

 

Results and Discussion 

 

1- Weight Loss Method 
   Corrosion inhibition (IE%) 

efficiency calculations from weight 

loss data were performed according to 

equation: 

 

IE (%) = 
    

  
 *100                    …  1  

 



Aprael. S.Yaro, Basma A. Abdul Majeed, and Elaf Q. Atiyah 

 

-Available online at: www.iasj.net                    IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)                                63 
 

where Wo and W are the weight loss 

of mild steel in the absence and 

presence of inhibitor, respectively.  

    

   Table (3) display the applied 

Doehlert matrix design [9]. The 
   i    i hi i io  efficie c  fo  1-

  o   o    s o   i ed  i h   ese ce 

  367M of   coho ,   d    4M KI,    

5      I  is 94   s sho   i      e (2). It 

is clear that the addition of KI 

enhanced the inhibition efficiency and 

this indicates a synergistic effect 

between 1-propanol with KI. The 
formula used for calculation of the 

number (N) of experiments required is 

(N=n
2
+n+ no), where (n) is the number 

of variables and (no) is the number of 

center  points[10]. A quadratic 

polynomial model is established to 

evaluate the effect of the three factors 

on the response: 

 

Y = b0 + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + 

b4X1X2     + b5X1X3+ b6X2X3 + 

b7X1
2
 + b8X2

2
 + b9X3

2
              …  2  

 

Where:  

Y: inhibition efficiency; X1, X2 and 

X3: independent variables representing 

the concentration of KI, the 

concentration of alcohol  and 

temperature of the solution, 

respectively; b0: constant; b1, b2 and 

b3: coefficients reflecting the effect of 

factors X1, X2, and X3; b4, b5, and 

b6:coefficients reflecting the 

interaction between two factors X1X2, 

X1X3and X2X3 ; b7, b8 and b9: 

coefficients reflecting the influence of 

quadratic X1,X2, and X3[11].  

 

   Table(1)  represents  the  low  and  

high levels factor, the matrix of the 

Doelhert design  and  results  are  

shown  in  table (2) .  

 

 

 

 

Table 1, Factors and levels used in 

Doelhert experimental design. 

Variable Low 

level 

High 

level 

KI Conc.(M) X1 0.03 (-1) 0.07(+1) 

Propanol 

Conc.(M) X2 
0.1 (-1) 0.5(+1) 

Temp.(
0
C) X3 30 (-1) 50(+1) 

 

   The centers and the variation steps 

for the three studied factors are shown 

in table (3) according to Doelhert 

experimental design. 

 

Table (2) Center and variation step of 

parameters. 

Factor Unit Center  Variatio

n step 

X1 Temp.  
◦
C 40 10 

X2 Alcohol 

conc.  
M 0.3 0.2 

X3 KI Con.  M 0.05 0.02 

 

   The results were analysed using the 

analysis of variance as appropriate to 

experimental design used. The 

regression equations obtained for 1-

propanol after analysis of variance 

gives the levels of corrosion inhibition 

of mild steel as function of the three 

variables:  Temperature (X1), Alcohol 

concentration (X2), and KI 

concentration (X3). All terms were 

included in the following equations: 

 

Y1= 0.034 + 4.28X1 + 0.239X2 + 

   248X3   1 25X1X2 – 0.117X1X3 – 

0.0137X2X3 +9.1X1
2
+0.551X2

2 
  

0.000075X3
2                                              

… 
 
(3) 

 

   Where: Y1 is the response, that is 

corrosion inhibition of mild steel, and 

X1, X2, and X3 are the real values of 

the test variables, Temperature (X1), 

Alcohol concentration (X2), and KI 

concentration (X3), respectively. 



Synergistic Effect of Potassium Iodide on Inhibitive Performance of Propyl Alcohol during Corrosion 

of Mild Steel in 1.0M HCl 

 

64                                       IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)             -Available online at: www.iasj.net 
 

2- Polarization Technique 
   Tafel extrapolation method can be 

applied in order to obtain 

representative values of the corrosion 

rate in 1.0MHCl solution. The 

polarization profiles of mild steel in 

1.0M HCl solution at 30, 40, and 50°C 

for various alcohol concentrations in 

the absence and presence of KI are 

shown in figures (1) through (3). The 

presence of increasing amounts of of 

1-propanol led to a decrease in both the 

cathodic and anodic current densities. 

 

   The addition of alcohol reduced 

anodic dissolution and also retarded 

the hydrogen evolution reaction, 

indicating that alcohol is a mixed-type 

inhibitor and controls both the anodic 

and cathodic reactions. The decrease in 

(icorr) value was due to the adsorption 

of the inhibitor molecules [12].The 

values of electrochemical parameters 

such as corrosion potential (Ecorr), 

corrosion current density (icorr), anodic 

and cathodic slopes (            and 
corresponding efficiencies were 

calculated from Tafel plots 

(table(4)).From the polarization curves 

it was noted that the curves were 

shifted toward lower current density 

region without significant change in 

corrosion potential. The maximum 

shift obtained (28mV) was another 

reason proved that the investigated 

compound behaved as mixed-type of 

inhibitor. βc values increased with the 

increase in concentration of inhibitor 

compound and the presence of KI[13-

16].

Table 3, Experimental design based on Doehlert matrix in the study of the corrosion 

inhibition of carbon steel using 1-propanol alcohol and KI synergistic effect, in 1M 

HCl. 
 

Exp. 

No. 

 

Coded Variable Real Variable Inhibition 

Efficiency 

(IE%) 

 

XI 

KI 

conc. 

X2 

Alcohol 

conc. 

X3 

Temp. 

XI 

KI 

conc. 

X2 

Alcohol 

conc. 

X3 

Temp. 

1 +1 0.0 0.0 0.07 0.3 40 85.08 

2 -1 0.0 0.0 0.03 0.3 40 84.03 

3 +0.5 +0.866 0.0 0.06 0.5 40 84.69 

4 -0.5 -0.866 0.0 0.04 0.1 40 89.20 

5 +0.5 -0.866 0.0 0.06 0.1 40 89.70 

6 -0.5 +0.866 0.0 0.04 0.5 40 85.67 

7 +0.5 +0.289 +0.816 0.06 0.367 50 92.49 

8 -0.5 -0.289 -0.816 0.04 0.233 30 72.26 

9 +0.5 -0.289 -0.816 0.06 0.233 30 73.66 

10 0.0 +0.577 -0.816 0.05 0.433 30 80.65 

11 -0.5 +0.289 +0.816 0.04 0.367 50 94.10 

12 0.0 -0.577 +0.816 0.05 0.167 50 93.05 

13 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.05 0.3 40 85.18 

14 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.05 0.3 40 84.15 

15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.05 0.3 40 89.48 

 



Aprael. S.Yaro, Basma A. Abdul Majeed, and Elaf Q. Atiyah 

 

-Available online at: www.iasj.net                    IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)                                65 
 

Table 4, Corrosion parameters for mild steel in 1M HCl at different temperatures, 

different concentrations of 1-Propanol, with and without 0.05M KI 

Inhibitor 

Conc.(M) 

Temp. 

     

Ecorr 

(mV) 

icorr 

(mA/cm
2
) 

βc 

(mV/dec) 

βa 

(mV/dec) 
IE% 

1M HCl 

30 

-502 0.239 -75.12 64.83  

0.1 -508 0.146 -84.17 58.33 38.91 

0.1+0.05M KI -506 0.0706 -108.6 46.52 70.46 

0.3 -515 0.099 -94.75 42.33 58.58 

0.3+0.05M KI -497 0.055 -113.9 42.02 76.98 

0.5 -500 0.079 -89.46 31.46 66.94 

0.5+0.05M KI -474 0.0444 -183.4 93.61 81.42 

1M HCl 

40 

-492 0.373 -83.43 48.78  

0.1 -503 0.244 -85.64 49.68 34.58 

0.1+0.05M KI -491 0.051 -85.16 50.53 86.33 

0.3 -502 0.159 -109.8 54.67 57.37 

0.3+0.05M KI -500 0.0659 -94.93 60.24 82.33 

0.5 -498 0.126 -90.6 42.49 66.21 

0.5+0.05M KI -489 0.0676 -75.87 40.19 81.87 

1M HCl 

50 

-494 0.716 -72.98 48.67  

0.1 -500 0.484 -80.38 34.79 32.40 

0.1+0.05M KI -490 0.0396 -85.2 46.38 94.47 

0.3 -486 0.367 -83.76 35.43 48.47 

0.3+0.05M KI -503 0.0467 -97.33 55.42 93.47 

0.5 -495 0.255 -79.7 29.06 64.39 

0.5+0.05M KI -489 0.0426 -75.87 40.19 94.05 

 

 
Fig. 1, Tafel polarization curves for 

corrosion of mild steel in 1M HCl at 

30°C in the presence of different 

concentrations of 1-propanol (P) with 

and without 0.05M KI. 

 

 
Fig. 2, Tafel polarization curves for 

corrosion of mild steel in 1M HCl at 

40°C in the presence of different 

concentrations of 1-propanol (P) with 

and without 0.05M KI. 



Synergistic Effect of Potassium Iodide on Inhibitive Performance of Propyl Alcohol during Corrosion 

of Mild Steel in 1.0M HCl 

 

66                                       IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)             -Available online at: www.iasj.net 
 

 
Fig. 3, Tafel polarization curves for 

corrosion of mild steel in 1M HCl at 

50°C in the presence of different 

concentrations of 1-propanol (P) with 

and without 0.05M KI. 

 

3- Corrosion Kinetic Parameters 
   The temperature effect o   he 

co  osio       e e s of  i d s ee  i  

1   M H     s s  died    3 , 4 ,   d 

5      The i hi i io   ech  is  c    e 

concluded by comparing the activation 

energy values in the presence and 

absence of the inhibitor. The plots of 

Arrhenius or transition state were used 

to calculate the activation energy (Ea), 

activation enthalpy (ΔHa), and 

activation entropy (ΔSa) for the 

corrosion of mild steel in 1.0 M HCl 

with and without inhibitor. The 

activation energy can be obtained by 

Arrhenius equation and Arrhenius plot 

[17]: 

 

icorr v=        
  

  
                       … (4) 

 

   Where: icorr is the corrosion current 

density (taken from polarization 

measurements) in mA/cm
2
, A is the 

electrochemical constant(Arrhenius 

constant), Ea is the activation energy in 

J/ mol, R is the gas constant (8.314 J/ 

mol. K) and T is temperature in K. 

Using the logarithm: 

 

lnicorr = (
   

 
)(

 

 
)+lnA                   … (5) 

 

   The graph of lnicorr against 1000/T 

gives a straight line with a slope of 

(‒Ea/R). Figure (4) shows the 

Arrhenius plots for mild steel in 1.0 M 

HCl with different concentration of 1-

propanol with and without 0.05M 

KI.(Ea) values were calculated and 

tabulated in tables (5). The transition 

state equation was used to calculate the 

ΔHa and ΔSa: 

 

icorr =
  

   
 exp(

   

 
   exp(

    

  
       …  6  

 

Whe e: N is  vog d o’s     e  

(6.02×10
23

 mol
-1
    d h is P   ck’s 

constant (6.63 × 10
-34

m
2
 kg s

-1
)[17]. 

The activation energy is a temperature 

dependent quantity as follows: 

 

Ea = ΔHa ‒ TΔSa                          …  7  

 

Equation (5) was rearranged to 

become: 

 

ln(
     

 
)=(

    

 
  

 

 
  +[ln(

 

  
 +

   

 
]... (8) 

 

   A plot of ln (icorr/T) against 1000/T 

gave a straight line with a slope of (-

ΔHa/R) and intercept of [ln 

(R/Nh)+(ΔSa/R)] as shown in Figures 

(4) and (5). ΔHa and ΔSa values were 

calculated and tabulated in table (5). 

From Table (5) the activation energy 

(Ea) increased in the presence of the 

inhibitor. (Ea) increasing with the 

presence of1-propanol indicated a 

physical (electrostatic) adsorption 

occurred in the first stage. Both the 

inhibitors are organic compounds that 

are easily protonated to give a cationic 

form in acid medium. The values of 

(Ea) were greater than 20 kJ mol
 1

 in 

the presence of alcohol, which 



Aprael. S.Yaro, Basma A. Abdul Majeed, and Elaf Q. Atiyah 

 

-Available online at: www.iasj.net                    IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)                                67 
 

indicates that the entire process is 

controlled by the surface reaction [18]. 

The values of ΔHa and Ea were nearly 

the same and higher in the presence of 

alcohol. This indicates that the energy 

barrier of the corrosion reaction 

increased in the presence of the 

inhibitor without changing the 

mechanism of dissolution. The positive 

values of ΔHa for both corrosion 

processes with and without the 

inhibitor show the endothermic nature 

of the mild steel dissolution process 

and indicate that the dissolution of 

mild steel is difficult [19,20]. The 

increase in ΔSa values in the presence 

of inhibitor with and without KI 

indicated that the process of adsorption 

was spontaneous [16]. 

 

 
Fig.4, Arrhenius plots for mild steel in 

1.0 M HCl with different 

concentrations of 1-propanol at 

different temperatures. 

 

 
Fig. 5, Transition state plots for mild 

steel in 1.0 M HCl with different 

concentration of 1-propanol at 

different temperatures. 

 

Table 5, Corrosion kinetic parameters 

for mild steel in 1.0 M HCl and 

different concentration of 1-propanol 

in the presence and absence of 0.05M 

KI 
Inhibitor 

Conc.(M) 

Ea 

(kJ/mol) 

ΔHa 

(kJ/mol) 

ΔSa 

(kJ/mol.K) 

1M HCl 44.54 41.93 -118.87 

0.1 48.66 46.07 -109.33 

0.3 53.13 50.52 -98.11 

0.5 47.55 44.95 -118.15 

0.1+0.05M KI 23.55 -26.14 -353.43 

0.3+0.05M KI 6.418 -9.02 -215.08 

0.5+0.05M KI 19.29 -21.9 -338.96 

 

4- Adsorption Isotherm 
   Adsorption isotherm calculations of 

1-propanol on the mild steel surface 

were performed to investigate the 

mechanism of corrosion inhibition in 

the presence and absence of 0.05M KI.     

   F  c io  cove  ge v   es  θ   e e 

obtained from polarization 

measurements to yield the isotherm.  

    

   Totally, isotherms adsorption 

provides data about the interaction 

among the adsorbed molecules 

themselves and their interactions with 

the electrode surface [21]. The fraction 

coverage θ is calculated using the 

following equation: 

 

     
    

     
                               …  9  

 

   Where:        and      are the 
corrosion current densities in the 

absence and presence of the additive 

compounds. 

 

   In order to study the different types 

of adsorption isotherm models, the 

Temkin, Frumkin and Langmuir 

models have been plotted.  

 



Synergistic Effect of Potassium Iodide on Inhibitive Performance of Propyl Alcohol during Corrosion 

of Mild Steel in 1.0M HCl 

 

68                                       IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)             -Available online at: www.iasj.net 
 

   According to the R
2
values obtained 

from the  linear  graph,  it  was  

confirmed  that  the  adsorption  of  the 

two compounds  on  a  mild  steel  

surface  best  fitted  the Langmuir 

adsorption isotherm (which assumes 

that the metal surface contains a fixed 

number of adsorption sites and each 

one holds one adsorbed species) model 

which is represented by equation (9): 

 
    

 
  

 

    
                           …  9  

 

where: Cinh is the concentration of 

inhibitor and Kads is the adsorption 

constant which is related to the 

standard free energy adsorption, 

ΔG°ads, as follows [22]: 

 

ΔG°ads = -RT ln(55.5Kads)          … (10) 

 

   The value of 55.5 is the molar 

concentration of water in the solution. 

     

   The plot of Cinh/θ  g i s   i h i  

figures (6) through (8) yields a straight 

line and this supported the assumption 

that the adsorption of the each applied 

inhibitor in the presence and absence 

of KI on a mild steel surface in 1.0 

MHCl solution obeys the Langmuir 

adsorption isotherm. 

 

   The i c e si g v   e of ΔG°ads and    

Kads  in the presence of KI reflects the 

increasing adsorption capability and 

the negative value of ΔG°ads indicates 

spontaneous adsorption of inhibitor 

molecule on the metal surface[21]. 

  

   It is well known that large values of 

Kads mean better inhibition efficiency 

of the inhibitor, i.e., strong electrostatic 

interaction between the negatively 

charged metal surface and the 

positively charged entities of the 

adsorbing inhibitor molecules. ΔG°ads 

and Kads values are tabulated in table 

(6): 

 

Fig. 6, Adsorption isotherms for mild 

steel in1.0 M HCl in different 

co ce     io s of 1-  o   o    coho     

3     i  the presence and absence of 

0.05M KI 

 

 
Fig. 7, Adsorption isotherms for mild 

steel in 1.0 M HCl in different 

co ce     io s of 1-  o   o    coho     

4     i   he  resence and absence of 

0.05M KI 

 

 
Fig. 8, Adsorption isotherms for mild 

steel in 1.0 M HCl in different 

concentrations of 1-propanol alcohol at 

5     i   he  resence and absence of 

0.05M KI 



Aprael. S.Yaro, Basma A. Abdul Majeed, and Elaf Q. Atiyah 

 

-Available online at: www.iasj.net                    IJCPE Vol.17 No.1 (March 2016)                                69 
 

Table 6, Corrosion parameters for mild 

steel in 1.0 M HCl and 1-propanol 

alcohol in the presence and absence of 

0.05M KI. 

Inhibitor  Temp.°C Kads 
ΔG° ds 

(KJ/mol) 

1-propanol 

30 7.194 -15.09 

40 5.618 -14.94 

50 4.61 -14.89 

1-propanol 

+KI 

30 37.04 -19.22 

40 166.67 -23.77 

50 14285.7 -36.48 

 

Conclusions 

1- A 1-propanol acts as moderate 
inhibitor for mild steel in 1.0 MHCl. 

2- Potentiodynamic polarization and 
weight loss studies showed that the 

1-propanol is mixed-type inhibitors.  

3- The inhibition efficiency increases 
with increase in concentration of 

both inhibitor and with increasing 

of temperature. 

4- The addition of iodide ions to 1-
propanol (inhibitor) enhanced the 

inhibition efficiency due to 
synergistic effect. 

5- The adsorption of inhibitor (1-
propanol) alone and in combination 

with iodide ions obeys Langmiur 

adsorption isotherm. 

6- The thermodynamic parameters 
calculated from the adsorption 

isotherm showed that physisorption 

is involved in the inhibition process, 

which was proposed based on 

values of ΔG°ads. 

7- Statistically, the multi-variable 
regression equations describes the 

behavior of the corrosion inhibition 

process with high accuracy 

(correlation coefficient R
2
between 

0.984 and 1). 

 

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